MatterEvery thing in the universe is made up of matter

Changes in matter are essential for all life processes

Composition of Matter

Matter = anything that occupies space & has mass.

Mass = the quantity of matter an object has.

Weight = the pull of gravity (less weight on the moon).

AtomFundamental unit of matter

Discovered by Democritus 3000yrs ago

Proved by John Daltons in his Atomic theory

Proton :Positive charge ( in nucleus) ( id Number of element)

Neutron: neutral charge ( in nucleus)

Electron :negative charge ( outside nucleus)

Protons + neutrons = atomic weight

Most of mass of atom is in nucleus

Most space of atom is electron cloud

Wolverine: made of protons, neutrons, electrons

All P, N, and E are the same.

Yet, the number of P, N, and E in an atom changes its properties.

Also, the type and number of elements in a molecule also changes the properties of the substance.

A Wolverine = Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons

Element

A substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical reactions

Composed of building blocks called Atoms 92 naturally occurring elements About 98% of an organisms mass is

composed of just 6 elements: Carbon Oxygen Hydrogen Nitrogen Calcium Phosporus

Isomers

Isomers – compounds with the same formula but different forms.

Glucose is the main source of energy for cells.Fructose is found in fruits and is the

sweetest of the monosaccharides.Galactose is found in milk.

Chemical compound : consists of 2 or more different elements combined in a fixed ration ex H2O

Chemical formula: short hand method for describing chemical composition of a compound

Chemical reaction: when atoms combine or break apart from other atoms

Molecules Molecule is the simplest part of a

substance retaining all of the properties and can exist in free state. Examples are sugar C6H12O6, water H2O, oxygenO2, hydrogen

H2, etc.

C6H12O6 and H2O are also compounds.

O2 and H2 are not compounds.

Bonds:

Chemical bonds : forces of attraction due to outer shell electrons

Types of Bonds:

1. Covalent bonds

2. Ionic bonds

3. Hydrogen bonds

4. Van Der Waals forces5. Hydrophobic interactions

Ionic Bonds

Gaining and losing electrons ( metal and nonmetal)

Ionic compounds in water tend to dissociate into free ions for other chemical reaction.

Dissolved ionic compounds are in all aqueous solutions of living things, and are critical to normal operation of body/cell systems

(Example: Na and Cl ions are vital to nerve and muscle cell functions)

covalent bond

The covalent bond involves a sharing of electrons between two nonmetals.

The sharing of electrons can be an equal sharing ( nonpolar), or an unequal sharing (polar)

Polarity = uneven pattern of electrical charge in molecules such as water.

- Water’s biological functions stem from its polar chemical structure.

- The covalent bond sharing of electrons between O and H is not equal.

- Oxygen has 8 positive protons to attract the electrons closer than hydrogen’s one.

- - The polar structure makes water a very effective solvent, for other polar substances.

(sugars, proteins, & ionic compounds like NaCl)-

Hydrogen Bonding

the type of bond attracting water molecules to one another.

Weak bonds that gain strength in numbers

Ionic Bondinghttp://nutrition.jbpub.com/images/images/3.3.gif

Van der Waals Forces:

Caused by temporary shifts in charges due to electron interactions

Molecules must be very close

Important in enzymatic reaction

Hydrophobic interactions

Means water fearingVery weak bonds

formed between molecules that are insoluble in water

Chemical Reactions

NaI + KCl -------- NaCl + KI

Reactants products

Types: 1. Syntheis Rxn (anabolic): combination of 2 or

more atoms to form a new molecule

Ex 2H2 +O2-----2H2O

Chemical Reactions

2. Decomposition reaction (catabolic rxn): opposite of synthesis rxn

Ex 2H2O ------ 2H2 + O2

3. Exchange reaction: A combination of both types of bonds both broken and formed

Ex NaI + KCl -------- NaCl + KI

Mixtures

The combined substances combined keep their original chemical properties

Types:

1. solution: combination of solvent and solute

Solvent: material in greater amount

Solute: material in lesser amount

2. Suspension: The material mixed in a suspension will settle out with time. Ex. Salt water

3. colloid: mixtures in which like solutions, particles don’t settle out over time

Ex warm water and geletin powder

Acids and bases

Acids: substances which when

dissolved are hydrogen donors (proton donors)

Base: substances which when

dissolved are hydrogen acceptors (proton acceptors)

Also called alkaline

Acids and bases

Acid Properties:1. Sour taste2. Contain

hydrogen3. Turn litmus

paper red4. React wit

base to form salt and water

Base Properties:

1. bitter taste

2. Contain OH

3. Turn litmus paper blue

4. slippery

PH Scale

Ranges from 0 t0 14

Less than 7 = acid greater than 7= base

7= neutral

Beware of the DIRECTION of the scale on different charts

Litmus paper = a chemical indicator used to measure or test pH levels (changes color).

Buffers = chemical substances that neutralize small amounts of either an acid or a base added to a solution. Enzymes can only function within a very narrow range of pH, so buffers are used in living systems to control pH.

WaterWater Aqueous (Water) Solutions are crucial for the chemical

reactions of living things.

Earth’s Distance from the Sun is perfectly designed for water. Closer to the sun and water would boil off of earth Farther away and water on Earth would freeze.

The Water of Life

Water

Properites of water

Hydrogen Bonding = the type of bond attracting water molecules to one another.- The positive region of one water molecule is attracted to the negative of another.- It is a weak bond, that’s easily broken, yet strong enough to produce two special forces:*

Cohesion = attractive force between particles of the same kind (water to water).(Ex: thin “skin” on the surface of water that spiders walk upon)

Adhesion = attractive force between unlike substances, like capillarity in plants.

Capillarity allows water to move upward through narrow tubes like plants. (The water molecules are attracted by the sides of the tube and pulled upward.)

Temperature Moderation:

Water helps maintain homeostasis! Water changes temperature slowly, since it must gain or lose a

large amount of energy.

When heated, most of the initial thermal energy simply breaks the hydrogen bonds.

Only after these bonds are broken do the molecules increase in motion and temperature.

Human body is 70% water, which helps keep us from getting too hot or cold.

Water has the highest specific heat of any common substance, 1 calorie/gm °C = 4.186 J/gm °C. This provides stability of temperature for land masses surrounded by water, provides stability for the temperature of the human body, makes it an effective cooling agent, and many other benefits. The high heat of vaporization of water makes it an effective coolant for the human body via evaporation of perspiration, extending the range of temperatures in which humans can exist.

Carbon CompoundsOrganic Compounds = contain carbon atoms

covalently bonded to other elements.

- A carbon atom has four electrons in the outer energy level.

- So it can form four covalent bonds with other elements.

- They form either straight chains, branched chains, or rings.

- The covalent bonds can be the sharing of single, double, or triple pairs of electrons.

* This is shown by corresponding lines

(-) (=) in chemical shorthand.

How Important is Energy ?- on average a person. . .

Can live about 30-40 days without food.

Can live about 3-4 days without water.

Can live about 3-4 minutes w/o oxygen.

Can live about 3-4 seconds w/o energy (ATP).

Energy Currency:* Life processes require a constant supply of energy.

* The energy is available to cells in the form of chemical energy in certain compounds.

* ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is a very important energy compound for cells.

* When the covalent bond of the third phosphate group (-PO4

-) is broken, it releases much more energy than was required to break the bond. This energy is used by the cell to drive chemical reactions for the cell to function.

The hydrolysis of ATP yields ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) (“Di” = two phosphates)

ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate

Molecules of Life Four main classes of essential organic compounds.

CarbohydratesLipidsProteinsNucleic acids.

All are built from C, H, O, yet each compound has unique properties.

The atoms merely occur in different ratios.

1. Carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates = organic compounds of C, H, O. The ratio is about two H per one O, while the C

atoms vary. Carbohydrates exists as Monosaccharides,

disaccharides, or polysaccharides. a. Monosaccharides = a monomer of a

carbohydrate. (a simple sugar) Most common are glucose, fructose, and galactose. They all have the same formula C6H1206, yet each has

a different structure, which determine slightly different properties of the compounds.

Carbohydrates continued

b. Disaccharides = two monosaccharides combined by a condensation reaction. * Table sugar is a double sugar

composed of fructose and glucose. c. Polysaccharide = complex molecule

composed of three or more monosaccharides. Glycogen = a polysaccharide used by

animals to store glucose. It consist of 100’s of glucose molecules

strung in a complex branched chain. Starch = polysaccharide used by plants

to store glucose.

Disaccharide

Proteins Proteins = organic, macromolecule compounds

composed mainly of C, H, O, N. Amino Acids = the monomer building blocks of

proteins. There are 20 basic amino acids, which all share a

basic structure. Each w/ central C atom, covalently bonded to

four other atoms (or functional groups).1. Single Hydrogen atom

2. Carboxyl group – COOH

3. Amino Group –NH2

4. R Group, which is the main difference among the different amino acids.

- The R group can be as simple as a single hydrogen or more complex.

- The different R group gives it a different shape, which allows it to perform different roles.

Amino Acids have:Central Carbon & Four Functional Groups

2. Proteins continued Dipeptide = two amino acids form a covalent bond in a

condensation reaction. Peptide Bond = the covalent bond between the amino acids.

Polypeptide = many amino acids bonded together one at a time.

Protein = one or more polypeptides. Some proteins have hundreds of amino acids, bent and folded

upon themselves, due to hydrogen bonding among the amino acids.

Protein shape determines its function, and the shape can changed by conditions.

(Heat turns egg white from clear and runny, to stiff and opaque.) * Enzymes (most are proteins) Enzyme reactions depend

on a physical fit between the enzyme molecule and the substrate (the reactant being catalyzed). The linkage with an enzyme probably causes the weakening of chemical bonds in the substrate, which reduces the activation energy. Change in temperature or pH of the solution affects the

enzyme’s effectiveness.

Dipeptide

Enzyme-Substrate Model

Substrate

Enzyme

Products

3. Lipids 3. Lipids = large non-polar organic molecules that do

not dissolve in water. Lipids store more energy than other organic molecules, due to

many C-H bonds

Fatty Acids = unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids. The ends of the fatty acid molecule have very different

properties. The carboxyl end (-COOH) is polar and attracted to water

(hydrophilic).

The hydrocarbon end (C-H) is nonpolar and called hydrophobic.

Unsaturated lipids – have one or more pairs of carbon atoms joined by double bonds.

Saturated lipids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms.

Fatty Acid

Complex Lipids: Complex Lipids: three classes of lipids important to

living organismsa. Triglycerides = 3 molecules of fatty acid joined to 1 of the

alcohol glycerol.

b. Phospholipids = have 2 rather than 3 fatty acids joined by the glycerol.

- Cell membranes are composed of a bilayer made from a double row of phospholipids, arranged with their hydrophobic “tails” facing each other. Since lipids do not dissolve in water, the membrane is a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.

c. Wax = a type of structural lipid, consisting of a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain.

** Steroids = lipids that are NOT composed of fatty acids, but of four fused carbon rings. Each carbon ring has various function groups attached to it. Many animal hormones, like testosterone are steroids.

4. Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids = very large and complex molecules that store

information in the cell. Similar to a computer’s binary code of zeros and ones. Nucleic acids use four compounds to store hereditary

information. The order of arrangement of these four determines the code. DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid, contains the information for all

cell activities, including cell division. (Designed Not Accidental)

RNA = Ribonucleic Acid, stores and transfers information for making proteins.

Both DNA and RNA are polymers, composed of thousands of linked monomers.

Nucleotides are the monomers. Each is composed of three main components:a. Phosphate groupb. Five-carbon sugarc. Ring-shaped nitrogen base

DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid, contains the information for all cell activities, including cell division.

Nucleotides are the monomers. Each is composed of three main components:

a. Phosphate group

b. Five-carbon sugar

c. Ring-shaped nitrogen base

Nucleotide

Phosphate

Deoxyribose (sugar)

Nitrogen Base