MAXIMAL SWEATING RATE IN HUMANS

J. Human Ergol., 24: 137-152, 1995

Center for Academic Publications Japan, Printed in Japan.

MAXIMAL SWEATING RATE IN HUMANS

Masafumi TORII

Labortory for Environmental Bioregulation, Department of Human Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu, 804 Japan

We reviewed the literature concerning the maximal sweating rate (SRmax)

during heat acclimatization, walking in desert heat and marathon run-

ning, and analyzed it from the viewpoint of sex, age, level of maximal

oxygen uptake, and experimental conditions, i.e., ambient temperature,

relative humidity, work intensity, work type, working duration, seasonal

factors and the techniques of heat acclimatization. Exercise simulation,

walking, running or bicycling, to induce the SRmax was conducted in a hot

climatic chamber or in the desert. The SRmaxS due to marathon running

were 1,000 to 1,200 g•Eh-1 in the cold season and 1,500 to 2,000 g•Eh-1 in

the hot season. After several days of heat acclimatization, sweating

capacity in the exercise simulation reached a maximum rate, over 2,000 g•E

h-1. There was a sexual difference in the SRmax, and the sweating capacity

in the female was less than that in the male. Thus, the maximal sweating

capacity in human was observed by prolonged moderate muscular exer-

cise under thermal stress and internal and/or external heat loads.

Human body temperature is determined by the balance between heat accumu-lation, whether generated by physical activity (metabolic heat production) or

gained from the environment (environmental heat) and heat dissipation. Heat storage is, thus, the result of either excessive heat accumulation or the reduced ability to dissipate body heat.

The mechanism of heat dissipation is complex and involves both vasomotor and sudomotor activity (NADEL, 1985). These firdings suggest that the prescrip-tion of an exercise program must consider thermal physiology.

This brief paper focuses on the upper limit of sweating capability in humans. The maximal rate of sweating (SRmax) reported in the textbooks and reviews of thermal physiology is shown in Table 1. Little attention has been paid, however, to

physical and environmental conditions and factors to induce the maximal rate of sweating. The maximum rate of skin sweating in humans is reached when their

Received for publication February 14, 1994.

137

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Table 1. The maximum rate of sweating in humans described in the textbook

of thermal physiology.

( ): maximum sweat rate per day per kg. Estimated from evaporative heat loss.

rectal temperature reaches 39•Ž by external passive heating and/or prolonged

muscular work (OGAWA, 1981). In our previous study (TORII and NAKAYAMA,

1993b) when men who had not been heat acclimated conducted bicycle exercise at

an intensity of 80% of their maximal oxygen uptake at 40•Ž (rh, 45%), their

sweating rate was over 1,800 g • h-1, which may have been the maximal level of

sweating capacity. External heat load, environmental heat stress and internal heat

load, severe-prolonged muscular work (and physical activity) contribute the SRmax

in humans.

1) SRmax in prolonged exercise simulation under heat stress; 2) SRmax during heat acclimatization; 3) SRmax in walking men in desert heat; 4) SRmax during marathon running.

We have reported on human sweating as attected by sex, age, level of maximal oxygen uptake, and experimental conditions, such as work intensity, type of ergometry, temperature and humidity, seasonal factors, and technique of heat acclimatization.

Recent reviews of the literature on thermoregulation during exercise including the regulation of thermal sweating have been made by many scientists (WYNDHAM, 1973; NADEL, 1979b, 1988; GISOLFI and WENGER, 1984; JESSEN, 1987). There-fore this review will deal primarily with the maximal capacity of human sweat secretion.

MAXIMUM RATE OF SWEATING 139

PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SKIN SWEATING AND

FACTORS MODULATING SWEAT RATE

During muscular work, heat flows down the temperature gradient from muscle

to body, core to skin, from where it can dissipate to the environment (NADEL,

1979a). However, when environmental temperature is higher than skin tempera-

ture, the heat transfers from the environment to the internal body (GAGGE et al.,

1938). Under these conditions, evaporation plays a major role in cooling skin and

blood. In general, skin sweating is an important avenue of heat loss. Evaporation

of 100 g of sweat from the body surface results in a 1•Ž fall in mean body

temperature in a 70-kg man (NADEL, 1979a). These are the conclusions reached

after studying preliminary experimental reports dealing with the amount of sweat-

ing in muscular work under heat stress.

It is seen that the latent time for the sweating reflex is shorter and the maximal

rate of sweating is higher in summer than in winter. As reported by YOSHIMURA

(1960), the rate of sweating increased in summer because the subjects were exposed

frequently and continuously to increased air temperature. The same subjects were

measured after immersing their feet in 45•Ž water in winter as well as summer.

Ambient temperature was the same in both environments (D.T.: 30•Ž, W.T.:

25•Ž). As shown in our previous study (TORII and NAKAYAMA, 1993a), seasonal

variation of sweating sensitivity in exercising men is enhanced more in summer than

in winter.

NIELSEN and NIELSEN (1965) reported that the time-relation between changes

in sweating rate and changes in core temperatures was found both in experiments

at environmental temperatures of 20 and 37.5•Ž in spite of the large differences

(37.5•Ž, SR =1,000 to 1,200 g • h-1; 20•Ž, 500 to 600 g • h-1) in sweating rate of

bicycle exercising men at the two temperatures. NAKAYAMA (1978, 1981) has

suggested that the thermoregulatory center obtains information on the rate of heat

loss through thermoreceptors measuring the temperature at some points in the skin

surface.

ANALYTICAL MATERIALS AND METHODS

As materials to be analyzed in this paper, we selected from the reports on

exercise simulation under heat stress, walking under the conditions of desert

climate, and actual and simulated marathon races. According to SASAKI (1982),

the various units using SRmax were converted to grams per hour (g•Eh-1), and in part

were directly estimated from original figures in this paper. The values in SRmax are

represented by mean•}SD or range of the data (a maximum value to minimum

value) in the investigated group.

Temperature (•‹F) indicated in the paper was converted celsius by the follow-

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ing equation:

Temperature (•Ž)=(•‹F-32)/1.8

SRmax INDUCED BY PROLONGED EXERCISE AND HEAT STRESS

SRmax in exercise simulation in a hot environment was 1,500 to 2,000 g • h-1 in males and 700 to 900 g • h-1 in females. The experimental conditions were moderate muscular work and more than 60 min of exercising time (ITO et al., 1982; MC-MURRAY and HORVATH, 1979; SAWKA et al., 1983; SALTIN et al., 1968; NIELSEN and DAVIES, 1976; DRINKWATER et al., 1977; KAMON et al., 1978).

NIWA and NAKAYAMA (1978) conducted bicycle exercise simulation of a VO2max 70% with relative humidity (rh) of 30 or 90% at 26•Ž, and reported sweat

rates of 940•}100 and 1,282•}180 g•Eh-1 with 30% rh and 70% rh, respectively.

Thus, the maximum rate of sweating is controlled in both the humidity in moderate-

temperature conditions and the work intensities. The former helps reduce heat loss

and the latter helps increase metabolic heat production.

1) SRmax after heat acclimatization Heat acclimatization studies have established the beneficial effects of adapta-

tion on thermal responses to hot and heat environments. Informative works on the adaptive effects of a hot environment on resting or physical exercising men were

given by many investigators (Table 2). The most prominent results are; decreasing heart rate and oxygen uptake with increasing acclimatization, a corresponding reduction of core temperature and skin temperature, and an increase in sweat rate

(Fig. 1). NADEL et al. (1974) demonstrated that the adaptive mechanism as far as sweat production is concerned consists of a downward shift of threshold, such that during physical exercise sweat production starts at a lower core temperature than before acclimatization. When the exercise is performed in a hot environment, that downward threshold shift is considerably enlarged. The threshold shift is also observed after pure heat acclimation (e.g., HENANE, 1981).

Table 2 shows SRmax after heat acclimatization reported by many investigators. After several days of exposure, the acclimatization of men to work in dry and wet heat was achieved. SRmaxs were 1,200 to 2,000 g • h-1 in males and 900 to 1,000

g • h-1 in females. In the technique of heat acclimatization, environmental temper-ature exceeded internal body temperature. The subject experienced continuous heat exposure for a minimum of one week. Moreover, the subject also received dynamic exercise such as bicycling, walking and stepping. When the heat acclima-tization test was carried out in the lower temperature, the subjects' work intensities were increased. In the case of higher temperatures, the subjects exercised at a lower work intensity. The subjects participating in the heat acclimatization experiment were thirty or younger. The subjects were teenagers to one's twenties and their VO2max were standard values (SATO, 1988). After a few days' exposure to higher


Fig. 1. Acclimatization to heat resulting from daily exposure to a room temperature

maintained at dry-bulb 36.1•Ž and wet-bulb 33.9•Ž, and a wind velocity of 75 cm • min-1

(see other legends in Table 2). Final sweat rate is produced appreciably (modified from

STRYDOM et al., 1966 with permission of the American Physiological Society).

temperature for 100 to 200 min and/or moderate-dynamic exercise the individuals

were able to tolerate the heat much better than when first exposed. It is seen that

the latent time for the sweating reflex is shorter and the maximal rate of sweating

is higher after heat acclimatization than before (ROBINSON et al., 1943; AVELINI et

al., 1982; WYNDHAM et al., 1976). LADELL (1964) stated that, on a first heat

exposure (before acclimatization), SRmax is about 600 to 720 g • h-1, reached after 70

to 80 min of exposure when the rectal temperature had risen about 1.0•Ž, and on

the next four or five exposures to heat. "Hyperacclimatization" is achieved with the

maximum rate maintained over a short period of 2,400 to 3,000 g • h-1.

2) SRmax in men walking in desert heat In summer, desert environments are characterized by high around tempera-

tures (often exceeding skin temperature), dry air, and dry ground. It has been reported that during sustained exposure to heat, the sweat rate increases to a maximum (LEE, 1964).

Table 3 shows the sweat rate during walking, at a speed of 100 m • min-1, in the Arizona desert (DILL, 1972; DILL et al., 1973, 1976). As shown in Table 3, SRmax during walking in the desert at 100 m • min-1 for 60,120 or 300 min. The SRmax was 958 to 1,165 g • h-1 in adult men.

LEE (1964) reported that men walking at 120 m • min-1 at 40 to 43•Ž in the

Yuma desert and carrying different loads had sweat losses of 1,800 to 2,000 g • h-1

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Table 2. Maximum rate of

a Environmental conditions: S, season; T, temperature; H, humidity; WV, wind velosity; VP,

BE, bicyle exercise; TE, treademill exercise. C Maximal oxygen uptake (l • min or ml • kg • min).

ditions. e Mean •}SD. No description of season or no measurement. g Dry bulb temperature.

(Table 4). ADOLPH et al. (1947) observed that soldiers in the California desert perform-

ing moderate muscular activity such as track driving, mechanical servicing and

guard duty sweated 2,000 to 8,000 g • day 1, while men doing severe muscular work sweated as much as 11,000 g • day -1. ROBINSON and ROBINSON (1954) considered these values to be the maximal sweating capacity.


sweating after heat acclimatization.

vapor pressure. b Experimental conditions: WL, work load; WT, type of work; WD, work duration; d Technique of heat acclimatization: HE

, continuous heat exposure; * same as environmental con-h Wet bulb temperature .

3) SRmax during marathon running Various investigators (COSTILL, 1970, 1972; MARON et al., 1976) have es-

timated that, during marathon races (of simulation), runners have energy expend-itures requiring utilization in excess of 50 ml O2 kg-1• min-1 or between 70 and 90% of their VO2max. Thus, energy expenditure during marathon running is approxi-mately 2,300 to 2,500 kcal in 2 h, and a marathon race involves severe muscular

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Table 3. Maximal sweat rate during walking in desert heat.

* Based on DILL (1972) , DILL et al. (1973, 1976). Ta, ambient temperature; Tbb, black body temperature, Sum., summer season; HSS, high school student; AD, adult man; M, male; F, female. t Work load =walking at speed of 100 m • min.

Table 4. Maximal sweat rate in various conditions in the Arizona Desert.*

* Modified from LEE (1964) . t W, walking speed at 94 m • min-1 on level; Clothed, lightweight uniform, cap, socks, boots, and no underwear; R, rest, sitting on a chair. ( ): rate of evaporative sweating, g • h-1. Wind velocity: 5 m • s-1; vapor pressure: 5 to 15 mmHg.

activity.

The SRmax in a marathon race and its simulation in various thermal conditions

is shown in Table 5. There were SRmax of 1,500 to 2,000 g in the winter or cool

environments and that of 700 to 1,000 g • h-1 in the summer and hot environments.

The best record of a competitive marathon race occurred an ambient temperature

of about 10•Ž (KAWATANI, 1955). Marathon races take place not only in winter

but also in summer (ADAMS et al., 1975).

The relationship between an individual's SRmax and ambient temperatures

during a marathon race and its simulation is shown in Fig. 2. There was a positive

correlation between sweating capacity and ambient temperatures during the mara-

thon races and the simulations. However, there was not a significant relation


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Fig. 2. The relation of maximal sweating

capacity to ambient temperature in mara-

thon races and simulations. Based on

the data from Table 5.

Fig. 3. The relation of maximal sweating rate to maximal aerobic work capacity

(VO2ma, open triangles) and running speed (closed squares). Based on the

data from Table 5.

between SRmax and % of VO2max or running speed (Fig. 3). Usually, increased work

intensity has produced a proportional increase in the thermoregulatory response,

especially the sweat rate for evaporative cooling in thermoneutral and hot environ-

ments (NIELSEN, 1938; NIELSEN and NIELSEN, 1965; SALTIN et al., 1968; TORII

et al., 1992). Moreover, it has been reported that the sweat rate (g • m-2 • h-1)

increased in relation to work intensity when given Boston Marathon running,

marathon simulation in the laboratory, and the 1968 US Olympic Marathon Trial

(COSTILL, 1972). Environmental conditions were dry-bulb temperature 17 to

24•Ž, relative humidity 23 to 54%, and wind velocity 9 to 15 km h1. We have

considered that his data are nearer to the SRmax We did not agree with the data of

COSTILL (1972), since our materials included skin sweating in the race and

simulation at given ambient temperatures. Our data are not given as g • m-2 • h-1,

because of an insufficiency of anthropometrical data in experimental subjects in the

materials. To consider these matters, further researches are required.

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In the present study, we reviewed that the maximum of sweating rate was

determined by both the humidity in moderate-temperature conditions and the work

intensities. As stated above, the former contributed to reduced heat dissipation and

the latter contributed to increased heat production. The maximal sweating capacity

in human was shown by prolonged moderate muscular exercise under thermal


stress. The beneficial effects of moderate physical exercise under a hot environment on thermoregulatory functions, especially evaporative cooling responses of man, have been shown by studies. Namely, heat acclimatization studies have established the beneficial effects of acclimatization on thermal responses to heat. The main effects of acclimatization are characterized by decreases in heart rate and rectal temperature and by an increase in near SRmax (Table 2). Thus, SRmax was induced by 60 to 240 min of muscular activity such as walking in the desert and simulation of severe exercise, >80% of maximal aerobic capacity (Tables 2-5).

In the previous study (TORII and NAKAYAMA, 1993a), we accepted the

concept that was proposed by SASAKI et al. (1969) to discuss the mechanisms of the

annual periodicity of seasonal variation in basal heat production in Japanese.

Namely, the sweating rate described with a relative value could reveal the clear

annual variation of thermoregulatory responses, especially "summer-higher and

winter-lower" of the sweating response under seasonal acclimation. Shapiro and his

co-workers (SHAPIRO et al., 1981) have observed the differences between acclima-

tization to heat (Ta: 40•Ž, a relative humidity of 30%) in winter and in summer.

Rectal temperature in winter was consistently much higher (0.15-0.35•Ž) than

that found in the summer experiments. Furthermore, KUNO (1956) has stated that

the sensitivity for the heat-dissipating function in the central nervous system is

facilitated in summer more than winter. Many reports, however, do not describe

the seasonal factors under which the experiments or simulations were performed

(Tables 2 and 5).

Recently, the significance of exercise prescription for a healthful life has been recognized nationwide (ARIKAWA, 1989) but there is little practical knowledge about the physiological-thermoregulatory functions in humans, especially as affect-ed by temperature conditions and intensity of exercise. Thus, the exercising human is affected by seasonal factors, and prescription of exercise programs must take into account such factors as exercise intensity, frequency, and duration. Indeed, exercise performance is influenced by environmental temperature, since it repre-sents an extra load on the circulatory and thermoregulatory mechanisms, but internal temperature affects physical performance as well (NADEL et al., 1979). The beneficial effect of warming-up has been known for a long time and was determined experimentally, for example, by ASMUSSEN and BOJE (1945), who showed that the ability to perform running was better. Warming-up has con-tributed to the increase of exercise performance and to the reduction of accidents due to exercise and sports activity. These evidences may be of importance in evaluating the effectiveness of a physical training program.

In this paper, SRmax in humans was examined from the viewpoint of sex, age,

level of maximal oxygen uptake, ambient temperature, relative humidity, intensity,

season, and the techniques of heat acclimatization. The results obtained are as

follows:

1) Exercise simulation, walking, running or bicycling, inducing the SRmax

148 M. TORII

was conducted in a hot climatic chamber or in the desert.

2) The SRmaxs due to marathon running were 1,000 to 1,200 g • h in the cold season and 1,500 to 2,000 g • h in the hot season.

3) After several days of heat acclimatization, sweating capacity during the exercise simulation reached a maximum rate of 2,000 g • h.

4) There was a sex difference in the SRmax, and the sweating capacity in females was less than that in the males.

5) The maximal sweating capacity in human was observed during prolonged moderate muscular exercise under thermal stress, internal and external heat loads.

The author would like to thank Prof. Dr. T. Sasaki of the Department of Physiology, Ginkyo Junior College for his valuable comments and critical reading of the manuscript. The author would also like to thank Dr. M. Orleans, visiting professor in the Kyushu Institute of Technology, for checking the English, and Ms. H. Haishi (Lab. for Environmental Bioregulation, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology) for her valuable secretarial assistance.

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