MECHANICS OF NURSING RESEARCH

MECHANICS OF NURSING RESEARCH

Jestoni Dulva Maniago, RN., RM., MAN., MA.Ed. (ip) DNSc (ip)Open Researcher and Contributor ID number 0000-0002-7084-8045

maniagojestoni@rocketmail.com / jdmaniago@aynla.org

Executive Assistant to the VP for Research and Technology DevelopmentUniversity Research Coordinator for Health Sciences

Campus Clinical CoordinatorFaculty, College of Nursing

RAMON MAGSAYSAY TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITYIba, Zambales PHILIPPINES

MIDTERM DISCUSSIONS

Check Your Preparation:> Writing Skills> Methodology Skills> Environmental Support> Computer Access and Skills> Time Management Skills> Interpersonal Skills

Examine Your Cognitive Ecology

…is characterized by many different attributes:> it is based on the work of others> it can be replicated > it is generalizable to other settings> it is based on some logical rationale tied to theory> it is doable> it generates new questions or is

cyclical in nature > it is incremental> it is an apolitical activity that should be

undertaken for the betterment of society.

Asking the Question

Asking New Question Identifying the Important Factors

Reconsidering the Theory Formulating a Hypothesis

Working with the Hypothesis Collecting Relevant Information

Testing the Hypothesis

PHASES IN RESEARCH PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Step 1: Formulating the Problem

> The Statement of the Problem (SOP) sets the tone of the entire research. It has two parts: The Main Problem and the Specific Problems.

* The Main Problem presents the primary objective of the research undertaking

* The Specific Problem points out the details of the research questions to be

Sample Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine the effect of art therapy on the level of pain tolerance of the selected students diagnosed with cancer.

Specifically, it will seek answers to the following questions:1. What is the profile of the respondent cancer students in terms of:

1.1 sex;1.2 age;1.3 health history and1.4 socio-economic status?

2. What is the level of pain tolerance of the cancer students who are exposed to the different treatments in terms of: 2.1 pharmaceutical meds; 2.2 art therapy?

3. Is there a significant difference in the level of pain tolerance of the cancer students exposed in either pharmaceutical meds or art therapy?

4. Based on the findings of the study, what health teaching plans may be proposed?

Sample Statement of the Problem

PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature

Step 3: Defining the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

Step 4: Formulating Hypothesis

PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

PHASE 1: THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE

Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature

Step 3: Defining the Theoretical or Conceptual Framework

Step 4: Formulating Hypothesis

PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

PHASE 2: THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE

Step 5: Selecting a Research Design

Step 6: Identifying the Participants of the Study

Step 7: Specifying Instruments to be Used

PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

PHASE 3: THE EMPIRICAL PHASEStep 8: Collecting and or Gathering of

the Data PHASE 4: THE ANALYTIC PHASEStep 9: Analyzing the Data by Applying

a Statistical TestStep 10. Interpreting Results Step 11: Making Conclusions and

Recommendations

PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

PHASE 5: THE DISSEMINATION AND UTILIZATION PHASE

Step 12: Communicating the Findings

Step 13: Utilizing the Findings

PHASES IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Selecting a Problem:

* select a problem that your are genuinely interested in * be realistic and attempt only on what you can finish, given other demands on your time and energy

Defining Your Interests

* personal experiences and firsthand knowledge: don’t disregard personal experiences as an important source of ideas* using ideas from your mentor or instructor* look for a research question that reflects the next step in the research process

Ideas are products of luxurious thinking:

> beliefs, conceptions, suppositions, assumptions, what if’s, guesses, etc.> are articulations best done in writing> implying relationship between two or more variables

Research Question> a stated expression of interest and intent @ put the research question in researchable form

> Null Hypothesis> Researcher’s Hypothesis/Alternative Hypothesis

> is stated in declarative form> reflects a relationship between variables> reflects a theory of body of literature that they are based on> is brief and to the point > very importantly, is testable

Idea Research Research Question Hypothesis

Literature

Review

Idea Literature Review

Research Question Research Hypothesis

FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH A Framework is an underlying context a study or the broad area of concern under which a researcher situates the problem. For example, the specific problem focuses on DIET OF FEMALE SIXTH GRADERS, the framework may be taken from NUTRITION. If the problem is on SMOKING, the framework could be on RESPIRATORY INTEGRITY OR STRESS. If the problem is on INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP, the framework could be on EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

> this is used when the research involves testing of a particular theory or that the research is based on a theory

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

> this is utilized if the research is anchored on a particular concept, yet the researcher develops first his/her concept of the study he/she would like to undertake.

FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH

NOTE: > In special cases, theoretical and conceptual frameworks are used when the nature of the study necessitates such that the Research starts anchoring its study on a particular theory and tries to situate it in the context where the theory is applied. In the course of contextualizing, modifications are made in the original variables of the theory:

Example: BUSINESS THEORY: Deming’s TQM ModelConceptual Reference of the Study: Educational Institution

Modifications: Inclusion of Curriculum Design and Development, Research Development, Community Alliances and Linkages

FRAMEWORKS OF RESEARCH

EDUCATIONAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Theories of Motivations

Fayol’s Leadership and Management Theory

Communication Theory

Adler’s Counseling Theory

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Select a General Topic Area

Work with colleague to Develop your Ideas

Develop the Research questions> consider research in which you have been involved> avoid personally loaded topics> use recent literature> use theses and dissertations cautiously

Put the research question in researchable form> phrase the question as a question> make sure the question suggests a relationship

to be examined> make sure the question is empirically testable

Develop scientific hypothesis

The review of literature provides a framework for the research proposal.

Literature review involves:

> finding

> reading

> analyzing

> summarizing

> reconstructing

Define your idea in as general terms as possible by using general sources

Search through the primary sources

Search through the secondary sources

Organize your notes

Write down your review

Identify key authors and journals Use bibliographic reference sources Use computerized literature searches Obtain reprints and preprints Look at literature from other disciplines Scan tables of contents of key journals Use reference lists from articles,

chapters and books

Use primary and secondary sources Avoid the popular press

- identify themes

- identify strengths and weaknesses on individual article

- identify strength and weaknesses of field as a whole

- collect photocopies or notes

- investigate length and format parameters

- make a preliminary outline:> include page allocations> limit the scope of your review> organize the literature you will

cover

- Write the introduction

- Write subsections:> use transitions and integrative

phrasing> synthesize and critically analyze

the literature

- Introduce your study and hypotheses

- Be careful not to plagiarize

DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

The method is arbitrary in nature which depends on the Nature of the Study

The method section includes the following elements:

> Research Design > Participants> Instruments> Data Gathering Procedure> Data Analysis

The research design of the study is simply the general approach in conducting the research study.

It greatly depends on the nature of the study’s hypotheses, variables, and the participants included in the research agenda.

The use of quantitative and qualitative approaches to research is relative to the nature of the study in general.

BASIC DESIGNS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Objective:

To reconstruct the past objectively & accurately, often in relation to the tenability of the hypothesis.

A study on the study habits of Aeta pupils

of Pampanga resettled in Botolan, Zambales: Basis for a Proposed

Indigenous Educational Plan(ETHNOGRAPHY

)

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

OBJECTIVE:

To describe systematically a situation of area of interest factually and accurately.

Population census studies; public opinion survey, Fact-finding surveys, status studies, task analysis Studies, questionnaire & interview studies, observation studies, job description, surveys of the literature , documentary analysis, anecdotal records, critical incidents reports, test score analysis and normative data.

Example: TEACHERS’ SPIRITUAL WELL-BEING AND THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS AMONG SELECTED ELEMETARY CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN THE PHILIPPINES

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

OBJECTIVE

To investigate patterns and sequences of progress and/or change as a function of time.

A cross-sectional growth analysis among fraternal twins: Individual Differences

> Development of a Prototype Alternative

Leaning Delivery System in Education Graduate Studies:

The E-Modularized Approach

CASE AND FIELD STUDIES

OBJECTIVE

To study intensively the background, currentstatus and environmental interaction of a given social unit: an individual, group,institution or community.

> The places to rear a child with an above averageIQ but with severe learning disabilities> an intensive study of a group of teenager on probationfor drug abuse> an intensive study of typical sub-urban community in the province in terms of itssocio-economic characteristics.A study on coping mechanisms of Cancer Survivor Students

CORRELATIONAL/ REGRESSIONAL RESEARCH

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the extent to which variationIn one factor corresponds with variation inOne or more other factors based on correlation coefficients.

Factors Contributing to the Level of

Emotional Quotient of School Supervisors in Selected Districts of

Zambales

Relationship Between Life Style

and Life Span

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE or “EX POST FACTO”

OBJECTIVE

To investigate possible cause and effect relationships by observing some existingconsequence and searching back through thedata for plausible causal factors.

Example

> Lifestyle Patterns of Selected Students Diagnosed with DM-II

> Factors associated with Hypertension Based on the Medical Records/Individual Profile Patients Available on File

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: TRUE EXPERIMENTS

OBJECTIVE

To investigate possible cause and effect relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatmentconditions and comparing the results to oneor more control groups not receiving the treatment (random assignment being essential.

To investigate the effect of the Three

Pharmaceutical Variants on the Level of Stress Among Teachers with Time-Shift Schedules

To determine the effect of Five

Different Herbal Derivatives on the Level of Fertility Among Selected

Male Adults

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: QUASI-EXPERIMENTS

OBJECTIVE

To approximate the conditions of the true experiment in a setting which does not allow the control and/or manipulation of all relevant variables. The researchers must clearly understand what compromise exists in the internaland the external validity of his design and proceeds within these limitations (no random assignment of respondents)

Most so-called field experiments operational research, and even the

most sophisticated forms of action research which attempt to get at causal

factors in real life settings where only partial control

is possible; example

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: QUASI-EXPERIMENTS

The effect of music as a form of therapy on the level of pain at

postoperative stage among surgery patients

The effect Blended Online and Classroom Instruction on the Academic Performance of the

Students

now being widely used

explores relationships among traits

Research

may be

qualitative

is

has

features

has emphasis on studies in naturalsetting

uses verbal descriptions (rather than statistical report)

quantitative

has

features

reliance on control, statistics, measurements

uses numerical indices to summarize/ describe

such assuch

as

Is the study true or quasi-

experimental?

Is the study experimental or

nonexperimental?

Is the study ex post facto,

comparative, or correlational?

Is the study ethnographic or

analytical?

Is the research

quantitative or

qualitative?

Is the article or report

empirical research??

EXPERIMENTAL

NONEXPERIMENTAL

Ex Post FactoComparative

Correlational

Ethnographic

Analytical

QUANTITATIVE

QUALITATIVE

YES

NO

True ExperimentalQuasi-Experimental

Quantitative Research may

be

non-experimental

suggests

researcher has no control over what may influence subject's responses "naturally occurring"

experimental

suggests

researcher has control over factors or variables that may influence responses of subject

manipulation of "treatments" & does not use randomly assigned treatment groups

Experimental Research may

be

quasi - experimental

involves

true experimental

involves

use of comparison groups, randomly assigned

Non - experimentalincludes

correlational

investigates

ex post facto (after the fact)

referred to

comparative

investigates

relationship among variable via correlation rather than difference

relationship between two or more variables by examining differences that exist between two or more groups of subjects

casual-comparative examines phenomenon that has occurred and attempt to infer cause-effect relationship

Qualitative Researchmay

be

analytical

analysis of documents, written summaries (data not actively gathered by the researcher)

ethnographicinvolves

direct engagement with the participants and environment via observation, interview

historical, legal & policy concepts and events

The heading Participants is one of the subsections under method.

In describing the participants, the researcher should clearly define the number of respondents included in the study, criteria for inclusion and exclusion, the characteristics of the samples, the sampling procedure, and the nature of the population from which the sample was drawn.

The study will consist of two intact Educational Research classes at Ramon Magsaysay Technological University who will be all third year students pursuing the Bachelor of Elementary Education program. The two selected classes will be assigned to either the control group or the experimental group at random. To minimize the teacher factor effect, the researcher will handle both classes.

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Samples are representatives of the entire population and thus should be selected properly employing the scientific techniques

Samples are used instead of population for three main reasons:

> TIME, EFFORT, AND MONEY (TEM)

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

DETERMINING THE IDEAL SAMPLE SIZE

This implies calculating the desirable number of respondents to be included in the study from a group of a particular population

This employs: SLOVIN’S FORMULA (to be discussed further in the review)

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

A. RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING

> This means that every member of the population has the equal chance to becoming part of the sample group

Samples are picked up at random

A. RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. Simple Random Assignment – direct random selection of respondents; the quickest way of randomly determining the samples

2. Use of Table of Random Numbers 3. Fishbowl or Lottery 4. Systematic Random Sampling 5. Stratified Random Sampling – most reliable

sampling technique 6. Cluster Random Sampling 7. Multi-Stage Random Sampling

This method does provide equal opportunity or chance for every member of the population to become part of the sample group

Extra caution should be observed in using these techniques and justification should be done whenever these are employed to address the issue of BIAS

B. NONRANDOM OR NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. Purposive Sampling2. Quota Sampling 3. Convenience Sampling

B. NONRANDOM OR NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

This section provides a description of the measures or instruments that are to be used in the collecting the data for the study. It articulates justification for selecting such measures or instruments.

In the case that the researcher develops or devices his own instrument, he should therefore discuss how the test was developed and presents base ground for reliability and validity of the instrument.

In qualitative study, the researcher should discuss the nature and the method of the data collected, e.g. interviews, observations, etc.

TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Self-Report Instruments

> Interview Guide Questions: Oral or Written

> Unstructured/Informal Interviews

> Structured/Formal Interviews

> Focused-Group Discussions (FGD)

> Life Histories

> Autobiographies

> critical incident reports

> diaries

QUESTIONNAIRES Close-ended questions Open-ended questions Multiple-choice questions Dichotomous questions Checklist forms Rank-Order Rating Scale: Likert Scale

TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

The research procedure is the most detailed section under method.

It should provide a comprehensive description of all the steps that are to be followed in the conduct of the study, from start to finish, of which the order of time of occurrence is important.

It should describe the process and instructions the subjects are to undertake.

Discussion of time element should be reflected in the research procedure.

At the start of the research plan, the proponent should be sensitive enough to include in the plan the techniques that are to be used in analyzing the data.

Analysis of data primarily depends on the research approach or design used in the study: Quantitative or Qualitative.

In the case of quantitative study, the hypotheses serve as benchmark in determining the design of the study, and in turn determines the statistical analysis to be applied.

The choice of the analysis technique depends on the number of variables, the kind of data, and the nature of sample groupings, included in the study.(sample to follow…)

STATISTICAL TOOLS

STATISTICS is the Language of RESEARCH

COMMON STATISTICAL TOOLS• Parametric and NonParametric Statistics• Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Measures of Central Tendency

> Mean, Median, ModeMeasures of Spread and Dispersion or

Variability

> Range, Standard Deviation, Variance Measures of Relative Position

> Quantiles. Skewness and Kurtosis

Measures of Relationship> Pearson Product-Moment Correlation> Spearman’s Rank Correlation> Point-Biserial Correlation > Multiserial Correlation

Measures of Differences > t-test for dependent samples> t-test for independent samples> analysis of the variance (ANOVA), MANOVA, ANCOVA, MANCOVA

(Nonparametric) Chi-Square Tests, Kappa Statistic, McNemar Test, Friedman Analysis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, ANDINTERPRETATION OF DATA

In this section the researcher is entitled to present the data gathered, analyzes the results logically, and provides interpretation of the findings grounded by assumptions and speculations based on existing theories.

> In the conventional form, the presentation of the results of the study starts with the presentation of the related statistics (in the case of quantitative), followed by the explanation of the analysis of the data presented, and the interpretation (statistical decisions) of the obtained data results.

Discussion-this section gives the researcher the opportunity to draw some opinions and/or ideas interpreting the results of the study. Added to this section is the substance of pointing the relative implications of the findings supported by the concepts available in the literature. This section serves as a venue for which the researcher integrates his thoughts backed-up by the theories in the reviewed literature. Also included in this section, is announcing to the readers the limitations of the findings without compromising the generalizability of the findings

Presentation of Data-is the process of organizing

data into logical, sequential, and

meaningful categories and classifications to

make them amenable to study and interpretation.

Analysis - is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study.

Interpretation- is the process of conveying thoughts

based on the given results in reference to some

standard point or basis of interpretation. This even

provides decision pertaining to the obtained

results of the study.

This is the last chapter of the research study, yet, the most

important part, why? Because it is here where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are

summarized; generalizations in the form of conclusive statements are

postulated; and the recommendations for the solutions of problems

discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned, and future

directions related to the conducted study are drawn.

This chapter is subdivided into three subsections:

@ Summary> Guidelines for writing the summary of findings

@ Conclusions> Guidelines for writing the conclusions

@ Recommendations > Guidelines for writing the recommendations

Bibliography-this is usually used in the conventional format of research. This only includes a list of the materials cited in the content of the study (main text). References-this appears to be more used in the recent research format. This contains the list of sources that were consulted during the course of the research and the writing of the manuscript. References include anything from a book to a personal communication, all these things are to be entered in the reference section under a particular format (APA, 5th ed.)

An appendix usually contains information that is not essential for

understanding the content of the manuscript but is important for

getting a thorough picture of what happened. It usually contains

copies of instructions to subjects, blueprints, diagrams, data

collection instruments that are not copyrighted

pedottepedotte

The Only Thing Greater Than The Power Of The Mind Is The Courage Of The Heart

The Only Thing Greater Than The Power Of The Mind Is The Courage Of The Heart