Mechanical Engineering in Ancient Egypt, Part 99: Spears

International Journal of Engineering and Techniques - Volume 7 Issue 3, May 2021

ISSN: 2395-1303 http://www.ijetjournal.org Page 70

Mechanical Engineering in Ancient Egypt, Part 99: Spears, Shields,

Daggers, Swords and Military Chariots Industry

Galal Ali Hassaan

Department of Mechanical Design & Production, Faculty of Engineering,

Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

Email: [email protected]

I. INTRODUCTION

The ancient Egyptians were pioneers in

establishing wonderful well-organized industries

including some military industries. The military

industry was essential to protect the territories of

Egypt from four directions: East, West, South and

North. The present paper focuses on the industry of

spears, shields, daggers and chariots.

Shaw (1991) in her book about Egyptian warfare

and weapons studied the

Weapons and military technology in ancient

Egypt. She presented the wooden model of soldiers

carrying spears and shields from the tomb of

Mesehty, typical spears from Old to New

Kingdoms, chariot from the Second Intermediate

Period , chariot relief for Pharaoh Seti I in the

Karnak Temple and scene for chariot with two

soldiers from the New Kingdom [1]. Spalenger

(2003) in his paper about the Battle of Kadesh

presented a relief for the Egyptian chariot during

the Battle of Kadesh in different resources. He

presented also reliefs for the enemy chariots during

the same battle [2].

Olivier (2008) in her thesis of Master of Arts

presented a scene for Pharaoh Akhenaten and his

wife Nefertiti in their chariots with soldiers holding

spears and shields [3]. Amar (2012) in her study of

the dagger of Pharaoh Kamos from the 17th Dynasty

presented an explanation of the dagger parts

supported by eight photos. She compared Kamos

dagger with that of Queen Ahhotep from the End of

the 17th Dynasty [4]. Sabbahy (2013) in her study of

chariot use in the New Kingdom of Egypt presented

some useful reliefs illustrating the use of chariots

during the New Kingdom. Some of them are: relief

for archer and shield bearer from the Grear Temple

at Abu Simbel, Prince in his chariot following

Ramses II in one of his battles, Amenemhat II in his

chariot, Thutmose IV in his chariot, Akhenaten

stepping into his chariot and Ramses III in his

chariot [5]. Dean (2013) in her book about women,

weaponry and warfare presented a relief for Queen

Nefertiti smiting a female prisoner with a Khopesh,

a scene for Queen Tawosert fighting in a chariot, a

relief for a military vehicle in the tomb of

Horemheb, a relief for infantry soldiers carrying

spears and shields in Luxor Temple, a fighting

scene using military chariots from the Temple of

Horemheb, the dagger of Queen Ahhotep, a relief

for Queen Nefertiti driving her chariot, a scene for

Queen Tawosert in a chariot during a battle, a scene

for Thutmose IV in his chariot during a battle, a

relief for Seti I in his chariot fighting the Hittites, a

relief for Ramses III in his chariot with his infantry

soldiers carrying spears and shields, a photo for a

war chariot from the New Kingdom a relief for

Ramses II fighting in his chariot, photos for swords

RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Abstract: This paper is one in a series of research papers aiming at investigating the role of ancient Egyptians in the

development of Mechanical Engineering. It studies the production of some ancient weapons used by the Egyptian army during

the Predynastic and Dynastic Periods. It presents the features of the spears, shields, daggers, swords and military chariots as

ancient Egyptian weapons. 37 examples are presented and analyzed from mechanical point of view.

Keywords — Mechanical Engineering history, ancient Egyptian weapons, spears, shields, daggers, swords, military

chariots industry.

http://www.ijetjournal.org/



and dagger from the New Kingdom, a dagger from

the Middle Kingdom, a straight sword from Early

18th Dynasty and photos for Khopesh swords [6].

Wernick (2015) in his paper about ancient

Egyptian shields and their handles published a

collection of wooden shield-handles and examined

the shields found in the tomb of Tutankhamun and

concluded that the design of the shield and handle

placement and orientation changed [7]. Chondross

et al (2016) in heir paper about the evolution of the

double-horse chariots presented some useful scenes

for the use of chariots including scene for a Hittite

chariot with two horses, a relief for two horses

chariot from Late Hittite, a photo for Achaean

chariot with L-shaped pole, a photo for a two horses

Egyptian chariot produced 1500 BC, a relief for

Ramses II in his chariot in Abu Simbel Temple, a

scene for ancient Egyptian carpenters producing

chariot wheels [8].

Comelli et al (2016) in their article

about the meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's

dagger blade presented a photo for the iron dagger

of Tutankhamun with its golden shield. They

concluded that the ancient Egyptians attributed

great value for meteoritic iron for the production of

precision objects and the Tutankhamun's iron

dagger blade had high manufacturing quality

suggesting a significant mastery of ironworking in

Tutankhamun's time [9]. El-Mahdy (2017) in her

paper about some weapons of the Gods in ancient

Egypt presented a colored scene for Genies deity

holding knife in each hand as a weapon, scene for

Horus holding a mace and shield , line diagram for

different types of swords, a statue for Horus holding

a Khopesh from the 26th Dynasty [10].

Wadi (2017) in her paper about Egyptian

treatment of sword injuries presented a photo for a

Khopesh produced in 1750 BC in ancient Egypt and

a relief for Ramses II using the Khopesh [11].

Mazza et al (2018) studied the dynamics of an

Egyptian and American war chariots using vehicle

dynamics simulation software. The results revealed

important information about the chariot stability,

reliability and structural integrity. They concluded

that the Egyptian chariot was technically much

more advanced than the American [12]. White

(2020) in his thesis about bows and spears in

Achaemenid Persia presented a relief for an

Egyptian bow workshop and photo for the stele of

the vultures from Dynasty III of Mesopotamia

displaying a number of spears [13]. Wikipedia

(2021) wrote an article about chariotry in ancient

Egypt and displayed a relief for Ramses II fighting

in his chariot during the Battle of Kadesh from Abu

Simbel Temple. They outlined that Kamose (1555-

1550 BC) was the first Egyptian ruler to use

chariots in a battle, then followed by New Kingdom

rulers [14]. Hassaan (2021) investigated the

industry of maces, axes and bows and arrows as

weapons used by the ancient Egyptian armies. He

presented examples of using the three weapons and

mentioned their characteristics and present location

[15].

II. SPEARS INDUSTRY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians used spears as a personal

weapon since the Predynastic Period and continued

to use it down to the Late Period as will be depicted

by the following examples:

- The first example is a flint spear-head from

the Predynastic Period, 4400-3150 BC in

display in the Brooklyn Museum at New

York and shown in Fig.1 [16]. But why the

ancient Egyptian designer used the flint rock

as a raw material for this weapon produced

about 6000 years ago?. Because they were

genius, they knew that flint is harder than

other metals such as copper and iron. Recent

studied showed that the Egyptian flint has a

hardness of 7 on Mohs scale [17] while

copper has a hardness of 3 and ordinary steel

has a hardness of 4.5 [18]. Therefore, flint

was superior in providing resistance to decay

and offered particular reliability [17]. This is

besides its ability to be sharpened.

- The second example is a copper alloy spear

head from Early 3rd Dynasty, 2686-2613 BC

in display in the British Museum and shown

in Fig.2 [19]. Most probably the spear head




material is a copper-tin alloy (ancient

Egyptian bronze). The spear head design and

material has the features:

• The shape of the head became much complex

than the stone one.

• The front part has more than two sharpened

edges to increase the killing efficiency of the

weapon.

• The end of the head is thinned to suit the

fixed connection with the spear hand.

• In this design, the designer used bitumen as

an adhesive between the head and the hand

[19].

• The mechanical designer used bronze as a

raw material for this application since it has

tensile strength of about twice that of copper

[20].

• Selecting copper tin alloy (bronze) as a

material for the spear head provides excellent

cold and hot formability and good resistance

to atmospheric corrosion [21].

Fig.2 Copper alloy spear head from the

3rd Dynasty [19].

- The third example is an electrum spear head

from a Royal tomb from the Early 3rd

Dynasty, 2600-2500 BC in display in the

British Museum and shown in Fig.3 [22]. As

this weapon is from a Royal tomb, most

probably it was a ceremonial spear head. This

is why the designer selected electrum as a raw

material for this product to increase its

historical value and life by selecting a

precious metal. It has a tensile strength better

than gold, silver and copper [23-24]. Its

hardness is similar to that of gold and silver

and its maximum harness is similar to copper

hardness [25,26]. The surface roughness of

the electrum spear head is much less than that

of bronze head of Fig.2.

- The fourth example is a wooden model for a

striding infantry troops found in the tomb of

Mesehty, Governor of Asyut during the 11th

Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, 2000 BC in

display in the Egyptian Museum at Cairo and

shown in Fig. 4 [27]. The model depicts the

soldiers carrying long spears in their right

hands.

Fig.4 Model of infantry troops from the

11th Dynasty [27].

- The fifth example is a colored relief of

Nubian soldiers carrying spears and shields

from the 12th Dynasty, 1955-1750 BC shown

in Fig.5 [28]. The relief depicts the soldiers

carrying long identical spears and blue

hamlets. The activity was authorized using

hieroglyphic text carved in rows above the

soldier heads.

- The sixth example is a copper alloy spear

head from the 18th Dynasty, 1550-1295 BC in

display in the Petrie Museum at London and

shown in Fig.6 [29]. The spear head has 240




mm overall length, ovoid blade and hollow

sleeve to support the spear shaft. Most

probably this unit was produced using metal

casting where the ancient Egyptians were

pioneers in this industry during this Period of

their history [30].

Fig.6 Spear head from the 18th Dynasty [29].

- The seventh example is an iron spear head

from the Late Period, 664-332 BC in display

in the Petrie Museum at London and shown in

Fig.7 [31]. The spear head was corroded due

to the environmental effects associated with

iron.

III. SHIELDS INDUSTRY IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians used shields to

protect fighters against arrows, spears and

swords. They used various materials and designs

to facilitate using shield effectively. Here are

some examples:

- The first example is a wooden model for a

striding infantry troops found in the tomb of

Mesehty, Governor of Asyut during the 11th



shown in Fig. 4 [27]. The model depicts the

soldiers carrying shields in their left hands.

- The second example is a 715 x 422 mm

wooden shield model from the 12th Dynasty,

1981-1802 BC in display in the Metropolitan

Museum of Art at New York and shown in

Fig.8 [32]. The shield was decorating by

painting the wood by three colors pigments:

red for the frame, black and white on the front

surface of the shield simulating an animal

skin. The shield reflects the ultimate

capability of the ancient Egyptians in

producing pigments that can survive for

thousands of years without deterioration [33].

Fig.8 Shield model from the 12th Dynasty [32].

- The third example is a colored relief for

Nubian soldiers in the Egyptian army during

the 12th Dynasty, 1955-1750 BC shown in

Fig.5 [28]. The relief depicts the soldiers

holding the shields by their left hands and

depicts also its material as animal skins.

- The fourth example is a ceremonial shield for

Tutankhamun, the 13th Pharaoh of the 18th

Dynasty, 1332-1323 BC shown in Fig.9 [34].

The shield was decorated by a 3D relief

showing the Pharaoh as a sphinx wearing the

combined crown of Egypt and squeezing the

enemies of Egypt under his feet. The activity




was recorded using the hieroglyphic script

with a text bounded by a frame.

Fig.9 Ceremonial shield from the 18th Dynasty

[34].

IV. DAGGGERS INDUSTRY IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians used daggers as a personal

light weapon. Here are some examples about their

design and characteristics as used by the ancient

Egyptians:

- The first example is a dagger with golden

blade from Early 3rd Dynasty of the Old

Kingdom, 2600 BC in display in the British

Museum at London and shown in Fig.10 [35].

The dagger has a straight blade and its hand

was decorated by pieces of gold at its end

(pommel). Besides, most probably the guard

was also produced from gold. This means that

this dagger may be a Royal ceremonial one.

- The second example is a dagger from the

Middle Kingdom2025-1700 BC in display in

the Petrie Museum at London and shown in

Fig.11 [36]. The dagger has a straight blade, a

thin handle and a big crescent ivory pommel.

Its edges have a parabolic shape.

Fig.11 Dagger from the Middle Kingdom [36].

- The third example is a wooden model dagger

of Ukhhotep, Overseer of Priests of Hathor

during the reign of Senusret I, 2nd King of the

12th Dynasty, 1971-1926 BC in display in the

Metropolitan Museum of Art and shown in

Fig.12 [37]. The dagger model has a straight

blade, a thick handle and a pommel and guard

of almost the same diameter.

Fig.12 Dagger model from the 12th Dynasty [37].

- The fourth example is a dagger from the 12th


Brooklyn Museum at New York and shown in

Fig.13 [38]. The dagger has a straight copper

alloy blade, straight guard, concave handle

and ivory crescent pommel. The mechanical

designer of the dagger selected two

techniques to secure the pommel to the handle:

ending the handle with a sleeve with

interference fit with the pommel and forming

an adhesive fit between the pommel and an

extension part of the handle with less

diameter than the handle diameter.




Fig.13 Dagger from the 12th Dynasty [38].

- The fifth example is a dagger of Princess Ita,

daughter of Amenemhat II, 3rd King of the


Egyptian Museum at Cairo and shown in

Fig.14 [39]. The dagger may be considered as

a master piece of the daggers industry during

the Middle Kingdom. Its blade was produced

from bronze, its guard was produced from

gold, its hand and crescent pommel were

inlayed by laps lazuli and inlaid by gold and

carnelian.

Fig.14 Bronze dagger from the 12th Dynasty

[39].

- The sixth example is a 380 mm length dagger

from the 18th Dynasty, 1550-1295 BC in

display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

and shown in Fig.15 [40]. The dagger blade

and handle are manufactured using bronze

and the pommel had a semi-circular shape

and produced from ivory with a special

fixture with the handle.

- The seventh example is a dagger of Queen

Ahhotep, Mother of Ahmose I, Founder of the



Fig.16 [41,42]. The dagger blade is straight

and most probably produced from bronze. It

has some distinct features:

• The guard and handle are integrated in one

part with straight sleeve holding the blade and

a crescent guide and fork holding the pommel.

Probably, its material may be gold or

electrum.

• The pommel is circular and produced from

ivory as a disc secured in position by the

crescent and fork parts of the handle-guard

element.

Fig.16 Royal dagger from Early 18th Dynasty

[41,42].

- The eighth example is a golden dagger of




Fig.17 [43]. The details of the pommel,

handle and guard are presented in Fig.18 [44].

The pommel has a parabolic shape and

decorated by two Cartouches of the Pharaoh

from one side and two figures for the falcon

holding the shen symbol in his claws. The

hand was decorated by a system of advanced

motifs with elaborated techniques using

geometrical shapes and lily palmetto

produced using gold and semi-precious stones

and glass in an alternate bands [45]. The

guard is relatively thin and has little increased

diameter than the end part of the handle.




Fig.17 Golden dagger from the 18th Dynasty

[43].

Fig.18 Pommel, handle and guard of

Tutankhamun golden dagger [44].

- The ninth example is an iron dagger of

Pharaoh Tutankhamun of the 18th Dynasty in


shown in Fig.19 [46]. The pommel design is

different than that of the golden dagger of

Fig.18. Here, it is straight ending with a

rounded disk. Probably it is produced from

silver or glass. The handle geometry is

different than that in Fig.18. Here, it has a

parabolic shape while in Fig.18; it has a

concave shape with almost same decorations.

The guard here is also different where it is

straight and thicker than in Fig.18.

Fig.19 Iron dagger from the 18th Dynasty [46].

V. SWORDS INDUSTRY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians used swords as early as

the Middle Kingdom where it was an offensive

sharp weapon. Here are some examples of swords

used by the ancient Egyptians during the Middle

and New Kingdoms:

- The first example is a Khopesh from the 13th


display in the Museum Agyptisher Kunst,

Munchen and shown in Fig.20 [47]. Most

probably this is a bronze Khopesh of the

sickle shape with the sharpened cutting blade

on the outer surface of its font part.

Fig.20 Khopesh from the 13th Dynasty [47].

- The second example is a 318 mm length

Bronze sword from the New Kingdom, 1550-

1069 BC in display in the British Museum

and shown in Fig.21 [48]. The design of this

sword presents relatively short straight sword.

The pommel has a half circular shape, the

grip consists of two parts separated by two

sleeves, the guard is a thin disc with while

inlay and the blade has a double convex shape

forming an ovoid with inlay near the guard.

Fig.21 Bronze sword from the New Kingdom

[48].

- The third example is a 520 mm length copper

alloy sword from the Early 18th Dynasty,

1550-1458 BC in display in the Metropolitan

Museum of Art at New York and shown in

Fig.22 [49]. The design of this sword presents

a medium straight sword. The pommel has a

semi-spherical shape; the grip is straight and

ending with a parabolic connection with the

guard which is flat and thicker than that of the

design in Fig.21. The blade has a slight

concave surface and round tip. The unit is an

indication of the development of the metal

casting technology in ancient Egypt during

this era.

Fig.22 Copper alloy sword from Early 18th

Dynasty [49].




- The fourth example is a Khopesh for

Akhenaten, the 10th Pharaoh of the 18th


Metropolitan Museum of Art at New York

and shown in Fig.22 [50]. Most probably this

is a bronze Khopesh with a standard design

for the Khopesh.

Fig.23 Khopesh of Akhenaten from 18th

Dynasty [50].

- The fifth example is a 520 x 222 mm

sandstone 'talatat' with Royal boats scenes from

the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten of the 18th

Dynasty in display in the Museum of Fine Arts at

Boston and shown in Fig.24 [51]. The scene

depicts a main adjusting the sail of a Royal boat,

while two men are holding a Khopesh in their

right hands.

- The sixth example is a bronze Khopesh of

Pharaoh Tutankhamun of the 18th Dynasty in


shown in Fig.25 [52]. The blade is curved at

its end taking a sickle, the grip is straight and

decorated by inlays, the guard is small and the

pommel is oriented towards one direction

only.

Fig.25 Khopesh of Tutankhamun from the 18th

Dynasty [52].

- The seventh example is a sword blade from

the 19th Dynasty, 1292-1186 BC in display in

the National Museum of Scotland at Cairo

and shown in Fig.26 [53]. It is straight and

probably made of bronze with compound

blade-profile (concave near the tip followed

by convex near the guard. There is a fuller

allover its length.

Fig.26 Sword blade from the 19th Dynasty [53].

- The eighth example is a relief for Seti I, the

2nd Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, 1290-1279

BC in the northern exterior wall of the

Karnak Hypostyle Hall shown in Fig.27 [54].

The relief depicts the Pharaoh fighting the

Libyan enemies of Egypt using a Khopesh.

The Pharaoh is riding a military vehicle.

- The ninth example is a bronze Khopesh for

Ramses II, the 3rd Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty,

1279-1213 BC in display in the Louvre

Museum at Paris and shown in Fig.28 [55,56].

It has the standard Khopesh design appeared

in the New Kingdom.




Fig.28 Ramses II Khopesh from the 19th

Dynasty [55].

VI. MILITARY CHARIOTS INDUSTRY IN

ANCIENT EGYPT

The ancient Egyptians new the military

chariots through the direct contact with Hyksos

during their occupation of Lower and Middle

Egypt during the period 1650-1550 BC [57]. The

ancient Egyptians became superior in

constructing military chariots as will be depicted

by the following examples:

- The first example is a jasper scarab with a

relief for Thutmose I, the 3rd Pharaoh of the


British Museum and shown in Fig.29 [58].

The carved scene on the jasper scarab depicts

the Pharaoh on his military chariot attacking

an enemy soldier using his bow and arrows

weapon. The scene authorizes the

documentation of the activity through carving

the Cartouche of the Pharaoh in the top

middle of the scene.

- The second example is a relief for Amenhotep

II, the 7th Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, 1475-

1398 BC in the Karnak Temple and shown in

Fig.30 [59]. The relief depicts the Pharaoh in

his war chariot and putting three of his

captives on the driving horse. The chariot of

Pharaoh Amenhotep II was driven by a single

horse and the wheels of his chariot had four

spokes.

Fig.30 Karnak relief from the 18th Dynasty [59].

- The third example is a relief for Amenhotep

II of the 18th Dynasty, 1475-1398 BC in a

stela from the Temple of Amun at Karnak

shown in Fig.31 [60]. The relief depicts the

Pharaoh in his chariot driven by two horses

and shown shooting arrows against targets.

The wheels of his chariot had four spokes.

Fig.31 Stela relief from the 18th Dynasty [60].

- The fourth example is a chariot scene in the

tomb of Nebamun, Scribe and Grain

Accountant during the reign of Pharaoh

Thutmose IV of the 18th Dynasty, 1392-1350

BC in display in the British Museum and

shown in Fig.32 [61]. The scene depicts

Nebamun checking up his single-horse-driven

chariot. The wheels of his chariot had six

spokes.




Fig.32 Chariot scene from the 18th Dynasty [61].

- The fifth example is a scene in the tomb of

Pharaoh Thutmose IV of the 18th Dynasty,

1398-1388 BC shown in Fig.33 [62]. The

scene depicts the Pharaoh fighting Asiatic

enemies of ancient Egypt using his two-horse

military chariot. The wheels of his chariot

were modified to have eight spokes for more

strength. The scene depicts also the military

vehicles of the enemies driven by two horses

and having only four spokes.

Fig.33 Tomb war scene from the 18th Dynasty

[62].

- The sixth example is a scene in the chapel of

the priest Merya at Amarna shows the

Pharaoh Akhenaten and his Queen travelling

in separate chariots. Akhenaten was the 10th

Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, 1351-1334 BC

and the scene is shown in Fig.34 [63]. The

scene depicts Royal chariots driven by two

horses with two wheels having six spokes

each.

Fig.34 Scene for Akhenatin and his wife from

the 18th Dynasty [63].

- The seventh example is a colored scene for


Dynasty, 1332-1323 BC on a side of one of

his chests in display in the Egyptian Museum

at Cairo and shown in Fig.35 [64]. The scene

depicts the Young Pharaoh in his military

chariot fighting the Africans. The scene

depicts a chariot driven by two horses with

two wheels having six spokes each. The

Vehicle Corps Forces of the Pharaoh were

shown using chariots of the same design as

that of the Pharaoh.

Fig.35 Scene for Tutankhamun from the 18th

Dynasty [64].

- The eighth example is a colored scene for

Pharaoh Ramses II of the 19th Dynasty, 1279-

1213 BC in his chariot fighting in one of his

battles drawn on a pottery fragment as shown in

Fig.36 [65]. The ancient Egyptian artist could

register this wonderful colored scene for his great

Pharaoh with details of the chariot and driving

horses. Not only this, but he authorized the

Pharaoh's battle using the hieroglyphic script with

text written within seven bounded columns.




Fig.36 Scene for Ramses II from the 19th

Dynasty [65].

- The ninth example is a scene for Tausret, the

8th and last Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty,

1191-1189 BC in her military chariot fighting

with a bow and arrows as painted on an

ostracon in display in the Egyptian Museum

at Cairo and shown in Fig.37 [66]. The scene

depicts her military chariot driven by a single

horse and a horse-driver with chariot-wheels

having eight spokes.

Fig.37 Scene Tausret from the 19th Dynasty [66].

VII. CONCLUSION

- The development of Mechanical Engineering

in ancient Egypt was studied through

investigating the industry of some weapons in

ancient Egypt.

- The study covered spears industry during a

time span from the Predynastic to the Late

Periods.

- The study covered shields industry during a

time span from the 11th to the 18th Dynasties.

- The study covered daggers industry during a

time span from the 3rd to the 18th Dynasties.

- The study covered swords industry during a

time span from the 13th to the 19th Dynasties.

- The study covered military chariots industry

during a time span from the 18th to the 19th

Dynasties.

- The ancient Egyptians authorized the spears

industry through full-scale spear heads,

wooden models of infantry troops equipped

with spears and tomb reliefs.

- The ancient Egyptians authorized the shields

industry through wooden models, tomb reliefs

and ceremonial units.

- The ancient Egyptians authorized the daggers

industry through wooden models and full-

scale daggers.

- The ancient Egyptians authorized the swords

industry through full-scale swords, colored

scenes and temple reliefs.

- The ancient Egyptians authorized the military

chariots industry through carving on small

units such as scarabs, drawing scenes on

furniture units such as chests, scenes on

pottery fragments, scenes on ostracons and

full-scale swords.

- They used different designs for the dagger-

pommel , hand and guard

- They used ivory and semi-precious stones for

the decoration of the dagger-pommels and

hands.

- They produced daggers using gold, bronze

and iron materials.

- They designed swords with straight blade or

curved blade (the Khopesh).

- They used copper-alloy and bronze as

production materials.

- They used various designs for the sword

pommel, grip and guard.

- They designed military chariots driven by one

or two horses.

- They designed military chariots with various

strength characteristics through the number of

spokes in each wheel.

- They designed and produced chariot wheels

with:

• Four spokes (during the 18th Dynasty).

• Six spokes (during the 18th and 19th

Dynasties).




• Eight spokes (during the 18th and 19th

Dynasties).

- Male and female Pharaohs of ancient Egypt

participated in fighting Egypt's enemies by

themselves leading their armies using axes,

swords, bow and arrows and military chariots.

REFERENCES

1. I. Shaw, "Egyptian warfare and weapons", Shire

Egyptology, 1991.

2. A. Spalinger, "The Battle of Kadesh: The chariot frieze

ofAbydos", Agypten and Levente, vol.13, pp.163-199,

2003.

3. A. Olivier, “Social status of elite women of the New

Kingdom of ancient Egypt: A comparison of artistic

features", Master of Arts in Ancient Near Eastern Studies.

University of South Africa, 2008.

4. C. B. Amar, "The dagger of Pharaoh Kamos, the oldest

glory of the RoyalLibrary of Belgium", Monte Artium,

Vol.6I, p.45-67, 2012.

5. L. Sabbahy, “Depictional study of chariot use in New

Kingdom Egypt”, in A. Veldmerier and S. Ikram

(Editors), "Chaising chariots, Proceedings of the First

International Chariot Conference, Cairo 2012",

Sidestone Press, Leiden, 2013.

6. R. A. Dean, "Women, weaponry and warfare", M. Phil

Thesis, University of York Archaeology, 2013.

7. N. Wernick, "Ancient Egyptian shields and their handles:

A functional explaination of New Kingdom

developments", The Journal of the Society for the Study of

Egyptian Antiquities, vol.41, pp.47-83, 2015 .

8. T. Chondross, K. Milidonis, C. Rossi and N. Zrnic, "The

evolution of the double-horse chariots from the Bronze

Age to the Hellenistic Times",FMA Transactions, vol.44,

pp.229-236, 2016.

9. D. Comelli et al, "The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's

iron dagger bladw", Meteoritics and Planetary Sciences,

vol.51, issue 7, pp.1301-1309, 2016.

10. I. M. El- Mahdy, "Some weapons of the Gods in ancient

Egypt until the End of the New Kingdom", Journal of the

Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, University of Sadat City,

vol.1, issue 1, pp.57-95,2017 .

11. K. Wadi, "The sword and the knife: a comparison of

ancient Egyptian treatment of sword injuries and present

day trauma", Journal of Royal Medical Society, vol.24,

issue 1, pp.47-56, 2017.

12. A. Mazza, F. Gambari, S. Uberti, I. Bodini, S. Pasnetti

and G. Sansoni, "An engineering study of a Bronze Age

war chariot", IOP Conference Series, Materials Science

and Engineering, 364, pp.1-8 , 2018.

13. J. White, "Bows and spears in Achaemenid Persia", Ph.

D. Thesis, University of California, 2020.

14. Wikipedia, "Chariotry in ancient Egypt",

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariotry_in_ancient_Egypt

, 2021

15. G. A. Hassaan, "Mechanical Engineering in ancient

Egypt, Part 98: Maces, axes, bows and arrows

industries", International Journal ofEmerging

Engineering Research and Technology, vol.9, issue 1,

pp.13-25,2021 .

16. Brooklyn Museum, “Leaf-shaped spear head”,

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/

152108

17. C. A. Brown, "The ideological significance of flint in

Dynastic Egypt", Ph. D. ThesisUniversity College

LondonInstitute of Archaeology, 2014.

18. Wikipedia, “Mohs scale of mineral hardness,”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_ha

rdness , 2021.

19. British Museum, "Spear head",

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1930

-1213-46

20. Elektrisola, "Copper tin alloy, CuSn6",

https://www.elektrisola.com/conductor-materials/copper-

tin-alloys/cusn6.html

21. Copper Alliance, "Copper-tin

properties",https://copperalliance.eu/about-

copper/copper-and-its-

alloys/properties/#:~:text=Mechanical%20properties%2

0of%20copper&text=Annealed%20copper%20(H040)%2

0has%20a,%2Fmm%C2%B2%20(%20R360)%20minimu

m, 2018.

22. Material Web, "Copper, Cu, annealed",

http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet_print.aspx?mat

guid=9aebe83845c04c1db5126fada6f76f7e

23. Material Web, "Gold",

http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?bassnum

=AMEAu00&ckck=1

24. Azom, "Silver properties and applications",

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=9282

25. Cs. Mcgill, "Mohs scale of mineral hardness",

https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/m/

Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm

26. Nevada Outback Gems, "Electrum mineral facts",

http://nevada-outback-

gems.com/mineral_information/Electrum_mineral_info.ht

m

27. Egypt Museum, "Model of Egyptian pikemen",

https://old.egypt-

museum.com/post/188607526922/model-of-egyptian-

pikemen, 2019.

28. Getty Images, "Nubian soldiers, wall painting, 12th

Dynasty", https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-

photo/nubian-soldiers-wall-painting-egyptian-

civilisation-12th-news-photo/182134402?adppopup=true

29. UCL, "Copper alloy spear head",

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-

static/ave///detail/details/index_no_login.php?objectid=U

C__30032__xy&accesscheck=%2Fmuseums-


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariotry_in_ancient_Egypt

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/152108

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/152108

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1930-1213-46

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1930-1213-46

https://www.elektrisola.com/conductor-materials/copper-tin-alloys/cusn6.html

https://www.elektrisola.com/conductor-materials/copper-tin-alloys/cusn6.html

https://copperalliance.eu/about-copper/copper-and-its-alloys/properties/#:~:text=Mechanical%20properties%20of%20copper&text=Annealed%20copper%20(H040)%20has%20a,%2Fmm%C2%B2%20(%20R360)%20minimum






http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet_print.aspx?matguid=9aebe83845c04c1db5126fada6f76f7e

http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet_print.aspx?matguid=9aebe83845c04c1db5126fada6f76f7e

http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?bassnum=AMEAu00&ckck=1

http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?bassnum=AMEAu00&ckck=1

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=9282

https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm

https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm

http://nevada-outback-gems.com/mineral_information/Electrum_mineral_info.htm



https://old.egypt-museum.com/post/188607526922/model-of-egyptian-pikemen



https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/nubian-soldiers-wall-painting-egyptian-civilisation-12th-news-photo/182134402?adppopup=true



https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/ave/detail/details/index_no_login.php?objectid=UC__30032__xy&accesscheck=%2Fmuseums-static%2Fave%2F%2F%2Fdetail%2Fdetails%2Findex.php





static%2Fave%2F%2F%2Fdetail%2Fdetails%2Findex.p

hp


Egypt, Part 51: Metal casting",World Journal of

Engineering Research and Technology, vol.3, issue 4,

pp.307-331,2017 .

31. UCL, "Spear head", https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-

static/digitalegypt/tools/spear.html, 2002.

32. Metropolitan Museum, "Model shield, 1981-1802 BC",

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/54627

0, 2021..


Egypt, Part 84: Painting pigments industry during Old

and Middle Kingdoms",International Journal of

Advanced Research in Management, Technology and

Engineering, vol.5, issue 7, pp.1-8,2019 .

34. Amntenofre Tumblr, "Ceremonial shield with King

Tutankhamun as a sphinx",

https://amntenofre.tumblr.com/post/158545326186/cerem

onial-shield-with-king-tutankhamun

35. British Museum Images, "Dagger, Early Dynastic III",

https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=0161367

2006&itemw=4&itemf=0001&itemstep=1&itemx=5,

2021.

36. UCL, "Dagger and short swords, Middle Kingdom",

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-

static/digitalegypt/tools/dagger.html, 2002.

37. Metropolitan Museum, "Model dagger of Ukhhotep",


4. 2021.

38. Brooklyn Museum, "Dagger from the Egyptian Middle

Kingdom (Dynasty 12, 1938-1753 BC)",

https://brooklynmuseum.tumblr.com/post/140027985435/t

his-dagger-from-the-egyptian-middle-kingdom 39. Egypt Museum, "Dagger of Pricness Ita", https://egypt-

museum.com/post/188548882886/dagger-of-princess-ita, 2019.

40. Metropolitan Museum, "Dagger, 1550-1295 BC",


1, 2021.

41. Alamy, "A dagger found in the tomb of Queen Ahhotep",

https://www.alamy.com/egypt-cairo-egyptian-museum-a-

dagger-found-in-the-tomb-of-the-queen-ahhotep-the-

mother-of-ahmosis-dra-abu-el-naga-luxor-

image342430051.html, 2021.

42. Global Egyptian Museum,

http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/large.aspx?img=i

mages%2FEMC%2F527-8-EM-1-6587-_800x800.jpg

43. Antiquities Experts, "Egypt, art during Early New

Kingdom",

https://www.antiquitiesexperts.com/egypt_middle.html,

2020.

44. Time Trips, "Dagger of Tutankhamun",

https://www.timetrips.co.uk/dagger.htm

45. Tour Egypt, "Tut's exhibit – Tutankhamun exhibit

collections",

http://www.touregypt.net/museum/tutl43.htm, 2021.

46. Alamy, "The King's two daggers",

https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-the-kings-two-

daggers-one-with-a-blade-of-gold-the-other-of-iron-

from-16082300.html, 2021.

47. Wikipedia, "Khopesh",

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khopesh, 2021.

48. British Museum,

"Sword",https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object

/Y_EA52850

49. Metropolitan Museum, "Sword, 1550-1458 BC",


8, 2021.

50. Assassin Screed Fandom, "Theliving one",

https://assassinscreed.fandom.com/wiki/The_Living_One

51. Jbagot, "Talatat or wall relief with a boat scene",

https://www.jbagot.com/obra/talatat-or-wall-relief-with-

a-boat-scene, 2020.

52. Egypt Museum, "Khopesh sword of Tutankhamun",

https://egypt-museum.com/post/188500888716/sword-of-

tutankhamun

53. NMC, "Sword blade description",

https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-

search-results/sword-blade/300621

54. Memphis, "War scenes of Seti I",

https://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/tour_hall/seti_scenes

.php

55. Egypt Museum, "Khopesh sword of Ramesses II",

https://egypt-museum.com/post/180529958356/khopesh-

sword-of-ramesses-ii

56. Ancient EU, "Egyptian bronze sword",

https://www.ancient.eu/image/5826/egyptian-bronze-

sword/

57. Wikipedia, " Hyksos",

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos, 2021.

58. L. Sabbahi, "Moving pictures context of use and

iconography of chariots in the New Kingdom", in N.

Vildeijer and S. Ikram (Editors), "Chariots in ancient

Egypt", Sidestone Press, 2018, p.121.

59. Ibid, p.122.

60. IB 250, "Amenhotep II, 1453-1419 BC",

https://ib205.tripod.com/amenhotep_2_1.html

61. British Museum, "Tomb painting",

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/Y_EA37

982

62. Osirisnet, "Thutmose IV, KV 43",

https://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/pharaons/thoutmosis4/e

_thoutmosis4_01.htm

63. D. Hyora, "Nefertiti",

https://www.nilemuse.com/nefertiti/nefertiti.html, 2021.

64. Getty Images, "Tutankhamun on his chariot attacking

Africans", https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-

photo/tutankhamun-on-his-chariot-attacking-africans-

detail-from-news-photo/55995378?adppopup=true

65. Worth Point, "Ancient Egyptian antique pottery fragment

fighting Pharaoh Ramses II",

https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/ancient-

egyptian-antique-pottery-1933024148




https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/tools/spear.html

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/tools/spear.html



https://amntenofre.tumblr.com/post/158545326186/ceremonial-shield-with-king-tutankhamun

https://amntenofre.tumblr.com/post/158545326186/ceremonial-shield-with-king-tutankhamun

https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=01613672006&itemw=4&itemf=0001&itemstep=1&itemx=5

https://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=01613672006&itemw=4&itemf=0001&itemstep=1&itemx=5

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/tools/dagger.html

https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/tools/dagger.html



https://brooklynmuseum.tumblr.com/post/140027985435/this-dagger-from-the-egyptian-middle-kingdom

https://brooklynmuseum.tumblr.com/post/140027985435/this-dagger-from-the-egyptian-middle-kingdom

https://egypt-museum.com/post/188548882886/dagger-of-princess-ita

https://egypt-museum.com/post/188548882886/dagger-of-princess-ita



https://www.alamy.com/egypt-cairo-egyptian-museum-a-dagger-found-in-the-tomb-of-the-queen-ahhotep-the-mother-of-ahmosis-dra-abu-el-naga-luxor-image342430051.html




http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/large.aspx?img=images%2FEMC%2F527-8-EM-1-6587-_800x800.jpg

http://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/large.aspx?img=images%2FEMC%2F527-8-EM-1-6587-_800x800.jpg

https://www.antiquitiesexperts.com/egypt_middle.html

https://www.timetrips.co.uk/dagger.htm

http://www.touregypt.net/museum/tutl43.htm

https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-the-kings-two-daggers-one-with-a-blade-of-gold-the-other-of-iron-from-16082300.html



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khopesh





https://assassinscreed.fandom.com/wiki/The_Living_One

https://www.jbagot.com/obra/talatat-or-wall-relief-with-a-boat-scene

https://www.jbagot.com/obra/talatat-or-wall-relief-with-a-boat-scene

https://egypt-museum.com/post/188500888716/sword-of-tutankhamun

https://egypt-museum.com/post/188500888716/sword-of-tutankhamun

https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/sword-blade/300621

https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/collection-search-results/sword-blade/300621

https://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/tour_hall/seti_scenes.php

https://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/tour_hall/seti_scenes.php

https://egypt-museum.com/post/180529958356/khopesh-sword-of-ramesses-ii

https://egypt-museum.com/post/180529958356/khopesh-sword-of-ramesses-ii

https://www.ancient.eu/image/5826/egyptian-bronze-sword/

https://www.ancient.eu/image/5826/egyptian-bronze-sword/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos

https://ib205.tripod.com/amenhotep_2_1.html



https://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/pharaons/thoutmosis4/e_thoutmosis4_01.htm

https://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/pharaons/thoutmosis4/e_thoutmosis4_01.htm

https://www.nilemuse.com/nefertiti/nefertiti.html

https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/tutankhamun-on-his-chariot-attacking-africans-detail-from-news-photo/55995378?adppopup=true



https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/ancient-egyptian-antique-pottery-1933024148

https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/ancient-egyptian-antique-pottery-1933024148



66. V. Callender, "Ancient Egyptian Queen mounted on a war

chariot", https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-

Egyptian-queen-mounted-on-a-war-chariot-fi-res-

arrows-at-a-male-opponent-on-a_fig4_300767631, 2021.

BIOGRAPHY

Galal Ali Hassaan

• Emeritus Professor of System Dynamics

and Automatic Control.

• Has got his B.Sc. and M.Sc. from Cairo

University in 1970 and 1974.

• Has got his Ph.D. in 1979 from Bradford

University, UK under the supervision of

Late Prof. John Parnaby.

• Now with the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo

University, EGYPT.

• Research on Automatic Control, Mechanical

Vibrations, Mechanism Synthesis and

History of Mechanical Engineering.

• Published 282 research papers in

international journals and conferences.

• Author of books on Experimental Systems

Control, Experimental Vibrations and

Evolution of Mechanical Engineering.

• Chief Editor of the International Journal of

Computer Techniques and International

Journal of Engineering and Techniques.

• Member of the Editorial Board of some

international journals.

• Reviewer in some international journals.


https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-Egyptian-queen-mounted-on-a-war-chariot-fi-res-arrows-at-a-male-opponent-on-a_fig4_300767631



Documents

Mechanical Engineering in Ancient Egypt, Part 99: Spears