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McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Credibility
The audience’s perception of howbelievable a speaker is. The two majorfactors influencing a speaker’s credibilityare competence and character.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Ethos
The name used by Aristotle for whatmodern students of communicationrefer to as credibility.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Types of Credibility
• Initial – the credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak
• Derived – the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech
• Terminal – The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Tips for Enhancing Credibility
• Explain your competence
• Establish common ground
• Deliver speeches fluently and with
conviction
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Logos
The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The twomajor elements of logos are evidenceand reasoning.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Evidence
Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Tips for Using Evidence
• Use specific evidence
• Use novel evidence
• Use evidence from credible sources
• Clarify the point of your evidence
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Reasoning
The process of drawing a conclusionon the basis of evidence.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Four Types of Reasoning
• Reasoning from specific instances
• Reasoning from principle
• Causal reasoning
• Analogical reasoning
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Reasoning from Specific Instances
Reasoning that moves from particularfacts to a general conclusion.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Reasoning from Principle
Reasoning that moves from a generalprinciple to a specific conclusion.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Causal Reasoning
Reasoning that seeks to establish therelationship between causes and effects.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Analogical Reasoning
Reasoning in which a speaker comparestwo similar cases and infers that what istrue for the first case is also true for thesecond.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Fallacies
• Hasty
Generalization
• False Cause
(Post Hoc, Ergo
Propter Hoc)
• Faulty Analogy
• Red Herring
• Ad Hominem
• Either-Or
• Bandwagon
• Slippery Slope
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Hasty Generalization
An error in reasoning from specificinstances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
False Cause
An error in causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that becauseone event follows another, the first eventis the cause of the second. This error is often know by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, meaning “after this, therefore because of this.”
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Invalid Analogy
An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Red Herring
A fallacy that introduces an irrelevantissue to divert attention from the subjectunder discussion.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Ad Hominem
A fallacy that attacks the personrather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Either-Or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Bandwagon
A fallacy which assumes that becausesomething is popular, it is thereforegood, correct, or desirable.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Slippery Slope
A fallacy which assumes that takinga first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Pathos
The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communicationrefer to as emotional appeal.
McGraw-Hill ©Stephen E. Lucas 2001 All rights reserved.
Tips for Generating Emotional Appeal
• Use emotional language
• Develop vivid examples
• Speak with sincerity and conviction