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What is Motivation?

What is Motivation?

Buchanan defines motivation as follows:

"Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the desired outcomesand sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them".

How does motivation differ from "motives"

Buchanan then defines motives as:

"learned influences on human behaviour that lead us to pursue particular goals because they arevalued".

Motivation can therefore be thought of as the degree to which an individual wants AND chooses to engagein certain behaviours.

For example: are you motivated to study? The answer lies in whether you(1) Want to study - what are the reasons, if so?(2) Choose to study? - Why are you reading these revision notes? What factors mean that you have takenthe decision to study? How much effort do you put in?

Individual behaviour is at the heart of human motivationWhy is individual behaviour so important in trying to understand and then influence motivation?- Every individual has a set ofneeds and a different set ofgoals- Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs and fulfil their goals- Therefore, individuals behave differently!- Businesses, as organisations, are in a position to offer some of the satisfactions that individuals seek:E.g. - Relationships; sense of belonging; intellectual stimulation; mental & physical challenge; self-

development

Why is motivation important for businesses?

It is often said that the best businesses have the best motivated workers. Why might this be important?Because well-motivated employees are usually characterised by:- Higher productivity (i.e. they produce more for a given level of resources than poorly-motivatedworkers)- Better quality work with less wastage- A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker - when they need to)- More employee feedback and suggestions made for improvements (motivated workers take more"ownership" of their work")

- More feedback demanded from superiors and management- Working at 80-95% of their ability

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Taylor -sc ient i f ic managem ent

Introduction

Taylor developed his theory of "scientific management" as he worked his way up from alabourer to a works manager in a US steelworks.

From his observations, Taylor made three key assumptions about human behaviour at work:(1) Man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximising his economic gain;(2) People respond as individuals, not as groups(3) People can be treated in a standardised fashion, like machines

Taylor had a simple view about what motivated people at work - money. He felt thatworkers should get a fair day's pay for a fair day's work, and that pay should be linked to theamount produced (e.g. piece-rates). Workers who did not deliver a fair day's work would bepaid less (or nothing). Workers who did more than a fair day's work (e.g. exceeded the target)would be paid more.

The implications of Taylor's theory for managing behaviour at work were:- The main form of motivation is high wages, linked to output- A manager's job is to tell employees what to do- A worker's job is to do what they are told and get paid accordingly

Weaknesses in Taylor's Approach

The most obvious weakness in Taylor's approach is that it ignores the many differencesbetween people. There is no guarantee that a "best way" will suit everyone.

Secondly, whilst money is an important motivation at work for many people, it isn't for

everyone. Taylor overlooked the fact that people work for reasons other than financial reward.

Whilst Taylors theories still hold a great deal of power over many managers, they have tosome extent been discredited. This has come about through the rise in the tertiary sector ofbusiness. Where it is much harder to measure an employees output, and quality is often of fargreater importance than the quantity of work they get through.

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Maslow's h ierarchy o f needs

Introduction

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content theory" of motivation" (the other main one isHerzberg's Two Factor Theory).

Maslow's theory consisted of two parts:

(1) The classification of human needs, and

(2) Consideration of how the classes are related to each other

The classes of needs were summarised by Maslow as follows:

How does the Hierarchy Work?

- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy (pyramid) and will initially seek to satisfy basicneeds (e.g. food, shelter)

- Once these physiological needs have been satisfied, they are no longer a motivator. theindividual moves up to the next level

- Safety needs at work could include physical safety (e.g. protective clothing) as well asprotection against unemployment, loss of income through sickness etc)

- Social needs recognise that most people want to belong to a group. These would include theneed for love and belonging (e.g. working with colleague who support you at work, teamwork,communication)

- Esteem needs are about being given recognition for a job well done. They reflect the fact thatmany people seek the esteem and respect of others. A promotion at work might achieve this

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- Self-actualisation is about how people think about themselves - this is often measured by theextent of success and/or challenge at work

Maslow's model has great potential appeal in the business world. The message is clear - ifmanagement can find out which level each employee has reached, then they can decide onsuitable rewards.

Problems with the Maslow Model

There are several problems with the Maslow model when real-life working practice isconsidered:

- Individual behaviour seems to respond to several needs - not just one- The same need (e.g. the need to interact socially at work) may cause quite differentbehaviour in different individuals- There is a problem in deciding when a level has actually been "satisfied"- The model ignores the often-observed behaviour of individuals who tolerate low-pay for thepromise of future benefits- There is little empirical evidence to support the model. Some critics suggest that Maslow'smodel is only really relevant to understanding the behaviour of middle-class workers in the UKand the USA (where Maslow undertook his research).

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Herzberg two factor theory

Introduction

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" of motivation" (the other main one isMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs).

Herzberg analysed the job attitudes of 200 accountants and engineers who were asked torecall when they had felt positive or negative at work and the reasons why.

From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-step approach to understanding employeemotivation and satisfaction:

Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. Ifthese factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfactionwith work. Hygiene factors include:

- Company policy and administration- Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration- Quality of supervision- Quality of inter-personal relations- Working conditions- Feelings of job security

Motivator Factors

Motivator factors are based on an individual's need for personal growth. When they exist,motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivatean individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include:

- Status- Opportunity for advancement

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- Gaining recognition- Responsibility- Challenging / stimulating work- Sense of personal achievement & personal growth in a job

There is some similarity between Herzberg's and Maslow's models. They both suggest thatneeds have to be satisfied for the employee to be motivated. However, Herzberg argues that

only the higher levels of the Maslow Hierarchy (e.g. self-actualisation, esteem needs) act as amotivator. The remaining needs can only cause dissatisfaction if not addressed.

Applying Hertzberg's model to de-motivated workers

What might the evidence of de-motivated employees be in a business?- Low productivity- Poor production or service quality- Strikes / industrial disputes / breakdowns in employee communication and relationships- Complaints about pay and working conditions

According to Herzberg, management should focus on rearranging work so that motivatorfactors can take effect. He suggested three ways in which this could be done:- Job enlargement- Job rotation- Job enrichment

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Mayo & The Hawthorne experiments

He carried out the HAWTHORNE experiments at a power plant in Chicago. He took a group ofworkers and wanted to find out what effect changing aspects of their work, the environmentetc would have on their motivation. His surprising findings were that each time theirconditions changed the work rate went up, even when he finally changed back to the originalconditions.

His conclusions were that:

Attention, and feeling important influence an employee's attitude

Motivation comes from more than pay and working conditions

Employees are group members - work is a group activity

Motivational factors include recognition, belonging, security

Informal groups create important bond. Supervisors need to focus on the individual socialneeds of workers, and the influence of informal groups

These theories are often set in the context of communication or the influence of workers ondecisions, who may not actually be managers or supervisors. So, think about the power of the

informal group. It also suggests that workers want to feel valued and important.