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Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture
Chapter 6
The Convergence of Television
In the past, TV networks made or bought almost all TV shows, which
aired at set times.
Today, original shows are also produced by cable channels and Internet services like Netflix and
Hulu, and are frequently viewed days or weeks after the original air date.
Early Innovations in TV Technology
¡ Cathode ray tube (late 1800s)l Combined principles of the camera
and electricity¡ Scanning disk (1880s)
l Developed by Paul Nipkowl Separated pictures into pinpoints
of light that could be transmitted as a series of electronic lines
Electronic Technology: Zworykin and Farnsworth
¡ RCA sued Farnsworth over Zworykin’s iconoscope patent.l Lost and had to license patents from
Farnsworth¡ Analog standard adopted in 1941¡ Digital standard adopted in 2009¡ TV licensing freeze until 1952¡ RCA had the first successful color
broadcast system in 1954
Controlling Content—TV Grows Up
¡ Early television programs often had single sponsors.l Networks lacked creative control,
so they made programs longer, which raised costs and forced advertisers out.
l Two new types of programs helped networks gain control over content.¡ Magazine format¡ TV spectacular
Controlling Content—TV Grows Up (cont.)
¡ Prime-time quiz showsl Cheap to produce, but riggedl Dropped by networks amid allegations of
being fixedl Impact of the quiz show scandals
¡ Ended sponsors’ role in creating content¡ Undermined Americans’ expectation of the
democratic promise of television¡ Magnified the division of high and low
culture attitudes toward television
CATV—Community Antenna Television
¡ CATVl First small cable systeml Originated where mountains or tall
buildings blocked TV signals¡ Two big advantages
l Eliminated over-the-air interference
l Increased channel capacity
The Wires and Satellites behind Cable Television
¡ Telstar launched in 1960¡ Discovery of how to lock
satellites in geosynchronous orbit in the mid-1960s
¡ How it worksl Headend relays each channel along
its own separate linel Signals delivered through trunk
and feeder cables
Figure 6.1: A Basic Cable Television System
Cable Services
¡ Basic cable servicesl Hundred-plus channelsl Local cable company pays each
satellite-delivered service a per-subscriber fee.
¡ Premium cable servicesl Premium channels such as HBOl Pay-per-view (PPV) channelsl Video-on-demand (VOD) channels
DBS: Cable without Wires
¡ Direct broadcast satellite (DBS) servicesl Transmit a signal directly to a
satellite dish at customers’ homesl Reduced cable penetrationl Began scrambling signals to
prevent free access to broadcastsl Modern services include DirecTV
and the DISH Network
Figure 6.2: Prime-Time TV Audience, 1984-2009
Home Video
¡ Videocassette recorders (VCRs)l Introduced in the mid-1970sl Federal court permitted home
taping for personal usel Movie rentals became popularl Replaced by DVDs, which are being
replaced by Blu-ray and DVRs¡ Two purposes of DVD and DVR
l Video rentals and time shifting
The Third Screen: TV Converges with the Internet
¡ Third screenl Refers to viewing content on computer
screensl Used primarily as catch-up services
¡ Popular sites for viewing videol YouTube, iTunes, Hulu, Netflix
¡ Cable TV giants are also making programs available online.l Xfinity TV and HBO Go
Figure 6.3: Cross-Platform Viewing
Fourth Screens: Smartphones and Mobile Video
¡ Fourth-screen technologyl Smartphones, iPods, iPads, and mobile
TV devices¡ Forcing major changes in consumer
viewing habits and media content creation
¡ Multifunctionality and portability mean viewers may no longer need TV sets
TV Entertainment: Our Comic Culture
¡ Networks move to Los Angeles in the 1950s.
¡ Kinescopes were used to preserve live broadcasts.
¡ Three TV comedy formatsl Sketch comedyl Situation comedyl Domestic comedy
Figure 6.4: Top Genres Over the Past Decade
TV Entertainment: Our Dramatic Culture
¡ Anthology dramal Brought live dramatic theater to
the television audiencel Ended for both economic and
political reasons¡ Episodic series
l Two general types¡ Chapter shows¡ Serial programs
TV Information: Our Daily News Culture
¡ Network newsl NBC’s Meet the Press (1947)l CBS-TV News (1948)
¡ First news show to be videotaped for rebroadcast on affiliate stations (1956)
l ABC World News Tonight (1978)¡ Cable news
l First cable news channel was CNNl Created a 24/7 news cycle
Reality TV and Other Enduring Trends
¡ Traditional genre trendsl Talk shows, game shows, variety
shows, newsmagazines, and sporting events
¡ Reality TVl Introduces audiences to characters
who are more like theml Inexpensive to produce
¡ Spanish-language television
Public Television Struggles to Find Its Place
¡ Public televisionl Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
leads to the establishment of PBS.l Targeted viewers that were “less
attractive” to commercial networksl Increasing reliance on corporate
underwritingl Government attempts to ax
funding.l Audience has declined significantly.
Government Regulations Temporarily Restrict Network Control
¡ Prime Time Access Rule (PTAR)l Reduced network control of prime-
time programming to encourage more local programming
¡ Fin-synl Banned networks from reaping
profits from program syndication¡ Department of Justice
l Limited non-news programming
Balancing Cable’s Growth against Broadcasters’ Interests
¡ Must-carry rules required cable operators to carry all local TV broadcasts.
¡ FCC mandated access channels for the top 100 TV markets, along with leased channels.
¡ Midwest Video casel Determined cable carriers were
electronic publishers
Franchising Frenzy
¡ Cable franchisel Mini-monopoly awarded by a local
community to the most attractive bidder, usually for a 15-year period
¡ Federal cable policy act from 1984 dictates the franchise fees for most U.S. municipalities.l Helps cities use such fees to
establish and fund access channels
The Telecommunications Act of 1996
¡ Telecommunications Act of 1996l Brought cable under federal rules
that had long governed the telephone, radio, and TV industries
l Removed market barriers between phone companies, long-distance carriers, and cable operators
l Reaffirmed must-carry rulesl Mixed impact on cable customers
Production
¡ Two types of production costsl Below-the-linel Above-the-line
¡ Programs are funded through deficit financing.l Film studios finance the deficit and
hope to profit on syndication.¡ Less expensive programs
l Newsmagazines and reality shows
Figure 6.5: Prime-Time Network TV Pricing (2011)
Note: Figure 6.5 shows the average costs for a thirty-second commercial during prime-time programs, 2011.
Distribution
¡ Paying for programsl Subscriber feesl Retransmission feesl Licensing fees to affiliate stationsl Advertising
¡ Clearance rules allow affiliates to substitute a network’s program.
Syndication Keeps Shows Going and Going…
¡ Syndicationl Leasing the exclusive right to air TV
showsl Types
¡ Off-network syndication¡ First-run syndication
l Cash deal¡ Series goes to the highest bidder.
l Barter deal¡ Syndicator is paid from ad revenue.
Measuring Television Viewing
¡ Ratings and sharesl Ratings are based on a percentage
of households tuned to a sampled program.
l Shares are based on a percentage of homes tuned to a program, compared with those actually using their sets at the time of sample.
¡ Convergence is changing how TV viewing is measured.
Major Programming Corporations
¡ Major broadcast networksl Remain attractive investments and
are acquiring cable channels ¡ Major cable and DBS companies
l Multiple-system operators (MSOs)l Multichannel video programming
distributors (MVPDs)l Comcast, DirecTV, and DISH
Network are the major players
The Effects of Consolidation
¡ Concern that the merging of telecommunications companies will limit expression and lead to price fixing
¡ The industries respond that consolidation is necessary to buy up struggling companies to keep them afloat.
Alternative Voices
¡ Some small cities are challenging cable giants by building publicly owned cable systems.l More than 2,000 such utilities now
exist in the United States.l Nonprofit entities, so they are less
expensive for cable subscribers
Television, Cable, and Democracy
¡ In its heyday, television carried the promise that it could reach all segments of society.
¡ Convergence potentially de-emphasizes the idea we are all citizens who are part of a larger nation and world.
¡ TV is still a gathering place for friends and family.