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Measurements and calculations. Chapter 2. 2.1 Scientific Method. A scientific method is a way to logically approach a problem by making observations, testing a hypothesis, gathering and analyzing data, and forming conclusions. There are many scientific methods. observations. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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MEASUREMENTS AND CALCULATIONSChapter 2
2.1 Scientific Method A scientific method is a way to logically
approach a problem by making observations, testing a hypothesis, gathering and analyzing data, and forming conclusions.
There are many scientific methods
observations Using your senses to gather information
Qualitative: descriptive Quantitative: numerical
Most science experiments utilize quantitative observations
hypothesis A hypothesis is a testable statement
Often written as “if-then” statements (Ex: if marigold flowers are watered with miracle grow, then their plant growth will be enhanced)
Tested through experiments to determine if accepted or rejected
data analysis This crucial step is used to determine if
the hypothesis is accepted or rejected through statistical analysis (t-test, ANOVA, Mann-Whitney, etc)
Both outcomes can be an important contribution to science since they can be used as a stepping stone for future experiments
Graphs and charts that depict the results are often incorporated into a lab report
conclusions Based on the results of the experiment,
conclusions can be made
Results can then be published and shared with colleagues
models A visual, verbal, conceptual, or
mathematical explanation for something abstract or difficult to explain
Ex: model of an atom
theory DON’T USE THE WORD THEORY INCORRECTLY!!!!
A theory is a broad generalization that explains a body of facts or phenomenon and is supported by experimental evidence
Theories can change as new advancements in science take place
Ex: the Big Bang Theory
law A generalized rule that is used to explain
a body of observations in the form of a verbal or mathematical statement.
Imply a cause and effect between the observed elements and must always apply under the same conditions
Ex: Law of Gravity
Science is…… Testable- Predictions are tested through
experiments and the results either support or do not support the hypothesis or theory. NOTHING IS PROVEN IN SCIENCE!
Tentative- Science CHANGES! All scientific explanations are the best we can do now. Through investigation and technological advancements, we understand more all the time
2.2 Units of Measurement Scientific Notation: a method to make
writing and handling very large or very small numbers easy
34000000 = 3.4 x 107
.000000076 = 7.6 x 10-7
Operations with Scientific Notation Exponents must match with addition and
subtraction
Exponents are added for multiplication
Exponents are subtracted for division
measurements Chemistry is qualitative and quantitative
Measurements are used to represents quantities
A quantity has magnitude, size or amount
Ex: a liter is a unit of measurement while volume is a quantity
SI Measurements SI units are used in science (7 base
units) Mass-kilogram (kg) Length- meter (m) Temperature-Kelvin (K) Amount of a substance- mole (mol) All SI units can be modified by using
prefixes Ex: kilo = 1000 = 1 x 103
1 kilometer = 1000 meters = 1 x 103 meters
SI Prefixes Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Base units (m, L, g) Centi c 10-2 Milli m 10-3 Micro µ 10-6 Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Derived units Formed by combinations of SI units Ex: meters/second
Density = mass/volume Density is important for identifying
substances Given in kg/m3
Density of water = 1 kg/m3
Conversions Conversion factors express an equality
between two different units
Quantity given x conversion factor = quantity sought
Remember: X = 1 1
Factor Label Method Based on the number of equalities and
multiplication and division in series
Ex: convert 250,000 mg to kg
2.5 x 105mg 1 x 10-3 g 1kg = 2.5 x 105-3 x 1 1 1 mg 1x103g 1x1x1x103
2.5 x 102 kg = 2.5 x 10-1kg 1 x 103
2.3 Using Scientific Measurements Accuracy vs Precision
Accuracy is the closeness of measurements to the true value or correct answer
Precision refers to the closeness of a set of measurements to one another. (precision is more related to the way in which the measurements are made)
Accuracy vs Precision
Calculating Percent Error Percent error = valueaccepted –
valueexperimental X 100 valueaccepted
percent error will have a positive value if the accepted value is greater than the experimental value
Will be negative if the accepted value is less than the experimental value
Example #1 What is the percent error if the length of
a wire is 4.25 cm if the correct value should be 4.08 cm?
% error = va – ve X 100 va
% error = 4.08 – 4.25 X 100 = - 4.2 % 4.08
Example #2 The actual density of a material is 7.44
g/cm3. A student measures density to be 7.30 g/cm3. What is the percent error?
% error = 7.44 g/cm3 – 7.30 g/cm3 x 100 7.44 g/cm3
= 1.88 %
Significant Figures Sig figs consist of all the digits known
with certainty plus one final digit which is somewhat uncertain or estimated
If the number has no zeroes, all digits are significant
Follow the rules in the table!
Rules for Determining Sig Figs 1. Always count nonzero digits Example: 21 has two significant figures, while 8.926 has four 2. Never count leading zeros Example: 021 and 0.021 both have two significant figures 3. Always count zeros which fall somewhere between two nonzero
digits Example: 20.8 has three significant figures, while 0.00104009 has
six 4. Count trailing zeros if and only if the number contains a decimal
point Example: 210 and 210000 both have two significant figures, while
210. has three and 210.00 has five 5. For numbers expressed in scientific notation, ignore the exponent
and apply Rules 1-4 to the number Example: -4.2010 x 1028 has five significant figures
Direct Proportions Two quantities are directly proportional
to each other if dividing one by the other gives a constant value
Example: doubling the mass of a sample doubles the volume
Inverse Proportions Two quantities are inversely proportional
if their product is constant
Example: doubling the speed cuts the required time in half