Media Literacy: A Central Component of Democratic Citizenship

This article was downloaded by: [Nipissing University]On: 04 October 2014, At: 22:53Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office:Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

The Educational ForumPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscriptioninformation:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utef20

Media Literacy: A Central Component ofDemocratic CitizenshipSusie Burroughs a , Kay Brocato a , Peggy F. Hopper a & Angela Sanders ba Mississippi State University ,b National Board Certified ,Published online: 01 Apr 2009.

To cite this article: Susie Burroughs , Kay Brocato , Peggy F. Hopper & Angela Sanders (2009) MediaLiteracy: A Central Component of Democratic Citizenship, The Educational Forum, 73:2, 154-167, DOI:10.1080/00131720902739627

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131720902739627

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, ouragents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to theaccuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and viewsexpressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the viewsof or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied uponand should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francisshall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses,damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly inconnection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantialor systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, ordistribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access anduse can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/utef20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/00131720902739627

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131720902739627

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Abstract

Educators from Europe, Latin America, and the United States con-

vened to explore issues inherent in democratic citizenship. Media literacy,

a central component of democratic citizenship, was studied in depth. Data

from the camp were examined for evidence of the participants’ understand-

ings of media literacy and how it might be taught. Results revealed that the

camp participants developed a deeper understanding of media literacy, the

importance of its teaching, and ways to teach it.

I know of no safe depository of the ultimate powers of the society but the people themselves; and if we think them not enlightened enough to exercise their control with a wholesome discretion, the remedy is not to take it from them, but to inform their discretion. —Thomas Jefferson 1820

Enlightening and informing citizens, generally referred to as citizenship education, is one of the many awesome tasks required of schools and educators in democratic societies. For democratic citizenship education to be effective, a variety of skills must explicitly be taught to students, and opportunities for honing those skills must be provided. Though functional literacy in reading and literacy in numeracy are the most obvious requisite skills that all good citizens in democracies must possess, it has, of late, become increasingly apparent that critical literacy in media consumption and interpretation is yet another necessary competency of engaged, participatory citizenship (Sargant 2004). With the digital age has come unprecedented access to—as well as bombardment by—facts, data, and news, not all of which is correct or true. From newspapers to magazines to television to the World Wide Web, the dissemination of information has been propelled in ways that have changed how citizens access and receive information.

Media Literacy: A Central Component of Democratic Citizenshipby Susie Burroughs, Kay Brocato, Peggy F. Hopper, and Angela Sanders

The Educational Forum, 73: 154–67, 2009Copyright © Kappa Delta Pi

154

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports

The Educational Forum • Volume 73 • 2009 • 155

Through both print and non-print venues, the media now pervades everyday life, and, as such, serves an educational function. As articulated by Hinchey (2003, 269), “The question is not whether students will learn from it … but what they will learn.” Megee (1997) argued that preparing students for citizenship in the Information Age is critical, and most educators concur that media literacy is now a new core concept that should be integrated into all school curricula.

If young people are to exit schools prepared to assume their roles as competent citizens, they must be taught not only to read, write, and compute, but to analyze and interpret what they see and hear in the media. According to Ferguson (1999), media literacy is vital for creating and maintaining an educated, democratic population. Defi ned as “the ability to access, analyze, and respond to a range of media” (Sargant 2004, 28), media literacy requires critical and divergent thinking (Steinbrink and Cook 2003). Such skill and thought are needed for full and effective participation in a de-mocracy. In today’s information-rich so-ciety, it is necessary for students to learn how “to question the authority, objectiv-ity or quality of mediated knowledge” (Livingston 2004, 7). Because the media convey, and sometimes constitute, in-formation through artistic expression, students must be taught to become sophisticated in their evaluation, understanding, and consumption of art forms across all media. Educators must encourage students to become autonomous and to use discretion in their appreciation and assessment of media and to develop prudent and rational modes of critique and interpretation. If young people are expected to negotiate the increasingly complex media worlds they inhabit, they must have a foundation on which they can build to accurately negotiate the constant stream of media they encounter.

Many researchers argue that the importance of preparing young citizens of democratic societies to become media literate cannot be overstated. Hinchey (2003, 269) suggested that becoming media literate can have signifi cant impact on students’ abilities to become “self-determined human beings and more active and refl ective democratic citizens.” Media literacy requires students to ask questions about what they hear and read (Hobbs 2001), which in turn teaches them to scrutinize the source and intent of messages (Covington 2004). Ultimately, media literacy prepares students to practice discriminating responsive-ness (Brown 1998); to deconstruct the messages, practices, processes, institutions, and infl uence of the media (Scharrer 2003); and to recognize media-based realities for what they are (Steinbrink and Cook 2003). Media literacy equips citizens with the recognition that media messages are created, marketed, and distributed by media conglomerates

If young people are expected to negotiate the increasingly complex media worlds they inhabit, they must have a foundation on which they can build to accurately negotiate the constant stream of media they encounter.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

156 • The Educational Forum • Volume 73 • 2009

Burroughs et al.

and that the messages affect thoughts, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors—an important lesson for citizens in democratic societies.

Media literacy is one of the fi rst recognized literacies children encounter in life. The National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) has recognized media literacy as a com-ponent of literacy and one that requires specifi c skills for teachers and students. NCTE (2003, 1) has continued to craft its stance on media literacy and stated:

Students are living in a world that is increasingly non-printcentric. New media such as the Internet, MP3 fi les, and video are transforming the communication experi-ences of young people outside of school. Young people are composing in non-print media that can include any combination of visual art, motion (video and fi lm), graph-ics, text, and sound—all of which are frequently written and read in nonlinear fashion … nonlinear video production alone provides a grand new palette for students and teachers.

Consequently, becoming media literate requires that students move beyond the basics of decoding words and literal comprehension of print sources to multimodal analyses and associations of media in all forms. For the most part, however, students’ school literacy experiences suffer a disconnect from their literacy experiences in other venues (Hull and Shultz 2002).

This literacy disconnect parallels the disconnect between school and the outer world that Dewey (1899/1959) wrote about in School and Society. Though this disconnect may exist as part of the in-school and out-of-school literacy experiences of all young people, it is especially true of members of minority groups and those who have grown up outside the middle and upper socioeconomic levels of society. New literacies, as experienced by these youth, require learners to navigate, negotiate, and derive meaning from present-day and emerging technologies such as electronic chatting, blog communication, multimedia documents, gaming, social communities, and so forth (Lankshear and Knobel 2003). It was found that traditional school literacies lacked attention to issues of culture, identity, and power, all of which are concepts central to democracy (Gee 1996, 2000). For all students, and especially for the disenfranchised, the various literacies of their out-of-school worlds are at odds with the in-school literacies they typically learn. This makes it imperative that educators expand their focus from traditional reading–writing genres of literacy to recog-nize the entirety of literacy. If young people are to be prepared to change the world, they must fi rst be able to read the world (Freire and Macedo 1987), and defi ning literacy as a reading–writing text-only endeavor limits that reading. Educators must acknowledge and embrace the larger meaning of literacy, including media literacy and all that it implies.

Educating for DemocracyAuthorized by the United States Congress, the Education for Democracy Act provides

funding through the U.S. Department of Education for Civitas: An International Civic Education Exchange Program. First established in the mid-1990s to facilitate the exchange of ideas and experiences in civic education among educational, governmental, and private sector leaders in the United States and new and emerging European democracies, the

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


scope of Civitas has been substantially broadened over the past decade. Now implemented throughout the world, Civitas partnerships have been established between and among 30 U.S. states and 26 countries in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In addition, the program conducts special projects in an estimated 45 other countries. With the enhance-ment of civic education as its overarching mission, the Center for Civic Education, which oversees the development and implementation of all Civitas activities, has established a number of goals for the Civitas partnerships. A primary goal is the cooperative develop-ment and implementation of new curricular and teacher training material. To this end, the various Civitas partnerships and special projects provide opportunities for civic educators and civic leaders to collaborate, learn from one another, and assist each other in improv-ing education for democracy in their respective homelands. Program activities include visits to school systems, institutions of higher learning, and nonprofi t organizations that are conducting exemplary programs in civic education.

The Florida–Texas–Mississippi–Hungary–Romania Partnership In 1995, the state of Florida partnered with Hungary in one of the fi rst Civitas

partnerships to be established. In 1998 and 1999, the partnership expanded to include the states of Texas and Mississippi, respectively; and Romania joined the partnership in 2003. During the years since this partnership was established, cross-cultural relation-ships have developed among gatekeepers of democracy in and among each of these sites. Programmatic activities have involved students, teachers, university faculty, Ministry of Education offi cials, members of legislative bodies, elected offi cials holding executive positions, representatives of the courts, and others who have vested interests in the nature and outcomes of civic education. The civic education experiences have been collabora-tive in nature with equal attention placed on educating and learning from one another. In keeping with the goals of the program, professional development opportunities have been made available to educators in each of the fi ve sites, lesson plans on historical and comparative topics have been written and distributed for use in partner sites, student-centered academic events have been staged in each site, professional exchanges have taken place between and among the various sites, and research has been conducted to ascertain the needs and impact of civic education-related activities in the participating regions. In unique ways, each of these experiences has provided program participants with enlightening and benefi cial insights into markedly different, as well as strikingly similar issues and challenges in civic education.

Democracy Camp for TeachersWith dual missions of educating for democracy and a belief that quality civic education

is the single-most critical contributor to the founding, nurturing, and continued advance-ment of democratic societies, directors of the Florida–Texas–Mississippi–Hungary–Romania partnership have dedicated much of their resources to developing and providing exem-plary curricula materials and intensive professional development opportunities to those who serve on the front lines of civic education: the teachers. With these two objectives in mind, the partnership sponsored an Education for Democracy Camp for Teachers. Twenty-eight educators attended the camp, including the camp director, fi ve camp facilitators, and 22 volunteer participants. Twenty-three of the educators were from Florida, Texas, Mississippi, Hungary, and Romania. The remaining fi ve participants were from Panama and Peru, countries


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


Burroughs et al.

partnered with Florida in a separate Civitas partnership. The participants convened in the United States for one week to explore, discuss, and debate challenges and opportunities inherent in educating today’s youth for citizenship in democratic societies. The camp provided large-group, small-group, and independent-study activities to the participants. In addition, cultural outings also were made available to the group throughout the week. Civic educators and civic leaders facilitated the camp activities.

To allow for meaningful depth in study and thought for the camp participants, a small number of selected civic education-related topics were addressed during the camp. Media literacy in a democratic society was among the selected topics. For the purposes of content development, topic-specifi c readings were provided to the participants, and invited experts provided lectures on related topics. During the media literacy portion of the camp, a centerpiece lecture entitled, “The Role of the Media,” was delivered to focus attention on the struggle between laws and rights in democratic societies and the media’s responsibility to examine and present the confl ict between laws and rights as news events are covered. Another presentation, “Key Steps to Media Literacy,” high-lighted components necessary for effective media evaluation and consumption by citizens. Informal question, answer, and discussion sessions followed the lectures. The need for citizens living in democracies to become discriminating, media-literate consumers was a crucial theme that permeated the readings, lectures, and discussions.

The readings, content lectures, question-and-answer sessions, and large-group discus-sions served as springboards to hands-on, interactive, small-group activities that provided the educators opportunities to explore issues related to media literacy. Small group activi-ties required participants to examine a variety of sources of news (e.g., newspapers, the Internet), to model steps in evaluating information and detecting bias in news coverage, and to consider and discuss potentially disparate presentations and interpretations of news reports by media consumers around the world. Working together in cross-cultural groups, the educators investigated differences and similarities in the issues related to media literacy and discussed site-specifi c perspectives of media consumption and infl uence.

As they collaborated each day, educators discussed options for media literacy lesson plans that would place an emphasis on the connection and importance of media literacy to educating citizens in a democracy. After much consideration of the varying frames of reference by the individual group members, consensus was reached in each group as to what the focus of their group lesson plans would be, and the groups then worked together to produce lesson plans that could be used in classrooms in all of the sites represented by the camp participants. Each group’s plans were presented to the large group, and copies of all plans were shared among the participants for use upon their return to their respective classrooms. As an end-of-camp culminating activity, participants were grouped by their geographic origins and instructed to develop media literacy concept maps that illustrated their learning about media literacy in sum throughout the week.

A major goal of the camp was to provide experiences to the educators that would increase their competence and comfort in teaching about media literacy. In addition, the camp provided participants opportunities that spotlighted media literacy as a central

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


component of democratic citizenship and a literacy that supports democratic citizenship in three critical ways:

• preparing students to critically evaluate information to which they are exposed;• enhancing students’ abilities to understand the power and infl uence of the media;

and • assisting students in becoming informed and discriminating media consumers.

Subsequent to the camp, the camp director, the lead camp facilitator, and two external reviewers conducted a study of the outcomes of the camp. Though the results of the study were mixed, an analysis of the major fi ndings indicated that the camp’s goals were met.

Measuring Democracy Camp OutcomesToday’s young people live in a world rich in information and entertainment through

the electronic media of television, radio, and the Internet but also from newspapers, maga-zines, and fi lm. The goal of the media literacy portion of the Democracy Camp was to offer teachers information and techniques to assist students in exercising the skills delineated by the camp director and facilitators as central to both media literacy and democratic citizen-ship. To measure and evaluate the outcomes of the camp, participants were informed from the beginning that a study of the camp’s outcomes would be conducted. After explaining how data would be collected during the camp and used afterward, the educators were given the option of participating in the study. All attendees agreed to participate and each signed a consent form to that effect. Survey research was conducted throughout the week. Pre- and post-surveys that centered on four primary areas of inquiry related to media literacy were administered to all camp participants. The survey protocols included ques-tions concerning the participants’ (a) defi nitions of media literacy, (b) explicit teaching of media literacy skills, (c) implicit teaching practices relative to media literacy, and (d) prioritization of media literacy in teaching. In addition, content analysis of group lesson plans and concept maps was conducted to gather thematic understanding of what and how the participants planned to teach students to evaluate information, understand the power of the media, and become informed media consumers.

Data generated by each group were examined using inductive analysis (Patton 1990). The initial analysis of the survey responses sought to identify and interpret changes across, between, and within the groups in the areas of inquiry that guided the lines of question-ing. Techniques of coding and content attribution analysis (Janis, as cited in Stewart and Shamdasani 1990) were utilized to extrapolate themes that emerged from the lesson plans and concept maps. Site-specifi c matrices and an across-group meta-matrix were used for the between-groups and within-groups analyses of the data.

Survey Results: Defi ning and Teaching Media LiteracyThe pre- and post-survey results showed a variety of trends in camp participants’

understandings of media literacy. Responses to the fi rst line of inquiry, which addressed changes in the defi nition of media literacy, were split. Overall, 50 percent of the participants’ responses indicated there was a change in their defi nition of media literacy, whereas an equal percentage of responses refl ected little to no change in defi nitions. The between-groups analysis revealed that, whereas a majority of the European and Latin Americans

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


Burroughs et al.

(66 and 75 percent, respectively) showed differences in their pre- and post-defi nitions, only 36 percent of the Americans’ responses refl ected change. Open-ended comments offered by the participants, however, indicated that, although many of their defi nitions did not change fundamentally, their understandings of media literacy broadened to include con-cerns for the need for freedom of the press and acknowledgment of the importance of the media in addressing both national and global problems. From this data, it was concluded that the camp did serve to alter or expand many of the participants’ defi nitions of media literacy. Figure 1 shows the changes in defi nition reported by the different groups.

The second and third lines of inquiry appraised the explicit and implicit teaching practices of the educators relative to teaching for media literacy. The pre-survey responses indicated that, prior to the camp, media literacy was taught in an explicit fashion by 48 percent of the participants and in an implicit fashion by 71 percent of the participants. The post-survey showed that those numbers had increased to 76 percent and 80 percent, respectively. The between-groups analysis revealed that the greatest change in propensity to

Figure 1. Changes in defi nition of media literacy by groups and overall.

Figure 2. Overall changes in planned teaching practices related to explicit and implicit teaching of media literacy.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


teach the concept in explicit terms was experienced by the Americans, with the group from Mississippi experiencing the most change. With respect to implicit teaching, the between-groups analysis showed the greatest increase was among the Latin Americans; however, the within-groups analysis showed the Floridians to demonstrate the most change overall. Therefore, as a result of the camp, data collected indicated that overall the participants would be more inclined to teach media literacy in more explicit and implicit ways (see Figure 2).

When participants were asked about ways in which they taught media literacy prior to the camp, responses included the reviewing of propaganda and advertisements; analyzing the impact of the media on voter turnout and on court cases; and evaluating the media’s role in relation to the dissemination of public information, the development of public opinion, and public policymaking. On the post-survey, the respondents’ responses to open-ended questions indicated new inclinations toward the teaching of media literacy. Examples of new plans for teaching about media literacy included teaching students how to decode information, examine different points of view, use information wisely, compare diverse materials, differentiate between fact and opinion, detect bias in sources, compare treatment of topics by the media of different countries, and be discerning in their con-sumption of print and non-print media. This shows that as a result of their participation in the Democracy Camp, participants determined to add new strategies to their teaching repertoire in the future in order to better prepare students to become media literate.

In the fi nal line of inquiry, camp participants were asked to rate the importance of teaching media literacy as low, moderate, or high. The pre-survey revealed that 85 percent of the participants believed teaching media literacy held moderate or high importance. On the post-survey, this percentage shifted to 88 percent. The between-groups analysis showed the Latin Americans and Americans to have the greatest shifts in ranking with the Peruvians and Mississippians showing the most change. Although the shifts in importance were not dramatic (see Table 1), the slight decrease in those who rated the importance of teaching media literacy as low and the fairly signifi cant increase of those who rated it high indicated that a number of the participants left the camp with an increased belief that teaching media literacy should hold a greater importance.

Lesson Plan Results: Planning to Teach Media LiteracyThe cross-cultural groups were given total latitude, discretion, and creative control in

planning lessons that addressed media literacy. Because of the focus of the camp activities,

Table 1. Overall Changes in the Rated Importance of Teaching About Media Literacy

Importance of Teaching Media LiteracyParticipants Overall

Variable Pre-Camp Post-Camp

Low Importance 15% 12%

Moderate Importance 57% 41%

High Importance 28% 47%

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


Burroughs et al.

however, it was anticipated that the lesson plans generated by the groups would provide direction for teaching students how critically to evaluate information, understand the power of the media, or become discriminating media consumers. With this end in mind, the plans were analyzed specifi cally to determine whether the camp participants embed-ded these three delineated skills in their lesson plans, with the assumption being that if they did embed the skills in their plans, they would include the skills in their future teaching. An analysis of the planning documents revealed evidence that fi ve of the six teacher groups did create lessons plans that would engage students in two or more of the three media literacy skills. Table 2 provides a summary of this evidence.

Table 2. Media Literacy Skills Embedded Within Participants’ Lesson Plans

Group LessonPlans

Lesson Titles Lesson Activities

Media Literacy Skills

Critically evaluate

information

Understand power and

infl uence of media

Become informed,

discriminating media

consumer

Laws vs. Rights

Citing examples of each currently in the news, compare and contrast

laws with rights

✓ ✓

Facts vs. Opinions

Read news article, then compose original article

on same topic from alternative viewpoint

✓ ✓ ✓

Biases in the Media

Pairs research same topic and write

articles, then examine differences in

perspectives among authors

✓ ✓ ✓

Reading Daily Newspapers

Read and compare leftist, rightist, and tabloid newspapers from the same day

✓ ✓ ✓

Editorial or News?

Read selected editorials with markedly

opposing points of view; compare and

contrast the information presented in each with

news reports of the same

✓ ✓ ✓

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


The analysis of the plans revealed that lessons developed by the sixth group did not embed any of the three delineated media literacy skills emphasized during the camp. Instead of aiming for students to develop the skills of critically evaluating information, understanding the power of the media, or becoming discriminating me-dia consumers, the sixth group’s plans focused on teaching students the traditional literacy skills of the writing process. Nonetheless, the analysis of the lesson plans in aggregate indicated that a majority of the Democracy Camp participants were pre-pared to plan for instruction that would embed one or more of the three delineated media literacy skills.

A point for future study comes from an absence of particular data in the set. The contemporary “non-print-centric … nonlinear … grand new palettes” (NCTE 2003, 1) for literacy students are readily embracing outside of school were not mentioned in the any of the participants’ lesson plans. Though many of these literacies were used during the camp, none were suggested for use by teachers in their own classroom. Mainstream media such as the Internet; MP3 fi les; video clips that include visual art, Hollywood fi lms, and news broadcasts and documentaries, with graphics, text, sound; and other non-print media should be included in lessons taught about media literacy. Effective citizenship in a democracy requires giving voice to all; failing to include the various literacies of students’ out-of-school world in classroom teaching and learning equates to limiting voices—perhaps the voices that are most familiar for some students. In teaching about media literacy, it is important to afford students opportunities to hear voices that are diverse in both medium and message.

The fi ndings of this study indicated that, although the Democracy Camp partici-pants readily acknowledged the need to teach media literacy skills through traditional reading–writing genres, there was a failure to embrace more advanced and progressive approaches to teaching for media literacy. Future efforts in preparing educators to teach for media literacy should directly and aggressively encourage educators to recognize the full scope of media literacy skills to be taught, as well as the entirety of the literacy genres.

Concept Maps Results: Thinking About Media Literacy and the Three Essential Skills

As a culminating activity, participants in the Democracy Camp were asked to create concept maps that demonstrated their thinking about media literacy. Unlike the lesson plan activity where participants were cross-culturally grouped, concept mapping was conducted by regions that yielded fi ve distinct maps—one each from the European, Latin American, Texan, Floridian, and Mississippian participants. The concept maps (or mental maps) created by the geographically defi ned teacher groups were analyzed to determine the educators’ thinking related to the three media literacy skills identifi ed during the camp as essential to both media literacy and democratic citizenship.

The maps provided evidence that all teacher groups were refl ective in their thinking of media literacy in ways consistent with all three skills. In refl ecting on and defi ning concepts related to the delineated skills, camp participants provided a richer array of evidence of media literacy understanding in concept maps than they did in their survey responses

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


Burroughs et al.

or the lesson plans they created. The richness of the participants’ thinking about media literacy when mapping related concepts was uniquely shown in two groups’ concept maps when they illustrated perceived connections between the media’s coverage of the war in Iraq, acts of terror in the United States, and the need for individuals to be refl ective and balanced in their interpretations of the media’s coverage of these events.

Participants seemed better able to explore and articulate the depths of media literacy when identifying and penning concepts for themselves than when they were provided parameters within which to express their ideas. For example, survey defi nitions of media literacy offered by the camp participants included no references to the various types, motivations, agendas, or responsibilities of media; and lesson plan data provided no examples of media-specifi c content like the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States or references to the growing distrust of the Western world—content that did surface in concept maps, as Table 3 shows.

Preparing Educators to Teach Media LiteracyA review of the literature suggests that teaching media literacy can provide students

with the ability to• access, analyze, and respond to a range of media (Sargant 2004);• think critically and divergently (Steinbrink and Cook 2003);• question authority and mediated knowledge (Livingston 2004); • be self-determined and think actively and refl ectively (Hinchey 2003); • ask questions about what they hear and read (Hobbs 2001); • scrutinize the source and intent of messages (Covington 2004); • practice discriminating responsiveness (Brown 1998); and• deconstruct messages, practices, processes, institutions, and media infl uence

(Scharrer 2003).

For the purposes of the Democracy Camp, these abilities were collapsed and com-pressed into three essential skills for media literacy: (a) to critically evaluate information, (b) to understand the power and infl uence of the media, and (c) to become informed and discriminating media consumers. Indications that the participants emerged from the week of activities prepared to teach each of these skills was evident with varying degrees of frequency in the data collected during the camp.

All data sources provided evidence of the fi rst skill—that teachers understood the importance of and planned to teach students how to evaluate information critically. As the most basic of the media literacy skills addressed during the camp, this skill was found to be a common ingredient in both the lesson plans and the concept maps. With respect to the second of the three skills, survey and concept map data supported the premise that all camp participants understood the power and infl uence of the media, and lesson plans developed by four of the six groups showed intentions of teaching this media literacy skill to students. Similarly, survey and concept map data supported that all camp participants understood that becoming informed and discriminating media consumers was an important skill, and four of the six groups addressed this skill in their lesson plans.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


The Democracy Camp participants focused on teaching the most basic skill of media literacy—critically evaluating information—perhaps because it is the easiest skill to teach. Further research and future efforts should concentrate on determining how educators could be better prepared to teach students the more advanced skills of understanding the power and infl uence of the media and becoming informed and discriminating media consumers.

ConclusionsSkills in reading, writing, and numeracy are essential for responsible and effective

democratic citizenship, but increasingly media literacy is vital for responsible, participa-tory citizenship in democratic societies (Ferguson 1999; Sargant 2004). As suggested by multiple sources (Dewey 1899/1959; Freire and Macedo 1987; Gee 1996, 2000; Hull and Shultz 2002; NCTE 2003), the typical literacies taught in schools often are disconnected from those literacies our students fi nd most interesting and which actually are central to their everyday lives. Because media literacy—a literacy critical for an educated populace—has been identifi ed as one point of disconnect for students and teachers, an urgency exists to prepare and encourage educators to teach skills related to media literacy.

Table 3. Media Literacy Skills in Participants’ Concept Maps

Topics of the Maps Concepts Included in the Maps


Critically evaluate

information


infl uence of the media

Become informed,


consumer

Media Coverage of the War in Iraq

Weapons of mass destruction, human rights, totalitarian rule, world view of the war, increase

in terror attacks, world opinion of the United States, bombings and casualties, calls to end the war

✓ ✓ ✓

Aspects of the Media

Magazines, newspapers, television, Internet, persuasion, manipulation,

selective coverage, need for refl ective understanding, to inform,

lies or truth

✓ ✓ ✓

Acts of Terror in the United States

Causes: hate of Western infl uence, U.S. attempts to control natural

resources, religious fundamentalism, interference of the United States in

regions of the worldEffects: war, compromised security,

lack of support for America’s actions

✓ ✓ ✓

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014


Burroughs et al.

To this end, the Education for Democracy Camp for Teachers provided participants from two European countries, two Latin American countries, and three U.S. states with the chance to explore, discuss, and debate challenges and opportunities inherent in educating today’s youth for citizenship in democratic societies. Though the outcomes of the camp were mixed, survey data as well as data collected from participants’ lesson plans and concept maps support the general fi ndings that a majority of the participants emerged from the camp with an expanded understanding of media literacy, an increased inclination to teach about media literacy in explicit and implicit ways, and an enhanced belief in the importance of teaching about media literacy. In addition, fi ndings of the weeklong camp indicated that the camp experiences prepared a majority of the participants to teach the three delineated skills of critically evaluating information, understanding the power and infl uence of the media, and becoming informed and discriminating media consumers.

Through the Civitas Education for Democracy Camp, participants learned to embrace a larger meaning of literacy, to better recognize media literacy as a central component of democratic citizenship, and to change their teaching practices in ways that support stu-dent learning of the three delineated media literacy skills. Learning about media literacy taught educators new ways to teach media literacy that will better prepare students. In addition to the educator support and preparation for media literacy, the Education for Democracy Camp provided meaningful professional development to the 28 educators who participated. The cross-cultural design of the camp offered opportunities for collaboration among the camp director, the camp facilitators, and the camp participants. The sum of the data collected leads to the conclusion that the camp’s goals were met. As a result of

Table 3. (Continued)

Topics of the Maps Concepts Included in the Maps


Critically evaluate

information


infl uence of the media

Become informed,


consumer

Motivations of theMedia

Reporting of selective facts, underlying agenda,

presentation of factual information, public interest or service, support of policy,

polarize the public

✓ ✓ ✓

Media Literacy

Radio, television, press; messages–facts, manipulate,

interest; knowledge–change of attitudes, beliefs, behavior

✓ ✓ ✓

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Research Reports


the camp, teaching about media literacy will be enhanced in the classrooms of the camp participants, and students in Europe, Latin America, and America will benefi t from the camp’s success.

ReferencesBrown, J. A. 1998. Media literacy perspectives. Journal of Communication 48(1): 44–57.Covington, W. G., Jr. 2004. Creativity in teaching media literacy. International Journal of Instructional Media 31(2): 119–24.Dewey, J. 1899/1959. School and society. In Dewey on education, ed. M. S. Dworkin. New York: Teachers College Press.Ferguson, R. 1999. The mass media and the education of students in a democracy: Some issues to consider. Social Studies 90(6):

257–61.Freire, P., and D. Macedo. 1987. Literacy: Reading the word and world. London: Routledge.Gee, J. P. 1996. Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses, 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis. Gee, J. P. 2000. New people in new worlds: Networks, the new capitalism and schools. In Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the

design of social futures, eds. B. Cope and M. Kalantzis, 43–68. London: Routledge.Hinchey, P. H. 2003. Teaching media literacy: Not if, but why and how. The Clearing House 76(6): 268–70.Hobbs, R. 2001. The great debates circa 2001: The promise and the potential of media literacy. Community Media Review Spring

25–27.Hull, G., and K. Schultz 2002. School’s out: Bridging out-of-school literacies with classroom practice. New York: Teachers College

Press.Jefferson, T. 1820. Personal correspondence to William Charles Jarvis. In The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Memorial edition, eds.

A. Lipscomb and A. Bergt, 15: 278. 1904. Washington, DC: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association.Lankshear, C. and M. Knobel. 2003. New literacies: Changing knowledge and classroom learning. Philadelphia: Open University

Press.Livingston, S. 2004. Media literacy and the challenge of new information and communication technologies. The Communication

Review 7(1): 3–14.Megee, M. 1997. Students need media literacy: The new basic. Education Digest 63(1): 31–35.National Council Teachers of English. 2003. Position statement on composing with nonprint media. Urbana, IL: Author. Available

at: http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/composewithnonprintPatton, M. Q. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research methods, 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Sargant, N. 2004. Why does media literacy matter? Adults Learning 16(4): 28–30.Scharrer, E. 2003. Making a case for media literacy in the curriculum: Outcomes and assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult

Literacy 46(4): 26–33.Steinbrink, J. E., and J. W. Cook. 2003. Media literacy skills and the “War on Terrorism.” The Clearing House 76(6): 284–88.Stewart, D. W., and P. N. Shamdasani. 1990. Focus groups: Theory and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Susie Burroughs is an Associate Professor of Education at Mississippi State University. She teaches secondary education and foundations courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Her primary research interests include social studies education, civic education, and teacher pro-fessional development.

Kay Brocato is an Associate Professor of Foundations and Leadership in the College of Education at Mississippi State University. She researches and teaches in her teacher education courses ways to bridge out-of-school literacies with school-based literacies.

Peggy F. Hopper is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Mississippi State University in Secondary English Education. Areas of research interest include international studies, content area reading, and teacher quality.

Angela Sanders is a high school Social Studies teacher with 20 years of service in the classroom. She teaches courses in American and Comparative Government and is a National Board Certifi ed Teacher and a James Madison Fellow.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Nip

issi

ng U

nive

rsity

] at

22:

53 0

4 O

ctob

er 2

014

Documents

Media Literacy: A Central Component of Democratic Citizenship