Mathisiakes Tzouriadou Barbas

8/11/2019 Mathisiakes Tzouriadou Barbas

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/mathisiakes-tzouriadou-barbas 1/120

1

"$%'("*,' ./'*13(,'

457'8(*,' :<1',44(',('

!"#$%&'(+ - ,./01"23:

4%6/% 79:;6$<#:; =%?3@AB6$% ,$#$CA+ D@F@A+ D.G.H.I$J6@:+ 4.<6'.%+ KLCB:6%+ ,$#$CA+ D@F@A+ D.G.H.

=%B%&C";A, L1"@!:+ .6FB:BM.:;:

N1@% =%&&JB3 M. Ed. Computers in Education



2

:>?@>ABE>FG EGHIEGKLM 1

="P.1 Q6:1:@/"+-Q6$&':/ BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

="P.2 4"1LB3 B3+ "T"1$CB$CA+ .:6"/%+ BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

="P.3 IRF&B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

="P.3.1 4:RBL1% "."T"6@%&/%+ B3+ %R<@RF&3+

="P.3.2 4:RBL1: @RF&B$CJR &B6%B3@$CJR BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

="P.4 DR%.B;T$%CA .:6"/% BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

="P.4.1 S$%B%6%!L+ &B3R :.B$C:-%RB$13.B$CA "."T"6@%&/%

="P.4.1.1 ,T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A &;RB:R$&':M

="P.4.1.2 U."6C$R3B$C( &MR#6:':

="P.4.1.3 ,T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A B3+ %R<@RF&3+ - #;&1"T/%

="P.4.2 S$%B%6%!L+ &B3R %C:;&B$C:-PFR3B$CA "."T"6@%&/%

="P.4.2.1 ,T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A B:; 1(@:;

="P.4.3 ,T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A &B3R D6$?'3B$CA - S;&%6$?'3&/%

="P.5 Q$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ &B3R "P30$CA 31$C/%



3

1?LNLOP>M - 1?@QELP GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

7: &!:1"/: %.:B"1"/ !J6: &B:R :.:/: "CP6<9:RB%$ .:$C/1% .6:01A'%B% C%$

#;&C:1/"+ BFR .%$#$JR. 7: ."6$"!('"R: B3+ '<?3&3+, 3 %1131"./#6%&3 &B: .1%/&$:

B3+ "C.%$#";B$CA+ #$%#$C%&/%+ C%$ : "R@LR"$ '$C6(C:&':+ B:; &!:1"/:; %.:B"1:MR

.%6<@:RB"+ .:; '.:6"/ R% .6:C%1L&:;R A R% C$R3B:.:$A&:;R #;&C:1/"+ C%$

.6:01A'%B% &B: .%$#/. 4" B:R (6: 1:$.(R

'ALN@RVM .UQRLNP>M

"RR::M'" C<?" .6(013'% B: :.:/: @/R"B%$ "'P%RL+ C%B< B3R "C.%$#";B$CA

#$%#$C%&/%, C<?" .6(013'% .:; ".36"<9"$ &3'%RB$C< B3 '<?3&3, B3R "./#:&3 C%$ B3

&;'."6$P:6<. U.<6!:;R ."6$.BJ&"$+ .:; :$ #;&C:1/"+ "/R%$ B(&: '"@<1"+ J&B" &B3R

:;&/% .6(C"$B%$ @$% &!:1$CA %#;R%'/%, 3 :.:/% '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&"$ &" &!:1$CA

%.:B;!/% '" B3R LRR:$% (B$ :$ '%?3BL+ #"R '.:6:MR R% .%6%C:1:;?A&:;R B:

%R%1;B$C( .6(@6%''% B:; C%R:R$C:M &!:1"/:; C%$ :$ ."6$.BJ&"$+ %;BL+

%RB$'"BF./9:RB%$ &B: .1%/&$: B3+ "$#$CA+ "C.%/#";&3+.

GL6% ('F+ %.( %;BL+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ .:; %.:B"1:MR LR% '$C6( .:&:&B( B:;

'%?3B$C:M .13?;&':M, ;.<6!"$ LR% &3'%RB$C( B'A'% B:; '%?3B$C:M .13?;&':M

(20% Kaplan & Sadak, 1985) B: :.:/: %RB$'"BF./9"$ &3'%RB$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ .:;

:#3@:MR &" !%'31A &!:1$CA "./#:&3. 7% .%$#$< %;B< #"R %.:B"1:MR '$% :':$:@"RA

:'<#% '" C:$RL+ "C#31J&"$+ C%$ !%6%CB36$&B$C< %11< LR%R "B"6:@"RA .13?;&'(

.:1;C%?:6$9('"R: %$B$:1:@$C<. 4$% #;&C:1/%, 1(@:; !<63, '.:6"/ R% :P"/1"B%$ &"

!%'31( R:3B$C( #;R%'$C( A R% &!"B/9"B%$ '" LR% #;&'"RL+ :$C:@"R"$%C( ."6$0<11:R

A LR% %C%B<1131: C:$RFR$C( .1%/&$: A %C('% '.:6"/ R% &;R#L"B%$ %$B$:1:@$C< '" B:

/#$: B: &!:1"/: A '" LR% #<&C%1: .:; #"R %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ &B$+ #;R%B(B3B"+ C%$

.6:&#:C/"+ B:; '%?3BA. DC('3 '.:6"/ '$% &!:1$CA #;&C:1/% R% :P"/1"B%$ &"

.6:01A'%B% ;@"/%+, 2;!$C< A &F'%B$C<. U.<6!:;R ('F+ C%$ ."6$.BJ&"$+ :$ :.:/"+

#"R '.:6:MR R% %$B$:1:@3?:MR '" LR%R A ."6$&&(B"6:;+ %.( B:;+ .%6%.<RF

.%6<@:RB"+ C%$ .6:&#$:6/9:RB%$ A "#$% %.:C1"$&':M" <11FR .%6%@(RBFR A '" 0<&3

B3 P%$R:'"R:1:@/% BFR .6:013'<BFR .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R &B3 &!:1$CA '<?3&3.

M'PFR% '" B3R .:1;%T:R$CA B%T$R('3&3 B3+ G%@C(&'$%+ Q6@<RF&3+ U@"/%+

(Rutter, Shaffer & Sturge, 1987) '$% &!:1$CA #;&C:1/% '.:6"/ R% "RB<&&"B%$ &" '$%

%.( B$+ .%6%C<BF .LRB" C%B3@:6/"+ %$B/FR A &" &;R#;%&'( B:;+.



4

W. Y;!$C< .6:01A'%B%, R";6FB$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+, .%$#$CL+

2;!J&"$+, #$%B%6%!A &;'."6$P:6<+, %RB$#6<&"$+

.6:&%6':@A+ C1..

WW. ,#$CL+ C%?;&B"6A&"$+ &B3R "TL1$T3, #;&1"T/%,

#;&%6$?'3&/%, #$%B%6%!A &B3R %R<.B;T3 B:; 1(@:;, CB1

WWW. G6:01A'%B% %.( B: R:3B$C( "./."#:, R:3B$CA

C%?;&BL63&3, :6$%CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+ R:3':&MR3+, %C('3 C%$

;231A R:3':&MR3

IV. W%B6$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+, #$%B%6%!L+ (6%&3+ C%$ %C:A+,

C$R3B$CL+ #;&C:1/"+, !6(R$% R:&A'%B%, ".$132/%, CB1 .

V. Y;!:C:$RFR$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+, .:1$B$&'$CA %.:&BL63&3,

#$@1F&&/%, %R".%6C"/+ &;R?AC"+ #$%0/F&3+, #;&'"R"/+

:$C:@"R"$%CL+ &;R?AC"+ CB1 .

B: '<?3'% %;B( ?% ".$C"RB6F?:M'" &" '$% %.( B$+ C%B3@:6/"+ &!:1$CJR

#;&C:1$JR, &B3R "$#$CA C%?;&BL63&3 &B3R "TL1$T3 (<T:R%+ WW B:; .%6%.<RF

&!A'%B:+) .:; "/R%$ ";6LF+ @RF&BA C%$ F+

GHJQ@GRVM .UQRLNP>M

Q$ #;&C:1/"+ %;BL+ B% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% L!:;R %.:B"1L&"$ "./C"RB6: B:;

"R#$%PL6:RB:+ .:11JR ".$&B3':R$CJR C1<#FR C%$ ;.<6!:;R &;&&F6";'LR%

".$&B3':R$C< #"#:'LR% .:; %P:6:MR &" .$?%R< %/B$%, !%6%CB36$&B$C<,

P%$R:'"R:1:@/% C%?J+ C%$ &" 2;!:C:$RFR$CL+ .%6%'LB6:;+ BFR #;&C:1$JR %;BJR.

Z C%?$L6F&3 B3+ ;.:!6"FB$CA+ "C.%/#";&3+, 3 %R<.B;T3 BFR '%9$CJR 'L&FR

"R3'L6F&3+ C%$ C;6/F+ B:; 7M.:; C%$ 3 &MR#"&3 B3+ &!:1$CA+ ".$B;!/%+ '" B3R

C:$RFR$CA C%B%T/F&3 B:; %B(':;, %RL#"$T%R B3 &!:1$CA '<?3&3 B%;B(&3'3 '" B3R

".$B;!/% &B3 9FA. NB%R #" .6(C"$B%$ @$% '%?3B$C( .13?;&'( .:; #"R L!"$ "'P%R"/+

1(@:;+ R% '3R %.:#/#"$, %.:B"1"/ .6(C13&3 @$% B:R ".%@@"1'%B/% R% '"1"BA&"$, R%

#$"6";RA&"$ C%$ R% %RB$'"BF./&"$ B: .6(013'%.

B3 !J6% '%+ B: .6(013'% BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR %.:BL1"&"

%RB$C"/'"R: '"1LB3+ B% B"1";B%/% 15 ."6/.:; !6(R$% C%$ C;6/F+ &;R#L?3C" '" B3

R:':?"B$CA 6M?'$&3 ;.:C%B<&B%&3+ BFR @6%.BJR "T"B<&"FR %.( .6:P:6$CL+,

$#$%/B"6% &B3R ."6/.BF&3 B3+ #;&1"T/%+.

\B&$ &A'"6% .%6%B36"/B%$ B: P%$R('"R: C<?" &!:1$CA #;&C:1/% R% B"/R"$ R%



5

:6$&B"/ C%$ R% "RB%!?"/ &B3R C%B3@:6/% BFR "4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR" C%$

&;@C"C6$'LR% B3+ #;&1"T/%+.

7: P%$R('"R: ('F+ %;B( "/!" C%$ ?"B$CL+ ".$.BJ&"$+ @$% B% /#$% B% .%$#$<.

A'"6% .%6%B36"/B%$ 3 B<&3 %P"R(+ :$ "C.%$#";B$C:/ R% &;'0:;1"M:;R B:;+ @:R"/+

J&B" R% %.";?MR:RB%$ &" "$#$C:M+ @$% B3R %T$:1(@3&3 BFR .6:013'<BFR BFR

.%$#$JR B:;+, %P"BL6:; C%$ :$ /#$:$ :$ "C.%$#";B$C:/ R% %R%93B:MR B6(.:;+ @$% R%

%RB$'"BF./&:;R :$ /#$:$ B% .6:01A'%B%. D;B(+ "/R%$ : 1(@:+ .:; %.( #$<P:6:;+

P:6"/+ :6@%RJR:RB%$ ".$':6PJ&"$+ :$ :.:/"+, %R"T<6B3B% %.( B3R .:$(B3B< B:;+,

&;'0<11:;R &" '$% ?"B$CA &B<&3 %.LR%RB$ &B% .%$#$< C%$ B% .6:01A'%B% "./#:&A+

B:;+ &B: &!:1"/:.

Q$ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ "/R%$ "'P%R"/+ &B3 &!:1$CA '%?3&$%CA #$%#$C%&/%.

N'F+ "."$#A .6:&"@@/9:RB%$ %.( ".$&BA':R"+ #$%P:6"B$CJR "$#$C:BABFR 3

".$CLRB6F&3 C<?" P:6< #$%PL6"$ %R<1:@% '" B3R "$#$C(B3B%. D;B(+ "/R%$ : 1(@:+

.:; ?L'%B% :6:1:@/%+ C%$ :6$&'JR #$%PL6:;R, '" %.:BL1"&'% R% ;.<6!:;R

#$%PFR/"+ %11< C%$ &M@!;&3 F+ .6:+ B3R :RB(B3B% C%$ B3 PM&3 BFR 4%?3&$%CJR

S;&C:1$JR. Q :6$&'(+ B:; Bertrand Russel @$% B% '%?3'%B$C< F+ "B: %RB$C"/'"R:

@$% B: :.:/: #"R TL6:;'" @$% B$ %C6$0J+ '$1<'" A %R %;B( .:; 1L'" "/R%$ &F&B("

'.:6"/ R% L!"$ "P%6':@A C%$ R% "/R%$ C%B<1131:+ @$% B: ."#/: BFR 4%?3&$%CJR

S;&C:1$JR (Kavale & Fourness, 1985)

DR<1:@% '" B$+ .6:&"@@/&"$+ L!:;R #$%B;.F?"/ C%$ :$

1?@QELP KTF GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

"#$%'()#$+'%- %$+/0%-

Q$ .$: @RF&B:/ $%B6:C"RB6$C:/ :6$&':/ "/R%$ B:; Bannatyne C%$ B:; Myklebust.

Q Bannatyne (1971) :6/9"$ B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ F+ "TA+:

" !# $#%'( *+ ',-./1(+2 *345-52 67+% +$#8.9 !/5:%.9

%.#!;:5:# , -,!#%-45*#:%.9 -:#4+8;:5:# .#% /% #%-45:58%#.62

1+%:/,8<(+2 :/, '+! 67/,! +*=#!+(2 >13>+2 . ?#8/,-%3@+% ;*A2

/8%-*6!+2 #!+$38.+%+2 -:%2 '%#'%.#-(+2 #!:(15B52 ,

/1/.198A-52 .#% 6.=8#-52 $/, $#8+*$/'(@/,! :5!

#$/:+1+-*#:%.;:5:# :52 *345-52 . C .#:5</8(# #,:9

$+8%1#*>3!+% $#%'%3 *+ .3$/%# ',-1+%:/,8<(# -:/ .+!:8%.;

!+,8%.; -E-:5*# $/, +*$/'(@+% :5 '%#'%.#-(# *345-52 " .



6

N.F+ P%/R"B%$ %.( B:R :6$&'( : Bannatyne B%;B/9"$ B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+

S;&C:1/"+ '" B3R ""1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA #;&1"$B:;6@/%" &MR#"&3 .:; ".36"<9"$ B3R

"6";R3B$CA C%$ ?"6%.";B$CA "6@%&/% .:11JR "$#$CJR 'L!6$ C%$ &A'"6%.

Q Myklebust (1968) !63&$':.:/3&" B:R (6: "2;!:R";6:1:@$CL+ 4%?3&$%CL+

S;&C:1/"+" C%$ &' %;BA B3R C%B3@:6/% "RB<&&"$:

$#%'%3 $/, 67/,! +$#8.9 .%!5:%.9 %.#!;:5:# , *6-5 9 ,B519

!/5*/-E!5 , +$#8.9 #./9 .#% ;8#-5 , =,-%/1/<%.9

-,!#%-45*#:%.9 $8/-#8*/<9 , $#831151# ;*A2 $#8/,-%3@/,!

*%# +%'%.9 ',-./1(# -:5 '%#'%.#-(# *345-52 . F/ +('/2 #,:;

#!+$38.+%#2 $/1162 =/862 '+! +(!#% #*%<62 #113 +$%.#1E$:+:#%

.#% #$; 311+2 */8=62 ,-:685-52 .

G%6< B3 !6A&3 B:; (6:; "2;!:R";6:1:@$CL+ #;&C:1/"+" : Myklebust #"R B$+

B%;B/9"$ '" '$% &;@C"C6$'LR3 "@C"P%1$CA C%B<&B%&3, "RJ .6(&?"B% #L!"B%$ (B$ "/R%$

#;R%B(R R% ;.<6!:;R C%$ <11"+ %R".<6C"$"+. 7%;B(!6:R% #/R"$ '"@%1MB"63 L'P%&3

&B3 P%$R:'"R:1:@/%.

1"+2"343+'%'()#$+'%- %$+/0%-

Q$ .%#%@F@$C:C"RB6$C:/ :6$&':/ ".$C"RB6JR:;R B: .6(013'% BFR

4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR &B3 #;&C:1/% &!:1$CA+ "./#:&3+. Q$ .$: @RF&B:/ .%$#%@F@$C:C"RB6$C:/ :6$&':/ "/R%$ B3+ Bateman (1965) C%$ B:; Kirk (1972).

Z Bateman :6/9"$ B: .6(013'% F+ "TA+:

" ?#%'%3 *+ *#45-%#.62 '%#:#8#762 +(!#% +.+(!# $/,

$#8/,-%3@/,! *%# $#%'#<A<%.3 -5*#!:%.9 '%#.E*#!-5

#!3*+-# -:/ !/5:%.; :/,2 ',!#*%.; .#% -:/ $8#<*#:%.;

+$($+'/ +$('/-52 , 5 /$/(# -,!'6+:#% *+ >#-%.62 '%#:#8#762 -:5

*#45-%#.9 '%#'%.#-(#. H% '%#:#8#762 #,:62 *$/8+( !#

-,!'6/!:#% , ;7% ;*A2 #$#8#(:5:# , *+ +*=#!9 ',-1+%:/,8<(#

-:/ J+!:8%.; L+,8%.; NE-:5*#. O+! *$/8+( !# #$/'/4/E!

'+,:+8/<+!P2 -+ !/5:%.9 .#4,-:685-5 , +.$#%'+,:%.9 9

$/1%:%-*%.9 #$/-:685-5 , -/>#862 -,!#%-45*#:%.62 '%#:#8#762

9 #%-45:58%#.62 >13>+2 ".

Z Bateman #/R"$ L'P%&3 &B3 #$<&B%&3 B3+ #$%CM'%R&3+, B3+ #$%P:6:.:/3&3+

#31%#A, %R<'"&% &B3R $C%R(B3B% C%$ &B3R "./#:&3.

G$: @RF&B(+ ('F+ .%$#%@F@$C:C"RB6$C(+ :6$&'(+ "/R%$ %;B(+ B:; Samuel Kirk



7

: :.:/:+ "R&F'%BJ?3C" &B: R(': 91/230 BFR ZGD, (Children with Specific

Learning Disabilities Act, 1969).

M'PFR% '" B:R :6$&'( %;B(

" F# $#%'%3 *+ Q#45-%#.62 O,-./1(+2 $#8/,-%3@/,! .3$/%#

'%#:#8#79 -+ *(# 9 $+8%--;:+8+2 #$; :%2 >#-%.62 B,7/1/<%.62

'%+8<#-(+2 $/, #=/8/E! :5! .#:#!;5-5 9 :5 789-5 :/,

$8/=/8%./E 9 <8#$:/E 1;</,. H% '%#:#8#762 #,:62 *$/8+( !#

+.'51A4/E! A2 '%#:#8#762 -:5! .#:#!;5-5 , -:5 -.6B5 , -:/

1;</ , -:5! #!3<!A-5 , -:5 <8#=9 , -:5! /84/<8#=(# 9 -:5!

#8%4*5:%.9. S*$+8%67/,! -,!49.+2 ;$A2 #!:%15$:%.62

#!+$38.+%+2 , +<.+=#1%.9 >13>5 , +137%-:5 +<.+=#1%.9

',-1+%:/,8<(# , ',-1+U(# , +U+1%.:%.9 #=#-(# .1$ . N:%2

Q#45-%#.62 O,-./1(+2 '+! +!:3--/!:#% +.6%!# :# $8/>19*#:#

*345-52 $/, /=+(1/!:#% -+ /$:%.62 #./,-:%.62 9 .%!5:%.62

#!+$38.+%+2 , -+ !/5:%.9 .#4,-:685-5 , -+ -,!#%-45*#:%.62

'%#:#8#762 9 -+ $+8%>#11/!:%.9 #$/-:685-5".

4" B:R :6$&'( %;B( C%?$"6J?3C" 3 ."6$:!A BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR F+

."6$:!A B3+ ,$#$CA+ ,C.%/#";&3+ C%$ !63&/'";&" F+ .1%/&$: #3'$:;6@/%+ ,$#$CJR

,C.%$#";B$CJR G6:@6%''<BFR. G$: .6(&P%B% (1983) :$ Kirk & Gallagher (6$&%R

C6$BA6$% C%?:6$&':M BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR, B% :.:/% "R&F'%BJ?3C%R &B:R

.%6%.<RF :6$&'( (%R%?"F63'LR:+ :6$&'(+). \B&$ &M'PFR% '" B: R(': 941-

142/1977 BFR ZGD '$% '%?3&$%CA #;&C:1/%

"…-5*#(!+% *%# #!+$38.+%# -+ *%# 9 $+8%--;:+8+2 #$; :%2

>#-%.62 B,7/1/<%.62 '%#'%.#-(+2 $/, +*$+8%67/!:#% -:5 789-5

:/, $8/=/8%./E 9 <8#$:/E 1;</, , 5 /$/(# *$/8+( !# /=+(1+:#%

-+ .3$/%# " #:+19" %.#!;:5:# #./,-:%.92 #!:(15B52 , -.6B52 ,

1;</, , #!3<!A-52 , <8#=92 /84/<8#=(#2 9 *#45*#:%.P!

%.#!/:9:A!. H ;8/2 $+8%1#*>3!+% $+8%$:P-+%2 ;$A2

#!:%15$:%.9 #!+$38.+%# , +<.+=#1%.9 >13>5 , +137%-:5

+<.+=#1%.9 ',-1+%:/,8<(# , ',-1+U(# .#% +U+1%.:%.9 #=#-(#. H

;8/2 '+! $+8%1#*>3!+% +.+(!# :# $#%'%3 :A! /$/(A! :/

$8;>15*# *345-52 +(!#% #$/:61+-*# /$:%.92 , #./,-:%.92 9

.%!5:%.92 #!+$38.+%#2 , !/5:%.92 .#4,-:685-52 9 $8/687+:#%

#$; ',-*+!+(2 $+8%>#11/!:%.62 , $/1%:%-*%.62 9 /%./!/*%.62



8

-,!49.+2 (Office of Education, 1987).

Q :6$&'(+ %;B(+ %.:B"1"/ B3R "./&3'3 LCP6%&3 BFR ZGD &B: ?L'% BFR

4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR 'L!6$ &A'"6% C%$ L!"$ C%?$"6F?"/ %.( B$+ ."6$&&(B"6"+

";6F.%]CL+ !J6"+.

5(+#%6$3+'%- %$+/0%-

4$% <113 .6:&L@@$&3 "/R%$ :$ 1"@('"R:$ 1"$B:;6@$C:/ :6$&':/. Q$ :6$&':/

%;B:/ L!:;R B: .1":RLCB3'% R% '"B%B6L.:;R ?"F63B$CL+ LRR:$"+ &" (6:;+

C%B<1131:;+ @$% B:;+ ".%@@"1'%B/"+. QW Chalfant & King (1976) %R%1M:RB%+ B:;+

;.<6!:RB"+ :6$&':M+ @$% B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ &;R(2$&%R B% "TA+ 5 C:$R<

&B:$!"/%:

%.:B;!/% &B% '%?A'%B%

.%6<@:RB"+ %.:C1"$&':M

0$:1:@$CL+ .%6<'"B6:$

2;!:1:@$CL+ .%6<'"B6:$

#$%CM'%R&3.

=<?" LR% %.( %;B< B% &B:$!"/% .6:&#$:6/9"B%$ '" 1"$B:;6@$C< C6$BA6$%, B%

:.:/% ('F+ .:11L+ P:6L+ "/R%$ #M&C:1: R% .6:&#$:6$&B:MR $#$%/B"6% &B: "./."#:

BFR 2;!:1:@$CJR .%6%'LB6FR C%$ B3+ #$%CM'%R&3+. \R%+ "R#"$CB$C(+ 1"$B:;6@$C(+ :6$&'(+ BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR "/R%$

%;B(+ BFR Hallahan & Kanfman (1976) .:; ;.:&B36/9"$ (B$:

" V+A85:%.3 /% Q#45-%#.62 O,-./1(+2 +(!#% 6!#2 ;8/2 $/,

'51P!+% $8/>19*#:# -+ *%# 9 $+8%--;:+8+2 $+8%/762

#!3$:,U52 9 %.#!;:5:#2 . W,:;2 / /8%-*;2 +(!#% ./%!;2 <%# :5

',-1+U(# , :5! ,$/+$('/-5 , :5! +137%-:5 +<.+=#1%.9 >13>5.

S$+%'9 ;1# :# $#%'%3 $/, +!:3--/!:#% - ' #,:62 :%2 .#:5</8(+2

67/,! $8/>19*#:# *345-52 , /% Q#45-%#.62 O,-./1(+2 $86$+%

!# 67/,! *%# ./%!9 #!:%*+:P$%-5 , $/, 5 6*=#-9 :52 4#

+$%.+!:8P!+:#% #!31/<# *+ :5! +%'%.9 -,*$+8%=/83 , :%2

%.#!;:5:+2 9 :%2 #!+$38.+%+2 :/, $#%'%/E".

Q .$: .6(&P%B:+ :6$&'(+ BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR "/R%$ %;B(+ &B:R :.:/:

C%BL13T" M&B"6% %.( "T<!6:R3 #$".$&B3':R$CA L6";R% B: ",?R$C( ;'0:M1$: BFR

4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR" (National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities) BFR

ZGD (Hamill, 1987) &B:R :.:/: @/R"B%$ .1L:R %.:#"CB(+ : (6:+ 4%?3&$%CL+



9

S;&C:1/"+.

M'PFR% '" B:R :6$&'( %;B(

" Q#45-%#.62 O,-./1(+2 +(!#% 6!#2 <+!%.;2 ;8/2 / /$/(/2

#!#=68+:#% -+ *%# +:+8/<+!9 /*3'# '%#:#8#7P! $/,

$8/687/!:#% #$; -/>#862 ',-./1(+2 -:5! +.*345-5 .#% 789-5

:/, 1;</, , :52 #!3<!A-52 , :52 <8#=92 , :52 1/<%.92 -.6B52 .#%

:A! *#45*#:%.P! %.#!/:9:A!. H% '%#:#8#762 #,:62 +(!#%

+<<+!+(2 .#% ,$/-:58(@+:#% ;:% /=+(1/!:#% -+ ',-1+%:/,8<(# :/,

J+!:8%./E L+,8%./E N,-:9*#:/2 . N,7!3 Q#45-%#.62

O,-./1(+2 *$/8+( !# ,$387/,! :#,:;78/!# .#% -+ 311+2

-,!49.+2 #!+$38.+%#2 $ . 7 . #%-45:58%#.62 >13>+2 , !/5:%.9

.#4,-:685-5 , ./%!A!%.9 9 -,!#%-45*#:%.9 '%#:#8#79. Q$/8+(

+$(-52 !# -,!,$387/,! .#% *+ $+8%>#11/!:%./E :E$/,

$8/>19*#:# ;$A2 $ . 7 . $/1%:%-*%.9 #$/-:685-5 , #.#:311515 9

#!+$#8.9 '%'#-.#1(# . .: . 1. ?86$+% ;*A2 !# :/!%-:+( ;:% '+!

+(!#% 3*+-/ #$/:61+-*# :A! -,!45.P! #,:P!".

7: National Joint Committee .6:!J63&" C%$ &B$+ .%6%C<BF ".$&3'<R&"$+:

D) Q$ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ %P:6:MR "B"6:@"RA :'<#% #$%B%6%!JR .:;

%R%PL6:RB%$ &B3R "C'<?3&3 C%$ !6A&3 BFR 1"$B:;6@$JR 1(@:;, %R<@RF&3+, @6%PA+,

1:@$CA+ &CL23+ C%$ '%?3'%B$CJR $C%R:BABFR. _B:'% '" B$+ #;&C:1/"+ %;BL+ L!:;R

"./&3+ .6:01A'%B% &B3R %;B:6M?'$&3 '" %.:BL1"&'% R% #;&C:1"M:RB%$ &B3R

C:$RFR$CA %RB/1323 C%$ %1131"./#6%&3.

`) Z !6A&3 B3+ 1LT3+ ".%$#$<" 0<9"$ (6$% &B3R "P%6':@A B:; (6:;

."6$:6/9:RB%+ B: .6(013'% &B% &!:1$C< !6(R$% C%$ .%6%C<'.B:RB%+ B3R "T"1$CB$CA

PM&3 %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% 'L!6$ C%$ B3R "RA1$C3 9FA. I$% B: 1(@: %;B( "/R%$

.6:B$'(B"63 3 !6A&3 B3+ 1LT3+ "<B:'%".

I) &!"B$C< '" B3R %$B$:1:@/% #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &" #;&1"$B:;6@/% B:; ="RB6$C:M

b";6$C:M ;&BA'%B:+ .:; L!"$ B3 0<&3 B3+ &" "@@"R"/+ #$%#$C%&/"+ "C'<?3&3+ C%$

!6A&3+ .136:P:6$JR. 7:R/9"B%$ "./&3+ @$% .6JB3 P:6< 3 &!L&3 %R<'"&% &' %;B(R

.:; '%?%/R"$ C%$ &B: ."6$0<11:R '<?3&3+, ?"J63&3 .:; #$";C:1MR"$ .:1M B3R

%R<.B;T3 .6:&%6':&B$CJR #$#%CB$CJR .6:@6%''<BFR.

S) Q$ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ #"R .6L."$ R% B%;B/9:RB%$ '" B$+ .:11%.1L+

%R%.36/"+ A <11"+ &;R?AC"+ %R".<6C"$%+ '%9/ '" B$+ :.:/"+ ('F+ "/R%$ #;R%B(R R%

&;R;.<6!:;R.



10

GHJQ@GRVM .UQRLNP>M: ,W@QKJELNLO@RX >?TKIEGKG

B: !J6: BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR ;.<6!:;R &;&&F6";'LR% "'."$6$C<

#"#:'LR% B% :.:/% L!:;R #$";6MR"$ B3 @RJ&3 &!"B$C< '" .%6%'LB6:;+ B:;

.6:01A'%B:+, #"R L!:;R #J&"$ ('F+ %.%RBA&"$+ &" 0%&$C< "6FBA'%B% LB&$ J&B" R%

.6:F?3?"/ 3 ".$&BA'3 &" "./."#: 0%&$CA+ L6";R%+. D.( B3R L6";R% L!:;'" &A'"6%

.:11< #"#:'LR% @$% B: 2;!:1:@$C( .6:P/1 @$% B% P%$R:'"R:1:@$C< !%6%CB36$&B$C<,

@$% B$+ ".$#(&"$+ C .%. BFR .%$#$JR '" #;&1"T/%, #;&P%&/%, #;&%6$?'3&/%. ,./&3+ &"

"./."#: "6'3R"/%+ @$% B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ ".$C6%B"/ 3 <.:23 B3+ "1<!$&B3+

"@C"P%1$CA+ 01<03+ A #;&1"$B:;6@/%+ @$%B/ B% &;'.BJ'%B% BFR #$%B%6%!JR %;BJR

':$<9:;R "1<!$&B% '" '"/9:R"+ "C#31J&"$+ "@C"P%1$CJR .6:013'<BFR. 7% &B:$!"/%

%;B< #"R '%+ #/R:;R "6'3R"/% &!"B$C< '" B: P%$R('"R: @$%B/ &" (1"+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+

%T$:1:@:MRB%$ &;''"B%013BL+ B:; .6:01A'%B:+ C%$ (!$ B: /#$: B: .6(013'%. ,./&3+

B% %.:B"1L&'%B% BFR "6";RJR "/R%$ .:11L+ P:6L+ %RB$P%B$C< C%$ %;B( '.:6"/ R%

%$B$:1:@3?"/ %.(

73 &M@!;&3 .:; ;.<6!"$ &B% C6$BA6$% C%?:6$&':M BFR #;&C:1$JR.

7: ?"F63B$C( .1%/&$: .:; B$+ C%?:6/9"$

7:R "6";R3B$C( &!"#$%&'( C%$ B$+ '"?(#:;+ %R<1;&3+ BFR #"#:'LRFR C%?J+

C%$ D.( B$+ #$%P:6L+ .:; %P:6:MR B3R ".$CLRB6F&3 BFR "6";RJR %R<1:@% '" B3R

".$&BA'3 %.( B3R :.:/% .6:L6!"B%$ 3 L6";R%.

Q "'."$6$C(+ %;B(+ !%6%CBA6%+ #$"6"MR3&3+ BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

."6$:6/9"$ B3 ?"F6/% &B3 @"R/C";&3, #$%#$C%&/% .:; %.1< &;R:2/9"$ (,B$

.%6%B36"/B%$. 7LB:$"+ #$%#$C%&/"+ #"R '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&:;R &" "6'3R"/"+ C%$

.6:01L2"$+ @$%B/ #"R &;R#L:RB%$ '" ?"F6/"+ %11< @/R"B%$ '$% &MR#"&3 :6%B:M '"

:6%B( (.F+ &B3 '%@$CA &CL23. Z ?L&3 ..! . (B$ 3 ;231A R:3':&MR3 &;R#L"B%$

%$B$:1:@$C< '" B3R ;231A "./#:&3 ':$<9"$ '" B3 1"@('"R3 &;'.%?3B$CA '%@"/% @$%B/

%@R::MRB%$ 0%&$CL+ %6!L+ 1:@$CA+ C%$ ".$&B3':R$CA+ '"?:#:1:@/%+.

Z C%B%R(3&3 .%6(':$FR .6:013'<BFR :6$&':M C%$ C%B3@:6$:.:/3&3+ &"

<11:;+ ".$&B3':R$C:M+ B:'"/+ '%+ #/R:;R B3R %R%@C%/% .6::.B$CA J&B" R%

C%B%R:A&:;'" B$+ #;&C:1/"+ :6$&':M BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR. =%B< &;RL."$%

"/R%$ %.1:]C( R% "''LR:;'" &" C6$B$CA BFR :6$&'JR BFR 4%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR

!F6/+ &;@!6(RF+ R% .6:0%/R:;'" &" &;RB:R$&'LR3 #6<&3 @$% B3 0"1B/F&A B:;+.

G%6’ (1"+ B$+ %'P$&03BA&"$+ C%$ B:;+ .6:013'%B$&':M+ :$ 4%?3&$%CL+



11

S;&C:1/"+ F+ #$%B%6%!A ;.<6!:;R C%$ '"1"BJRB%$. SM: &B% .LRB" .%$#$< '" "$#$CL+

%R<@C"+ &B$+ ZGD ?"F6"/B%$ (B$ .%6:;&$<9:;R '%?3&$%CL+ %R".<6C"$"+, %R%1:@/%

.:; &M'PFR% '" .:11:M+ "$#$C:M+ #"R %.:#/#"B%$ &B3R %MT3&3 B:; .:&:&B:M B3+

/#$%+ B3+ %R".<6C"$%+ %11< &B3R L'P%&3 .:; #/R"$ &A'"6% 3 "C.%/#";&3 &B3 @RJ&3.



12

>NVKJ KJM >Y>N@RK@RIM WL?>PGM KTF GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

Q$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ '" 0<&3 B:R B"1";B%/: :6$&'( B:; National Joint

Committee on Learning Disabilities, '"1"BJRB%$ &" (13 B3 P<&3 B3+ %R<.B;T3+,"P(&:R, &M'PFR% '" B:R :6$&'( %;B( #"R '$1<'" .1L:R @$% .%$#$< %11< @$% "<B:'%".

,T<11:; L!"$ #$%.$&BF?"/ (B$ .6J$'% &3'<#$% BFR #;&C:1$JR %;BJR '.:6"/ R%

"RB:./&"$ C%R"/+ %.( B3 06"P$CA 31$C/%, @/R:RB%$ ('F+ "'P%RA %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA

31$C/%. Z ".$CLRB6F&3 BFR '"1"BJR &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% &!"B/9"B%$ '" B3R

%R<@C3 .6J$'3+ %R%@RJ6$&3+ C%$ L@C%$63+ .%6L'0%&3+, Q$ .%6"'0%B$CL+

#$%#$C%&/"+ #"R '.:6:MR ('F+ R% %.:#J&:;R &B:R /#$: 0%?'( &B3R "P30$CA C%$

"RA1$C3 ."6/:#:, @$%B/ :$ #;&C:1/"+ L!:;R .1L:R "#6%$F?"/.

Q$ B:'"/+ @RF&B$CA+ %R<.B;T3+ :$ :.:/:$ &;R#L:RB%$ '" B3R "'P<R$&3

'%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR "/R%$ : 1(@:+ C%$ 3 :.B$C:-C$R3B$CA %RB/1323. Q$ B:'"/+

%;B:/ C%$ 3 &!L&3 B:;+ '" B3 '%?3&$%CA #$%#$C%&/% L!:;R %6!/&"$ R% #$"6";RJRB%$

%.( .:1M .%1$<, %R"T<6B3B% %.( B: @"@:R(+ (B$ :$ 4%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+

&;@CLRB6F&%R B: "R#$%PL6:R BFR "$#$CJR B% B"1";B%/% !6(R$%.

ZGQ@RLP QKGHELP QKJ E>NVKJ RG@ V?>UFG KTF EGHJQ@GRSF \UQRLN@SF

7 9($-9#4/: #4) 2+"#"$";<) #%6 =>3%6

I$% R% C%B%R:A&"$ C%R"/+ B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+ S$%#$C%&/"+ "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B: R%

@RF6/9"$ B:;+ 0%&$C:M+ &B%?':M+ .:; .L6%&" 3 #$"6"MR3&3 B:; .6:01A'%B:+ B3+

DP%&/%+. Q (6:+ %P%&/% .6:L6!"B%$ %.( B: 6A'% "P3'/" C%$ B: &B"63B$C( "%" .:;

&B3R C;6$:1"T/% &3'%/R"$ %#;R%'/% :'$1/%+. N'F+ : (6:+ %P%&/% !63&$':.:$A?3C"

@$% R% ."6$@6<2"$ C<?" #$%B%6%!A B:; 1(@:; .:; :P"/1"B%$ &" "@C"P%1$CA 01<03.

DR<'"&% &B:;+ #$<P:6:;+ BM.:;+ %P%&/%+ '.:6"/ R% &;R%RBA&"$ C%R"/+ B:;+ (6:;+

%1"T/% (%#;R%'/% %R<@RF&3+) C%$ #;&1"T/% (#;&C:1/% %R<@RF&3+). =%$ .<1$ 3

!6A&3 %;BJR BFR (6FR &;R#L"B%$ '" "@C"P%1$CA 01<03. Q Critchley (1964) "$&A@%@"

B:R (6: ""T"1$CB$C(+" @$% R% #31J&"$ '$% <113 .6:L1";&3 BFR #$%B%6%!JR, B3R

"%R%.B;T$%CA ".$06<#;R&3" (developmental lag), "RJ : Freud (1891) "/!"

;.:&B36/T"$ (B$ 3 %P%&/% %.1< %R%.%6<@"$ '$% ;.<6!:;&% C%B<&B%&3 &B3R .:6"/%

B3+ P;&$:1:@$CA+ #$%#$C%&/%+ "C'<?3&3+ B3+ :'$1/%+ C%$ B3+ %R<@RF&3+.

DR%P:6L+ @$% B3R %P%&/% C%B%@6<P:RB%$ A#3 %.( B3R ".:!A B:; W..:C6<B3. Q



13

W..:C6<B3+ "/!" ;.:&B36/T"$ (B$ : "@CLP%1:+ "/R%$ B: (6@%R: .:; C%?:6/9"$ B3

&CL23 C%$ 01<03 &B: LR% 'L6:+ B:; '.:6"/ R% .6:C%1L&"$ .%6<1;&3 &B: %RB/?"B:

'L6:+ B:; &J'%B:+. S$%./&BF&" "./&3+ (B$ %;BA 3 .%6<1;&3 &;R:#"M"B%$ %.(

%.J1"$% B3+ :'$1/%+.

Q$ Benton & Joynt (1960) LC%R%R %R%&C(.3&3 B3+ 0$01$:@6%P/%+ %.( B:R

W..:C6<B3 'L!6$ B: 1800 C%$ #$%./&BF&%R (B$ :$ ."6$&&(B"6"+ C1$R$CL+ ':6PL+ B3+

C$R3B$CA+ %P%&/%+ (#$%B%6%!A :'$1/%+) "/!%R A#3 ."6$@6%P"/ .6$R %.( B: 1800, ('F+

3 %$&?3B36$%CA %P%&/% (#$%B%6%!A %R<@RF&3+ C%$ %C:A+) #"R %R%@RF6/9:RB%R F+

"$#$CA :RB(B3B%. 4L!6$ B:R 19: %$JR% 3 %P%&/% %.:#/#:RB%R &" 01<03 A %&?LR"$%

B:; "@C"P<1:;, %11< #"R "/!" #$"6";R3?"/ B: %C6$0L+ &3'"/: B3+ 01<03+. U.A6!%R

('F+ C<.:$"+ #$"6";RA&"$+, (.:; 3 0%&$CA 2;!:.%?:1:@/% BFR %P%&$CJR

#$%B%6%!JR %.:#/#:RB%R &" "#$%C:.A" B3+ &MR#"&3+ %R<'"&% &B3R "$C(R% A &B$+

$#L"+ C%$ &B% @1F&&:1:@$C< B:;+ &M'0:1%. M'PFR% '" B:R Critchley " B% @6%.B<

B3+ %@/%+ 7"6L9%+ (1515-1583) #"/!R:;R &3'"/% '$%+ %R".<6C"$%+ C%B%R(3&3+

@6%.BJR C%$ B;.F'LRFR &;'0(1FR A %;B( .:; &A'"6% ?"F6:M'" #;&1"T/%".

D.( B% .6JB% &3'%RB$C< C"/'"R% B:; !J6:; "/R%$ %;B( B:; Jacques Lordat

(1773-1870). 7: 1843 ."6$L@6%2" B3 #$CA B:; %R".<6C"$% R% #$%0<9"$ M&B"6% %.(

%;B( .:; : /#$:+ :R('%&" ""@C"P%1$C( %BM!3'%". dB%R C%?3@3BA+ B3+ $%B6$CA+

&!:1A+ B:; 4:R."1$L C%$ ."6/.:; 52 !6:RJR (B%R &;RL03 %;B(. G6JB% L!%&" B3R

$C%R(B3B% R% "CP6<9"$ B$+ &CL2"$+ B:; '" B: 1(@:. NB%R ".$!"/63&" R% #$%0<&"$,

#$%./&BF&" (B$ C%$ 3 %R%@RF&B$CA B:; $C%R(B3B% "/!" "T%P%R$&B"/. Q /#$:+ @6<P"$:

"Z &MRB%T3 "/!" "T%P%R$&B"/ %R<'"&% &B$+ 1LT"$+. 7: %1P<03B: .%6L'"R". Z

&MR#"&3 ('F+ BFR @6%''<BFR @$% R% #$%':6PF?:MR :$ 1LT"$+ AB%R LR% L6@: .:;

L.6"." R% B: T%R%'<?F". S"R '.:6:M&" R% #$%0<&"$ :MB" B% #$C< B:; @6%.B<. ,/R%$

P%R"6( (B$ : /#$:+ %R%@RJ6$&" C%$ C%BL@6%2" B% &;'.BJ'%B% B3+ %$&?3B36$%CA+

%P%&/%+ C%$ BFR #$%B%6%!JR %R<@RF&3+ &B% :.:/% L#F&" B:R (6: "1"CB$CA

%'R3&/%". Z $C%R(B3B% B:; Lordat R% #$%0<9"$ ".%RA1?" .6$R "T%P%R$&B:MR :$

#$%B%6%!L+ :'$1/%+. e+ C%?3@3BA+ B3+ $%B6$CA+ M&B"6% %.( %;BA B3R "'."$6/%

&;RL0%1" &3'%RB$C< &B3R C%B%R(3&3 B3+ %P%&/%+.

7: 1861 %6!/9"$ 3 &;&B3'%B$CA #$"6"MR3&3 BFR #$%B%6%!JR B:; 1(@:; '" B:R

Paul Broca (Penfield & Roberts, 1959). Q Broca, I<11:+ !"$6:M6@:+ C%$ %R%B(':+,

".$CLRB6F&" B3R .6:&:!A B:; &B$+ #$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; C%$ %R<@RF&3+. U.:&BA6$T" (B$

;.<6!"$ LR% =LRB6: _6?6F&3+ B:; K(@:; &B3R 76/B3 D6$&B"6A IFR$J#3 \1$C% B:;

,@C"P<1:;. Q Broca ."6$L@6%2" ."6/.BF&3 "R(+ %&?"RA .:; "/!" !<&"$ B3



14

#;R%B(B3B% :'$1/%+ !F6/+ R% .%6:;&$<9"$ <113 01<03. B3R %;B:2/% 06L?3C" '$%

."6$:6$&'LR3 01<03 &B3R 76/B3 D6$&B"6A IFR$J#3 \1$C% B:; ,@C"P<1:;. Q Broca

;.:&BA6$T" (B$ 3 ."6$:!A %;BA B:; "@C"P<1:; %.:B"1"/ =LRB6: B:; K(@:; "T:; C%$

"."6$:!A Broca". f63&$':.:/3&" "./&3+ B:;+ (6:;+ "%1:@/%" @$% R% #31J&"$

%.J1"$% $#"JR C%$ "1"CB$CA %'R3&/%" @$% R% #31J&"$ B3R %.J1"$% BFR &;'0%B$CJR

&;R#L&"FR %R<'"&% &B$+ $#L"+ C%$ B$+ 1LT"$+. D&?"R"/+ .:; L.%&!%R %.( B3

#$%B%6%!A %;BA !63&$':.:$:M&%R B$+ 1LT"$+ !F6/+ &MR#"&3 '" B: %RB/&B:$!:

."6$"!('"R(. D;B:/ :$ %&?"R"/+ ?;'(RB:;&%R C%$ %R%@RJ6$9%R %RB$C"/'"R% C%$

.6(&F.% C%$ B% L#"$!R%R '" !"$6:R:'/"+, %11< #"R ?;'(RB:;&%R B$+ 1LT"$+ .:;

%RB$&B:$!:M&%R &' %;B<. I$% B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ %;BL+ : Broca !63&$':.:/3&" B:R (6:

"%P3'/%". Q$ #3':&$"M&"$+ B:; Broca ".L#6%&%R C%$ #$"M6;R%R B$+ '"1LB"+ .<RF &B3

#$%B%6%!A B:; 1(@:;.

Q Bastian (1898) ."6$L@6%2" @$% .6JB3 P:6< B3R "CJPF&3 1LT"FR" (word

deafness) C%$ B3R "BMP1F&3 1LT"FR" (Word blindness). G%6(1: .:; #"R

!63&$':.:/3&" B:R (6: "CJPF&3 1LT3+" ;.:&B36/9"$ (B$ LR% <B:': .:; ;.:PL6"$

%.( %;BA B3 #$%B%6%!A, "RJ #"R .%6:;&$<9"$ .6(013'% %C:A+, #"R '.:6"/ R%

%R%@RF6/&"$ &F&B< %C:;&B$C< B$+ 1LT"$+. G%6(1: "./&3+ .:; #"R !63&$':.:/3&" B:R

(6: "BMP1F&3 1LT3+" ;.:&B36/9"$ (B$ LR% <B:': .:; ;.:PL6"$ %.( %;BA B3

#$%B%6%!A, "RJ L!"$ P;&$:1:@$CA (6%&3, #"R '.:6"/ R% %R%@RF6/&"$ @6%.B< B$+

1LT"$+. Q Bastias ;.:&BA6$T" "./&3+ (B$ %;BL+ :$ #$%B%6%!L+ "#6%$JR:RB%$ &B3R

."6$:!A "Broca" B:; "@C"P<1:;. 7:;+ (6:;+ %;B:M+ B:;+ C%?$L6F&" : Kussmaul,

'"@<1:+ @"6'%R(+ '"1"B3BA+ BFR #$%B%6%!JR B:; 1(@:; &B:R 19: %$JR%.

7: 1874 : Wernicke @"6'%R(+ R";6:.%?:1(@:+, &" 31$C/% 28 !6:RJR

#3':&/";&" '$% ':R:@6%P/% &!"B$CA '" B3R %$&?3B36$%CA %P%&/%. M'PFR% '" B:R

Wernicke 3 #$%B%6%!A %;BA :P"/1"B%$ &" %.J1"$% :.B$CA+ C%$ %C:;&B$CA+

%R%@RJ6$&3+ A C%B%R(3&3+ .:; %.:B"1:MR .6:h.:?L&"$+, B3+ $C%R(B3B%+ !6A&3+

B:; LR%6?6:; 1(@:;. D.L#F&" B3 #$%B%6%!A %;BA &" 01<03 &B3R G6JB3 =6:B%P$CA

\1$C% B:; ,@C"P<1:;, L#F&" ('F+ L'P%&3 C%$ &B: 6(1: BFR D$&?3B36$%CJR Q#JR

.:; :#3@:MR &B:R "@CLP%1:. Q Wernicke ./&B";" (B$ B: .6(&?$: 'L6:+ B:;

"@C"P<1:; &;R#L"B%$ '" B3R C/R3&3 "RJ B: :./&?$: '" B$+ %$&?3B36$%CL+

.%6%&B<&"$+. G/&B";" "./&3+ (B$ B% R";6$C< CMBB%6% B:; "@C"P%1$C:M P1:$:M #"R

"/R%$ :MB" C$R3B$C< :MB" %$&?3B36$%C< %11< "T%6BJRB%$ %.( B$+ &;R<2"$+ B:;+ @$% R%

"T"$#$C";B"/ 3 1"$B:;6@/% B:;+. \C%R" #$<C6$&3 %R<'"&% &B3 @"R$CA %C:;&B$CA

."6$:!A C%$ B3R %C:;&B$CA ."6$:!A B:; 1(@:;, B3R :.:/% B:.:?LB3&" &B3R G6JB3



15

=6:B%P$CA \1$C%. M'PFR% '" B:R Wernicke '$% 01<03 &B3R ."6$:!A %;BA '.:6"/

R% .6:C%1L&"$ %.J1"$% &B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; 1(@:; C%$ %R$C%R(B3B% %R<@RF&3+ C%$

@6%PA+.

Q Jackson, <@@1:+ R";6:1(@:+, .6:&.<?3&" R% &;R?L&"$ B$+ ?L&"$+ B:;

Wernicke C%$ B:; Broca. 4$% %.( B$+ '"@<1"+ &;'0:1L+ B:; AB%R 3 &M11323 BFR

W"6%6!$CJR ,.$.L#FR &B: R";6$C( &M&B3'% B(&: BFR C$R3B$CJR (&: C%$ BFR

%$&?3B36$%CJR 1"$B:;6@$JR. G/&B";" (B$ B: DRJB%B: ,./."#: .%6:;&$<9"$ '$%

:1:C1A6F&3 B3+ 1"$B:;6@/%+ BFR #M: .1";6JR B:; &J'%B:+, "RJ LR% CLRB6: &B:

'"&%/: "./."#: .%6:;&$<9"$ '(R: B: '$&( A B: LR% 'L6:+ B:; &J'%B:+. Q Jackson

;.:&BA6$T" (B$ :$ 1"CB$CL+ #$%#$C%&/"+ &;'0%/R:;R &" #M: &B<#$%, B: .6JB: B3+

%RB/1323+ BFR &;'0(1FR C%$ B: #"MB"6: B3+ #$%#$C%&/%+ B:; /#$:; B:; 1(@:;.

G/&B";" "./&3+ (B$ '$% "$#$CA 01<03 #"R .6:C%1"/ LR% "$#$C( &M'.BF'% %11< (B$ 3

#6%&B36$(B3B% "R(+ !%'31(B"6:; ".$.L#:; %."1";?"6JR"B%$ %.( B:R L1"@!: "R(+

%RJB"6:; C%$ B: @"@:R(+ %;B( .6:C%1"/ .:$C/1"+ "C#31J&"$+ %R<'"&% &B$+ :.:/"+

%R$C%R(B3B% :'$1/%+, @6%PA+ C%$ %R<@RF&3+.

7: 1891 : Freud #3':&/";&" '$% ':R:@6%P/% &!"B$C< '" B3R %P%&/% &B3R

:.:/% C<R"$ C6$B$CA &B$+ .6:3@:M'"R"+ ?"F6/"+ &!"B$C< '" B3R %P%&/% C%$ "$#$C(B"6%

&B$+ %.(2"$+ B:; Wernicke, "RJ P%/R"B%$ (B$ %.:#L!"B%$ B$+ %.(2"$+ B:; Jackson.

,./&3+ .%6:;&/%&" .:11< &B:$!"/% 2;!:1:@/%+ C%$ P;&$:1:@/%+ B% :.:/%

."6$1%'0<R:RB%$ &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+, B3+ @6%PA+ C%$ B3+ :6?:@6%P/%+.

U.:&BA6$T" (B$ 3 $#L% A 3 LRR:$% "R(+ %RB$C"$'LR:; %.:B"1"/ 3 /#$% LR% &M'.1"@'%

&!L&"FR .:; 0%&/9:RB%$ &" .:$C/1% ":.B$C<, %C:;&B$C<, %.B$C<, C$R%$&?3B$C< C%$

<11% "6"?/&'%B%". !"B$C< '" B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ B3 @6%PA : Freud %RLP"6" :

"B3 #$%#$C%&/% B3+ @6%PA+ C%?J+ C%$ B3+ :'$1/%+ #"!('%&B" C$R%$&?3B$C<

"6"?/&'%B% %.( B$+ C$RA&"$+ BFR ';JR. N'F+ B% "6"?/&'%B% %.( B: !L6$ "/R%$ .$:

#$%C6$B< C%$ LRB:R% %.( "C"/R% .:; .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( B:;+ ';+ B3+ :'$1/%+, "/B" @$%B/

#/R:;'" '"@%1MB"63 %T/% &B% "6"?/&'%B% B:; !"6$:M &" &;R#;%&'( '" B% "6"?/&'%B%

B3+ @6%PA+, "/B" @$%B/ &;R#L:RB%$ ."6$&&(B"6: '" :.B$C< "6"?/&'%B%. `1L.:;'" B:R

"%;B( '%+ (B%R @6<P"$, #"R B:R 01L.:;'" (B%R '$1<"

`1<0"+ &B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 BFR @6%''<BFR &;R#L:RB%$ P;&$C< '" %R$C%R(B3B%

%R<@RF&3+. N'F+ '$% #$%B%6%!A &B3R %R<@RF&3 '.:6"/ R% "'P%R$&B"/ C%$ !F6/+ B3R

%.J1"$% B3+ $C%R(B3B%+ @$% %R%@RJ6$&3 BFR 1LT"FR. Z ':R:@6%P/% B:; Freud

%.:BL1"&" &B%?'( %11< #L!B3C" '$C6A %R%@RJ6$&3 &B3R ".:!A B3+ @$%B/ LC%R"

C6$B$CA &B$+ R";6:.%?:1:@$CL+ %.(2"$+ BFR #$%B%6%!JR B:; 1(@:;. \B&$ '(R: B:



16

1953 '"B%P6<&B3C" &B% %@@1$C<.

7 9($-9#4/: #4) 26/'%=+<) ")?3)4/:@

I$% .6JB3 P:6< L!:;'" %C6$0A ."6$@6%PA BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ %.( B:R

<@@1: :P?%1':1(@: W. Pringle Morgan. Q Morgan &" <6?6: .:; #3':&/";&" B:

1896 %R%PL6"B%$ &B3R ."6/.BF&3 "R(+ .%$#$:M 14 !6:RJR .:; #"R '.:6:M&" R%

#$%0<&"$, .%6(1: .:; #"R .%6:;&/%9" C%'$< "'P%RA %R".<6C"$%. S"R "/!" #31%#A

C<.:$% 01<03 &B:R "@CLP%1: C%$ 3 R:3':&MR3 B:; P%$R(B%R R% "/R%$ C%R:R$CA. Q

Morgan 1""$ &;@C"C6$'LR% (B$ %R%@RJ6$9" B% @6<''%B% C%$ AT"6" R% #$%0<9"$ C%$ R%

@6<P"$, 3 (6%&A B:; AB%R C%R:R$CA C%$ : #<&C%1(+ B:; ;.:&BA6$9" (B$ AB%R LR%+

%.( B:;+ C%1MB"6:;+ '%?3BL+ (B%R 3 #$#%&C%1/% %.%$B:M&" '(R: .6:P:6$C< ".$B"M@'%B%. Z :6?:@6%P/% "./&3+ B:; .%$#$:M %;B:M .%6:;&/%9" '"6$C< $#$%/B"6%

!%6%CB36$&B$C< , (.F+ %R%&B6:PL+ @6%''<BFR 'L&% &B$+ 1LT"$+, 1<?3 &B$+

C%B%1AT"$+ BFR 1LT"FR, &M@!;&3 @6%''<BFR .:; L':$%9%R &B3 @6%PA CB1 . 7:R

L1"@%R .! . Percy %11< L@6%P" B: (R:'< B:; Precy A L@6%P" scone %RB/ sony, englis

%RB/ english, wichout %RB/ without CB1 .

Q Morgan ;.:&BA6$T" (B$ B: Precy %RB/ Percy #/R"$ B3R B;.$CA "$C(R%

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ :6?:@6%P/%+ &" <B:'% .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R #;&C:1/"+ &B3R %RB/1323

C%$ &B3R :.B$CA 'RA'3 BFR 1LT"FR. G/&B";" (B$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ %;BL+ "/R%$ .$?%RJ+

"@@"R"/+ C%$ :P"/1:RB%$ C;6/F+ &" %R".%6CA %R<.B;T3 B:; "@C"P<1:;, @$%B/ "RA1$C:$

'" B% /#$% &;'.BJ'%B% .%6:;&$<9:;R 01<03 &B:R D6$&B"6( IFR$J#3 \1$C% B:;

,@C"P<1:;.

Q James Hinshelwood #3':&/";&" %6!$C< &B: ."6$:#$C( Lancet '$% '"1LB3 @$%

B3 &!L&3 .:; ;.<6!"$ %R<'"&% &B$+ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ C%$ &B3R :.B$CA 'RA'3,

0%&$9('"R:+ &B3R ."6/.BF&3 "R(+ %B(':; '" :6@%R$CA 01<03 &B:R "@CLP%1:. B3

'"1LB3 %;BA "6'3R"M"$ '" 1".B:'L6"$"+ B3 #$%#$C%&/% '<?3&3+ B3+ %R<@RF&3+ C%$

;.:&B36/9"$ (B$ 3 ;231A "./#:&3 .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R :6$&'LR% <B:'% &B3 'RA'3

%6$?'JR, (!$ ('F+ C%$ 1LT"FR, .$?%RJ+ R% :P"/1"B%$ &" "@C"P%1$CA 01<03. IM6F

&B% 1900 Hinshelwood #3':&/";&" '/% <113 '"1LB3, &B3R :.:/% #/R"$ 1".B:'"6A

."6$@6%PA #M: ."6$.BJ&"FR %.( B3R "'."$6/% B:;. G$&B"M"$ (B$ :$ #;&C:1/"+

%R<@RF&3+ .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( 01<03 &B: D6$&B"6( Z'$&P%/6$: B:; ,@C"P<1:; 3

:.:/% "/R%$ %.:BL1"&'% B6%M'%B:+ C%B< B:R B:C"B( A "1%BBF'%B$CA+ %R<.B;T3+.

DR%PL6"$ "./&3+ (B$ .%$#$< '" BLB:$:; "/#:;+ 01<0"+ .6L."$ R% %RB$'"BF./9:RB%$ F+



17

%&CA&$':$ R:3B$C< C%?;&B"63'LR:$. Q Hinshelwood L#F&" LR% %$&$(#:T: .R"M'%

&B: .6(013'% BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ .$&B"M:RB%+ (B$ "/R%$ #;R%B( R%

?"6%.";B:MR '" &;&B3'%B$CA C%$ "./':R3 %@F@A. 7: 1917 #3':&/";&" B3

':R:@6%P/% Congenital World-blindness B3R :.:/% .:11:/ R"JB"6:$ &;@@6%P"/+ B3

?"F6:MR :6(&3': &B3R $&B:6/% BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+. B: &M@@6%''% %;B(

."6$@6<P:RB%$ &;&B3'%B$C< B% &;'.BJ'%B% BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ C%?J+ C%$ 3

&!L&3 .:; ;.<6!"$ %R<'"&% &' %;BL+ C%$ &B$+ "@C"P%1$CL+ 01<0"+. ;'."6%&'%B$C<

C%?:6/9"B%$ B: .6(013'% F+ "TA+:

" !# 3:/*/ 4+A8+(:#% ;:% $#8/,-%3@+% ',-./1(+2 #!3<!A-52

;:#! 67+% =,-%/1/<%.9 ;8#-5 , '+! *$/8+( ;*A2 !# '%#.8(!+% .#%

!# .#:#!/9-+% :/ <8#$:; 9 :/! :,$A*6!/ 1;</. H% ',-./1(+2

#,:62 /=+(1/!:#% -+ .3$/%# +U+1%.:%.9 >13>5 9 " #<+!+-(#" $/,

+*=#!(@+:#% -:# $8P:# -:3'%# :52 +*>8,#.92 #!3$:,U52 -:/!

YA!%P'5 1%.# :/, S$%.8#:/E!:/2 C*%-=#%8(/, :/,

S<.+=31/,".

B%?'( &B3 '"1LB3 BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ %.:B"1"/ 3 &;'0:1A B:; Samuel

Orton . Q Orton AB%R 2;!/%B6:+, R";6:1(@:+ C%$ R";6:.%?:1(@:+ &B: Y;!$%B6"/:

B3+ G:1$B"/%+ Iowa @M6F &B% 1920. 73R ".:!A %;BA L@$R%R &3'%RB$CL+ %11%@L+ B(&:

&B3R G%$#%@F@$CA (&: C%$ &B3R Y;!$%B6$CA. B3R G%$#%@F@$CA #(?3C" '"@<13

J?3&3 &B3R %R<@RF&3 '" B$+ RL"+ B"!R$CL+ C%$ '"?(#:;+ #$#%&C%1/%+. B3R

Y;!$%B6$CA, M&B"6% %.( B:R .6JB: .%@C(&'$: .(1"':, #3'$:;6@A?3C%R %.%$BA&"$+

@$% B3 'L6$'R% C%$ B3 ?"6%."/% BFR %.:C1$R(RBFR .%$#$JR LTF %.( B% .1%/&$% B3+

R:&:C:'"$%CA+ ."6/?%123+. Q Orton 1:$.(R, &B% .1%/&$% BFR #6%&B36$:BABFR B:;

&B: 2;!$%B6"/: B3+ Iowa #3'$:M6@3&" ?"6%.";B$CL+ :'<#"+ .:; B$+ %.:B"1:M&%R

2;!/%B6:$, 2;!:1(@:$ C%$ C:$RFR$C:/ 1"$B:;6@:/. Q$ :'<#"+ %;BL+ LC%R%R ".$&CL2"$+

&" .:11L+ C:$R(B3B"+ B3+ G:1$B"/%+ Iowa C%$ "TLB%9%R C;6/F+ .%$#$<. 4$% BLB:$%

?"6%.";B$CA :'<#% "RB(.$&" 15 .%$#$< .:; .%6:;&/%9%R #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+.

f%6%CB36$&B$C<, LR% %.( B% .%$#$<, 31$C/%+ 16 !6:RJR, #"R "/!" '<?"$ .:BL R%

#$%0<9"$. B: B"&B Stanford-Binet "/!" #"/CB3 R:3':&MR3+ 75, &B: B"&B "./#:&3+

Printner-Patterson 3 "./#:&A B:; AB%R %R<1:@3 '" B3R "./#:&3 BFR "R31/CFR C%$ &B:

B"&B Healy "/!" #"/CB3 90 %RB/ C%R:R$C:M 100. 7: .%$#/ %;B( LC%R" "./&3+ '"6$C<

B;.$C< 1<?3 &B3R :6?:@6%P/%, (.F+ .%6%.:$A&"$+ 1LT"FR, %R%&B6:PL+ @6%''<BFR,

.6:&?L&"$+ A %P%$6L&"$+ @6%''<BFR &B$+ 1LT"$+, CB1 . \@6%P" .! . gary %RB/ gray weit

%RB/ with blon %RB/ blue CB1 .



18

_11% .%$#$< .%6:;&/%9%R '(R: "$#$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ &B3R .6:&.<?"$< B:;+ R%

?;':MRB%$ B$+ 1LT"$+ F+ &MR:1% A R% ?;':MRB%$ B3 &"$6< BFR 1LT"FR. 7$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+

%;BL+ : Orton B$+ :R('%&" "&B6"P:&;'0:1/%" (%R%&B6:PA &;'0(1FR) C%$ #"R B$+

%.L#$#" &" 01<03 B:; "@C"P<1:; A "%@"R"&/%" C<.:$%+ &;@C"C6$'LR3+ ."6$:!A+ B:;

"@C"P<1:;, (.F+ ./&B";%R 'L!6$ B(B".

7: 1915 : Orton .%6:;&/%&" '/% '"1LB3 (.:; ."6$@6<P"$ B:;+ %$B$:1:@$C:M+

.%6<@:RB"+ .:; .6:C%1:MR B$+ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+. DR<'"&% &B:;+ %$B$:1:@$C:M+

.%6<@:RB"+ .:; %R%PL6"$ "/R%$ 3 ".$C6<B3&3 B:; "R(+ 3'$&P%$6/:; B:; "@C"P<1:;, 3

.1";6/F&3, @"R"B$C:/ .%6<@:RB"+, C%?J+ C%$ .%6<@:RB"+ C:$RFR$C:/ C%$

&;R%$&?3'%B$C:/. 4"@%1MB"63 L'P%&3 L#F&" &B3R ".$C6<B3&3 B:; "R(+

"@C"P%1$C:M 3'$&P%$6/:;.

,$#$C(B"6% : Orton %.L#F&" B$+ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ &" '$% 1"$B:;6@$CA

R";6:1:@$CA #$%B%6%!A .:; B3R :R('%&" &B6"P:&;'0:1/% (%.' (.:; C%$ : :6$&'(+).

G/&B";" (B$ 3 %RB/1323 BFR @6%''<BFR C%$ BFR 1LT"FR #3'$:;6@"/ '$% &"$6<

.6:BM.FR .:; "@C%?/&B%RB%$ &B:R "@CLP%1:: B% .6(B;.% .:; "@C%?/&B%RB%$ &B:

#"T$( 3'$&P%/6$: B:; "@C"P<1:; "/R%$ C%B:.B6$CL+ "$C(R"+ BFR .6:BM.FR .:;

;.<6!:;R &B: %6$&B"6( 3'$&P%/6$:. B:;+ %6$&B"6(!"$6"+ A &B:;+ %'P$#LT$:;+ B:

%6$&B"6( 3'$&P%/6$: #"R '.:6"/ R% ".$C6%BA&"$, (.F+ &;'0%/R"$ P;&$:1:@$C< '"

B:;+ #"T$(!"$6"+, @$' %;B( C%$ B"/R:;R R% !63&$':.:$:MR %R"&B6%''LR% B% .6(B;.%

B:; #"T$:M 3'$&P%$6/:;. Z ?"F6/% 0L0%$% %;BA #"R '.(6"&" .:BL R% ".$0"0%$F?"/,

C%$ '"B%@"RL&B"6"+ L6";R"+ L#"$T%R (B$ 3 %RF'%1/% &B3R ".$C6<B3&3 B:; "R(+

"@C"P%1$C:M 3'$&P%$6/:; #"R %.:B"1"/ :.F&#A.:B" C%$ %/B$: BFR #;&C:1$JR

%R<@RF&3+.

7: 1928 : Orton #3':&/";&" LR% <6?6: &!"B$C( &B: ."6$:#$C( "School and

Society" (.:; %R%PL6"$ (B$ :$ BL&&"6$+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ .:; &;R$&B:MR B3R ."6$:!A

B:; 1(@:; (C%B%R(3&3 .6:P:6$C:M 1(@:;, %R<@RF&3, :'$1/% C%$ @6%PA) "1L@!:RB%$

%.:C1"$&B$C< %.( B: %6$&B"6( "@C"P%1$C( 3'$&P%/6$:. =%BL13T" &' %;B( B:

&;'.L6%&'% @$%B/ .%6%BA63&" (B$ 01<03 &" '"6$CL+ ."6$:!L+ B:; 3'$&P%$6/:; %;B:M

L!"$ F+ %.:BL1"&'% B3R %.J1"$% '$%+ A ."6$&&:BL6FR 1"$B:;6@$JR B:; 1(@:;, "RJ

01<03 &B:R /#$: %C6$0J+ 0%?'( C%$ &" %RB/&B:$!% &3'"/% B:; #"T$:M 3'$&P%$6/:; #"R

".$PL6"$ %R<1:@% %.:B"1L&'%B%. ' %;BA B3 0<&3 1:$.(R : Orton B:.:?"B"/ B:

.6(013'% B3+ ".$C6<B3&3+ B:; "R(+ ,@C"P%1$C:M Z'$&P%$6/:;. U.:&B36/9"$ %C('3

(B$ :$ %R%@RF&B$CL+ %R".<6C"$"+ "/R%$ #;R%B( R% 06"?:MR &' (1:;+ B:;+ 0%?':M+

&:0%6(B3B%+ &" .%$#$< (1FR BFR 0%?'/#FR R:3':&MR3+ C%$ '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ "@@"R"/+



19

A %.:BL1"&'% %.:C1/&"FR B:; ."6$0<11:RB:+ A B3+ .6:&F.$C(B3B%+.

7: 1936 : Orton %P$L6F&" '$% &"$6< #$%1LT"FR &B3 'RA'3 "R(+ #$<&3':;

%'"6$C%R:M 2;!:1(@:;, B:; Salmon. B$+ #$%1LT"$+ %;BL+ .:; #3':&$"MB3C%R B:

1937 %RL1;&" ?L'%B% &!"B$C< '" .LRB" BM.:;+ '%?3&$%CA+ &;'."6$P:6<+ @$% B:;+

:.:/:;+ .$&B"M"$ (B$ %RB$C%B:.B6/9:;R 1%R?%&'LR3 ".$C6<B3&3 B:; %6$&B"6:M

3'$&P%$6/:;.

1) A R%.B;T$%CA #;&1"T/% A&;RA?3+ #;&C:1/% &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+

!F6/+ "R#"/T"$+ P;&$CJR, R:3B$CJR A &;R%$&?3'%B$CJR %RF'%1$JR. B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+

%;BL+ 3 %C:;&B$CA %R<.B;T3 "/R%$ P;&$:1:@$CA C%$ B: R:3B$C( "./."#: C%1(. 7%

.%$#$< #$%?LB:;R $C%R(B3B% R% ".$1M:;R .6:01A'%B% B% :.:/% #3'$:;6@:MRB%$ %.(

B3 #;&C:1/% &B3R %R<@RF&3. ,./&3+ '.:6:MR '" '"@<13 ";!L6"$% R% '%RB"M:;R B3

&3'%&/% BFR 1LT"FR C%$ BFR C"$'LRFR C%$ #$%?LB:;R ".%6C"/+ :.B$CL+ C%$ :.B$C:-

C$R3B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ &" L6@% .13R B3+ %R<@RF&3+ (.F+ .! B: '.<&C"B '.:1 . H /#$% 3

#$%B%6%!A &B3R %R<@RF&3 "C#31JR"B%$ '" &M@!;&3 C%$ %RB$&B6:PA @6%''<BFR, '"

&M@!;&3 C%$ %RB$&B6:PA 1LT"FR %11< &;!R< C%$ '" &:0%6< :6?:@6%P$C< 1<?3 C%$

#;&C:1/"+ &B3 @6%PA.

2) A R%.B;T$%CA #;&@6%P/%. E$#$CA #;&C:1/% &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ @6%PA+, 3

:.:/% '.:6"/ R% &;R;.<6!"$ '" #;&C:1/% &B3R %R<@RF&3. M"6$CL+ P:6L+

"C#31JR"B%$ '" ;."60:1$CA 06%#MB3B%. " <11"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ B: .6(013'%

"C#31JR"B%$ '" B3 #;&%R<@RF&B3 @6%PA .:; '.:6"/ R% 0"1B$F?"/ %R B: .%$#/ @6<2"$

B% @6<''%B% '" <113 P:6< A '" <11: !L6$. M"6$C< #;&@6%P$C< .%$#$< '.:6"/ R%

@6<P:;R C%B:.B6$C< A R% "/R%$ %'P$#LT$% &B3 @6%PA. E./&3+ '"6$CL+ P:6L+ '.:6"/

R% @6<P:;R C%1MB"6% (B%R #"R .%6%C:1:;?:MR B% !L6$% B:;+.

3. A R%.B;T$%CA “CFP(B3B%” 1LT3+ (word deafness) A .6:&13.B$CA %P%&/%.

B3R ."6/.BF&3 %;BA B% .%$#$< #;&C:1"M:RB%$ R% %R%@RF6/9:;R B:R .6:P:6$C(

1(@:, .%6:;&$<9:;R ".$06<#;R&3 A #$%B%6%!A &B3R :'$1/% %11< #$%?LB:;R C%R:R$CA

%C:A. T: .%$#/ '.:6"/ R% C%B%1<0"$ B% %C:;&B$C< "6"?/&'%B% B:; ."6$0<11:RB:+,

&;@!L"$ ('F+ B3R C%B%R(3&3 1LT"FR. Q$ 1LT"$+ #"R L!:;R @$’ %;B( '"@<13 &3'%&/%.

G%$#$< '" BLB:$% &;'.BJ'%B% 1"$B:;6@:MR F+ "CFP<" %.LR%RB$ &B$+ 1LT"$+ &"

%RB/?"&3 '" C%R:R$C< .%$#$< .:; '.:6"/ R% %@R:A&:;R ."6$0%11:RB$C< "6"?/&'%B%

!F6/+ R(3'% @$’ %;B<. E."$#A 3 %C:;&B$CA C%B<&B%&3 %.:B"1"/ :;&$J#"+ &B:$!"/:

B3+ R:3':&MR3+, .%$#$< '" .6:&13.B$CA %P%&/% #/R:;R B3R "$C(R% C%?;&BL63&3+.

K"$B:;6@$C< ;.<6!"$ C%?;&BL63&3, 3 :.:/% ('F+ .6:L6!"B%$ %.( '$% "$#$CA

%R".<6C"$% &B3R "."T"6@%&/% B:; 1(@:;. H :'$1/% "./&3+ &’ %;B< B% .%$#$< &;RA?F+



20

.%6:;&$<9"$ ".$06<#;R&3. T: 1"CB$C( .6:](R .%6:;&$<9"$ &M@!;&3 C%$ #$%B%6%!A

%RB/&B:$!3 '’ %;BA .:; ;.<6!"$ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ #$%B%6%!JR %C:A+. I"R$C<, BLB:$%

.%$#$< '.:6"/ #";B"6:@"RJ+ R% .%6:;&$<&:;R #$%B%6%!A %R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+.

4) A R%.B;T$%CA "CP6%&B$CA %P%&/%. T% .%$#$< '" BLB:$% #$%B%6%!A

.%6:;&$<9:;R %6@A %R<.B;T3 C%$ #$%B%6%@'LR3 :'$1/%, C%B%R::MR ('F+ ".%6CJ+

B:R .6:P:6$C( 1(@:. S"/!R:;R L11"$23 .6:&:!A+ &B% .6:P:6$C<, 1"CB$C<

"6"?/&'%B% C%$ C<R:;R .6:&.<?"$% R% "CP6%&B:MR. E./&3+ %R%@RF6/9:;R B% 1<?3,

B(&: &B3R :'$1/% B:;+, (&: C%$ &B3R :'$1/% BFR <11FR. M"6$CL+ P:6L+ '.:6"/ R%

.%6:;&$<&:;R #$%B%6%!A &B3R <6?6F&3 A C%$ B6%;1$&'(. EP(&:R %R%.BMT:;R B:

1(@: C<R:;R @6A@:6"+ .6:(#:;+.

5) A R%.B;T$%CA #;&.6%T/%. A R%.B;T$%CA %RJ'%13 #"T$(B3B% (':$% '" B3

#"T$(B3B% "R(+ #"T$(!"$6% .:; .6:&.%?"/ R% !63&$':.:$A&"$ B: %6$&B"6( B:; !L6$.

T: .%$#/ '" #;&P%&/% ':$<9"$ C;6$:1"CB$C< R% L!"$ “#M: %6$&B"6< !L6$%” C%$ “#M:

#"T$< .(#$%” M.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<9"$ ".$06<#;R&3 &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ 0<#$&3+, B:;

C:;'.J'%B:+ BFR 6:M!FR, B:; .3#A'%B:+, B3+ !6A&3+ .:#31<B:; C .%. E./&3+

'.:6"/ R% ".36"%&B:MR :$ ';+ B3+ :'$1/%+ C%?J+ C%$ :$ '$C6:/ ';+ BFR !"6$JR.TL1:+

LR% .%$#/ '" #;&.6%T/% '.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<9"$ #$%B%6%!L+ :'$1/%+ C%$ @6%PA+.

O Orton ./&B";" (B$ (1"+ %;BL+ :$ #$%B%6%!L+ .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( &M@C6:;&3 A

&M@!;&3 &B3 '"B%0/0%&3 '3R;'<BFR '"B%TM BFR #M: 3'$&P%$6/FR. B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+

(.:; B: %6$&B"6( 3'$&P%/6$: "1L@!"$ B$+ 1"$B:;6@/"+ B3+ :'$1/%+, B3+ %R<@RF&3+ C%$

B3+ @6%PA+ #"R #3'$:;6@:MRB%$ BLB:$"+ &;@!M&"$+ A &;@C6:M&"$+ @$%B/ %;B( B:

3'$&P%/6$: "/R%$ ;."M?;R: @$% B$+ 1"$B:;6@/"+ %;BL+. B% &MR#6:'% .:; ."6$L@6%2" :

Orton "."$#A B: %6$&B"6( 3'$&P%/6$: #"R L!"$ B:R L1"@!:, @$’ %;B( B: 1(@:

#3'$:;6@:MRB%$ %;BL+ :$ &;@!M&"$+ C%$ :$ &;@C6:M&"$+.

G6$R %.( B:R 20: %$JR% '"6$CL+ %.( B$+ C1%&&$CL+ '"1LB"+ BFR ."$6%'%B$CJR

2;!:1(@FR "/!%R %R%P"6?"/ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% B3+ %R<@RF&3+ !F6/+ ('F+ R% #J&:;R

C%'$< RMT3 @$% B: .6(013'% BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+, %;B( C%?' %;B(. Q Cattell, :

Javal, : Edmann, : Dodge LC%R%R '"1LB"+ @$% B3 &!L&3 .:; ;.<6!"$ %R<'"&% &B:;+

:.B$C:M+ '3!%R$&':M+ C%$ &B3R %R<@RF&3. N'F+ '(R: &B$+ %6!L+ B:; 20:; %$JR% :$

2;!:1(@:$, C%$ $#$%/B"6% :$ 2;!:.%$#%@F@:/, <6!$&%R R% "R#$%PL6:RB%$ @$% B:

.6(013'% BFR #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+.

Z &;'0:1A BFR 2;!:1(@FR C%$ BFR .%$#%@F@JR ;.A6T" &3'%RB$CA %P"R(+

@$%B/ &;RL0%1" &B3 #3'$:;6@/% ?"F63B$C:M ;.(0%?6:; &B:R B:'L% BFR #;&C:1$JR

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ %P"BL6:; @$%B/ :$ ".$&BA':R"+ %;B:/ #$%'(6PF&%R C6$BA6$% @$% B3



21

'LB63&3 B3+ %R%@RF&B$CA+ "./#:&3+ C%$ "."&A'%R%R B$+ C%B<1131"+ '"?(#:;+

#$#%&C%1/%+. \B&$ :$ ':R:@6%P/"+ BFR %'"6$C%RJR 2;!:.%$#%@F@JR W. F. Dearborn

C%$ E. B. Huey, .%6(1: .:; #"R %R%PL6:RB%$ &B: .6(013'% BFR #;&C:1$JR

%R<@RF&3+ %;B( C%?' %;B(, !63&$'"M:;R %C('% C%$ &A'"6% &B:;+ "$#$C:M+. D.( B3R

<113 '"6$< @RF&B:/ 2;!:1(@:$ C%$ .%$#%@F@:/ (.F+ : Otis, : Thorndike C%$ <11:$,

C%B%&C"M%&%R C6$BA6$% @$% B3 'LB63&3 B3+ %R%@RF&B$CA+ "./#:&3+ C%$ .6(B"$R%R

"$#$CL+ '"?(#:;+ #$#%&C%1/%+ .:; !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ 'L!6$ &A'"6%.

Q W. S. Gray, 2;!:1(@:+ &B: .%R".$&BA'$: B:; $C<@:;, &" &!"B$C( <6?6: B:;

%R%PL6"B%$ &B% %/B$% .:; .6:C%1:MR B$+ %R%@RF&B$CL+ %R".<6C"$"+. ;@C"C6$'LR%,

#$%C6/R"$ B% %/B$% &" #M: C%B3@:6/"+:

%) %/B$% .:; %R%PL6:RB%$ &" %R".%6CA P:/B3&3 &B: &!:1"/:, C%CA C%B<&B%&3

;@"/%+, C%CA #$%B6:PA, R";6:1:@$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+, :.B$CL+ C%$ %C:;&B$CL+ 01<0"+

C%?J+ C%$ 01<03 &B3 #:'A B:; "@C"P<1:;.

0) A/B$% '" 2;!:1:@$C( !%6%CBA6%, (.F+ @"R$CA R:3B$CA %R$C%R(B3B%,

%R".%6CA+ .6:&:!A, ."6$:6$&'LR3 $C%R(B3B% &;&!LB$&3+, %R%@RJ6$&3+ C%$ 'RA'3+.

O Gray &;RL!$&", F+ B: 1959, !6:R$< .:M .L?%R", R% "C#/#"$ ."6$1A2"$+ BFR "6";RJR

.:; #$"T<@:RB%R &B:R B:'L% B3+ %R<@RF&3+ @"R$C< C%$ &;RL0%1" &3'%RB$C< &B3R

.6:J?3&3 BFR &!"B$CJR .6:013'<BFR.

O/ '"1LB"+ "./&3+ B3+ A ;gusta Br :nner C%$ B3+ Letta Hollingworth

.%6:;&$<9:;R $#$%/B"6: "R#$%PL6:R. H Br :nner AB%R 2;!:1(@:+ &" .%$#$%B6$CA

C1$R$CA B:; $C<@:;. " @RF&B( &M@@6%''% B3+ #$%.6%@'%B"M"B%$ B$+ "$#$CL+

%R".<6C"$"+ .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; 1(@:; C%$ &" <11"+ R:3B$CL+

1"$B:;6@/"+, C%?J+ C%$ &B$+ %R".<6C"$"+ &B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ &B3R :6?:@6%P/%.

`%&/9"$ B$+ ."6$@6%PL+ B3+ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ .%$#$JR .:; "TLB%&" 3 /#$% ("PB< %@(6$%)

B% :.:/% .%6:;&/%9%R !%6%CB36$&B$C< &;'.BJ'%B% #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ C%$

:6?:@6%P/%+.

Z 2;!:1(@:+ Hollingworth 0<&$&" B$+ .%6%B36A&"$+ &" .%$#$< .:; "TLB%&" 3

/#$% C%$ ;.:&BA6$T" (B$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ C%$ :6?:@6%P/%+ #"R :P"/1:RB%$ &"

"@@"R"/+ R";6:1:@$CL+ 01<0"+. I$' %;B( :$ ."6$.BJ&"$+ %;BJR BFR .%$#$JR #$%PL6:;R

%.( B:;+ 'L&:;+- C%R:R$C:M+ '%?3BL+ '(R: &" 0%?'( "./#:&3+. DR%PL6"$ %C('3 (B$

B% .%$#$< '" #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ %.:B"1:MR B: ""T%&?"R3'LR:" BL1:+ B3+

C%B%R:'A+ BFR '%?3BJR. ,./&3+ 3 Hollingworth .$&B"M"$ (B$ ;231A "./#:&3 &B3R

%R<@RF&3 &;R#L"B%$ C%$ '" ;231A R:3':&MR3, !F6/+ ('F+ %;B( R% %.:B"1"/ C%R(R%.

e+ .6:+ B% %/B$% .:; .6:C%1:MR %;BL+ B$+ %R".<6C"$"+ &;'PFR"/ '" B3R <.:23 B:;



22

Hinshelwood (B$ :P"/1:RB%$ &" "@@"R"/+ %R".<6C"$"+ A "%@"R"&/%" C<.:$%+ ."6$:!A+

B:; "@C"P<1:;.



23

4FTQK@RVM W?LQ>OOPQ>@M KTF GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF.

H '"1LB3 C%$ 3 %RB$'"BJ.$&3 BFR M%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR '"B< B3R ".:!A B3+

R";6:P;&$:1:@$CA+ .6:&L@@$&3+, C%?J+ &B: !J6: <6!$&%R R% "'.1LC:RB%$ C%$ <11"+ "$#$C(B3B"+ .13R BFR $%B6$CJR C%$ C;6/F+ BFR 2;!:1(@FR, ".$CLRB6F&" B:

"R#$%PL6:R B3+ &B: .J+ LR% .%$#/ "CB"1"/ LR% L6@:. S$%.$&BJ?3C" (B$ B% .%$#$<

C$R3B:.:$:MR &B:$!"/% BFR #"T$:BABFR C%$ !%6%CB36$&B$CJR B:;+, B% :.:/%

:R:'<9:RB%$ #$%#$C%&/"+. A#;R%'/% &" '/% A ."6$&&(B"6"+ #$%#$C%&/"+ '.:6"/ R%

"6'3R"M&"$ B3R %.:B;!/% B:; .%$#$:M R% "CB"1L&"$ LR% L6@:. H ?L&3 %;BA B%;B/9"B%$

'" B$+ 0%&$CL+ %.(2"$+ B3+ ".:!A+ @M6F %.( B% &B:$!"/% C%$ B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< .:;

%.%6B/9:;R B3 R:3B$CA $C%R(B3B% C%$ "/!" F+ %.:BL1"&'% B3 #$%'(6PF&3

%R%1;B$CJR C6$B36/FR @$% B3R %T$:1(@3&3 @RF&B$CJR, %RB$13.B$CJR C%$ R:3B$CJR

$C%R:BABFR BFR .%$#$JR. IRF&B< "/R%$ B% B"&B WISC @$% B3 R:3':&MR3, ITPA @$%

B3R %T$:1(@3&3 2;!:@1F&&$CJR-@RF&B$CJR $C%R:BABFR FROSTIG @$% B3R

%T$:1(@3&3 %RB$13.B$CJR $C%R:BABFR C .%.

G%6’ (1: .:; C<.:$:$ %.( B:;+ "$#$C:M+ ;$:?LB3&%R B:;+ 0%&$C:M+ %;B:M+

2;!:'"B6$C:M+ C%R(R"+ B3+ ".:!A+, (.F+ : Kirk, :$ ."6$&&(B"6:$ ."6$:6/&B3C%R &"

<B;.% C6$BA6$% B% :.:/% %T$:1:@:M&%R .6:01A'%B% &B3 #$%#$C%&/% '" 0<&3 "/B" B3R

"'."$6/% B:;+ A B3R .6:&F.$CA B:;+ #$%/&?3&3. \B&$ : .6:&#$:6$&'(+ B:;+ AB%R

C%?%6< .6%CB$C(+ C%$ %R 3 ?"6%."/% 0"1B/FR" B% .6:01A'%B% B(B" ?"F63B$C< 3

#$<@RF&A B:;+ AB%R &F&BA.

3'%RB$CA AB%R 3 &;'0:1A B3R ".:!A %;BA BFR Kephart, Kirk C%$ Frostig. O

Kephart ;.:&BA6$9" (B$ L6@% (.F+ : &!"#$%&'(+ "R(+ B"B6%@JR:;, '.:6"/ R%

%R%1;?:MR &" 0%&$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ (.F+ :.B$C:.:/3&3, C%?:#A@3&3 @6%P:C$R3B$CA

C .%. A RL.B;T" '$% C1/'%C% (Perceptual Motor Rating Scale) @$% R% %T$:1:@A&"$ B$+

P<&"$+ "C"/R"+ B3+ %R<.B;T3+, :$ :.:/"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R .6(013'% C%$ !6"$<9:RB%$

?"6%."/%. A ;BL+ :$ P<&"$+ %P:6:M&%R B:R :P?%1'$C( L1"@!: C%$ B3R %RB/1323 B3+

@6%PA+. T: 0%&$C( %T/F'% B:; Kephart AB%R 3 %RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$CA :1:C1A6F&3

(01 . &!A'%). T: %$&?3B36$%C( "$&$(R (input) .6L."$ R% “:1:C136F?"/” &B3R C$R3B$CA

"./@RF&3 B:; .%$#$:M &" &!L&3 '" B% ;1$C< .:; .6:C%1:MR B: "6L?$&'%. A ;B(

.6:h.:?LB"$ '$% "&FB"6$CA #$"6@%&/% :1:C1A6F&3+ 3 :.:/% ."6$1%'0<R"$

.6:h.<6!:;&"+ "'."$6/"+. N1% B% .6:@6<''%B% .%6L'0%&3+ B:; Kephart

&!"#$<&B3C%R @$% R% %R%.BMT:;R %;BA B3R "&FB"6$CA &B%?"6:.:/3&3 C%$ ".<6C"$%.



24

T: L6@: B3+ Marian Frostig E.$C"RB6J?3C" &B$+ :.B$C:-%RB$13.B$CL+

#"T$(B3B"+ @$% B$+ :.:/"+ ./&B";" (B$ %.:B"1:MR B3 0<&3 B3+ &!:1$CA+ ".$B;!/%+.

G/&B";" (B$ :$ ."6$&&(B"6"+ ':6PL+ '<?3&3+ ".$B"1:MRB%$ 'L&F BFR :.B$CJR

#$(#FR. I$% B$+ M%?3&$%CL+ S;&C:1/"+ ;.:&BA6$T" (B$ :P"/1:RB%$ &" "1%BBF'%B$CA

%RB$13.B$CA %R<.B;T3 &B% .6JB% &!:1$C< !6(R$%. H Frostig C%B%&C"M%&" B:

Developmental Test of Visual Perception .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B: &;RB:R$&'( '%B$:M-

C/R3&3+, B3 #$<C6$&3 ':6PA+-.1%$&/:;, B3 #$%BA63&3 B3+ ':6PA+ C%$ B3 #$%BA63&3

B:; !J6:;. E./&3+ C%B%&C"M%&" %RB/&B:$!% ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B%. O$

#$%@RF&B$CL+ C%$ ?"6%.";B$CL+ B"!R$CL+ B:; C6$B36/:; %;B:M "/!%R ";6"/% %.:#:!A

&B$+ #"C%"B/"+ B:; '60 C%$ B:; '70 "R'L6"$ @$%B/ AB%R &%PJ+ #:'3'LR"+, "MC:1"+ &B3R

"P%6':@A C%$ "R#$%PL6:;&"+ @$% B% .%$#$<.

O Samuel Kirk C%?$L6F&" LR% RL: &M&B3'% C%?:6$&':M C%$ %.:C%B<&B%&3+

BFR M%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR.

T: ?"F63B$C( .6(B;.: B:; ITPA 0%&/9"B%$ &B3 ?"F6/% B:; Charles Osgood

&!"B$C< '" B3R %R?6J.$R3 @1J&&% C%$ ".$C:$RFR/%. T: .6(B;.: %;B( ."6$1%'0<R"$

B6"$+ #$%&B<&"$+:

1) B$+ #$(#:;+ ".$C:$RFR/%+

2) B$+ 2;!:@1F&&$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+

3) B% "./."#% :6@<RF&3+

S/:#:$ ".$C:$RFR/%+: A R%PL6:RB%$ &B:R B6(.: '" B:R :.:/: @/R"B%$ 3

.6(&1323 BFR "6"?$&'<BFR C%$ 3 %.(C6$&3 &’ %;B< (#/:#:$ .6(&1323+-#/:#:$

%.(C6$&3+). T: ITPA ."6$1%'0<R"$ #M: #$(#:;+: B3R :.B$C:C$R3B$CA C%$ B3R

%C:;&B$C:PFR3B$CA, :$ :.:/"+ ?"F6:MRB%$ F+ :$ .$: 0%&$CL+ @$% B3R %@F@A C%$ B3

#$#%&C%1/%.

Y;!:@1F&&$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+: H #$<&B%&3 %;BA ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ 2;!:1:@$CL+

#$"6@%&/"+ .:; "R"6@:.:$:MRB%$ &B3R %.(CB3&3 C%$ !6A&3 B3+ @1J&&%+. H B"1$CA

LC#:&3 B:; ITPA ."6$1%'0<R"$ B6"$+ 0%&$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+: %) B3R .6(&1323

($C%R(B3B% %R%@RJ6$&3+ C%$ C%B%R(3&3+ :.B$CJR C%$ %C:;&B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR) 0)

B3 &;&!LB$&3 ($C%R(B3B% "&FB"6$CA+ "."T"6@%&/%+ "RR:$JR C%$ @1F&&$CJR

&;'0(1FR) C%$ @) B3R LCP6%&3 ($C%R(B3B% LCP6%&3+ BFR $#"JR "/B" '" 1(@: "/B" '"

!"$6:R:'/"+).

E./."#% :6@<RF&3+: %R%PL6:RB%$ &B: 0%?'( 1"$B:;6@$CA+ :6@<RF&3+ BFR

"'."$6$JR B:; %B(':;. T: C1$R$C( .6(B;.: B:; ITPA L!"$ #M: "./."#%: %) B: R:3B$C(

"./."#:. T: "./."#: %;B( ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ '" B$+ :.:/"+ B: <B:': ".$B"1"/



25

B$+ "&FB"6$CL+ 1:@$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+ .:; "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B"+ @$% B3R "6'3R"/% C%$ B3

&;&!LB$&3 BFR .%6%&B<&"FR, C%?J+ C%$ @$% B3R LCP6%&3 BFR "RR:$JR. 0) B: "./."#:

%;B:'%B$&':M. ’ %;B( :$ #"T$(B3B"+ B:; %B(':; "/R%$ %C:M&$"+ %11< C%1MB"6%

:6@%RF'LR"+ C%$ :1:C136F'LR"+. H '3!%R$CA PM&3 B:; ".$.L#:; %;B:'%B$&':M

"/R%$ %.:BL1"&'% BFR &;!RJR ".%R%1A2"FR C%$ .1":R%&'JR &B3R "'."$6/% B:;

%B(':;.

O$ B6"$+ %;BL+ #$%&B<&"$+ - #/:#:$, #$"6@%&/"+, "./."#% - !63&$'"M:;R &B:R

C%?:6$&'( BFR 2;!:@1F&&$CJR $C%R:BABFR B:; %B(':;. M$% 2;!:@1F&&$CA

$C%R(B3B% '.:6"/ R% C%?:6$&B"/ F+ '$% "$#$CA #$"6@%&/% 3 :.:/% 1"$B:;6@"/ 'L&% %.(

'$% $#$%/B"63 #/:#: &’ LR% :6$&'LR: "./."#: :6@<RF&3+. T: ?"F63B$C( %;B( .6(B;.:

L!"$ !63&$':.:$3?"/ F+ 0<&3 @$% B3R C%B%&C";A ".$'L6:;+ B"&B. 7% B"&B %;B<

0:3?:MR &B: R% "RB:.$&'( %R".%6C"$JR &B3R 2;!:@1F&&$CA %R<.B;T3 B:; .%$#$:M,

:$ :.:/"+ .%6"'.:#/9:;R B3R .6:&%6':@A B:; &B: &!:1$C( C%$ C:$RFR$C(

."6$0<11:R. M" 0<&3 "./&3+ B% ".$'L6:;+ %;B< B"&B "/R%$ #;R%B(R R% C%B%6B$&B:MR

?"6%.";B$C< #$#%CB$C< .6:@6<''%B% @$% B3R %.<1"$23 A B3 0"1B/F&3 BFR "$#$CJR

%R".%6C"$JR B3+ 2;!:@1F&&$CA+ %R<.B;T3+. H &B%?'$&'LR3 &B3R ,11<#% LC#:&3

B:; ITPA ."6$1%'0<R"$ 12 ".$'L6:;+ B"&B LT$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#: C%$ LT$ &B:

"./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

T: ':RBL1: "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR B: :.:/: .6:B"/R"$ B: ITPA

%.:B"1"/ B3 0<&3 .<RF &B3R :.:/% C%B%&C";<9:RB%$ B% ':RBL1% "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR

.136:P:6$JR 'L!6$ &A'"6%.

3.1 MLFKVNG >W>Y>?OGQPGM KJM GFXOFTQJM

G"6$:!L+ "./#:&3+ (.F+ 3 %R<@RF&3 C%$ 3 :6?:@6%P/% '.:6"/ R% %R%1;?:MR

&" B6/% #$%P:6"B$C< "./."#%, &B: "./."#: B3+ ".<6C"$%+, &B: "./."#: B3+ @RF&B$CA+

1"$B:;6@/%+ C%$ &B: R";6:1:@$C( "./."#: B: :.:/: L!"$ A#3 %R%1;?"/ .6:3@:;'LRF+.

T: "./."#: B3+ ".<6C"$%+ "/R%$ :;&$J#"+ .6:C"$'LR:; R% :6$&B"/ '$%

'%?3&$%CA #;&C:1/%. T: @RF&B$C( "./."#: %.:B"1"/ B: .6JB: 0A'% @$% B3

#3'$:;6@/% "R(+ ':RBL1:; B3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR, &B: :.:/:

.%6:;&$<9:RB%$ 1"$B:;6@$C< C%?:6$&'LR% &;&BA'%B%, &" &;R#;%&'( '" B% C%R<1$%

".$C:$RFR/%+ B:;+. TLB:$% ':RBL1% "/R%$ !6A&$'% @$% B3R C%B%R(3&3 B:;

.6:01A'%B:+ BFR M%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR.

\R% .6FB:B;.$C( .%6<#"$@'% "R(+ BLB:$:; &!A'%B:+ '%+ #/R"$ B: “1:@:@"R$C(”



26

':RBL1: .:; #$%B;.J?3C" %.( B:R Morton (1968-69). T: ':RBL1: %;B( &!"#$<&B3C"

@$% R% "6'3R"M&"$ B3R "./#6%&3 B:; ."6$"!:'LR:; &B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ &B:R

.6:P:6$C( 1(@:. O Morton ;$:?LB3&" B3R ;.(?"&3 (B$ 3 ".%PA %R<'"&% &B$+

"$&"6!('"R"+ %$&?3B36$%CL+ .136:P:6/"+ C%$ &B3R C"RB6$C< %.:?3C";'LR3

%R%.%6<&B%&3 "RR:$JR C%$ 1(@:; '.:6"/ R% ".$B";!?"/ '" B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 '$%+

1LT3+ A "R(+ ':6PA'%B:+ C%$ B:; &;&BA'%B:+ %.:'R3'(R";&3+. A ;B( : Morton B:

:R('%&" “1:@:@"R$C(” &M&B3'%.

A.( B3R ".:!A B:; Morton C%$ '" B3 0%&$CA %;BA $#L% L!:;R .6:B%?"/ #$<P:6%

&!A'%B% B% :.:/% #$%P:6:.:/3&%R C%$ "."T"6@<&B3C%R B: %6!$C(. B$+ ".('"R"+

"."T"6@%&/"+ ".$!"$6A?3C" R% #$%&%P3R$&B:MR :$ #$%C6/&"$+ %R<'"&% &B3R

%R%@RJ6$&3 BFR "6"?$&'<BFR C%$ B: .6:](R B3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ B:;+, %R<'"&% &B3R

"$C:R$&B$CA %R%.%6<&B%&3 %.( B3R .1";6< B3+ .6(&1323+ C%$ B3R .%6%@F@A

.6:P:6$C:M C%$ @6%.B:M 1(@:; %.( B3R .1";6< B:; .6:](RB:+.

O$ Morton C%$ Patterson (1980) ;.:&BA6$T%R (B$ 3 :.B$CA .6(&1323 %.:B"1"/

&;RL6@$% %R<'"&% &B3 “1"T$1:@$CA” #$%#$C%&/% C%$ &B3 “'3 1"T$1:@$CA” #$%#$C%&/%

'"B<P6%&3+ @6%PA'%B:+ PFRA'%B:+. " (,B$ %P:6< B$+ 0%&$CL+ %R%@RF&B$CL+

1"$B:;6@/"+ L!"$ '$C6A %T/% R% ;.:&B36/9"$ C%R"/+ B3R M.%6T3 C"RB6$CJR

&;&B3'<BFR &;RL6@"$%+ %R<'"&% &B3R %R%.%6<&B%&3 BFR "RR:$JR, B3R

%R%.%6<&B%&3 B:; 1(@:; C%$ B3R :.B$CA %R<1;&3 C%$ B:R C%?:6$&'( B:; LRB;.:;

C%$ @6%.B:M 1(@:;. T% #M: .6JB% &;&BA'%B% #31%#A :$ %R%.%6%&B<&"$+ BFR

"RR:$JR C%$ B:; 1(@:; :6/9:RB%$ F+ &3'%&$:1:@$C(+ C%$ PFR:1:@$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+

"RJ B: B6/B: F+ :.B$C(+ @6%P3'$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+. H #$%P:6:.:/3&3 &"

“@6%P3'$C(+” #31JR"$ (B$ : "."T"6@%&BA+ %;B(+ "T"$#$C"M"B%$ &B: !"$6$&'( B:;

LRB;.:; 1(@:; C%$ 1"$B:;6@$C< #$%PL6"$ %.( B:R :.B$C( "."T"6@%&BA : :.:/:+

"T"$#$C"M"B%$ &B3R %R<1;&3 C%$ &B:R C%?:6$&'( BFR %RB$C"$'LRFR.

3'%&$:1:@$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+. T: &M&B3'% %;B( '.:6"/ R% ?"F63?"/ F+ 0<&3

@$% B3R C%B%R(3&3 C%$ F+ .3@A BFR .6:?L&"FR :$ :.:/"+ '.:6"/ R% "CP6%&B:MR

'L&F B3+ :'$1/%+ A B3+ "RL6@"$%+. E'."6$L!"B%$ &B3R "T"$#/C";&3 BFR

&3'%&$:1:@$CJR !%6%CB36$&B$CJR, BFR 1"CB$CJR "RR:$JR &" (B$ %P:6< %RB$C"/'"R%

C%$ #:'3'LR"+ &;RB%CB$C< .6:B<&"$+.

iFR:1:@$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+. O "."T"6@%&BA+ %;B(+ ?"F6"/B%$ F+ &M&B3'%

.%6%@F@A+ :'$1/%+ B: :.:/: ."6$1%'0<R"$ '$% “%.:?AC3” 1"T$1:@/:;, C%R(R"+

@6%''%B$CA+ C%$ LCP6%&3+ C%?J+ C%$ LR% PFR3B$C( "./."#: &B3R .%6:;&/%&3 B:;

1(@:;.



27

O.B$C(+ - @6%P3'$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+. A.:B"1"/ LR% &M&B3'% @$% B3R %R<1;&3

B:; LRB;.:; C%$ @6%.B:M 1(@:; C%?J+ C%$ @$% B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 :$C"/FR @6%P3'$CJR

':6PJR &;'."6$1%'0%R:'LRFR BFR @6%''<BFR, :'<#FR @6%''<BFR, ':6P3'<BFR

C%$ 1LT"FR.M:RBL1% %;B:M B:; BM.:; #/R:;R B3 #;R%B(B3B% R% #$%0<9"$ C%R"/+ B$+

1LT"$+ '" B6"$+ B6(.:;+ (Seymour 1986).

" ) A9> #% 0%$A:0+'> /#% /:0"/+%=%3+'>

H 1"$B:;6@/% %;B:M B:; B6(.:; %.%$B"/ B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 '$%+ 1LT3+ A "R(+

':6PA'%B:+ '" :.B$CA "."T"6@%&/% C%$ '" '"B%0/0%&3 "R(+ &A'%B:+, B: :.:/:

:6/9"B%$ F+ m (01L." &!A'%), %.( B:R :.B$C( &B: &3'%&$:1:@$C( "."T"6@%&BA. O$

1"$B:;6@/"+ B:; &3'%&$:1:@$C:M "."T"6@%&BA '.:6"/ R% "1L@!:;R '$% C$R3B$CA

%RB/#6%&3 3 :.:/% #31JR"$ C%B%R(3&3 A "CP6<9"$ B: %.:BL1"&'% '$%+ C6/&3+.

E R%11%CB$C< 3 '"B%0/0%&3 '$%+ .136:P:6/%+ %.( B:R &3'%&$:1:@$C( &B:R

PFR:1:@$C( "."T"6@%&BA '.:6"/ R% %.:B"1"/ '$% ".$1:@A "/B" %.( B3R “%.:?AC3”

B:; 1"T$1:@/:; "/B" %.( B3R .%6%@F@A B3+ :'$1/%+.

B ) A9> #% 0%$A:0+'> /#% A4)%=%3+'>.

O B6(.:+ %;B(+ "T%6B<B%$ %.( B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 '$%+ 1LT3+ A "R(+ ':6PA'%B:+

&B:R :.B$C(-@6%P3'$C( "."T"6@%&BA C%$ %.( B3 '"B%0/0%&3 "R(+ &A'%B:+ m (01L."

&!A'%) .6:+ B:R PFR:1:@$C( "."T"6@%&BA, (.:; '.:6"/ %.";?"/%+ R% %.";?;R?"/ &"

'$% C%B<11313 "/&:#: &B3R “%.:?AC3” B:; 1"T$1:@/:; C%$ LB&$ R% .%6%!?"/ F+ '$%

PFR3B$CA %RB/#6%&3.

3 ) C$"A%- A4):#+'D 0(#?A$"/:

H %R%@RJ6$&3 @6%P3'<BFR C%$ &;R#;%&'JR @6%P3'<BFR &B:R :.B$C(

"."T"6@%&BA :#3@"/ &" '"B%0/0%&3 &3'<BFR G (01L." &!A'%) %.( B: :.B$C(-

@6%P3'$C( &B:R PFR:1:@$C( "."T"6@%&BA (.:; '.:6"/ R% %.";?MR"B%$ &" '$%

“%.:?AC3” PFR3B$CJR &B:$!"/FR. T% PFR3B$C< %;B< &B:$!"/% '.:6"/ R% :6@%RF?:MR

&" &"$6< C%$ R% !63&$':.:$3?:MR @$% %.’ ";?"/%+ L1"@!: B3+ .%6%@F@A+ B:; 1(@:;.

E R%11%CB$C< '.:6"/ R% %.";?MR:RB%$ &B3 1"T$1:@$CA “%.:?AC3” C%$ R% !63&$'"M:;R

@$% R% ".$1"@"/ LR% L6@: %.( %;BAR.

O + =(+#%6$3-(@ #%6 %9#+'%E- 3$"A:0+'%E (9(F($3"/#D.

O :.B$C(+-@6%P3'$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+ %.:B"1"/ LR% %.( B% #:'$C< &B:$!"/% B:;

':RBL1:; "6'3R"/%+ B3+ %R<@RF&3+. " LR% %RJB%B: "./."#: ."6$1%'0<R"$ '$%

%R%@RJ6$&3 !J6:; %R<1:@3 '" B: :.B$C( "6L?$&'% B:; “1:@:@"R$C:M” ':RBL1:;. H

1"$B:;6@/% B:; "."T"6@%&BA %;B:M '.:6"/ R% ?"F63?"/ F+ '"B%&!3'%B$&'(+

%R"."TL6@%&BFR :.B$CJR #"#:'LRFR &" ':6PA %R%@RF6/&$'3 &B: !J6: ..! .



28

%P%$6"B$C:/ :.B$C:/ CJ#$C"+ :$ :.:/:$ &3'%B:#:B:MR B3R :RB(B3B% C%$ B3 ?L&3 "R(+

@6<''%B:+. O$ :#:/ .:; :R:'<9:RB%$ G C%$ m %.( B:R :.B$C( &B: PFR:1:@$C(

"."T"6@%&BA #$%C6/R:RB%$ %R<1:@% '" B% '"@L?3 BFR @6%P3'$CJR "R:BABFR .:;

C%?:6/9:;R. B3R :#( m :$ @6%P3'$CL+ "R(B3B"+ "/R%$ ";6"/"+ C%$ %RB%.:C6/R:RB%$

&" &MR:1% A &;R#;%&':M+ 1LT"FR. B3R :#( G '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ '$C6< A '"':RF'LR%

@6%PA'%B% A &;R#;%&':/ 2-3 @6%''<BFR PFR3LRBFR A &;'PJRFR.

T: ':RBL1: %;B( L!"$ "P%6':@A &B3R "6'3R"/% B3+ %R<@RF&3+. Q$

%R%.B;T$%CL+ ?"F6/"+ BFR Bryant C%$ Bradley (1980) %R%PL6:RB%$ &" PFR:1:@$CL+

C%$ :.B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+, &B3 #$%#$C%&/% B3+ %R<@RF&3+. Q Frith (1985)

!63&$':.:/3&" B:R (6: "1:@:@6%P$CA" &B6%B3@$CA @$% R% ."6$@6<2"$ B3 #;R%B(B3B%

:1$CA+ %R%@RJ6$&3+ BFR 1LT"FR C%$ "%1P%03B$CA" &B6%B3@$CA @$% B3 @6%P:-

PFR3B$CA '"B<P6%&3. I"R$C< &A'"6% ;.:&B36/9"B%$ (B$ '$% %R%.B;T$%CA %R<1;&3

'.:6"/ R% .6:&%6':&B"/ &B: .1%/&$: B3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR %R #L!"B%$

(B$:

%) '$% &B6%B3@$CA %.:B"1"/ '$% LRR:$% B3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR C%$

0) @$% C<?" .%$#/ &" C<?" %R%.B;T$%C( "./."#: ;.<6!"$ LR% 1"$B:;6@$C(

':RBL1: .:; C%?:6/9"$ B% &;&BA'%B% "."T"6@%&/%+ C%$ B% 0A'%B% .:; "/R%$

C%B<1131% @$' %;B(.

Z %R<.B;T3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+ ."6$1%'0<R"$:

73 #('3&3 "R(+ &;&BA'%B:+ A ;.:&;&BA'%B:+ "."T"6@%&/%+ %RB/&B:$!: '"

%;B( BFR "R31/CFR B: :.:/: ('F+ #"R ;.<6!"$ &B% .6J$'% &B<#$% B3+ %R<@RF&3+

,.LCB%&3 BFR .3@JR .:; "/R%$ C%B<1131"+ @$% LR% $#$%/B"6: &M&B3'% A

;.:&M&B3'%.

G:$C$1/% &B6%B3@$CJR :$ :.:/"+ !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ &" C<?" $#$%/B"6: &M&B3'% A

;.:&M&B3'%.

B: ':RBL1: B:; Seymour : PFR:1:@$C(+ C%$ : &3'%&$:1:@$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+

%.:B"1:MR .6:01".B$C:M+ .%6<@:RB"+ @$% B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+, "P(&:R B:

.%$#/ C%BL!"$ '$% "."T"6@%&'LR3 @RJ&3 B:; C(&':; C%$ '.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$"/

".%6CJ+ B:R .6:P:6$C( 1(@: C%B< B3R "/&:#( B:; &B: &!:1"/:. D.( B3R <113 '"6$<

: :.B$C(+-@6%P3'$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+ %.:B"1"/ 0%&$C( &;&B%B$C( B:; ':RBL1:;

%R<@RF&3+ BFR "R31/CFR, "P(&:R ?"F6:M'" (B$ "T"$#$C"M"B%$ &B3 @6%P3'$CA

1"$B:;6@/% C%$ (!$ &B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 %RB$C"$'LRFR. Q "."T"6@%&BA+ %;B(+, : :.:/:+

%.:;&$<9"$ %.( B% %6!$C< &B<#$% B3+ %R<@RF&3+, .6:&"@@/9"B%$ &B%#$%C< %.( B:

.%$#/. Z #('3&A B:; "/R%$ &MR?"B: "./B";@'%, :;&$J#"+ ('F+ @$% B3R %R<.B;T3 B3+



29

%R<@RF&3+, C%$ %6!/9"$ '" B3 #$<C6$&3 C%$ %R%@RJ6$&3 1LT"FR %.( LR% %6!$C( %.1(

1"T$1(@$: .:; L!"$ %.:CBA&"$ B: .%$#/ 'L&% %.( "$C(R"+ C%$ C%?3'"6$RL+

C%B%&B<&"$+. Z #('3&3 B:; @6%P3'$C:M "."T"6@%&BA "T%6B<B%$ "./&3+ %.( B3R

"#6%/F&3 B3+ %RB$&B:/!3&3+ @6%PA'%B:+-PFRA'%B:+. Q$ Gibson, Pick, Osser C%$

Hammond (1962) ."6$@6<P:;R B: &B<#$: "#6%/F&3+ B:; @6%P3'$C:M "."T"6@%&BA

F+ %R<.B;T3 '$%+ #"T$(B3B%+ #$<C6$&3+ @6%P3'<BFR C%$ &;R#;%&':M @6%P3'<BFR

.:; L!:;R '$% &B%?"6A &!L&3 '" B3R "CP:6< B:;+. Q$ &;R#;%&':/ @6%P3'<BFR

%.:B"1:MR B% :6?:@6%P$C< .6(B;.% &M'PFR:-PFRA"R-&M'PFR: C%$

C%B3@:6$:.:$:MRB%$ F+: D6!$C( &M'PFR:, B"1$C( &M'PFR:, PFRA"R. 7% .6(B;.%

%;B< .6:h.<6!:;R F+ PFR:1:@$C< &B3R %C:;&B$CA "."T"6@%&/% C%$ '"B%PL6:RB%$

&B:R PFR:1:@$C( "."T"6@%&BA.

I"R$C< B% ':RBL1% "."T"6@%&/%+ B3+ %R<@RF&3+ '.:6"/ R% "RB%!?:MR &" #M:

C%B3@:6/"+. " ':RBL1% .:; 0%&/9:RB%$ &B:R LRB;.: 1(@: C%$ "'."6$L!:RB%$ &B3R

%R<@RF&3 (@6%''$C< ':RBL1%) C%$ &" ':RBL1% .:; 0%&/9:RB%$ &B3R "R$%$:.:/3&3

(C<?"B% ':RBL1%). 7% ':RBL1% .:; 0%&/9:RB%$ &B:R LRB;.: 1(@: ?"F6:MR B3R

%R<@RF&3 '$% %RB/&B6:P3 #$%#$C%&/% .:; C$R"/B%$ %.( B$+ '$C6(B"6"+ "R(B3B"+ '$%+

.136:P:6/%+ C"$'LR:;, B% '"':RF'LR% @6<''%B%, &" ";6MB"6"+ "R(B3B"+

.136:P:6$JR. Q$ LRR:$"+ &!3'%B/9:RB%$ %P:M C%?:6$&B:MR :$ 1LT"$+ (Laberge &

Samuels, 1974) 7% ':RBL1% .:; 0%&/9:RB%$ &B3R "R$%$:.:/3&3 ."6$@6<P:;R B3R

%R<@RF&3 F+ C<?"B3 #$%#$C%&/% .:; "T%6B<B%$ %.( B$+ .6:?L&"$+ B:; %R%@RJ&B3.

\R%+ C%1(+ %R%@RJ&B3+ #"R #$%0<9"$ C<?" 1LT3 %11< ".$1L@"$ (&"+ .136:P:6/"+ B:;

!6"$<9:RB%$ @$% R% C%B%R:A&"$ LR% C"/'"R:. Q Goodman (1967) ."6$@6<P"$ B3R

%R<@RF&3 F+ "2;!:@1F&$C( %/R$@'%".

7% @6%''$C< ':RBL1% B"1";B%/% #/R:;R L'P%&3 &B3R %1131"T<6B3&3 BFR

#$%#$C%&$JR .:; ;."$&L6!:RB%$ &B3R %R<@RF&3. 7: %1131".$#6%&B$C( ':RBL1: B3+

Adams (1990) ."6$1%'0<R"$ BL&&"6% ;.:&;&BA'%B% "."T"6@%&/%+ '" B% :.:/%

@/R"B%$ C%B%R:3BA 3 %R<@RF&3 (:6?:@6%P$C(+ "."T"6@%&BA+, PFR:1:@$C(+,

"."T"6@%&BA+ "RR:$JR, "."T"6@%&BA+ ."6$"!:'LR:;).

Z %R<@RF&3 "/R%$ %6!$C< '$% :.B$CA "RL6@"$%, .:; %6!/9"$ '" B3R :.B$CA

"."T"6@%&/% B:; LRB;.:; 1(@:;. 4" B3 #$#%&C%1/% C%$ B3R .6%CB$CA : L'."$6:+

%R%@RJ&B3+ %6!/9"$ R% %R%@RF6/9"$ C%$ R% %R%.%6$&B< %;B('%B% (!$ '(R:

'"':RF'LR% @6<''%B% %11< C%$ &;'0%B$CL+ %C:1:;?/"+ @6%''<BFR. Z Adams

;.:&BA6$9" (B$ :$ &;&!"B/&"$+ %;BL+ "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B"+ @$% B3 6L:;&% %R<@RF&3.

U.:&BA6$9" "./&3+ (B$ 3 %#;R%'/% "#6%/F&3+ B:; &;&!"B$&':M @6%''<BFR &B3



30

'RA'3 ;.:@6%''/9"$ B3 &M@!;&3 &B3 &"$6< BFR @6%''<BFR, !%6%CB36$&B$C( &"

.:11L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+. Q &3'%RB$C(B"6:+ 6(1:+ B:;

"."T"6@%&BA ."6$"!:'LR:; "/R%$ R% #$%1L@"$ B$+ C%B<1131"+ LRR:$"+ @$% B$+ LRB;."+

1LT"$+. 7: ':RBL1: B3+ Adams ;.:@6%''/9"$ "./&3+ B3 &3'%RB$C(B3B% BFR

PFR:1:@$CJR #$%#$C%&$JR &B3R %R<@RF&3. B3R %1P%03B$CA @6%PA B% @6<''%B% A

:$ &;R#;%&':/ B:;+ %.( '(R:$ B:;+ #"R %R%.%6$&B:MR $#L"+. " %RB/?"&3 '" B3R

.".:/?3&3 (B$ :$ "6L:RB"+" %R%@RJ&B"+ %.:CB:MR B3R LRR:$% %.";?"/%+ %.( B:R

LRB;.: 1(@:, ;.<6!"$ .$?%R(B3B% (B%R #$%0<9:;'" :$C"/"+ 1LT"$+ "/B" R% B$+

&;R#;<9:;'" %;B('%B% "/B" '" PFR:1:@$CA '"B<P6%&3 "/B" R% B$+

%.:CF#$C:.:$:M'" '" :.B$CA %R%@RJ6$&3. 7: :6?:@6%P$C( C%$ B: PFR:1:@$C(

&M&B3'% &;'0<11:;R &B:R L1"@!: C%$ &B3 #$%BA63&3 (Liberman, 1984, Pennington

et.al. 1987).

DB;!J+ B: ':RBL1: B3+ Adams #/R"$ '$C6A L'P%&3 &B:R "RR:$:1:@$C(

"."T"6@%&BA : (.:/:+ "/R%$ ;."M?;R:+ @$% B3R "C'<?3&3 C%$ "."T"6@%&/% BFR

"RR:$JR BFR 1LT"FR C%$ '$C6JR &3'%&$:1:@$CJR "R:BABFR. S/R"$ "./&3+ '$C6A

L'P%&3 &B3 &;RB%CB$CA "."T"6@%&/% 3 :.:/% '.:6"/ R% ."6$@6%P"/ F+ @RJ&3 BFR

':RBL1FR BFR .6:B<&"FR (Rumelhart, 1977).

3.2 LFKVNL OFTQK@RSF QK?GKJO@RSF

4L!6$ .6(&P%B%, (.F+ %R%PL6?3C", B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

!%6%CB36/9:RB%$ %.( C<.:$% :;&$J#3 %R".<6C"$% &" 0%&$CL+ @RF&B$CL+ 1"$B:;6@/"+.

=<.:$"+ C:$RL+ "6'3R"/"+, %C('3 C%$ ':RBL6R"+, ;.:&B36/9:;R (B$ B% .%$#$<

“ ;.:PL6:;R” %.( LR% "/#:+ %R".<6C"$%+ &B3R "./#:&3 C%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/%.

D.:B;@!<R:;R &" @RF&B$CL+ 1"$B:;6@/"+, (.F+ %RB/1323, .6:&:!A, 'RA'3. 7LB:$"+

"6'3R"/"+ .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( C1$R$CL+ C%$ .%$#%@F@$CL+ .%6%B36A&"$+. ,P(&:R B%

.%$#$< .%6:;&$<9:;R %R".<6C"$"+ &" .%6%#:&$%C< B"&B %RB$13.B$CJR C%$ @RF&B$CJR

$C%R:BABFR "/R%$ P;&$C(, %11< B%;B(!6:R% C%$ %.1:]C(, R% %.:#/#:;R &j %;BL+ B$+

.%6%'LB6:;+ LR%R %$B$:1:@$C( 6(1:. j LR% 1:@$C( "./."#: "'P%R/9:RB%$ #M:

"RR:$:1:@$C< %11< C%$ &;R#"('"R% .6:01A'%B% .:; &!"B/9:RB%$ '" B: "$#$C( C%$ B3

&:0%6(B3B% B3+ #$%B%6%!A+. Q$ ?"F6/"+ .:; .6:&%R%B:1/9:RB%$ &B$+ #$%#$C%&/"+ #"R

'.:6:MR R% "6'3R"M&:;R @$%B/ 3 #$%B%6%!A ."6$:6/9"B%$ %.:C1"$&B$C< A C;6/F+ &B3

'<?3&3. DR LR% .%$#/ '" #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ ..! . ;.:PL6"$ %.( @"R$C< .6:01A'%B%

&B3R %RB/1323 C%$ &B3R <'"&3 'RA'3, B(B" @$%B/ :$ %R".<6C"$"+ %;BL+ #"R



31

"C#31JR:RB%$ &B3R C%?3'"6$RA @RF&B$CA 1"$B:;6@/% A &" <11% @RF&B$C<

%RB$C"/'"R%; 4" <11% 1(@$% :$ %.(2"$+ .:; .6:&%R%B:1/9:RB%$ &B3 @RF&B$CA

1"$B:;6@/% L!:;R '"@<1"+ #;&C:1/"+ &B:R C%?:6$&'( B:; "$#$C:M B3+ #$%B%6%!A+.

DRB/&B:$!%, BLB:$"+ %.(2"$+ #"R '.:6"/ R% "6'3R"M&:;R ".%6CJ+ C%$ B3 &:0%6(B3B%

B:; .6:01A'%B:+. GJ+ ..! . LR% .%$#/ .:; L!"$ A.$% .6:01A'%B% <'"&3+ 'RA'3+

'.:6"/ R% L!"$ C%R:R$CA "./#:&3 &" B"&B R:3':&MR3+, "RJ L!"$ !%'31A "./#:&3 &B3R

%R<@RF&3; D.( B$+ .%6%.<RF ".$&3'<R&"$+ P%/R"B%$ .(&: #M&C:1: "/R%$ R% @/R"$

#$<C6$&3 %R<'"&% &B: P;&$:1:@$C( C%$ &B3R %R".<6C"$% 'L&% &B3R /#$% #$%#$C%&/% A

&" &MR:1: #$%#$C%&$JR. ,./&3+ BLB:$"+ %.(2"$+ #"R '.:6:MR R% "6'3R"M&:;R B3R

%$B$J#3 &!L&3 %R<'"&% &B3R %R".<6C"$% B3+ #$%#$C%&/%+ C%$ &B: .6(013'% B3+

'<?3&3+. S"R "6'3R"M:;R ..! . @$%B/ '$% 0%&$CA %R".<6C"$% &B3R %RB$13.B$CA

#$<C6$&3 .6:C%1"/ .6:01A'%B% &" "./."#: 1LT3+, (!$ ('F+ C%$ &" "./."#:

@6%''<BFR.

G:11L+ .%6%#:&$%CL+ %.(2"$+ &!"B$C< '" B3 PM&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR '<?3&3+

C<R:;R C<.:$"+ ;.:?L&"$+ &!"B$C< '" B3 PM&3 C%$ B3R "TL1$T3 B3+ #$%B%6%!A+. 4$%

0%&$CA ;.(?"&3 "/R%$ (B$ B: .%$#/ " ;.:PL6"$" %.( C<.:$: .6(013'% &B3R "./#:&3 A

&B3R "CBL1"&3 C<.:$FR 0%&$CJR @RF&B$CJR 1"$B:;6@$JR. DR"T<6B3B% %R B:

.6(013'% C%?:6/9"B%$ @"R"B$C< A ."6$0%11:RB$C<, 3 %.:B;!/% B:; .%$#$:M &B3R

"./#:&3 &;R#L"B%$ '" B: %/B$: B:; .6:01A'%B(+ B:;. \B&$ &M'PFR% '" B$+

.%6%#:&$%CL+ .6:&"@@/&"$+ ;.<6!"$ %$B$J#3+ &!L&3 %R<'"&% &B3R %R".<6C"$%

"./#:&3+ C%$ &B3 #;&C:1/% "C'<?3&3+. fF6/+ ('F+ <113 B"C'36/F&3 "/R%$ #;R%B(R

3 %$B$J#3+ %;BA &!L&3 R% %R%B6%."/.

N.F+ "/R%$ @RF&B( 3 .$: '"1"B3'LR3 ':6PA #$%B%6%!A+ '<?3&3+ "/R%$ 3

#$%B%6%!A %R<@RF&3+ (#;&1"T/%), 3 :.:/% L!"$ %.:#:?"/ &" .6:01A'%B%

%RB$13.B$CA+ 1"$B:;6@/%+, C;6/F+ :.B$CA+. 4" 0<&3 C1$R$CL+ .%6%B36A&"$+ C%$

.%6%B36A&"$+ &B3R B<T3, B% .%$#$< '" #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ ."6$@6<P"B%$ (B$

%RB$1%'0<R:RB%$ 1%R?%&'LR% B% @6<''%B% (&M'0:1%) A &;@!L:;R B:R

.6:&%R%B:1$&'( B:;+ A B3 &"$6<. 7LB:$"+ .%6%B36A&"$+ :#A@3&%R &B: &;'.L6%&'%

(B$ : %RB$13.B$C(+ C(&':+ BFR .%$#$JR %;BJR "/R%$ #$%B%6%@'LR:+. G%6(13 B3R

%13?:P<R"$% B3+ ;.(?"&3+ B:; %RB$13.B$C:M 1<?:;+, .:BL #"R '.(6"&" R% 06"?"/ '$%

1:@$CA &!L&3, "$#$C< &" (,B$ %P:6< B3 &:0%6(B3B% B3+ #$%B%6%!A+, :MB" R% #:?"/ '$%

$C%R:.:$3B$CA "6'3R"/% &!"B$C< '" B: .J+ B% %RB$13.B$C< .6:01A'%B% '.:6"/ R%

.6:C%1L&:;R #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+. ,./&3+ %6C"B:/ "6";R3BL+ 06AC%R (B$ :$

#$%#$C%&/"+ :.B$CA+ #$<C6$&3+ #"R .%6:;&$<9:;R &:0%6< .6:01A'%B% &" .%$#$< '"



32

#$%B%6%!L+ %R<@RF&3+. ,.$.1L:R .6(&P%B"+ %R%1M&"$+ 1%?JR, %RB$&B6:PJR C%$

.6:&%R%B:1$&':M #"R .%6:;&/%9%R #$%P:6L+ %R<'"&% &" C%R:R$C:M+ C%$

#$%B%6%@'LR:;+ %R%@RJ&B"+ (Liberman et al, 1977). 7: /#$: #$%.$&BJ?3C" C%$ &" (,B$

%P:6< B:R :.B$C( &;RB:R$&'( C%$ B3R <'"&3 :.B$CA %R<C13&3 (Vellutino et al,

1977). DRB/?"B% &" "./."#: "./#:&3+ #$%.$&BJ?3C%R &3'%RB$CL+ #$%P:6L+ %R<'"&%

&" .%$#$< !F6/+ .6:01A'%B% C%$ &" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. Z Veiner

(1980) %R%PL6"$ (B$ &B$+ 100 1LT"$+ B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C<R:;R C%B<

'L&: (6: 55 1<?3 (@6%PA+, :6?:@6%P/%+, &MRB%T3+, PFR:1:@/%+ C%$ &3'%&$:1:@/%+),

"RJ %RB/&B:$!:$ '%?3BL+ !F6/+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C<R:;R C%B< 'L&: (6: 15 1<?3

&B$+ /#$"+ 1LT"$+. " %R<1:@% %.:B"1L&'%B% C%BL13T%R C%$ :$ Thomas, Englert C%$

Gregg (1987). Z C%B3@:6/% 1%?JR '" B3 '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% "/R%$ B% '3!%R$C<

1<?3, B% 1<?3 #31%#A :6?:@6%P/%+, C"P%1%$:.:/3&3+ C%$ &B/T3+, '" .:&:&B< 20%

&" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C%$ 5% &" C%R:R$C:M+ '%?3BL+. DC('3 L!:;R

#$%.$&BF?"/ ."6$&&(B"6"+ "'':RL+ &B: &B;1 C%$ B: 'L@"?:+ BFR @6%''<BFR, C .%. B:

@6%.B( 1(@: B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ "CP6<9:RB%$ &;RA?F+ '" 1/@% 1(@$%

C%$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ B:;+ ."6$:6/9:RB%$ &B3R :6@<RF&3 B:; 1(@:; C%$ &B3 !6A&3

@6%''%B$CJR C%$ &;RB%CB$CJR ':6P3'<BFR..

;R:2/9:RB%+ B% ";6A'%B% BFR "6";RJR ."#/:; '.:6"/ C%R"/+ R% C%B%1AT"$

&B: &;'.L6%&'% (B$ &B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR #" #$%.$&BJR:RB%$

&3'%RB$CL+ #$%P:6L+ &" (B$ %P:6< B$+ &;''"B%013BL+ '<?3&3+, B$+ @RF&B$CL+

#31%#A $C%R(B3B"+ .:; ;."$&L6!:RB%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% '<?3&3+, "RJ %RB/?"B% &"

"./."#: "./#:&3+ #$%.$&BJR:RB%$ &3'%RB$CL+ #$%P:6L+. D;B( &3'%/R"$ (B$ :$

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ %.:B"1:MR '$% ;.%6CBA C%B<&B%&3, 3 :.:/% ('F+ #"R '.:6"/

R% "6'3R";B"/ ".%6CJ+ '" B% ;.<6!:RB% ':RBL1%.

S3'$:;6@"/B%$ LB&$ 3 %R<@C3 &B:;+ ".$&BA':R"+ R% %R%?"F6A&:;R B$+

.6:&"@@/&"$+ B:;+ C%$ C;6/F+ R% "&B$%&B:MR &B3 0%&$CA L6";R%, &B3R "M6"&3

#31%#A "6'3R";B$CJR ':RBL1FR, B% :.:/% &B3 &;RL!"$% ?% B"?:MR &B3 #$<?"&3 B3+

"'."$6$CA+ L6";R%+.

4$% BLB:$% "6'3R";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 .6:L6!"B%$ %.( B: !J6: B3+ @RF&B$CA+

2;!:1:@/%+. Z @RF&B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 B3+ %R<.B;T3+ B:; .%$#$:M @"R$C< %.:B"1"/

&A'"6% .(1: L1T3+ BFR 2;!:1(@FR C%$ $#$%/B"6% BFR %R%.B;T$%CJR, '" %.:BL1"&'%

&B3 '"B%.:1"'$CA ".:!A R% L!"$ #3'$:;6@3?"/ $#$%/B"6:+ C1<#:+ &B3R 2;!:1:@/%.

f%6%CB36$&B$C( B3+ @RF&B$CA+ C%B"M?;R&3+ "/R%$ (B$ 3 '"1LB3 B:; .%$#$:M #"R

@/R"B%$ '" 0<&3 B% .%6%#:&$%C< ':RBL1%, B% :.:/% C%?:6/9:;R &B<#$% A %C:1:;?/"+



33

%R<.B;T3+, %11< '" #$%#$C%&/"+ '"B<0%&3+ %(6$&B"+ C%$ &$F.36L+, 'L&% %.(

&;&BA'%B% "'."$6/%+ B% :.:/% %RB$.%6%?LB:;R B3R J6$'3 @RJ&3 "R(+ "$#A':R%

(L'."$6:;), '" B3R %#MR%'3 @RJ&3 "R(+ %6!<6$:; (%#%:M+) (Chi, Claser, Rees, 1982).

4L&% %.( BLB:$"+ %RB$.%6%?L&"$+, '"B%0<&"$+ C%$ %R%.6:&%6':@L+, B: .%$#/

C%B%CB< B3 @RJ&3 C%$ ."6R<"$ %.( B: &B<#$: B:; %#%:M+ &B: &B<#$: B:; "$#A':R%.

G$: &;@C"C6$'LR%, B: .%$#/ !63&$':.:$"/ C%$ %RB$.%6%?LB"$ C<.:$"+ .136:P:6/"+, @$%

R% PB<&"$ &" '$% %.(P%&3 A R% C<R"$ '$% C6/&3 (Sternberg, 1977) A R% C<R"$

&;11:@$&':M+ C%$ R% ".$1M&"$ .6:01A'%B% (Wilkening, 1981). D;B< B% @RF&B$C<

':RBL1% :1:C1A6F&3+ .136:P:6$JR C%$ "./1;&3+ .6:013'<BFR &;R?LB:;R B3

'%?3&$%CA #$%#$C%&/%. B3 #$%#$C%&/% %;BA ;."$&L6!:RB%$ B6"$+ LRR:$"+ C1"$#$< :

%) 7% @RF&B$C< &;&B%B$C< (components), B% :.:/% %.:B"1:MR B% #:'$C<

&B:$!"/% '$%+ $C%R(B3B%+. 7% &B:$!"/% %;B< #"R ;."$&L6!:RB%$ &" '/% C%$ ':R%#$CA

#"T$(B3B%. 7: /#$: &;&B%B$C( '.:6"/ R% ;."$&L6!"B%$ &" #$%P:6"B$C:M BM.:;

#"T$(B3B"+, .:; %P:6:MR #$%P:6"B$C< "/#3 R:3B$CJR L6@FR. G.! . LR% &;&B%B$C(

'.:6"/ R% %.:B"1"/ &B:$!"/: B3+ @RF&B$CA+ #"T$(B3B%+ B3+ 'LB63&3+, %11< C%$ B3+

%R<@RF&3+. 7% @RF&B$C< &;&B%B$C< ;.<6!:;R %.( B3R %6!A B3+ .:6"/%+ '"B<0%&3+

%.( B:R %#%A &B:R "$#A':R%.

0) Q$ @RF&B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+, .:; %.:B"1:MR B$+ &MR?"B"+, ".$B3#";'LR"+

("."T"6@%&'LR"+) R:3B$CL+ $C%R(B3B"+, .:; %.:CB< C%R"/+ &B3 P<&3 B:; "$#$C:M. Q$

#"T$(B3B"+ %;BL+ %.:B"1:MR B: %RJB"6: "./."#: @RF&B$CJR "C#31J&"FR, B3R

"$#/C";&3 #31%#A, 3 :.:/% .6:h.:?LB"$ '%C6(!6:R3 C%$ ".%R%1%'0%R('"R3

"'."$6/%.

@) Q$ &B6%B3@$CL+, :$ B6(.:$ #31%#A &MR?"&3+ BFR &;&B%B$CJR .6:C"$'LR:; R%

".$B";!?"/ '$% @RF&B$CA #"T$(B3B%. Z &MR?"&3 &B6%B3@$CJR '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&"$ &B:

&!3'%B$&'( '$%+ @RF&B$CA+ #"T$(B3B%+. Q$ &B6%B3@$CL+ .6$R :1:C136F?:MR &"

#"T$(B3B%, ."6R:MR %.( #$<P:6"+ P<&"$+ ."6$:6$&'LR3+ A ";'"B<0:13+ @RJ&3+,

'L!6$ R% &B%?"6:.:$3?:MR C%$ R% :#3@A&:;R &B3R "./1;&3 .6:013'<BFR, LB&$ J&B"

B: .%$#/ R% @/R"$ “L'."$6:” F+ .6:+ LR% @RF&B$C( '%?3&$%C( "./B";@'%.

Q (6:+ 9($+%$+/0G): 3)</: &3'%/R"$ (B$ B% .%$#$< %RB$'"BF./9:;R '" B:R /#$:

B6(.: C<?" P:6< <11% .6:01A'%B% 1<?:+ C%$ <11% &F&B< C%$ &;@!6(RF+ 3 @RJ&3

%;BA "/R%$ &B%?"6A. DR #31%#A B% .%$#$< ".$1M&:;R LR% .6(013'% 1<?:+ '$% P:6<

'.:6"/ R% B: ".$1M:;R C<?" P:6< 1<?:+. Z ."6$:6$&'LR3 @RJ&3 .%6<@"B%$ %.(

"R:.:$3'LR:;+ %1@(6$?':;+, :$ :.:/:$ %.:B"1:MR '$% %'"B<013B3 #$%#$C%&/% .:;

'.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$"/ C<.:$:+ '" B:R /#$: B6(.: C%$ B% /#$% %.:B"1L&'%B%, &"



34

#$%P:6"B$CL+ ."6$.BJ&"$+.

Q (6:+ (60(#?B%=: 3)</: &3'%/R"$ (B$ B% .%$#$< ".$1M:;R B: /#$: .6(013'%

&" <11"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ &F&B< C%$ &" <11"+ 1<?:+, 3 @RJ&3 #31%#A "/R%$ %&B%?A+. Z

";'"B<0:13 @RJ&3 .%6<@"B%$ %.( %.:&.%&'%B$CL+ #:'L+. 4.:6"/ #31%#A R%

!63&$':.:$"/B%$ C<?" P:6< '/% &;11:@A #$%P:6"B$CJR '"?(#FR @$% C<?" ."6/.BF&3.

,./&3+, &" <11"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ '.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ #$%!F6$&B$CL+ 'L?:#:$ C%$

&B3 &;RL!"$% R% @/R"B%$ &;R%6':1(@3&3 .6:C"$'LR:; R% ".$1;?"/ LR% .6(013'%.

4" 0<&3 B3R ."6$:6$&'LR3 @RJ&3 3 #$%#$C%&/% '<?3&3+ "/R%$ B%;B(&3'3 '"

#$(6?F&3 A B6:.:.:/3&3 B3+ "R:.:$3'LR3+ '"?(#:; (%1@(6$?':;). Q B6(.:+ .:;

.6:!F6"/ 3 #$%#$C%&/% '<?3&3+ "/R%$ #:C$'A '"?(#FR, ".%R%B6:P:#(B3&3,

%.(66$23 1%R?%&'LRFR '"?(#FR, .6(&?"&3 RLFR, 'L!6$ R% .%6%'"/R:;R :$ .$:

%.:B"1"&'%B$CL+. 4L&% &j %;B( B: .1%/&$: C$R3B:.:$"/B%$ C%$ 3 %;B:#$(6?F&3. B3R

";'"B<0:13 @RJ&3 3 .:6"/% .6:+ B3 '<?3&3, &B3R C%B<&B%&3 #31%#A B:; "$#$C:M

"/R%$ .6::#";B$CA. 7% .%$#$< '.:6"/ R% PB<&:;R &B3 @RF&B$CA #"T$(B3B%, &B:

'%?3&$%C( #31%#A "./B";@'%, !63&$':.:$JRB%+ &;11:@A '"?(#FR. D6!/9:;R

#:C$'<9:RB%+ '$% %&B%?A 'L?:#:-&B6%B3@$CA, %R C<R:;R 1<?:+ #:C$'<9:;R '$% <113

.<1$ %&B%?A, #"R ".$&B6LP:;R ('F+ .:BL &B3 'L?:#: .:; L!:;R %.:66/2"$. ,P(&:R

#:C$'<&:;R '$% &F&BA 'L?:#: B3 !63&$':.:$:MR %.:C1"$&B$C<.

H+ /60B"-)(+ >04@ /#" 9"+2+? 0( 0"J:/+"'G@ 26/'%=-(@ ;

M'PFR% '" (&% .6:%R%PL6?3C%R, .6(C"$B%$ @$% '$% ;.::'<#% .%$#$JR !F6/+

%R".<6C"$"+ &B$+ R:3B$CL+ $C%R(B3B"+, (.F+ %;BL+ %T$:1:@:MRB%$ '" B"&B

R:3':&MR3+. H% '.:6:M&" 1:$.(R C%R"/+ R% $&!;6$&B"/ '" 0<&3 B: @RF&B$C( ':RBL1:

.:; .6:%R%PL6?3C" (B$ B% .%$#$< %;B< #"R .%6:;&$<9:;R %R".<6C"$"+ &" (,B$ %P:6<

B% @RF&B$C< &;&B%B$C<. DRB/?"B%, %;B< B% .%$#$<, "C#31JR:;R #;&C:1/"+ &"

'%?3&$%C< ".$B"M@'%B%, &" @RF&B$CL+ #31%#A #"T$(B3B"+. ,/R%$ ";R(3B: 1:$.(R B%

.%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ R% .%6:;&$<9:;R .6:01A'%B% C$R3B:.:/3&3+ &B$+

@RF&B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+ C%$ 'j %;B(R B:R B6(.: #"R '.:6"/ R% PB<&:;R &B: "./."#:

&;11:@$&':M B:; "$#A':R%. i%/R"B%$, '" 0<&3 C%$ B% !%6%CB36$&B$C<

.6:&F.$C(B3B%+ .:; &;R#L:RB%$ '" B3R %$B$:1:@/% B3+ "1<!$&B3+ "@C"P%1$CA+

#;&1"$B:;6@/%+ ("'':RA, #$<&.%&3, %.:&.%&'%B$C(B3B% &CL23+) (Rutter, 1994), (B$

.%6%'LR:;R &B3R ."6$:6$&'LR3 @RJ&3, C$R:MRB%$ #31%#A %.( B: @"R$C( .6:+ B:

"$#$C( &F&B< A 1<?:+, @"@:R(+ .:; '.:6"/ R% "6'3R"M&"$ C%$ B$+ #$%C;'<R&"$+ A B$+

#$%P:6:.:$A&"$+ BFR ".$#(&"JR B:;+ &B% #$<P:6% '%?3&$%C< ".$B"M@'%B%.

f63&$':.:$:MR #31%#A B3 #$%#$C%&/% #:C$'A+, ".%R%B6:P:#(B3&3+, %.(66$23+,



35

.6(&?"&3+ RLFR &B:$!"/FR 'L!6$ R% PB<&:;R &B: &F&B(. Z #;&C:1/% B:;+ '.:6"/ R%

"RB:.$&B"/ &B3R .:6"/% B3+ #$%#$C%&/%+ (.:;, '"B< B3R ".%R%B6:P:#(B3&3, @/R"B%$ 3

%.(66$23 .%1%$JR &B:$!"/FR C%$ 3 .6(&?"&3 RLFR.

Q$ &B6%B3@$CL+ "/R%$ #;R%B( R% C$R3B:.:$3?:MR 'L&F &;&B3'<BFR "'."$6/%+

.:; '.:6"/ B: .%$#/ R% .6:&1%'0<R"$ %.( B3R C%?3'"6$RA LC?"&A B:; &B:

."6$0<11:R, %11< C%$ 'L&F "$#$CJR .6:@6%''<BFR "T<&C3&3+ - "C.%/#";&3+ .:;

%R%.BM!?3C%R B% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% @$% B3R C$R3B:.:/3&3 BFR &B6%B3@$CJR

"."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR (Lauth, 1988).



36

A FGWKUY@GRI WL?>PG MGHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

H "T"1$CB$CA PM&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR ".$&3':.:$A?3C" '" B:R

B"1";B%/: :6$&'( B:;+ %.( B: National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities

(Hammill, 1987). O$ #;&C:1/"+ %6!/9:;R R% @/R:RB%$ "'P%R"/+ A#3 %.( B3R

.6:&!:1$CA 31$C/%, "RJ ;.<6!:;R L6";R"+ .:; %R%93B:MR &3'<#$% B:;+ %.( B3

06"P$CA %C('3 31$C/% C%$ @/R"B%$ .6:&.<?"$% C%?:6$&':M B:; .13?;&':M .:;

06/&C"B%$ &" ".$C$R#;R(B3B%. E./&3+ :$ #;&C:1/"+ .%6%'LR:;R &B3R "P30$CA C%$

"RA1$C3 9FA @$' %;B( C%$ ?"F6:MRB%$ “#;&C:1/"+ 9FA+” (Silver, 1987).

H "C#A1F&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR &B3 '<?3&3 %R%'P$&0AB3B% &;R#L"B%$ '" B3

&!:1$CA '<?3&3 C%$ %T$:1:@"/B%$ '(R: "P(&:R B% .%$#$< L!:;R %6!/&"$ B3R B;.$CA

&!:1$CA P:/B3&3. O$ "C#31J&"$+ %;BL+ %P:6:MR B: 0%?'( B3+ '%?3&$%CA+

".<6C"$%+, .:; %.:B"1"/ '/% %.( B$+ .%6%'LB6:;+ BFR M%?3&$%CJR S;&C:1$JR, :$

$C%R(B3B"+ ('F+ .:; &;R#L:RB%$ '’ %;BA C%?J+ C%$ :$ #$%#$C%&/"+ :$ :.:/"+

;."$&L6!:RB%$ &B3 '<?3&3 '.:6"/ R% "RB:.$&B:MR C%$ R% %T$:1:@3?:MR %.( .:1M

RF6/+ &B3 9FA.

H '<?3&3 &;R#L"B%$ '" B3 1"$B:;6@/% B:; 1(@:;, .6:P:6$C:M, LRB;.:; C%$

@6%.B:M. E/R%$, 1:$.(R, P;&$C( R% L!:;'" "C#A1F&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR %;BJR &B$+

0%&$CL+ %;BL+ 1"$B:;6@/"+. H "."T"6@%&/% B:; LRB;.:; C%$ @6%.B:M 1(@:;, (.F+ A#3

.6:%R%PL6?3C" @/R"B%$ &B: %RB$13.B$C( "./."#:, "RJ B:; .6:P:6$C:M &B:

%C:;&B$C:-PFR3B$C(. K %B< &;RL."$% %R%'LR"B%$, A#3 %.( B% .6JB% !6(R$% B3+ 9FA+

R% "'P%R/9:RB%$ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3 1"$B:;6@/% %;BA. M" B3R .<6:#: B:; !6(R:; :$

#;&1"$B:;6@/"+ .%6%'LR:;R C%$ ".36"<9:;R B3 '%?3&$%CA ".<6C"$%

4.1 .@GKG?GAVM QKJF LWK@RL-GFK@NJWK@RI >W>Y>?OGQPG

" "./."#: $C%R:BABFR :$ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3R ."6$:!A %;BA &;R#L:RB%$ '" #M:

0%&$C< &MR#6:'% B3R "T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A &;RB:R$&':M C%$ B3R ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%.

O$ 0%&$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ &" "./."#: #"T$:BABFR C%$ $C%R:BABFR &B:R B:'L% %;B( "/R%$:

• 7:.:@6%P$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ "'P%R"/+, 1 .! . &B3R C%B"M?;R&3 &B: !J6:,

%R<@RF&3 !<6B3, C .B.1 .

• !%'31A $C%R(B3B% &;R#;%&':M '"':RF'LRFR &;'0(1FR LB&$ .:; 3

@6%PA &;!R< R% P%/R"B%$ ."6/"6@3 A R% '3 &!"B/9"B%$ '" B3 1LT3

"6L?$&'%



37

• .6:01A'%B% :.B$CA+ C%$ %C:;&B$CA+ 'RA'3+

• #$%B%6%!L+ &B3R :.B$C:-%C:;&B$CA :1:C1A6F&3

• #;&C:1/"+ %C:1:;?/%+

•

.6:01A'%B% :.B$C:-C$R3B$C:M &;RB:R$&':M .:; &;!R< T"C$R:MR %.( #$%B%6%!L+ &!"B$CL+ '" B3R "$C(R% B:; &J'%B:+

• .6:01A'%B% &B3 #$<C6$&3 %6$&B"6:M - #"T$:M

• %#"T$(B3B%

• &;R-C$R3&/"+

• #;&!6:R$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+. `%&$CA #$%B%6%!A &B3R LRR:$% B:; !6(R:; .:;

%.:B"1"/ B'A'% B:; &;'0:1$C:M 1(@:;

•

&;!RL+ @"R$C";'LR"+ #;&C:1/"+ &B: 1(@:, #;&P%&$C:M BM.:; • #$%B%6%!L+ "R:$%$:.:/3&3+

• !%'31A %;?(6'3B3 C%$ #3'$:;6@$CA $C%R(B3B% @6%PA+.

4.1.1 KF(=+'#+'D 2+"#"$";D /6)#%)+/0%E

e+ B%;B(&3':$ !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ :$ (6:$: &MR#6:': %#LT$:; .%$#$:M,

"T"1$CB$CA #;&.6%T/%, C%?J+ C%$ : ."6$P6%&B$C(+ (6:+ .%$#$< '" %RB$13.B$C:-

C$R3B$CL+ #;&C:1/"+. DC('3 C%$ &A'"6% '"6$C:/ "T%C:1:;?:MR R% !63&$':.:$:MR B:R

(6: "1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA #;&1"$B:;6@/%. G%6< B$+ %RB$@RF'/"+ @$% B3 #$%'(6PF&3

"R(+ C:$R< %.:#"CB:M :6$&':M P%/R"B%$ R% ;.<6!"$ &;'PFR/% &B: (B$ .6(C"$B%$ @$%

#$%B%6%!A '" CM6$% !%6%CB36$&B$C( &:0%6A 01<03 &B3R %R<.B;T3 B:; C$R3B$C:M

&;RB:R$&':M .:; #"R "T3@"/B%$ %.( R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3 C%$ #"R :P"/1"B%$ &"

C<.:$% @RF&BA &F'%B$CA %R".<6C"$%. =$R3B$C< .6:01A'%B% '.:6"/ R% "'P%R/9:RB%$

"T"1$CB$C< &" .:11< .%$#$<. I$% R% '$1A&:;'" @$% &MR#6:': %#LT$:; .%$#$:M .6L."$

R% ".36"<9:RB%$ &3'%RB$C< C%?3'"6$RL+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ C%$ %6@(B"6% 3 /#$% 3

&!:1$CA "./#:&3. I$% B3R ."6$@6%PA B:; &;R#6(':; ;.<6!:;R #;&C:1/"+ #"#:'LR:;

(B$ #"R L!:;'" LR% &%PJ+ :6$:?"B3'LR: .6(B;.: &;'."6$P:6<+. I$% R% T"PM@"$ %.'

%;BA B3 #;&C:1/% : Lansdown (Richman 1988) .6oB"/R"$ B3R ."6$@6%PA ."6$:!JR '"

%R".<6C"$"+.

1.S;&C:1/"+ %#6A+ C$R3B$C(B3B%+ (."6.<B3'%, B6LT$':, &C%6P<1F'%, C .%.)

2..6:01A'%B% %.( B3 1".BA C$R3B$C(B3B% (#;&C:1/"+ &;RB:R$&':M #%CBM1FR).

3.O.B$C:-C$R3B$C< .6:01A'%B% (#;&C:1/"+ &B: .$<&$': '.<1%+, &B3 @6%PA,&B3 9F@6%P$CA).



38

O /#$:+ &" (,B$ %P:6< B% C:$R< !%6%CB36$&B$C< BFR .%$#$JR '" "T"1$CB$CL+

#$%B%6%!L+ &;RB:R$&':M %R%PL6"$ B% .%6%C<BF:

1. ;.<6!:;R :$ #"T$(B3B"+, ;&B"6:MR ('F+ .:$:B$C<. I$% .%6<#"$@'%, B: .%$#/

'.:6"/ C%$ C:1;'.<"$, :$ C$RA&"$+ ('F+ .:; C<R"$ "/R%$ %#LT$"+. I"R$C< ;.<6!"$

#;&C:1/% :6@<RF&3+ C%$ .6:@6%''%B$&':M B3+ C$R3B$CA+ #6%&B36$(B3B%+.

2. ;RA?F+ B% .%$#$< C%B%1%0%/R:;R B% 1<?3 &B:R .6:@6%''%B$&'(, #"R

'.:6:MR ('F+ R% B% #$:6?J&:;R. \B&$ #"R '.:6:MR R% :1:C136J&:;R LR% L6@: C%$

%.:@:3B"M:RB%$.

3. S;&C:1"M:RB%$ &B: 6;?'( C%$ &B3R "CB/'3&3 B3+ #MR%'3+ C%$ '.:6"/, @$%

.%6<#"$@'%, R% ."B:MR B3 '.<1% '%C6MB"6% A C:RBMB"6% %.( B: &B(!:, A &B3 @6%PA

R% ;.<6!"$ %&;''"B6/% @6%''<BFR '" "'P%RA B3 #$%P:6"B$CA ./"&3 %.( B: ':1M0$.

4. S;&C:1"M:RB%$ R% B36A&:;R B3R %C:1:;?/% ..! . &B: RBM&$': .6JB% .<R" R%

0<1:;R B% .%.:MB&$% C%$ '"B< B: .%RB"1(R$.

5. I"R$C< .%6:;&$<9:;R %6@( 6;?'(.

6. S;&C:1"M:RB%$ R% C%B%R:A&:;R LRR:$"+ .:; %P:6:MR B3R :6@<RF&3 (.F+

.6$R - '"B<, .<RF - C<BF.

=%B< B: DSM-III-R B% #$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% B3+ #$%B%6%!A+ %;BA+ "/R%$ %;B<

B:; .%6%C<BF ./R%C%.

G/R%C%+ #$%@RF&B$CJR C6$B36/FR B3+ "T"1$CB$CA+ #$%B%6%!A+

&;RB:R$&':M &M'PFR% '" B: DSM-III-R (315.40)

D'. Z "./#:&3 &" C%?3'"6$RL+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ .:; %.%$B:MR C$R3B$C(

&;RB:R$&'( "/R%$ !%'31(B"6"+ %.( B: %R%'"R('"R: , &M'PFR% '" B3

!6:R:1:@$CA 31$C/% C%$ B: R:3B$C( #;R%'$C(. 4.:6"/ R% "C#31F?"/ '"

".$06<#;R&3 &B% C$R3B$C< &B<#$% (."6.<B3'%, '.:;&:M13'%, C<?$&'%),

%#"T$(B3B%, !%'31A "./#:&3 &B% &.:6 C%$ &B3 @6%PA.

`j. Z .%6%.<RF #$%B%6%!A ".36"<9"$ &3'%RB$C< B3 &!:1$CA "./#:&3 C%$

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ B3+ C%?3'"6$RA+ 9FA+

Ij. S"R :P"/1"B%$ &" &F'%B$CA #$%B%6%!A (.F+ "@C"P%1$CA .%6<1;&3,

3'$.1$@/%, ';]CA #;&B6:P/%.

;!R< :$ #$%B%6%!L+ &;RB:R$&':M &;R;.<6!:;R '" .6:01A'%B% 1(@:;, :'$1/%+

C%$ '" #;&C:1/"+ %6$?'3B$CA+.

Z %R%@RJ6$&3 B3+ #;&C:1/%+ '.:6"/ R% @/R"$ A#3 %.( B$+ .6JB"+ C$R3B$CL+

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ B:; .%$#$:M. Z "CB/'3&3 C%$ %T$:1(@3&3 @/R:RB%$ %) %R"./&3'%, %.(



39

B3 &M@C6$&3 '" <11% &;R:'A1$C% .%$#$< A %.( ./R%C"+ .:; #/R:;R "T"1$CB$C< B3R

C$R3B$CA %R<.B;T3, 0) %.( B"&B "$#$C< A @"R$C<. G6:B$'(B"6% "/R%$ B% #"MB"6%

"P(&:R ."6$L!:;R %RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$CL+ C1/'%C"+ (Bayey, McCarthy, C .%.) C%$ @) '"

B3 &;&B3'%B$CA .%6%BA63&3 .:; .%6L!"$ .136:P:6/"+ C;6/F+ @$% B3R .:$(B3B% B3+

C$R3B$CA+ &;'."6$P:6<+.

7% %#LT$% .%$#$< %R%.BM&&:;R "T%$B/%+ BFR #;&C:1$JR B:;+ %$&?A'%B%

C%BFB"6(B3B%+. 4<1$&B% 3 %RB/1323 B3+ #;&C:1/%+ B:;+ C%$ 3 %.:B;!3'LR3

.6:&.<?"$% R% B3R T"."6<&:;R, B% :#3@"/ &;!R< &" '"@%1MB"63 %#"T$(B3B% C%$

"R$&!M"$ B% %6R3B$C< &;R%$&?A'%B%. A ;B< @/R:RB%$ .$: LRB:R% #"#:'LR:; (B$ :$

#$%P:6L+ '"B%TM BFR .%$#$JR &B$+ :.B$C:C$R3B$CL+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ "/R%$ :6%BL+ C%$

"CB$'3BL"+ %.( B:;+ "RA1$C"+. ;!R< (B%R B: %#LT$: .%$#/ %.:P"M@"$ 1(@F B3+

#;&C:1/%+ B:; '$% #6%&B36$(B3B%, !%6%CB36/9"B%$ "B"'.L1$C:",

Z L11"$23 C:$R< %.:#"CB:M :6$&':M C%$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ 'LB63&3+ B3+ C$R3B$CA+

%R<.B;T3+ &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% #;&!"6%/R:;R B3R "CB/'3&3 B3+ &;!R(B3B%+.

Y.:&B36/9"B%$ .<RBF+ (B$ &B3R 31$C/% BFR "PB< !6(RFR LR% 5-7% BFR .%$#$JR

.%6:;&$<9:;R BLB:$"+ #$%B%6%!L+ '" %R%1:@/% %@(6$% : C:6/B&$% 2 : 1 (Richman,

1988).

Z .:6"/% .:$C/1"$. " '"6$CL+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ :$ #;&C:1/"+ &;RB:R$&':M '.:6"/ R%

&;R"!$&B:MR &B3R "P30"/% C%$ %6@(B"6%.

7% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% %6!/9:;R A 06/&C:RB%$ &" "TL1$T3 #$"?RJ+ .:11L+

#$%!6:R$CL+ L6";R"+ @$% B3 '"1LB3 B3+ &!L&3+ BFR .6:013'<BFR

%RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$CA+ %R<.B;T3+ '" B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. ,/R%$ C%$ "#J

.6:P%RA+ : &B(!:+ B3+ .6J$'3+ %R%@RJ6$&3+ C%$ L@C%$63+ .%6L'0%&3+.

DR%PL6:;'" "R#"$CB$C< B$+ .%6%C<BF L6";R"+:

O$ Bax & Whitmore (1987) "TLB%&%R 351 .%$#$< .:; .6FB:.A@%$R%R &B:

&!:1"/:. S$%./&BF&%R (B$ B% %#LT$% .%$#$< "/!%R &B% 10 !6(R$% B:;+ '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+ C%$ .6:01A'%B% &;'."6$P:6<+ &" B6$.1<&$% &;!R(B3B% %.( B% <11%

.%$#$<. Q$ Bax & Whitmore C%B%1A@:;R (B$ LR%+ R";6:%R%.B;T$%C(+ #"/CB3+ &B3R

31$C/% BFR 5 !6(RFR L!"$ .6:@RF&B$CA %T/% @$% '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C%$

.6:01A'%B% &;'."6$P:6<+.

O$ Hadders et al. (1988) .%6%C:1:M?3&%R 133 06LP3 '" A.$"+ R";6:1:@$CL+

01<0"+ C%$ 205 '" A.$"+ C$R3B$CL+ %RF'%1/"+ C%$ #$%./&BF&%R (B$ &B% 9 !6(R$% B%

.%$#$< C%$ BFR #M: C%B3@:6$JR "/!%R, &" &!L&3 '" B: #"/@'% BFR P;&$:1:@$CJR

.%$#$JR, '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR C%$ .6:013'<BFR



40

&;'."6$P:6<+ C%$ $#/F+ B% %@(6$%.

O$ Gillberg & Gillberg (1989) .%6%C:1:M?3&%R .%$#$< .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ '"

.6:01A'%B% C$R3B$C:M "1L@!:; C%$ %RB/1323+. B% 13 !6(R$% B:;+ B% .%$#$< %;B<

"/!%R, &" &!L&3 '" B3R :'<#% "1L@!:;, '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% .6:013'<BFR

"./#:&3+ C%$ &;'."6$P:6<+.

4.1.2 M9($'+):#+'> /E)2$%0%

A.( B% .6:01A'%B% B3+ C$R3B$CA+ 1"$B:;6@/%+ .:; &;R#L:RB%$ '" B$+

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ B: .$: &;!R( C%$ ."6$&&(B"6: '"1"B3'LR: "/R%$ 3

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%. ;!R< C%$ &B: .%6"1?(R %11< C%$ &A'"6% B%;B/9"B%$ '" B$+ /#$"+

B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. 7%;B(&3':$ "./&3+ @RF&B:/ (6:$ "/R%$ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%,#$%B%6%!A .6:&:!A+ '" ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%, "1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA #;&1"$B:;6@/%,

"1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA 01<03.

Z #$<@RF&3 B3+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+ #"R .6L."$ R% @/R"B%$ 0$%&B$C<, !6"$<9"B%$

&;&B3'%B$CA, .:1M.1";63 #$".$&B3':R$CA #$"6"MR3&3. G:1M @"R$C< '.:6:M'" R%

.:M'" (B$ B: ;."6C$R3B$C( .%$#/ "'P%R/9"$ '$% &;!RA, :1$CA C$R3B$CA #6%&B36$(B3B%,

&3'%RB$C< '"@%1MB"63 %.' (B$ : 'L&:+ (6:+ BFR .%$#$JR B3+ 31$C/%+ B:;. GL6% %.(

B3 '"@<13 %;BA C$R3B$C(B3B% &;R;.<6!:;R #$<&.%&3 .6:&:!A+ C%$

.%6:6'3B$C(B3B%. B:R .%6%C<BF ./R%C% #/R:RB%$ B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< "R(+

;."6C$R3B$C:M .%$#$:M (.F+ .%6%B36:MRB%$ &B: &./B$, &B: &!:1"/:, &B$+ &!L&"$+ '"

B% <11% .%$#$<.

O"$"'#:$+/#+'? #%6 9"+2+%E 0( 69($'+):#+'> /E)2$%0%

W. B: &./B$

1. S"R '.:6"/ R% C%?/&"$ A&;!:

2. S"R '.:6"/ R% &;'':6PF?"/ &" ."6$:6$&':M+ C%$ %.%@:6"M&"$+

3. .6:0<11"$ ;."60:1$CL+ %.%$BA&"$+

4. \!"/ .6:01A'%B% M.R:;

5. S"/!R"$ %#$C%$:1(@3B3 ".$?"B$C(B3B%

6. I"R$C< "/R%$ "'"@<1:+ '."1<+"

WW. B: &!:1"/:

1. ,/R%$ .:1M P1M%6:

2. ,/R%$ %RA&;!:, "CR";6$&'LR: &;R"!J+



41

3. S"R '.:6"/ R% &;@C"RB6F?"/

4. \!"$ '$C6A #$<6C"$% .6:&:!A+

5. S"R '.:6"/ R% &;'':6PF?"/ &" ."6$:6$&':M+ C%$ %.%@:6"M&"$+

6. \!"$ !%'31A &!:1$CA "./#:&3

WWW. !L&"$+ '" <11% .%$#$<

1. S"R '.:6"/ R% C<R"$ P/1:;+

2. 4%1JR"$ !F6/+ R% B: .6:C%1:MR

3. S"R B% C%B%PL6R"$ '" !"$6$&':M+

4. ,/R%$ ;."60:1$C< "6$&B$C(

5. D@R:"/ B% #$C%$J'%B% BFR <11FR

6. A.:66/.B"B%$ %.( (1:;+

*$8/-#8*/<9 #$; DSM III

O.F+ %R%PL6?3C", 3 #$<@RF&3 B3+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+ %.%$B"/ '"@<13

.6:&:!A. 3'"$JR:RB%$ "R#"$CB$C< C<.:$"+ .$?%RL+ 1%R?%&'LR"+ &B<&"$+ C%$

!"$6$&':/ %.( $%B6$CA C%$ .%$#%@F@$CA &C:.$<.

1. OB%R @/R"B%$ "#$<@RF&3" ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+ !F6/+ .%6<11313

1".B:'"6"$%CA R";6:1:@$CA "TLB%&3, !F6/+ "$#$CA .%$#%@F@$CA #$"6"MR3&3, #/!F+

#$"6"MR3&3 &;R%$&?3'%B$CJR C%$ ."6$0%11:RB$CJR .%6%'LB6FR, '.:6"/ R% %.:#:?"/ 1%R?%&'LR% A 0"0$%&'LR% 3 #$%B%6%!A &" :6@%R$CA "@C"P%1$CA 01<03.

2. 4" B3 #;&C:1/% .:; L!"$ B: .%$#/ &B3 &;R"6@%&/% C%$ ".$C:$RFR/%, &B3R

%.<RB3&3 %C('% %.1JR "6FB3'<BFR, C .%., '.:6"/ R% @/R"$ #$<@RF&3 @$% M.%6T3

R:3B$CA+ C%?;&BL63&3+.

3. ;!R< '.:6"/ R% ;.:B$'3?"/ 3 &3'%&/% B3+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+, .%6< B3

#$%./&BF&A B3+, C%$ R% "P3&;!<&:;R :$ @:R"/+ C<BF %.( B: @RF&B( &!A'%. "43R

%R3&;!"/B", #"R "/R%$ B/.:B". 4"@%1JR:RB%+ ?% ."6<&"$".

A.( B3R <113 '"6$< ?% .6L."$ R% .:M'" (B$ B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< B3+

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+ "/R%$ .:1M .$?%R( R% '3R "C#31F?:MR C%$ R% '3 #$%.$&BF?:MR

C%B< B3 #$<6C"$% '$%+ "TLB%&3+ .%$#$%B6$CA+, .%$#:2;!$%B6$CA+, 2;!:1:@$CA+, C .B.1 .,

1(@F B:; C%$R:M6@$:; ."6$0<11:RB:+, BFR #$%P:6"B$CJR &;R?3CJR, B3+ #;%#$CA+

&!L&3+. 4' %;BA B3R LRR:$% :$ .136:P:6/"+ BFR #%&C<1FR C%$ BFR @:R$JR L!:;R

C%?:6$&B$CA &3'%&/%. O$ #<&C%1:$ .%6%C:1:;?:MR B: .%$#/ .:1M !6(R:, C<BF %.(

.:$C/1"+ &;R?AC"+ C%$ "/R%$ :.F&#A.:B" "T:$C"$F'LR:$ '" B% &;'0%B$C< .6(B;.%.

\B&$ 3 @RJ'3 BFR "$#$CJR, (B$ B: .%$#/ #"R L!"$ .6(013'%, '.:6"/ R% &;@C6:M"B%$ '"



42

B3 @RJ'3 C%$ .".:/?3&3 #%&C<1FR C%$ @:R$JR @$% B: %RB/?"B:.

H"F6:M'" !6A&$': R% .%6%?L&:;'" @$% B: 1".B( %;B( ?L'% B% #$%@RF&B$C<

C6$BA6$%. &M'PFR% '" B: DSM-III-R

S$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% (314.01) &M'PFR% '" B: DSM-III-R

A. 4"@<13 #;&C:1/% .6:&:!A+: .6L."$ R% ;.<6!:;R B:;1<!$&B:R B6/%

%.( B% .%6%C<BF &;'.BJ'%B%

1. 7: .%$#/ &;!R< #"R %.:B"1"$JR"$ C<B$ .:; %6!/9"$

2. ;!R< #"R P%/R"B%$ R% .6:&L!"$

3. ,MC:1% #$%&.<B%$ 3 .6:&:!A B:;

4. S;&C:1"M"B%$ R% &;@C"RB6F?"/ &B% '%?A'%B% A (.:; !6"$<9"B%$

#$<6C"$% .6:&:!A+

5. S;&C:1"M"B%$ R% .6:&31F?"/ &' LR% .%$!R/#$

`. G%6:6'3B$C(B3B%: .6L."$ R% ;.<6!:;R B:;1<!$&B:R B6/% %.( B%

.%6%C<BF &;'.BJ'%B%

1. ;!R< #6% .6:B:M &C"PB"/

2. \RB:R"+ '"B%.BJ&"$+ %.( B3 '$% #6%&B36$(B3B% &B3R <113

3. S;&C:1"M"B%$ R% :6@%RJ&"$ B$+ #6%&B36$(B3BL+ B:;

4. SM&C:1% C6%B<"$ B3 &"$6< B:; &" :'%#$C< .%$!R/#$% - #6%&B36$(B3B"+

5. !6"$<9"B%$ .:11A "./01"23

6. ;!R< #L!"B%$ .%6%B36A&"$+ &B3 #$<6C"$% B:; '%?A'%B:+

I. U."6C$R3B$C(B3B%: .6L."$ R% ;.<6!:;R B:;1<!$&B:R #M: %.( B%

.%6%C<BF &;'.BJ'%B%

1. 76L!"$ "#J C$ "C"/, &C%6P%1JR"$, 06/&C"B%$ &" #$%6CA C/R3&3

(&0:M6%)

2. S"R '.:6"/ R% C%?/&"$ &B3 ?L&3 B:; !F6/+ R% C$R"/B%$ &;RL!"$% ((B%R

B:; 93B3?"/)

3. S;&C:1"M"B%$ R% C%?/&"$ A&;!:, &;'."6$PL6"B%$ &%R R";6(&.%&B:

4. =$R"/B%$ ;."60:1$C< &B3 #$<6C"$% B:; M.R:;

5. G<RB:B" "/R%$ " ;.' %B'(R" A #6% &%R R% "/R%$ "C:;6#$&'LR:"

B% #$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% B:; DSM-III-R ."6$1%'0<R:RB%$ 3 "'P<R$&3 B3+

&;'.BF'%B:1:@/%+ .6$R %.( B% "PB< !6(R$% C%$ 3 '"@<13 #$<6C"$% .<RF %.( LT3

'AR"+. 4.:6:M'" R% .:M'" B"1$C< (B$ 3 ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B% #"R %.:B"1"/ LR%

.%6:#$C( P%$R('"R:, %11< 0%&$C( !%6%CB36$&B$C( B3+ .6:&F.$C(B3B%+ B:; .%$#$:M



43

.:; B: &;R:#"M"$ @$% %6C"B< !6(R$% C%$ C%?:6/9"$ &" '"@<1: 0%?'( B3R "TL1$TA B:;.

O1% B% .%$#$< '" ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B% 06/&C:RB%$ &" ".$C$R#;R(B3B%. \!:;R

."6$&&(B"6"+ .$?%R(B3B"+ %.( B% <11% .%$#$< R% .%6:;&$<&:;R &!:1$CL+ A

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, &;R%$&?3'%B$C< .6:01A'%B%, .6:01A'%B% C:$RFR$CA+

.6:&%6':@A+. 7% .6:01A'%B% %;B< '.:6"/ R% ;.<6!:;R A R% "'P%R$&B:MR %C('3

C%$ '"B< B3R ;.:!J63&3 B3+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+, .:; &;!R< .%6%B36"/B%/ @M6F &B%

10-12 !6(R$%.

B:R .%6%C<BF ./R%C% .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &;R:.B$C< B% C;6$(B"6% &B:$!"/% B3+

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+ %.( .1";6<+ C1$R$CA+ "$C(R%+, %$B$:1:@/%+ C%$ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+.

I$% B3 #$<@RF&3 .6L."$ R% %.:C1"/&:;'" B3R ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B% .:;

&;R%RB:M'" &" #$<P:6"+ <11"+ .%?:1:@$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+ (.F+ 1 .! . &"

&;R%$&?3'%B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+, R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3, 2;!J&"$+, #$%B%6%!L+

&;'."6$P:6<+.

H &;!R(B3B% B3+ #$%B%6%!A+ "/R%$ 3% ."6/.:; '" %R%1:@/% %@(6$% - C:6/B&$%

3:1.

A.( B3R .%6%C:1:M?3&3 "T"1$CB$C< BFR !%6%CB36$&B$CJR .6L."$ R%

".$&3'<R:;'" B% "TA+: B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% C;6$%6!"/ '$% @"R$C";'LR3 %#6A

C$R3B$CA ;."6#6%&B36$(B3B% (&;R"!L+ B6LT$':, &C%6P<1F'%). H #;&C:1/% B3+

.6:&:!A+ C%$ 3 .%6:6'3B$C(B3B% &B% .%$#$< B3+ 31$C/%+ %;BA+ P%/R:RB%$ %.( B3

&;R"!A C%$ B%!MB%B3 "R%11%@A #6%&B36$:BABFR . " .%$#$< &!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ "/R%$

.$: P%R"6A '$% R";6$C(B3B% C%$ %R3&;!/% (.F+ C%$ 3 #;&C:1/% :1:C1A6F&3+

:#3@$JR, "RJ 3 .%6:6'3B$C(B3B% ."6R<"$ BJ6% &" C:$RFR$CL+ C;6/F+

#6%&B36$(B3B"+.

f%6%CB36$&B$C< ;."6C$R3B$C:M &;R#6(':;

=1$R$CA "$C(R%

D$B$:1:@/%

DRB$'"BJ.$&3

\RB:R3, "''LR:;&% ;."6#6%&B36$(B3B%, #$<&.%&3, .%6:6'3B$C(B3B%,

&;R%$&?3'%B$CA #$L@"6&3, !%'31A %RB:!A &" %.:B;!/%, '$C6A #$<6C"$% .6:&:!A+, &"

'"6$CL+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ %RB$C:$RFR$CA &;'."6$P:6<.

,'P%R/9"B%$ &;RA?F+ RF6/+ &B3 9FA C%$ :$ ':6PL+ &;'."6$P:6<+ "R:!1:MR

@:R"/+ C%$ #%&C<1:;+.

G$: &;!RA &B% %@(6$% (%.( 5 .6:+ 1 'L!6$ 9 .6:+ 1). .:&:&B( 3-10% "./ B:;

&!:1$C:M .13?;&':M



44

4.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$%&B:MR "$#$CL+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

=%B< B: <11% B% .%$#$< "/R%$ P;&$:1:@$C< &F'%B$C< C%$ R:3B$C<

G%6(1: .:; 3 ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%

;.:!F6"/ &B3R "P30"/% %.( .6(&P%B% #"#:'LR% "/R%/ @RF&B( (B$

"T%C:1:;?:MR R% ;.<6!:;R &!:1$C< C%$ C:$RFR$C< .6:01A'%B%

`$:1:@$C:/ .%6<@:RB"+ "/R%$ &;!R:/ .%6(1: .:; &;RA?F+ #"R ;.<6!"$ .$?%R(

$&B:6$C( "@C"P%1$CA+ 01<03+*.

7(&: 3 P1:$J#3+ ;."6#$"@"6&$'(B3B% (&: C%$ 3 ;.:#$"@"6&$'(B3B%

?"F6:MRB%$ 0%&$CL+ %$B/"+. Z ;.:#$"@"6&$'(B3B% ?"F6"/B%$ ".$C6%BL&B"63. %11<

!6"$<9:RB%$ ."6$&&(B"6% "6";R3B$C< #"#:'LR%

4"6$C< %11< (!$ ".%6CA C%$ %RB$P%B$C< #"#:'LR%. U.:&B36/9:;R B3 @"R"B$CA

'"B%0/0%&3, 0$:!3'$C:M+ .%6<@:RB"+ C%?J+ C%$ #$%$B3B$CL+ C%$ %11"6@$CL+

".$#6<&"$+ F+ %$B$:1:@$C:M+ .%6<@:RB"+

Y;!:@"R"/+ C%B%&B<&"$+ .%6L!:;R L#%P:+ @$% B3R "C#A1F&3 B3+

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+. S"R ;.<6!:;R ".%6CA #"#:'LR% @$% B: %R :$ &;R%$&?3'%B$C:/

.%6<@:RB"+ "/R%$ .6FB:@"R"/+ A #";B"6:@"R"/+

*U.<6!:;R &;!R< ."6$&&(B"6: %.( (B$ &B% <11% .%$#$< B% 1"@('"R% A.$%

R";6:1:@$C< &3'"/% (&;@C$R3&$%CA %#"T$(B3B%, #;&C:1/"+ &;RB:R$&':M, C .%.)

Z P%6'%C:?"6%."/% .6:B$'<B%$ ."6$&&(B"6: F+ ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3.

\!:;R !63&$':.:$3?"/ #M: BM.:$ P%6'<CFR, B% #$"@"6B$C< (%'P"B%'/R"+) C%$ B%

36"'$&B$C<. DT$:1(@3&3 B3+ %.:B"1"&'%B$C(B3B<+ B:;+ "/R%$ #M&C:13 @$%B/

;.<6!:;R 1/@"+ "1"@'LR"+ '"1LB"+. ,RB:MB:$+ B% #$"@"6B$C< P%/R"B%$ R% "/R%$ .$:

%.:B"1"&'%B$C<.

\6";R"+ .:; %T$:1(@3&%R B% '%C6:!6(R$% %.:B"1L&'%B% BFR P%6'<CFR &B3

'<?3&3 C%$ B3 'RA'3 #"R "/R%$ ".%6C"/+

Y;!:?"6%."/"+ @$% R% 1;?:MR ;.:&;R"/#3B"+ &;@C6:M&"$+ C%$ R% "R$&!;?"/ 3

%;B:"CB/'3&3 L!:;R !63&$':.:$3?"/. Z %T$:1(@3&3 ('F+ BFR %.:B"1"&'<BFR "/R%$

#M&C:13 .6:+ B: .%6(R.

U.:&B36$CB$C< .6:@6<''%B% L#"$T%R (B$ '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ %.:B"1"&'%B$C<, &%R

"R%11%CB$CA 1M&3 BFR P%6'<CFR.

G"6$:6$&'(+ ."6$0%11:RB$CJR "6"?$&'<BFR L!"$ #:C$'%&B"/ '" %RB$P%B$C<

";6A'%B%.



45

4.1.3 E F(=+'#+'D 2+"#"$";D #:@ ")?3)4/:@ - 26/=(F-"

H %R<@RF&3 ."6$1%'0<R"$ B3R "C'<?3&3 %.:CF#$C:.:/3&3+ '$% @6%.BA+

%R%.%6<&B%&3+ &" '$% #"#:'LR3 @1J&&%. G%6(1: .:; .6(C"$B%$ @$% L6@: .:; B%

."6$&&(B"6% .%$#$< '%?%/R:;R &!"B$C< "MC:1%, ?LB"$ '$% "$#$CA #;&C:1/% &B: 4-10%

BFR .%$#$JR, B% :.:/% :R:'<9:RB%$ #;&1"CB$C< A .%$#$< '" #$%B%6%!A %R<@RF&3+.

TLB:$% .%$#$< #"R #$%PL6:;R %.( B:;+ &;R:'31/C:;+ B:;+, .:; #"R .%6:;&$<9:;R

#;&C:1/"+ &B3R %R<@RF&3, &B3 @"R$CA R:3':&MR3, &B% C/R3B6% A &B$+

.6:h.<6!:;&"+ "'."$6/"+. K <B$ ."6$:6/9"$ B3R ".$B;!/% B:;+ &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+

%R<@RF&3+. G:11L+ L6";R"+ L!:;R @/R"$ @$% R% C%?:6$&B"/ 3 0<&3 B3+ .6J$'3+

%R%@RF&B$CA+ #;&C:1/%+ C%$ #$%':6PJ?3C%R #$<P:6"+ ;.:?L&"$+ &!"B$C< '’ %;BA.

M$% BLB:$% ;.(?"&3, 3 :.:/% T"C/R3&" %.( 2;!:1(@:;+ C%$ .%$#%@F@:M+ , "/R%$ (B$ 3

%R<@RF&3 %.:B"1"/ '$% &MR?"B3 @RF&B$CA #"T$(B3B%, 3 :.:/% ?LB"$ %.%$BA&"$+

#$%P:6:.:/3&3+ C%$ %R%@RJ6$&3+ :.B$CJR "6"?$&'<BFR. H %R".<6C"$% &B3R :.B$CA

1"$B:;6@/% B3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR .136:P:6$JR ";?MR"B%$ @$% LR% '(R: BM.:

#;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+, B3 #;&1"T/%.

B% %6!$C< &B<#$% B3+ %R<@RF&3+ "'.1LC:RB%$ .:11L+ ".$'L6:;+ ;231:M

".$.L#:; @RF&B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ C%$ &B6%B3@$CL+. O$ Bradley & Bryant (1983)

?"F6:MR (B/ '/% %.( B$+ 0%&$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ "/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% :6@<RF&3+ BFR P?(@@FR-PFR3'<BFR &" C%B3@:6/"+. ,./&3+ 3 $C%R(B3B% @$% 1".BA :.B$CA

%RB$13.B$CA #$<C6$&3 "/R%$ %R%@C%/%. 7: .%$#/ ..! . .6L."$ R% #$%C6/R"$ B: ":" %.( B:

"%" (:1:C1A6F&3), B: " ;" %.( B: " R" ('"B%&!3'%B$&'(+ ";?"/%+ &" C%'.M13 C%$

%RB/&B6:P%) B: "" %.( B: "M" A B: "0" %.( B: "#" (."6$&B6:P$C(+

'"B%&!3'%B$&'(+). Z P:6< BFR :.B$CJR &;'0(1FR %.( %6$&B"6< .6:+ B% #"T$<

%.%$B"/ B3R $C%R(B3B% %C:1:;?/%+. 7L1:+, 3 $C%R(B3B% '"B%&!3'%B$&':M C%$

"6'3R"/%+ %R<'"&% &B$+ %$&?A&"$+ "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B3. G:11L+ "6";R3B$CL+ '"1LB"+

L!:;R ".$&3'<R"$ B3 &!L&3 R:3':&MR3+ C%$ %R%@RF&B$CA+ $C%R(B3B%+. O$ Weinberg

et al. 1974, Rutter & Yule, 1973 #/R:;R #"/CB3 &;R<P"$%+ 0.6.

Q$%=%3-" - S6;)>#:#"

\!:;R !63&$':.:$3?"/ %.( B:;+ #$<P:6:;+ "$#$C:M+ .:11:/ (6:$ @$% B$+

#;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+. Q (6:+ %1"T/% ..! . !63&$':.:$A?3C" %.( B:;+ @$%B6:M+ @$% R%

."6$@6<2"$ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ :.:$%&#A.:B" &:0%6(B3B%+, .:; :P"/1:RB%$ &"

"@C"P%1$CA 01<03. O /#$:+ (6:+ %.( B:;+ 2;!:1(@:;+ C%$ .%$#%@F@:M+

!63&$':.:$A?3C" '" 0<&3 B: @1F&&:1:@$C( B:; ."6$"!('"R:, @$% R% #31J&"$ B3R



46

%#;R%'/% "C'<?3&3+ B3+ %R<@RF&3+. ,./&3+, : (6:+ #;&1"T/% !63&$':.:$A?3C" %.(

B:;+ @$%B6:M+ @$% R% #31J&"$ B3R "@@"RA #;&C:1/%. O (6:+ %;B(+ @"R$C"MB3C" C%$

&A'"6% "/R%$ : .$: @RF&B(+ C%$ #3':P$1A+. f63&$':.:$"/B%$ &;!R< &B3 ?L&3 B:;

".$&B3':R$C< %R%@RF6$&'LR:; (6:; "$#$CA #;&C:1/% %R<@RF&3+.

DR"T<6B3B% .<RBF+ %.( B:;+ (6:;+ .:; !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ ;.<6!"$ '$%

&M@C1$&3 &" (,B$ %P:6< B: ."6$"!('"R: B3+ #;&C:1/%+. G%$#$< #31%#A '" "$#$CL+

#;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ ?"F6:MRB%$ "C"/R% .:; 3 .6%@'%B$CA B:;+ "./#:&3 &B3R

%R<@RF&3 #"R "/R%$ 3 %R%'"R('"R3 '" 0<&3 B3 !6:R:1:@$CA B:;+ 31$C/%, B3 &!:1$CA

P:/B3&3 C%$ B3 @"R$CA R:3':&MR3 B:;+. I$% .%$#$< 8-13 "BJR #$%P:6< "./#:&3+ &B3R

%R<@RF&3 1-2 "BJR ?"F6"/B%$ &3'%RB$CA (Kaplan & Sadock,1985).

Z &;!R(B3B% "./ B:; '%?3B$C:M .13?;&':M C;'%/R"B%$ %.( 3-15%. Y31(B"6%

.:&:&B< .%6%B36:MRB%$ &" C:$RFR$C< %.:&B"63'LR"+ :'<#"+. ,./&3+ %R%PL6"B%$

'"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B$+ #;B$CL+ C:$RFR/"+ (Makita, 1968). Z %R%1:@/% %@:6$JR-

C:6$B&$JR C;'%/R"B%$ %.( 3-4 : 1. " L6";R% .:; L@$R" (4%6C:0/B3+, 79:;6$<#:;,

1991) &B$+ BL&&"6$+ .6JB"+ B<T"$+ B:; S3':B$C:M #$%.$&BJ?3C%R, %R<1:@% '" B:

0%?'( &:0%6(B3B%+ BFR #;&C:1$JR, B% .%6%C<BF .:&:&B<:

:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+: '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B3R A' C%$ I' B<T3 (13 C%$ 15%

%RB/&B:$!%), '"/F&3 C%B< 50% &B3 `' B<T3 (7%) C%$ '"@<13 ;.:!J63&3 &B3 S' (.:;

B: .:&:&B( &B%?"6:.:$"/B%$ &B: 4%.

d.$"+ #;&C:1/"+: '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B$+ `' C%$ I' B<T"$+ (13 C%$ 33%

%RB/&B:$!%). B3RA' C%$ S’, B: .:&:&B( "/R%$ !%'31(B"6:, &B% /#$% ."6/.:; "./."#%

(22 C%$ 20% %RB/&B:$!%).

" &!L&3 '" B: PM1:, B% C:6/B&$% "'P%R/9:;R '$C6(B"6: .:&:&B( &:0%6JR

#;&C:1$JR &B$+ B6"$+ .6JB"+ B<T"$+. B3 S' S3':B$C:M B% .:&:&B< %@:6$JR -

C:6$B&$JR 06/&C:RB%$ &B% /#$% "./."#%. O$ A.$"+ #;&C:1/"+ "'P%R/9:RB%$ &"

!%'31(B"6: .:&:&B( &B% C:6/B&$%, &" (1"+ B$+ B<T"$+

A+#+%=%3-" - O $+/0>@

I$% LR% B(&: ."6/.1:C: ?L'%. (.F+ :$ "$#$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ '" .:11L+

"6'3R"/"+ C%$ %RB$@RF'/"+ "/R%$ P;&$C( R% ;.<6!:;R #$<P:6"+ %$B$:1:@$CL+ ?"F6/"+.

;R:.B$C<, &M'PFR% '" B:R Vellutino (1978), '.:6:M'" R% C%B%B<T:;'" %#6< B$+

?"F6/"+ &" #M: C%B3@:6/"+. G6JB:R, "C"/R"+ .:; #/R:;R L'P%&3 &" LR% CM6$:

.%6<@:RB%, ?"F6/"+ B:; "R(+ .%6<@:RB% C%$ #"MB"6:R "C"/R"+ .:; B3R %.:#/#:;R &"

.:11:M+ .%6<@:RB"+, B$+ .:1;.%6%@:RB$CL+ #31%#A ?"F6/"+.

Q$ ."6$&&(B"6:$ "$#$C:/ #L!:RB%$ B3 ?"F6/% B:; "R(+ .%6<@:RB% C%$ %.:#/#:;R



47

B3 #;&C:1/% &" $%B6$C< - :6@%R$C< %/B$%. M" "1<!$&B"+ "T%$6L&"$+, 1L@:RB%+ $%B6$C(

%/B$: "RR::MR &B3R :;&/% '$% R";6:1:@$CA #;&1"$B:;6@/%. .:11:/ %R%PL6:RB%$ &"

#;&1"$B:;6@/% B3+ :.B$C:!F6$CA+ #$"6@%&/%+ (Orton, 1925. Hermann, 1959), "RJ

1$@(B"6:$ #/R:;R L'P%&3 &B: 6(1: BFR #$%B%6%!JR 1(@:; (Rabinovitch, 1959,

Downing, 1973, Shankweiler, 1963). Q6$&'LR:$ B:R/9:;R B3 &3'%&/% "T"1$CB$CJR

.%6%@(RBFR. H"F6:MR #31%#A (B$ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ 06%#"/%+ F6/'%R&3+ '.:6"/ R%

"'P%R$&B:MR #$<P:6:$ BM.:$ #$%B%6%!JR .:; ".36"<9:;R B3 @RF&B$CA 1"$B:;6@/%.

G6(C"$B%$ @$% B3 @RF&BA F+ "T"1$CB$CA ".$06<#;R&3 (Eustis, 1947, Sparrow, 1970).

_11:$ (Hermann 1959) %R%PL6:;R (B$ ";?MR:RB%$ C136:R:'$C:/ .%6<@:RB"+ @$% B$+

%RB$13.B$CL+ %R".<6C"$"+ BFR #;&1"CB$CJR. K/@:$, BL1:+, L!:;R ;.:&B36/T"$ (B$ :$

#;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ :P"/1:RB%$ &" #$%B%6%!A B3+ !6:R$CA+ %C:1:;?/%+ (Zurif &

Karson, 1970, Corkin, 1974).

M'PFR% '" B3 ?"F6/% BFR .:11JR .%6%@(RBFR, B% %/B$% B3+ #;&1"T/%+

%.:#/#:RB%$ &" "$#$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ #$%P(6FR $C%R:BABFR. \B&$, %6C"B:/ "$#$C:/

#$%C6/R:;R #$<P:6:;+ BM.:;+ “#;&1"T/%+” (.F+ %C:;&B$C( A :.B$C(, %R<1:@% '" B3

':6PA BFR %$B/FR (Myklebust & Johnson, 1962, Mattis, French & Rapin,1975).

Z Birch, %.( B:;+ .$: @RF&B:M+ C%$ '" '"@<13 "./#6%&3 ?"F63B$C:M+ B:;

BM.:; %;B:M (1962), '$1< @$% B6"$+ B:;1<!$&B:R ':6PL+ #;&1"T/%+ 1) #$%B%6%!L+

%R<@RF&3+ .:; :P"/1:RB%$ &" #;&C:1/% ".$C6<B3&3+ :.B$CA+ C;6$%6!/%+, 3 :.:/%

"/R%$ %.:BL1"&'% .6:013'<BFR ':6PA+ - .1%$&/:;, 2) #$%B%6%!L+ .:; :P"/1:RB%$ &"

.6:01A'%B% :.B$CA+ %R<1;&3+ - &MR?"&3+, ..! . &B3R "C'<?3&3 BFR &!L&"FR 'L6:;+

C%$ (1:; C%$ 3) #$%B%6%!L+ .:; :P"/1:RB%$ C;6/F+ &" .6:01A'%B% :1:C1A6F&3+

'"B%TM BFR %$&?A&"FR.

A.( B3R .$: .6(&P%B3 0$01$:@6%P/% (Vellutino, 1987), C%$ M&B"6% %.(

'%C6:!6(R$"+ L6";R"+, B"/R"$ R% @/R"$ %.:#"CB( (B$ 3 #;&1"T/% "/R%$ '$% "1".BA"

#$%B%6%!A B:; 1(@:; .:; .6:L6!"B%$ %.( %R".<6C"$"+: %) PFR:1:@$CA+

CF#$C:.:/3&3+ (#;&C:1/"+ R% %R%C%1L&:;R B:;+ P?(@@:;+ @$% B: &!3'%B$&'( B3+

1LT3+), 0) #;&C:1/% %R<1;&3+ BFR P?(@@FR '$%+ 1LT3+ C%$ @) PBF!A %R<.B;T3

1"T$1:@/:;, C%?J+ C%$ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3 #$<C6$&3 @6%''%B$CJR C%$ &;RB%CB$CJR

#$%P:6JR %R<'"&% &B$+ 1LT"$+ C%$ &B$+ .6:B<&"$+.

7: ?"F63B$C( ':RBL1: &B36/9"B%$ &B3R ;.(?"&3 (B$ @$% R% "R%.:?3C";B"/ '$%

.136:P:6/% &B3 'RA'3 .6L."$ R% ."6<&"$ %.( :6$&'LR% &B<#$%. 7: .6JB: &B<#$:

B3+ #$%#$C%&/%+ &;'0%/R"$ &B: %$&?3B36$%C( "./."#:. B3R (6%&3 #31%#A C%$ B3R

%C:A. 7: #"MB"6:, &B3R <'"&3 (short-term) "R "R"6@"/% 'RA'3 (.:; 3 P;&$CA



48

.136:P:6/% '"B%&!3'%B/9"B%/ &" &;'0:1$CA %R%.%6<&B%&3 @$% R% "R%.:?3C";B"/

&B3R %.JB"63. '%C6(!6:R3 (Long-term) 'RA'3. B: B"1$C( &B<#$: 3 .136:P:6/%

C%B3@:6$:.:$"/B%$ C%$ %.:?3C"M"B%$ (01L." &!A'%).

O"$"'#:$+/#+'? 9"+2+<) 0( 26/'%=-(@ ")?3)4/:@ - 26/=(F-"

G6$R %6!/&:;'" B3R ."6$@6%PA B:;+ ?"F6:M'" %R%@C%/: R% C<R:;'" '"6$CL+

".$&3'<R&"$+:

%) M$1:M'" @$% #;&1"T/% &" .%$#$< '" P;&$:1:@$CA A C%$ %RJB"63 R:3':&MR3,

!F6/+ %#6L+ %$&?3B36$%CL+ 01<0"+, !F6/+ 0%6$L+ &;R%$&?3'%B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ C%$ '"

".%6CA &!:1$CA P:/B3&3.

0) "$#$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ '.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<9:;R C%$ .%$#$< '" R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3. G.! . LR% .%$#/ '" S"/CB3 b:3':&MR3+ 60 C%$ '" ".%6CA &!:1$CA

P:/B3&3 "/R%$ $C%R( R% #$%0<9"$ %.1( %R%@RF&B$C( ;1$C(. DR 3 $C%R(B3B% &B3R

%R<@RF&3 "/R%$ &3'%RB$C< C%BJB"63 %.( B:R S"/CB3 b:3':&MR3+ B(B" ?% .6L."$ R%

#$%@RJ&:;'" .%6<1131% '" B3 R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3 C%$ B3R "$#$CA #;&C:1/%

%R<@RF&3+. ,./&3+, #;&1"T/% '.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<&:;R C%$ .%$#$< '" %$&?3B36$%CL+

01<0"+, &;R%$&?3'%B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ C%$ C:$RFR$C:-.:1$B$&'$CA %.:&BL63&3,

&;'."6$1%'0%R:'LR3+ C%$ B3+ %R".%6C:M+ &!:1$CA+ P:/B3&3+ (DSM-III-R). N.F+

?% #:M'" &" <11: C"P<1%$: 3 :6?A "CB/'3&3 C%$ #$<@RF&3 L!:;R '"@<13 &3'%&/%

@$%B/ C<?" ."6/.BF&3 !6"$<9"B%$ #$%P:6"B$CA %RB$'"BJ.$&3.

@) M'PFR% '" (&% %R%PL6%'" !6"$<9"B%$ $#$%/B"63 .6:&:!A %P"R(+ R% '3 '%+

#$%PM@"$ 3 "$#$CA %;BA #;&C:1/% (.6<@'% .:; &B3 !J6% '%+ &;RL0%$R" &;!R<) C%$

%P"BL6:; R% '3 @"R$C"M"B%$ 3 #$<@RF&3 C%$ C%B%B<&&:RB%$ &B3R C%B3@:6/% %;BA

.%$#$< '" "RB"1J+ #$%P:6"B$C< .6:01A'%B%. Z B<&3 %;BA #$%.$&BJR"B%$ #;&B;!J+

.:1M &;!R< &B3R ,11<#%.

#) 7% !%6%CB36$&B$C< .:; ?% ."6$@6%P:MR %R%PL6:RB%$ C;6/F+ &" '%?3BL+

BFR 3-4 .6JBFR B<T"FR B:; S3':B$C:M.

7% !%6%CB36$&B$C< B:; #;&1"CB$C:M .%$#$:M &" "./."#: "C'<?3&3+ B3+

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ #";B"6";(RBF+ B3+ @6%PA+ C%$ :6?:@6%P/%+ "/R%$ B% "TA+:

- .6:&?LB"$ A/C%$ %P%$6"/ @6<''%B%, &;11%0L+, 1LT"$+

- &;@!L"$ @6<''%B% .:; ':$<9:;R :.B$C< (.F+ "%" '" ":", """ '" "3 C%$ "F", B:

"0" '" "#" A "?",

- &;@!L"$ @6<''%B% .:; ':$<9:;R %C:;&B$C< (.F+ B: "0" '" "P", "B" A "." '"



49

"C "

- %R%&B6LP"$ @6<''%B% A &;11%0L+ (.F+ ..! . .L6B% %RB/ .LB6%, 1<'.% %RB/

'.<1%

- ".%R%1%'0<R"$ @6<''%B%, &;11%0L+, 1LT"$+

- L!"$ .6:01A'%B% B:R$&':M, !6F'%B$&':M, &B/T3+

- !<R"$ B3 "&"$6<"

- %6@"/ .:1M, C:'.$<9"$ (&;11%0$CA %R<@RF&3)

- 3 %R%@RF&B$CA $C%R(B3B% #"R &;'0%#/9"$ '" B3 R:3':&MR3 C%$ B$+ ";C%$6/"+

.:; .6:&PL6?3C%R @$% %R<@RF&3

7;.$C( #"/@'% :6?:@6%P/%+ C%$ %RB$@6%PA+ .%$#$:M '" #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+

7% 2;!:C:$RFR$C< .6:01A'%B% %.:B"1:MR (1: C%$ ."6$&&(B"6: %RB$C"/'"R:

#$"6"MR3&3+. M'PFR% '" B:;+ Harris & Sipay, (1980) B% .6:01A'%B% %;B< "/R%$:

- &;R"$#3BA %.:P;@A '<?3&3+

- %R:$!BA ".$?"B$C(B3B%

- %6R3B$&'(+ &;R#"('"R:+ '" B3R %R<@RF&3

- '"B<?"&3 ".$?"B$C(B3B%+

- %RB/&B%&3 &B3R ./"&3

- B<&3 @$% "T<6B3&3

- "MC:13 %.:?<66;R&3

- 3 ".$B;!/% P%/R"B%$ "C/R#;R:+".

- #$%B%6%CB$C(B3B%, %R3&;!/%

- 3 "%.(&;6&3" B:; .%$#$:M &B: #$C( B:; C(&':

T+?3)4/:

Z #$<@RF&3 .6L."$ R% &B36$!B"/ &B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< BFR .%$#$JR '" "$#$CL+

#;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+, (.F+ .%6:;&$<&B3C%R .%6%.<RF. Z .:1;.1:C(B3B% C%$

.:1;':6P/% B3+ C%B<&B%&3+ "/R%$ P%R"6( (B$ %.%$B"/ &;RB:R$&'LR3, .:1M.1";63

#$".$&B3':R$CA .6:&L@@$&3.

M'PFR% '" B: DSM-III-R B% #$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% "/R%$ B% .%6%C<BF

(315.00).

D. Z "./#:&3 &B3R %R<@RF&3, (.F+ '"B6$LB%$ '" "$#$C< &B%?'$&'LR%

B"&B, "/R%$ &3'%RB$C< C%BJB"63 %.( B: %R%'"R('"R: "./."#: '" 0<&3 B3



50

&!:1$CA P:/B3&3 C%$ B3 @"R$CA R:3B$CA $C%R(B3B% ((.F+ C%?:6/9"B%$ '"

B% B"&B R:3':&MR3+).

B. Z #$%B%6%!A ".$#6< &3'%RB$C< &B3 &!:1$CA "./#:&3 A &"

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ B3+ C%?3'"6$RA+ 9FA+ .:; %.%$B:MR %R%@RF&B$CL+

#"T$(B3B"+.

I. S"R :P"/1"B%$ &" .6(013'% (6%&3+ A %C:A+ A &" R";6:1:@$CA 01<03.

I$% B3 S$%P:6$CA S$<@RF&3 .6L."$ R% %.:C1"$&B:MR #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ .:;

:P"/1:RB%$ &" <11"+ C%B%&B<&"$+, (.F+ %) R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3, 0) @"R$CA !%'31A

%.(#:&3 .:; &;R#L"B%$ '" %R".%6CA &!:1$CA P:/B3&3 A C%$ #;&'"R"/+

."6$0%11:RB$CL+ &;R?AC"+, @) %$&?3B36$%CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ C%$ !6(R$"+ .%?A&"$+ C%$ #)

0%6$L+ &;R%$&?3'%B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+. 3'"$JR"B%$ ('F+, (.F+ .6:%R%PL6?3C", (B$ #"R %.:C1"/"B%$ 3 .%6:;&/% "$#$CA+ #$%B%6%!A+ C%$ "./ BFR .%6%.<RF C%B%&B<&"FR.

T+"#"$";G@ /#:) "'%6/#+'%- A4):#+'D (9(F($3"/-"

H %C:;&B$C:-PFR3B$CA "."T"6@%&/% B%;B/9"B%$ '" B3 0%&$CA 1"$B:;6@/% B:;

1(@:;. H ".$C:$RFR/% '" B: 1(@: @/R"B%$ '" #M: 0%&$CL+ %R?6J.$R"+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+,

B3R :'$1/% C%$ B3R %C:;&B$CA .6(&1323. M" B3R :'$1/% :$ <R?6F.:$ 0<9:;R $#L"+ &"

1LT"$+ C%?J+ '$1:MR @$% %RB$1A2"$+ %$&?A'%B% C%$ .6:?L&"$+ .:; ?L1:;R R% @/R:;R

C%B%R:3BL+ %.( B:;+ <11:;+. \B&$ 3 :'$1/% C%$ 3 .6(&1323 #$"@"/6:;R &3'%RB$C<

&B:$!"/% .:; L!:;R &!L&3 '" B3 &CL23. H L6";R% @$% B3R "C'<?3&3 B:; 1(@:;

C%1M.B"$ B3R ."6/:#: BFR B"1";B%/FR 30 !6(RFR C%$ L!"$ .6:&PL6"$ ?"F6/"+ .:;

".$!"$6:MR R% B3R "6'3R"M&:;R. G%6(1% %;B< #"R L!"$ #$%B;.F?"/ '$% @"R$CA ?"F6/%,

@"@:R(+ .:; :P"/1"B%$ &B3R /#$% B3R .:1;.1:C(B3B% B3+ @1J&&%+.

K <BF %.( C%R:R$CL+ &;R?AC"+ B% .%$#$< '%?%/R:;R R% C%B%R::MR C%$ R%

'$1:MR B3 '3B6$CA B:;+ @1J&&%. T: '$C6( .%$#/ %6!/9"$ R% C%B%R:"/ B$+ 1LT"$+ '" 0<&3 B: PFR:1:@$C( B:;+ ."6$"!('"R: C%$ &B%#$%C< 'L&% %.( B3R ".%R<1323, 'L&%

%.( C:$RFR$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+ &B$+ :.:/"+ !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ :$ 1LT"$+, %6!/9"$

&B%#$%C< R% &;R"$#3B:.:$"/ B$+ LRR:$"+ C%$ B3 &3'%&$:1:@$CA B:;+ %T/%. NB%R #M:

1LT"$+ "/R%$ :'(3!"+ A L!:;R B3R /#$% .6:P:6<, B: PFR:1:@$C( .6(B;.: "/R%$ B: /#$:

C%$ :$ 1LT"$+ #$%P:6:.:$:MRB%$ '" 0<&3 B3 &3'%&$:1:@$CA B:;+ %T/%. T: .%$#/

"&FB"6$C:.:$"/ LR% &M&B3'% C%R(RFR .:; C%?:6/9:;R B(&: B: PFR3B$C( &!A'% BFR

.6:B<&"FR (&: C%$ B: "&FB"6$C( &3'%&$:1:@$C( B:;+ ."6$"!('"R:. (Chomsky,1972).



51

B3R ."6/.BF&3 BFR (F(=+'#+'<) 2+"#"$";<) #%6 =>3%6 B% .%$#$<

.%6:;&$<9:;R ".$06<#;R&3 &B3R %R<.B;T3 B:; .6:P:6$C:M 1(@:;, : :.:/:+ %6!/9"$

R% "'P%R/9"B%$ %.( B:;+ 18 ."6/.:; 'AR"+. AP:6< .%$#$< .:; "T"1/&&:RB%$ C%R:R$C<

C%$ #"R .%6:;&$<9:;R %$&?3B36$%CL+, C$R3B$CL+ A PFR3B$CL+ 01<0"+. 7: .6(013'<

B:;+ '<11:R :P"/1"B%$ &" '$% $#$%$B"6(B3B% B3+ R:3B$CA+ B:;+ #:'A+ .:; "'.:#/9"$

B3R .6(&1323 A B3R LCP6%&3 B:; 1(@:;. Q$ #;&C:1/"+ '.:6"/ R% .<6:;R #M:

':6PL+, B3R "CP6%&B$CA C%$ B3R .6:&13.B$CA, (.F+ .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &B:R ./R%C%.

S$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% "T"1$CB$CJR #$%B%6%!JR 1(@:; &M'PFR% '" B:

DSM-III-R (315.31)

,T"1$CB$CA #$%B%6%!A "CP6%&B$C:M BM.:;

Z "./#:&3 &" &B%?'$&'LR% C6$BA6$% "CP6%&B$C:M 1(@:; "/R%$ &3'%RB$C<

C%BJB"63 %.( B3 '3 1"CB$CA "./#:&3.

Z #$%B%6%!A %;BA ".36"<9"$ &3'%RB$C< B3 &!:1$CA "./#:&3 A

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ B3+ C%?3'"6$RA+ 9FA+ .:; %.%$B:MR 1"CB$CA LCP6%&3 A

&!3'%B$C( 1(@:. " &:0%6L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ &3'"$JR"B%$ ."6$:6$&'LR:

1"T$1(@$:, !6A&3 '(R: %.1JR .6:B<&"FR, :'$1/% &" "R"&BJB% !6(R:. "

"1%P6(B"6"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ .%6%B36:MRB%$ C:'.$<&'%B%, 1<?3 &B3R

%R<1;&3 :6$&'LRFR 1LT"FR A 1<?3 &B3R .%6%@F@A '"@<1FR C%$

&MR?"BFR .6:B<&"FR.

S"R :P"/1"B%$ &" %;B$&'(, #$%B%6%!L+ %C:A+ A R";6:1:@$CL+ .%?A&"$+

(%P%&/%).

KF(=+'#+'D 2+"#"$";D 9$%/=:9#+'%E #E9%6

Z "./#:&3 &" &B%?'$&'LR% C6$BA6$% .6:&13.B$C:M 1(@:; "/R%$ &3'%RB$C<

C%BJB"63 %.( B3 '3 1"CB$CA "./#:&3.

Z #$%B%6%!A ".36"<9"$ &3'%RB$C< B3 &!:1$CA "./#:&3 A C%?3'"6$RL+

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ .:; %.%$B:MR C%B%R(3&3 B:; .6:P:6$C:M A &!3'%B$C:M 1(@:;. "

&:0%6L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ .%6%B36"/B%$ %#;R%'/% C%B%R(3&3+ %.1JR 1LT"FR A

.6:B<&"FR. " "1%P6(B"6"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ .%6%B36"/B%$ #;&C:1/% &" :6$&'LR:;+

BM.:;+ 1LT"FR (.F+ &" LRR:$"+ !J6:; A %#;R%'/% C%B%R(3&3+ '"@<1FR A &MR?"BFR

:#3@$JR.

S"R :P"/1"B%$ &" %;B$&'(, #$%B%6%!L+ %C:A+ A R";6:1:@$CL+ .%?A&"$+

(%P%&/%).



52

I"R$C< B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< BFR .%$#$JR %;BJR &" "./."#: $C%R:BABFR "/R%$ B%

"TA+:

G%6:;&$<9:;R .6:01A'%B% &B:R C%B%R(3&3 C%$ !6A&3 B:; 1(@:; C%$

@"R$C(B"6% .6:01A'%B% LCP6%&3+. 7% &;'.BJ'%B% "/R%$ &MR?"B% C%$ P%/R"B%$ (B$

".36"<9:RB%$ (1"+ :$ @1F&&:1:@$CL+ $C%R(B3B"+. G%6%B36"/B%$ !%'31A %C:;&B$CA

'RA'3, #;&C:1/"+ &B3 #$<C6$&3 1LT"FR '" :'(3!:;+ P?(@@:;+ C%$ .6:01A'%B%

%P%$6"B$C:M &;11:@$&':M .:; "/R%$ %.:BL1"&'% 1%R?%&'LR3+ C%B%R(3&3+ BFR

"RR:$JR. U.<6!:;R "./&3+ .6:01A'%B% &B:R :6$&'( BFR "RR:$JR C%$ &B3R

:R:'%B:.:/3&3.

DR%1;B$C(B"6% B% @1F&&:1:@$C< !%6%CB36$&B$C< B3+ #$%B%6%!A+ "CP6%&B$C:M

BM.:; .:$C/11:;R C%$ "T%6BJRB%$ %.( B3 &:0%6(B3B% C%$ B3R 31$C/% B:; .%$#$:M. B%

#M: !6(R$% %.:;&$<9:;R %C('3 C%$ '"':RF'LR"+ 1LT"$+, &B% B6/% !6(R$% ;.<6!"$

%#;R%'/% !6A&3+ B31"@6%P$C:M 1(@:;. D6@(B"6% B% .%$#$< "'P%R/9:;R ."6$:6$&'LR:

1"T$1(@$:, #;&C:1/% &B3R "C'<?3&3 C%$R:M6@$FR 1LT"FR, 1<?3 1"T$1:@/:;, (.F+

;.:C%B%&B<&"$+, %RB$'"B%?L&"$+, ;."6@"R$C"M&"$+, .%6%.:$A&"$+. ,./&3+ :$

.6:B<&"$+ B:;+ "/R%$ '$C6L+, B: &;RB%CB$C( %.1:;&B";'LR:, 3 !6A&3 BFR

@6%''%B$CJR BM.FR ."6$:6$&'LR3. G%6%B36:MRB%$ %C('3 .%6%1"/2"$+ &3'%RB$CJR

&B:$!"/FR BFR .6:B<&"FR, 1%R?%&'LR3 &"$6< BFR 1LT"FR, .%6<T"R"+ %.%RBA&"$+.

I"R$C< B: .%$#/ #$L6!"B%$ %.( B% "T"1$CB$C< &B<#$% B:; 1(@:; '" %6@(B"6: 6;?'(. Q$

&:0%6L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ @/R:RB%$ "'P%R"/+ &;RA?F+ .6$R %.( B% B6/% !6(R$%. K$@(B"6:

&:0%6L+ ':6PL+ @/R:RB%$ %RB$13.BL+ %6@(B"6%, '<1$&B% ':6PL+ &!"B$C< A.$"+ '.:6"/

R% @/R:;R "'P%R"/+ %C('3 C%$ &B3R "P30"/% (B%R : 1(@:+ @/R"B%$ .$: &MR?"B:+.

Z .:6"/% &;R#L"B%$ C;6/F+ '" B3 &:0%6(B3B% B3+ ':6PA+. " %6C"BL+

."6$.BJ&"$+, (.:; :$ #$%B%6%!L+ "/R%$ A.$"+, .%6%B36"/B%$ .1A63+ &!"#(R

;.:!J63&3 !F6/+ "$#$CA 0:A?"$%, .6$R B: .%$#/ PB<&"$ &B: &!:1"/:. B$+ &:0%6L+

."6$.BJ&"$+ 3 %.:C%B<&B%&3 @/R"B%$ '" %6@(B"6: 6;?'(. DR #"R &;R;.<6!:;R C%$

#$%B%6%!L+ .6:&13.B$C:M BM.:; B: .%$#/ '.:6"/ R% PB<&"$ &" P;&$:1:@$C< @1F&&$C<

"./."#% &B3R .6:!F63'LR3 "P30"/%.

7% @1F&&:1:@$C< !%6%CB36$&B$C< B3+ #$%B%6%!A+ .6:&13.B$C:M BM.:;

.:$C/11:;R C%$ "#J %R<1:@% '" B3 &:0%6(B3B% B3+ #$%B%6%!A+ C%$ B3R 31$C/% B:;

.%$#$:M. B:R .6JB: !6(R: B: .%$#/ '.:6"/ R% '3R %RB$#6< &B: <C:;&'% :$C"/FR

1LT"FR !F6/+ B: %RB/&B:$!: :.B$C( "6L?$&'%. B:;+ 18 'AR"+ %#;R%B"/ R% :R:'<&"$

%C('3 C%$ 1/@% C:$R< %RB$C"/'"R%. B% #M: !6(R$% #"R '.:6"/ R% %C:1:;?A&"$

C%?3'"6$RL+ :#3@/"+. A6@(B"6%, &" "1%P6L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ '.:6"/ R% ;.<6!:;R



53

#;&C:1/"+ &B3R C%B%R(3&3 :6$&'LRFR C%B3@:6$JR 1LT"FR ((.F+ 1 .! . %;BJR .:;

%R%PL6:RB%$ &B: !J6:) A &MR?"BFR .6:B<&"FR (..! . ;.:?"B$CL+). " .$: &:0%6L+

."6$.BJ&"$+ '.:6"/ R% ;.<6!:;R .:11%.1L+ #;&C:1/"+, (.F+ %#;R%'/% C%B%R(3&3+

0%&$C:M 1"T$1:@/:; A %.1JR .6:B<&"FR C%$ %R".<6C"$% &" #$<P:6:;+ B:'"/+ B3+

%C:;&B$CA+ #$%#$C%&/%+, (.F+ #$<C6$&3 A!FR, &;R#;%&'(+ P?(@@FR C%$ &;'0(1FR,

<'"&3 'RA'3, %R<1;&3 C%$ %C:1:;?/%. Z #$%B%6%!A B;.$C< "'P%R/9"B%$ .6$R %.( B%

4 !6(R$%. :0%6L+ ':6PL+ @/R:RB%$ "'P%R"/+ A#3 %.( B% #M: !6(R$%, :$ .$: A.$"+

'.:6"/ R% "C#31F?:MR &B% 7 !6(R$% A C%$ %6@(B"6% .:; : 1(@:+ @/R"B%$ .$:

&MR?"B:+.

" (,B$ %P:6< B3R .:6"/% C%$ .6(@RF&3, %6C"B< .%$#$< '" A.$"+ #$%B%6%!L+

%.:CB:MR C%R:R$C( 1(@:, .6<@'% ('F+ .:; '.:6"/ R% '3 @/R"$ (B%R 3 #$%B%6%!A

"/R%$ &:0%6A.

I$% B3 &;!R(B3B% BFR "T"1$CB$CJR #$%B%6%!JR 1(@:; &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/%

#"R #$%?LB:;'" &B:$!"/%. ,./ B:; &;R(1:; B:; &!:1$C:M .13?;&':M :$ #$%B%6%!L+

;.:1:@/9:RB%$ &" 3-10% (DSM-III-R).

;!R< B% .%$#$< '" "T"1$CB$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; .%6:;&$<9:;R C%$ "T"1$CB$CA

#$%B%6%!A <6?6F&3+ (315.39- DSM-III-R), C%?J+ C%$ .6:01A'%B% C$R3B$CA+

%R<.B;T3+. S"R "/R%$ &.<R$% "./&3+ 3 .%6:;&/% &;'.BF'<BFR ;."6C$R3B$C:M

&;R#6(':; A #$%B%6%!JR .6:&:!A+ (Attention Deficit Disorders C%B< DSM-III-R).

3'%RB$CL+ "/R%$ :$ ".$.BJ&"$+ &B3R 2;!:C:$RFR$CA %R<.B;T3 B%; .%$#$:M. Z

#;&C:1/% ".$C:$RFR/%+ &;R#L"B%$ &;RA?F+ '" &;'."6$P:6$C< .6:01A'%B% (.F+ 1 .! .

"C6AT"$+ :6@A+ C%$ ".$?"B$C(B3B%. 7% .%$#$< '" .6:01A'%B% 1(@:; '$1:MR 1$@(B"6:,

#"R %T$:.:$:MR B$+ ";C%$6/"+ @$% #3'$:;6@$C( 1(@:, "'.:#/9:RB%$ &B3R

C:$RFR$C:.:/3&3. Z %;B:"CB/'3&3 06/&C"B%$ &" !%'31< "./."#%. M.:6"/ R%

PB<&:;R &" "'3 %.:#"CB:M+ BM.:;+ &;'."6$P:6<+" (1 .! . %.:'(RF&3). =<.:$% %.(

B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< %;B< .%6%'LR:;R C%$ '"BL."$B% L&BF C$ %R B% .6:01A'%B% 1(@:;

L!:;R ;.:!F6A&"$.

N.F+ .6:%R%PL6%'" :$ "T"1$CB$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/%

&;R#L:RB%$ '" B3R "'P<R$&3 C%B< B3 &!:1$CA 31$C/% '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. O$

Strominger & Bashir (1977) &" #$%!6:R$CA L6";R% #$%./&BF&%R (B$ "T"1$CB$CL+

#$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; &" .%$#$< 5 !6(RFR '"B"T"1/&&:RB%$ &" .6:01A'%B% %R<@RF&3+,

@6%PA+ C%$ :6?:@6%P/%+ &" .%$#$< 9-11 !6(RFR. O$ Hall & Tomblin, (1978)

#$%./&BF&%R, M&B"6% %.( '%C6(!6:R3 L6";R%, (B$ B% .%$#$< '" .6:01A'%B% 1(@:;

.6:&13.B$C:M BM.:; &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% .%6:;&/%&%R %6@(B"6% &B: &!:1"/:



54

!%'31(B"63 "./#:&3 &' (1% B% '%?A'%B% "RJ B% .%$#$< '" .6:01A'%B% "CP6%&B$C:M

BM.:; .%6:;&/%&%R '(R: '$C6L+ #;&C:1/"+ &B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ .6JB3+ %R<@RF&3+.

O$ Aram & Nation, (1980) "TLB%&%R .%$#$< 4-10 !6(RFR .:; .%6:;&/%9%R

%6!$C< A.$"+ #$%B%6%!L+ B:; 1(@:;. B3R B"1$CA "TLB%&3 #$%.$&BJ?3C" (B$ B: 80%

BFR .%$#$JR "T%C:1:;?:M&%R R% .%6:;&$<9:;R .6:01A'%B% %R"T<6B3B% %.( B:

"/#:+ B3+ %@F@A+ .:; "/!%R #"!B"/. O$ "6";R3BL+ %;B:/ "."&A'%R%R (B$ 3 ?"6%.";B$CA

%@F@A &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% #"R AB%R %.:B"1"&'%B$CA C%$ B: @"@:R(+ %;B( B:

%.L#F&%R %.( B3 '$% '"6$< &B3R ".$C<1;23 BFR .%6%@(RBFR .:; .6:C%1:MR B$+

#;&C:1/"+ C$ %.( B3R <113 &B3R %11%@A BFR &;'.BF'<BFR '" B3R .<6:#: B:;

!6(R:;. O Barkley (1981), : :.:/:+ '"1LB3&" B:;+ C;6$(B"6:;+ BM.:;+ '%?3&$%CJR

#;&C:1$JR, %R%PL6"$ (B$ :$ #$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; .%/9:;R &3'%RB$C( 6(1: &B:;+

."6$&&(B"6:;+ %.' %;B:M+. S$%./&BF&" (B$ .%$#$< &!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ '" '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+ "/!%R C%B< B: 60% &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% #$%B%6%!L+ BFR @1F&&$CJR

$C%R:BABFR @"R$C<, "RJ 10-20% "/!%R #;&C:1/"+ &B3R %C:1:;?/%, &B3 1"CB$CA

LCP6%&3 C%$ &B3R <6?6F&3. 7% .6:01A'%B% %;B< ".36L%&%R B(&: B3R %R<@RF&3

(&: C%$ B3R %6$?'3B$CA C%$ :6?:@6%P/%. O King (1982) &" '%C6(!6:R3 L6";R%

#$%./&BF&" (B$ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR <6?6F&3+ .%6:;&$<&B3C%R .6:01A'%B%

&B% %6!$C< &B<#$% B3+ %R<@RF&3+, "RJ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ #$%B%6%!JR 1(@:;

#$%.$&BJ?3C" ".$C$R#;R(B3B% @$% &;RL!$&3 BFR .6:013'<BFR &B3R "P30"/% C%$

'"BL."$B%.

E F(=+'#+'D 2+"#"$";D #%6 =>3%6 /#: /;%=+'D :=+'-" - T6/A"/-"

B3R "C'<?3&3 B3+ '3B6$CA+ @1J&&%+ 3 PFR:1:@$CA C%$ &3'%&$:1:@$CA

#$%#$C%&/% C%?J+ C%$ 3 @6%''%B$CA #:'A %.:CBJRB%$ %;B('%B% C%$ %&;R"/#3B%.

\6";R"+ L!:;R #"/T"$ (B$ .%$#$< .:; L!:;R .6:01A'%B% &B: &;@!6:R$&'( PFR3'<BFR

C%$ &B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 1LT"FR '.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<&:;R #;&C:1/"+ &B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$

&B3R :6?:@6%P/% (Wagner & Torgensen, 1987) TLB:$"+ "/R%$ :$ ."6$.BJ&"$+ .%$#$JR

'" #;&P%&$C:M BM.:; #$%B%6%!L+. A'"6% @"R$C< ;.:&B36/9"B%$ (B$ 3 %R<@RF&3

.6FB%6!$C< &;R#L"B%$ '" B3 1"$B:;6@/% B:; 1(@:;. I#$%/B"6% 3 .6(&P%B3 L6";R%

L#"$T" (B$ :$ #$%#$C%&/"+ B:; .6:P:6$C:M 1(@:; C%?J+ C%$ B: "./."#: "."T"6@%&/%+

B3+ @RJ&3+ &!"B$C< '" B3 PFR:1:@$CA #:'A %.:B"1:MR 0%&$CA .%6<'"B6: @$% B3R

"C'<?3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+ (Stankweiler & Liberman, 1976) H ;.(?"&3 (B$ 3

%R<@RF&3 %.:B"1"/ #"T$(B3B% B:; 1(@:; &;R#L"B%$ '" B: @"@:R(+ (B$ B% @6%P$C<



55

&;&BA'%B% 1"$B:;6@:MR F+ &;'0:1$C< &;&BA'%B% '"B%P:6<+ B:; .6:P:6$C:M

1(@:;. N1% B% @6%P$C< &;&BA'%B% %.%$B:MR %.( B3R %R<@RF&3 #$%$&?3B$C(

C%?:6$&'( B3+ #:'A+ B:; .6:P:6$C:M 1(@:; C%?J+ 3 1"$B:;6@/% B:;+ &;R/&B%B%$

&B3R %R%.%6<&B%&3 "R:BABFR %;B:M B:; 1(@:;. A ;B( @/R"B%$ "'P%RL+ &B%

$#":@6<''%B% B% :.:/% .%6:;&$<9:;R B3 @1J&&% &" "./."#: $#"JR. T% .%$#$< 1:$.(R

'" #;&C:1/"+ B:; .6:P:6$C:M 1(@:; '.:6"/ R% .%6:;&$<&:;R C%$ #;&C:1/"+

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+ F+ &;RL."$% #;&C:1$JR &B3 PFR:1:@$CA C%$ %C:;&B$CA

#$%#$C%&/% C%?J+ C%$ &B3R "R "6@%&/% 'RA'3, 1"$B:;6@/% %.%6%/B3B3 @$% B3R

"#6%/F&3 BFR PFR:1:@$CJR CF#/CFR &B3 06%!M!6:R3 'RA'3 (Baddeley, 1986).

E./&3+ .%$#$< '" #$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:; '.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$:MR 1%R?%&'LR%

1"CB$CL+ #:C$'L+ C%$ <11"+ 'R3':R$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+, @"@:R(+ .:; ".36"<9"$ B3R

%R%@RF&B$CA 1"$B:;6@/%. TL1:+ 3 C%B%R(3&3 @1F&&$CJR '3R;'<BFR C%$ 3 @RJ&3

&!"B$C< '" 1LT"$+ C1"$#$<, 1"$B:;6@/"+ .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R %R".<6C"$% &" .%$#$< '"

#$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:;, "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B"+ @$% B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ B3R :6?:@6%P/% (Berger,

1978)

" "./."#: &!:1$CA+ "./#:&3+ B% .%$#$< '" #$%B%6%!L+ #;&P%&$C:M BM.:;

.%6:;&$<9:;R B% "TA+ .6:01A'%B%:

M"6$C< .%$#$< L!:;R .6:01A'%B% &B3 @6%''%B$CA - &;RB%CB$CA #:'A '"

%.:BL1"&'% R% #;&C:1"M:RB%$ &B: &!3'%B$&'( .6:B<&"FR. K"$B:;6@$CL+ 1LT"$+,

(.F+ .6:?L&"$+, &MR#"&':$ C%$ <6?6% #"R !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ A !63&$':.:$:MRB%$

1%R?%&'LR% '" %.:BL1"&'% R% ".36"<9"B%$ C;6/F+ 3 ;.:B%CB$CA &MRB%T3 A &"

.:11L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ : 1(@:+ R% @/R"B%$ B31"@6%P$C(+. Z $C%R(B3B% %.:'R3'(R";&3+

.6:&";!JR, .:$3'<BFR, C .B.1 . "/R%$ ."6$:6$&'LR3. S;&C:1"M:RB%$ "./&3+ &B$+

%RB/?"B"+ LRR:$"+, %C('3 C%$ &B3R ".%R<1323 C%?3'"6$RJR &B"6"(B;.FR "CP6<&"FR

(%RB/: &%+, C%13'L6% &%+, ";!%6$&BJ. C .%.). 7L1:+, .%6%B36:MRB%$ '"B%B:./&"$+ C%$

;.:C%B%&B<&"$+ P?(@@FR .:; '.:6"/ R% PB<R:;R %C('3 C%$ &" R":1"T/"+. Q$

#;&C:1/"+ %;BL+ ".36"<9:;R B(&: B:R .6:P:6$C(, (&: C%$ B:R @6%.B( 1(@: '" B:

%.:BL1"&'% .:; %R%PL6?3C", B$+ #;&C:1/"+ #31%#A &" (1% B% '%?A'%B%.

4.3 KF(=+'#+'D 2+"#"$";D /#" 0"J:0"#+'? - T6/"$+J0:/-"

7% '%?3'%B$C< '.:6"/ R% ?"F63?:MR F+ '$% ':6PA &;'0:1$C:M 1(@:;, :

:.:/:+ ."6$1%'0<R"$ B3R .6%CB$CA 1"$B:;6@/% !"$6$&':M !F6$CJR C%$ .:&:B$CJR

&!L&"FR C%$ B3 ?"F63B$CA 1"$B:;6@/% 3 :.:/% #$";C:1MR"$ B3 &CL23. 4' %;BA B3R



56

.6::.B$CA 3 '%?3'%B$CA $C%R(B3B% %.:B"1"/ C6/&$': &;&B%B$C( B3+ @"R$CA+

".$C:$RFR$%CA+ #"T$(B3B%+ B:; %B(':;.

Z #$%B%6%!L+ &B3 '%?3'%B$CA $C%R(B3B% #"R L!:;R '"1"B3?"/ &B:R /#$: 0%?'(

'" B$+ <11"+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. ,./&3+ B% #"#:'LR% BFR "6";RJR ."6$:6/9:RB%$

&" R";6:2;!:1:@$CL+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ C%$ !6"$<9"B%$ ."6%$BL6F L6";R% @$% R%

%.:&%P3R$&B:MR :$ BM.:$ C%$ B% .6:01A'%B%.

I"R$C(B"6% :$ #;&C:1/"+ &B% '%?3'%B$C< '.:6"/ R% &;R#L:RB%$ "/B" '" !%'31L+

".$#(&"$+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA 1"$B:;6@/% C%$ .6<T3 (.6(&?"&3, %P%/6"&3,

.:11%.1%&$%&'(+, #$%/6"&3) "/B" '" #;&C:1/"+ C%B%R(3&3+ 0%&$CJR "RR:$JR .:;

%.:B"1:MR .6:h.:?L&"$+ @$% B3 '%?3'%B$CA "./#:&3 (.F+ #$%BA63&3, %RB$&B:/!3&3,

&"$6$:?LB3&3 C .%.

,./&3+ .%6<@:RB"+ :$ :.:/:$ L!:;R &;R#"?"/ '" #$%B%6%!A &B% '%?3'%B$C<

'.:6"/ R% ?"F63?:MR #;&C:1/"+ &B$+ &!L&"$+ !J6:;, :.B$CA+ %RB/1323+ %R%@RJ6$&3+

&;'0(1FR, @1F&&$CJR $C%R:BABFR, C%?J+ C%$ #$%B%6%!JR &B3 'RA'3 C%$ &B$+

@RF&B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+ '<?3&3+. =<.:$:$ '%?3BL+ %.( .:1M RF6/+ .%6:;&$<9:;R

#;&C:1/"+ '" B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ &!L&"$+.

Z $C%R(B3B% 'LB63&3+, B%T$R('3&3+, &M@C6$&3+ C%$ C%B%R(3&3+ B3+

%RB$&B:/!3&3+ "LR% .6:+ LR%" L!:;R &;R#"?"/ '" '$C6A #$<6C"$% .6:&:!A+, %&B%?A

%RB$13.B$CA $C%R(B3B%, "11$.A C$R3B$CA %R<.B;T3 C%?J+ "./&3+ C%$ '" L11"$23

"'."$6$JR .:; R% .6:"B:$'<9:;R B3R C%B%R(3&3 BFR .%6%.<RF "RR:$JR.

Q$ Johnson & Myklebust (1967) C%B3@:6$:.:$:MR B$+ "$#$CL+ &;'."6$P:6L+ .:;

%.:B"1:MR LR#"$T3 "$#$CA+ #;&C:1/%+ &B% '%?3'%B$C< F+ "TA+:

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% C%B%R:A&"$ B3R %RB$&B:/!3&3 "LR% .6:+ LR%". 7:

.%$#/ #"R '.:6"/ R% %RB$&B:$!A&"$ ..! . B:R %6$?'( BFR .%$#$JR '$%+ B<T3+ '" B:R

%6$?'( BFR C%?$&'<BFR A #"R '.:6"/ R% ;.:1:@/&"$ .(&% .$6:MR$% .6L."$ R% 0<1"$ &'

LR% B6%.L9$ (B%R .6L."$ R% P<R" BL&&"6% <B:'%.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% 1:@%6$<9"$ '" ".$B;!/%. G%6(1: .:; '.:6"/ R%

".%.%@%1/9"$" B:;+ %6$?':M+ #"R "#6%$JR"$ B3 &!L&3 %R<'"&% &B: &M'0:1: C%$ &B3R

.:&(B3B%.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% &;R#;<9"$ :.B$C< C%$ %C:;&B$C< &M'0:1%. 4.:6"/

R% 1:@%6$<9"$ "%.LTF", #"R '.:6"/ ('F+ R% 06/&C"$ B:;+ %6$?':M+ :.B$C<.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% '<?"$ B% &;&BA'%B% BFR %.(1;BFR C%$ B%CB$CJR

%6$?'JR.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% :.B$C:.:$"/ :'<#"+ %RB$C"$'LRFR %.( '$%



57

";6MB"63 :'<#%. G6L."$ R% 1:@%6$<9"$ LR%-LR% B% %RB$C"/'"R% 'L&% &B3R :'<#%.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% %.:CBA&"$ B3 #$%BA63&3 B3+ .:&(B3B%+. 4"6$C<

.%$#$< #"R '.:6:MR R% C%B%R:A&:;R (B$ :$ 10 #6%!'L+ .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( 2 B<1$6% A 1

#"C<6$C: A 10 #6%!'L+, A (B$ LR% .%CLB: 0:MB;6: B:; 1 C$1:M $&:#;R%'"/ '" 4

.%CLB% B:; 1.

DR$C%R(B3B% "./#:&3+ &B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ .6<T"$+.

DR$C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% C%B%R:"/ B3R LRR:$% BFR &;'0(1FR. " '"6$CL+

."6$.BJ&"$+ 3 %R".<6C"$% &;R#L"B%$ '" %RB$13.B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+. 7: .$: &3'%RB$C(

&P<1'% "/R%$ 3 %.:B;!/% R% %.:CBA&"$ B3R LRR:$% B:; &;'0(1:;.

DR$C%R(B3B% C%B%R(3&3+ B3+ #$";?LB3&3+ BFR %6$?'JR &B3 &"1/#%. 7% .%$#$<

.:; '%?%/R:;R R% #$%0<9:;R .6L."$ R% @RF6/9:;R (B$ 3 &"$6< BFR @6%''<BFR &B3

1LT3 "/R%$ &3'%RB$CA. DRB/&B:$!% &B3R %6$?'3B$CA .6L."$ R% TL6:;R (B$ '$% "$#$CA

#$";?LB3&3 BFR %6$?'JR "/R%$ &3'%RB$CA. ,T%$B/%+ :.B$C:-!F6$CJR .6:013'<BFR :

.%6<@:RB%+ %;B(+ &;!R< ;."$&L6!"B%$ C%$ &B3R $C%R(B3B% %6/?'3&3+.

DR$C%R(B3B% R% .%6%C:1:;?:MR C%$ R% ?;':MRB%$ B3R %C:1:;?/% BFR 03'<BFR

.:; .6L."$ R% !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ &B$+ #$<P:6"+ '%?3'%B$CL+ .6<T"$+.

DR$C%R(B3B% C%B%R(3&3+ BFR %6!JR B3+ 'LB63&3+.

DR$C%R(B3B% R% #$%0<9:;R !<6B3 C%$ @6%P$CL+ .%6%&B<&"$+.

DR$C%R(B3B% R% ".$1L@:;R B$+ %6!L+ @$% R% ".$1M&:;R .6:01A'%B% %6$?'3B$C:M

&;11:@$&':M. 7: .%$#/ '.:6"/ '" #;&C:1/% R% #$%0<9"$ B$+ 1LT"$+ C%$ R% 1MR"$ B%

.6:01A'%B% (B%R B:; #/R:RB%$ :$ %6!L+ (.6(&?"&", %P%/6"&", C .B.1 .). N'F+ !F6/+

0:A?"$% #"R '.:6"/ R% C%?:6/&"$ B3 #$%#$C%&/% .:; .6L."$ R% !63&$':.:$A&"$.

D.( B$+ '"1LB"+ &!"B$C< '" B$+ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA B% .%$#$<

C%B3@:6$:.:$:MRB%$ &" #$<P:6"+ :'<#"+ %R<1:@% '" B$+ #;&C:1/"+ B:;+ (Gordon,

1992).

Q Kosc (1974) #$LC6$R" B6"$+ :'<#"+ .%$#$JR '" #;&C:1/"+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA. Z

.6JB3 :'<#% .%6:;&/%9" !%'31A "./#:&3 &" B"&B 0%&$CJR %6$?'3B$CJR .6<T"FR. Z

#"MB"63 :'<#% "/!" #;&C:1/"+ &" B"&B "./#:&3+ &B3 @"F'"B6/% (!F6$&'(+

@"F'"B6$CJR &!3'<BFR &" "$#$C< &!A'%B%) C%$ 3 B6/B3 "/!" #;&C:1/"+ C%$ &B$+ #M:

.6:3@:M'"R"+ C%B3@:6/"+. ,./&3+ 3 .6JB3 C%$ 3 B6/B3 :'<#% .%6:;&/%9"

B%;B(!6:R% C%$ #;&C:1/"+ &B3R %R<@RF&3, @6%PA C%$ :6?:@6%P/%.

Q Rourke (1993) "RB(.$&" #M: :'<#"+ ."6$.BJ&"FR '" #$%B%6%!A &B3R

%6$?'3B$CA. Z '/% :'<#% .%6:;&/%9" !%'31A "./#:&3 &B3R %6$?'3B$CA C%$ 'L&3

"./#:&3 &B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ :6?:@6%P/%. Z :'<#% %;BA "/!" .6:01A'%B%



58

2;!:C$R3B$C< C%$ :.B$C:-!F6$C<. Z #"MB"63 :'<#%, 3 :.:/% .%6:;&/%9" %C:;&B$C:-

%RB$13.B$C< .6:01A'%B%, "/!" !%'31A "./#:&3 &B% '%?3'%B$C< C%$ !%'31(B"63 &B3R

%R<@RF&3 C%$ &B3R :6?:@6%P/%.

" '$% .6(&P%B3 L6";R% :$ Shalev et al., (1995) 0%&$9('"R:$ &' LR% @RF&B$C(

':RBL1: "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR %6$?'JR, %.L#F&%R B$+ 1"$B:;6@/"+ &B: !"$6$&'( BFR

%6$?'JR &" #;&1"$B:;6@/% B:; #"T$:M 3'$&P%$6/:; "RJ B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ 1"$B:;6@/"+

&" #;&1"$B:;6@/% B:; %6$&B"6:M.

_11"+ L6";R"+ ".$C"RB6J?3C%R &B3R "./1;&3 0%&$CJR %6$?'3B$CJR

.6:013'<BFR. S$%.$&BJ?3C" (B$ .%$#$< '" #$%B%6%!L+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA "/!%R

#;&C:1/% &B3R %R<1;&3 0%&$CJR %6$?'3B$CJR .6<T"FR, "RJ #"R .%6:;&/%9%R

.6:01A'%B% &B$+ LRR:$"+ '"@L?:;+ C%$ &B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ 'LB63&3+ (Russel & Ginsburg,

1984).

`%&$9('"R:$ &" %R<1:@% #"#:'LR% :$ Ackerman, Anhalt & Dykman, (1986),

Shafrir & Siegel, (1994) C%BL13T%R (B$ .%$#$< '" %R".<6C"$"+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA L!:;R

#;&C:1/"+ &B:R %;B:'%B$&'( 0%&$CJR %6$?'3B$CJR #"T$:BABFR, :$ :.:/"+ '.:6"/ R%

:P"/1:RB%$ &" !%'31A '%C6(!6:R3 "T%C:1:;?3B$CA 'RA'3.

D.( B3 '"1LB3 ."6$.BJ&"FR "R31/CFR '" %.J1"$% BFR '%?3'%B$CJR

#"T$:BABFR : Luria #$%C6/R"$ BL&&"6% "/#3 #$%B%6%!JR &B3R %6$?'3B$CA, :$ :.:/"+

'.:6:MR R% &;R#L:RB%$ '" %R%.B;T$%CA #$%B%6%!A &B3R %6$?'3B$CA (Diggory, 1992).

W. S$%B%6%!L+ &B3 1:@$CA: Q$ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3 1:@$CA .6:L6!:RB%$ %.(

%R".<6C"$% &;R#;%&':M &B:$!"/FR &" '$% #$<&B%&3, ..! . B: .%$#/ #"R '.:6"/ R%

%RB$13P?"/ (B$ LR% &!A'% 06/&C"B%$ C<BF %.( LR% <11:. A.( #;&C:1/% !F6$&':M

&B:$!"/FR, ..! . LR% .%$#/ '.:6"/ R% @6<P"$ B:R %6$?'( 1029 &%R 129 "."$#A #"R

'.:6"/ R% 06"$ 1:@$C< B3 #$%P:6< C%$ B3 &!L&3 %R<'"&< B:;+. S$%B%6%!L+ &B3

1:@$CA '.:6"/ R% .6:L1?:;R C%$ (B%R 3 C%B3@:6$CA #:'A B:; %6$?':M "/R%$

%R".%6CA+. G%$#$< '" BLB:$"+ %R".<6C"$"+ #;&C:1"M:RB%$ R% 06:;R 3'"6:'3R/"+,

'L6"+, J6%. C .B.1 .

II. S$%B%6%!L+ &B:R .6:@6%''%B$&'(: &B3R ."6/.BF&3 %;BA B: .%$#/ #"R '.:6"/

R% %R%1M&"$ B$+ &;R?AC"+ "R(+ .6:01A'%B:+ '" %.:BL1"&'% R% '3R C%B%&B6JR"$

&!L#$% "./1;&3+ BFR .6:013'<BFR. G3#<"$ %.( .6<T3 &" .6<T3, !<R:RB%+ B$+

&!L&"$+ '"B%TM BFR .6<T"FR. E./&3+ #"R '.:6"/ R% C<R"$ ".%1A?";&3 BFR

.6:013'<BFR.

III. E'':RA &' LR% BM.: 1M&3+: B: .%$#/ "''LR"$ &' LR% BM.: 1M&3+ "RJ

%11<9:;R B% #"#:'LR% B:; .6:01A'%B:+ C%$ .6:&n%?"/ R% B: ".$1M&"$ &F&B< A



59

1<?:+ '' LR% '(R: B6(.: .:; A#3 !63&$':.:/3&". E'P%R/9"$ #31%#A #$%B%6%!A

:6@<RF&3+ "RJ '.:6"/ R% B% C%B%PL6"$ &B$+ .6<T"$+.

IV. A R".<6C"$"+ &" %.1:M+ ;.:1:@$&':M+: &B3R ."6/.BF&3 %;BA "RJ B: .%$#/

B% C%B%PL6R"$ &B3R C%B<&B6F&3 "R(+ .6:01A'%B:+, #"R '.:6"/ R% C<R"$ %.1:M+

;.:1:@$&':M+ BFR B"&&<6FR .6<T"FR. S;&C:1"M"B%$ &B3 &"$6< BFR %6$?'JR, .3#<"$

%.( B3 ':R<#% &B3 #"C<#%, #"R ?;'<B%$ B3R .6:.%/#"$% "RJ L!"$ C%B%CBA&"$ B:

'3!%R$&'( B3+ C%$ &;!R< B3R C<R"$ .6:&?LB:RB%+ (3x5=5+5+5).

T%0+'D T6/9$"F-"

;R%P"/+ '" B$+ #$%B%6%!L+ &B3R %6$?'3B$CA .:; &!"B/9:RB%$ '" B: !J6: C%$

B3R 2;!:C$R3B$CA %R<.B;T3 "/R%$ 3 "#:'$CA #;&.6%T/%". Q (6:+ &3'%/R"$ #$%B%6%!A B3+ C/R3&3+ .:; "1L@!"B%$ :.B$C< C%$ ".36"<9"$ C;6/F+ B% "!F6$C<" &B:$!"/% "R(+

L6@:; (Diggory, 1992). Z #;&C:1/% "/R%$ "'P%RA+ &B$+ #$%#$C%&/"+ &!"#$%&':M

(01L." &!A'%) C%$ :$ :.:/"+ L!:;R %.:#:?"/ &" #$%B%6%!A B:; #"T$:M "@C"P%1$C:M

3'$&P%$6/:; @$%B/ 06L?3C" (B$ <B:'% '" 01<0"+ &B: 3'$&P%/6$: %;B( C%$ '"

B%;B(!6:R"+ #$%B%6%!L+ :'$1/%+ .%6:;&/%9%R C%$ :.B$C:-!F6$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+. Z

#:'$CA %.6%T/% #"R &;R#L"B%$ %.%6%/B3B% '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, .%6(1: .:;

;.<6!"$ &;&!LB$&3 '" B$+ !F6$CL+ %R".<6C"$"+ C%$ '" B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+.

T+?3)4/:

Z #$<@RF&3 BFR #$%B%6%!JR &B3R %6$?'3B$CA .6L."$ R% &B36/9"B%$ &B%

!%6%CB36$&B$C< BFR .%$#$JR (.F+ ."6$@6<P3C%R.

H"F6:M'" &C(.$'( R% .%6%B"?:MR B% #$%@RF&B$C< C6$BA6$% (315.10) &M'PFR%

'" B: DSM-III-R.

D'. O$ %6$?'3B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ (.F+ '"B6$:MRB%$ '" &B%?'$&'LR% %B:'$C<

B"&B "/R%$ &3'%RB$C< C%BJB"6"+ %.( B: %R%'"R('"R: "./."#: #"#:'LR3+

B3+ &!:1$CA+ P:/B3&3+ C%$ B:; R:3B$C:M #;R%'$C:M, (.F+ C%?:6/9"B%$

%.( &B%?'$&'LR% R::'"B6$C< B"&B.

`'. Z #$%B%6%!A %;BA ".36"<9"$ &3'%RB$C< B3 &!:1$CA "./#:&3 A

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ B3+ &!:1$CA+ 9FA+ .:; %.%$B:MR '%?3'%B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+.

I'. S"R :P"/1"B%$ &" %$&?3B36$%CL+ 01<0"+ A R";6:1:@$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+.

I$% B3 S$%P:6$CA S$<@RF&3 .6L."$ R% %.:C1"$&B:MR #;&C:1/"+ %6$?'3B$CA+

.:; :P"/1:RB%$ &" <11"+ C%B%&B<&"$+' (.F+: %) R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3, '" B3R

.%6%BA63&3, (B$ &" "1%P6< R:3B$CA C%?;&BL63&3 "/R%$ #;R%B(R &.<R$% R% ;.<6!"$



60

.6%@'%B$C< "$#$CA #;&C:1/% %6$?'3B$CA+ C%$ 0) @"R$CA !%'31A "./#:&3 .:;

&;R#L"B%$ '" %R".%6CA &!:1$CA P:/B3&3.

1@ EGHJQ@GRVM \UQRLNP>M QKJF >]J^@RI JN@RPG

H "T"1$CB$CA PM&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR @/R"B%$ &A'"6% ";6MB"6%

%.:#"CBA C%$ - (.F+ %R%PL6?3C" - L!"$ %6!/&"$ R% ".$&3':.:$"/B%$ '" B3 !6A&3 B3+

&" .6(&P%B:;+ :6$&':M+ (.F+ %;B(+ %.( National Joint Committee on Learning

Disabilities (1987).

M'PFR% '" B3R %RB/1323 %;BA, #"R '$1:M'" @$% .%$#$< %11< @$% <B:'% '"

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. 7: "R#$%PL6:R BFR "$#$CJR #"R &B%'%B< .$% '(R: &B% .%$#$<

B:; S3':B$C:M, "."CB"/R"B%$ C%$ &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% C%?J+ C%$ &B3R "P30$CA C%$ "RA1$C3 ."6/:#:. Z "TL1$T3 BFR /#$FR BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR C%$ 3 &MR#"&A

B:;+ '" 2;!:C:$RFR$C< .6:01A'%B%, "/R%$ :$ #M: <T:R"+ &B:;+ :.:/:;+ C$R"/B%$

&A'"6% 3 "6";R3B$CA C%$ .6%CB$CA %R%9AB3&3 @$% B3R "P30$CA C%$ '"BL."$B% 31$C/%.

7 (FG=+F: #4) U"J:/+"'<) T6/'%=+<) /#% 3)4/#+'> (9-9(2%

jH#3 %.( B$+ B"1";B%/"+ B<T"$+ B:; S3':B$C:M @/R"B%$ %$&?3BA '/%

#$%P:6:.:/3&3 &B3R "C#A1F&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. `%?'$%/% B%

."6$&&(B"6% %.( B% %R%.B;T$%C< .6:01A'%B% ;.:!F6:MR A %C('3 C%$

"T%P%R/9:RB%$. G$: &;@C"C6$'LR%, ;.:!F6:MR &3'%RB$C< B% &;'.BJ'%B% %.( B:R

:.B$C:C$R3B$C( B:'L%, '" .$: !%6%CB36$&B$CA &;RA?F+ B3 '"/F&3 B3+

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+, %11< C%$ BFR B;.$CJR 1%?JR #;&1"CB$C:M BM.:;. 7%

&;'.BJ'%B% %.( B:R %C:;&B$C:-PFR3B$C( B:'L% %.:#"$CRM:RB%$ .$: %R?"CB$C< C%$

"./':R%. ET%C:1:;?:MR R% .%6%'LR:;R L&BF C%$ #$%P:6:.:$3'LR% (.F+ 1 .! .

#;&C:1/"+ &B3R :6@<RF&3 B:; @6%.B:M 1(@:;, &B3R %6$?'3B$CA &CL23, C .B.1 .

E$#$C(B"6%, &" "./."#: C;6/F+ '%?3&$%C( :$ #;&C:1/"+, &M'PFR% '" B:;+

Miles & Gilroy (1986), .%/6R:;R &" .:1M @"R$CL+ @6%''L+ B3R .%6%C<BF "$C(R%:

B3R %R<@RF&3 .%6%B36"/B%$ '/% 06%#MB3B%, LR%+ %6@(+ 6;?'(+ .:; P%/R"B%$

1 .! . &" C%?3'"6$RL+ 1"$B:;6@$CL+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+, (.F+ %R"M6"&3 &B:$!"/FR %.(

B31"PFR$C( C%B<1:@: A 1"T$C(, #$<0%&'% :#3@$JR, !6A&3 ./R%C%, !<6B3, C .B.1 .

S;&C:1"M:RB%$ .:1M &B: R% C%B%R:A&:;R @6%.BL+ "6FBA&"$+ C%$ :#3@/"+, ..! .

&M@C6$R", "RB(.$&", ;.:@6<''$&", %R%9AB3&" B: %RB/?"B: C .B.1 . G%6%B36:MRB%$ "./&3+ B% 1"@('"R% "1<?3 %R<@RF&3+", #31%#A 1%R?%&'LR3 C%B%R(3&3



61

(misreading).

B3 @6%PA "T%C:1:;?:MR R% "'P%R/9:RB%$ 1<?3 (.F+ .%6%1"/2"$+ C%$

'"B%B:./&"$+. U.<6!:;R :6?:@6%P$C< 1<?3 &B3R %;?(6'3B3 @6%PA. Z .:$(B3B%

@6%PA+ .%6:;&$<9"$ &B:$!"/% %RF6$'(B3B%+. ;!R< B: @6%.B( "/R%$ #;&%R<@RF&B:

C%$ #;&C%B<13.B:, .6<@'% .:; ".$B"/R"B%$ %.( B% .6:01A'%B% &B/T3+ C%$

.%6%@6%P:.:/3&3+.

O$ "C?L&"$+, ".$0%63'LR"+ A#3 %.( B$+ #;&C:1/"+ @6%PA+, C%B%1A@:;R &"

PBF!$C( %.:BL1"&'% C%$ %.( '$% &"$6< %C('3 1(@:;+. U.<6!"$ #;&!L6"$% &B3R

".$1:@A C%$ '"B%P:6< BFR .136:P:6$JR .:; L!:;R 'L&% B:;+ A, "RJ ;.<6!:;R C%1L+

$#L"+, %.:;&$<9:;R : .6:@6%''%B$&'(+ C%$ 3 #:'A. ;!R< #"R 06/&C:;R B$+

C%B<1131"+ 1LT"$+ A B$+ !63&$':.:$:MR 1%R?%&'LR% A B$+ @6<P:;R 1<?:+. M.:6"/ R%

".$C6%B"/ LR% B31"@6%P$C( C:PB( &B;1 A LR% ."1<@F'% &" %BL1"$FB"+ .6:B<&"$+.

G:11< %.( B% .%6%.<RF ".36"<9:;R %&P%1J+ C%$ B3R %6$?'3B$CA. DR C%$ 3

C%B%R(3&3 BFR %6$?'3B$CJR "RR:$JR ;.<6!"$, "CB(+ %.( ."6$.BJ&"$+ "$#$CA+

#;&C:1/%+, "'P%R/9:RB%$ 1<?3 %C('3 C%$ &" %.1:M+ ;.:1:@$&':M+. ;!R<, "RJ

L!:;R "&FB"6$C< ".$1M&"$ &F&B< B: .6(013'%, B: '"B%PL6:;R &B: @6%.B( B:;+

1%R?%&'LR%. Z '"$F'LR3 $C%R(B3B% %R<1;&3+ C%$ %P%/6"&3+ .6:&?LB:;R LR% %C('3

"'.(#$:.

7% "6";R3B$C( #"#:'LR% .:; #$%?LB:;'" @$% B3R "P30$CA 31$C/% #"R '%+

".$B6L.:;R '$% .136L&B"63 C%$ &%PL&B"63 .6:&L@@$&3. B$+ ."6$&&(B"6"+

."6$.BJ&"$+ P%/R"B%$ .F+ B% .6:01A'%B% #"R &;R#L:RB%$ '" B3R L11"$23 A

%R".<6C"$% C<.:$%+ @RF&B$CA+ "$#$CA+ A @"R$CA+ $C%R(B3B%+ %11< '<11:R '"

#;&C:1/% !6A&3+ B3+ $C%R(B3B%+ .:M ;.<6!"$. Z PM&3 BFR @RF&B$CJR ".$B";@'<BFR

%11<9"$ C%$ &" .:1;.1:C(B3B% C%$ &" BM.:, ..! . &B% '%?3'%B$C< ;.<6!:;R BJ6%

&MR?"B:$ C%R(R"+ .:; %.%$B:MR B%;B(!6:R% B3R C%B%R(3&3 C%$ B:; 1(@:; C%$ BFR

%6$?'3B$CJR &!L&"FR. 'EB&$ LR%+ '%?3BA+ .:; &B: S3':B$C( #"R #;&C:1";(B%R &B3R

%6$?'3B$CA, '.:6"/ BJ6% R% .%6:;&$<&"$ #;&C:1/"+ (Yule & Rutter 1973).

M'PFR% '" B:;+ Wiig et al., (1983) <&!"B% '" B:;+ ."6$0%11:RB$C:M+

.%6<@:RB"+, ;.<6!:;R :6$&'LR% !%6%CB36$&B$C< C:$R< @$% (1"+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+, .:;

%R%PL6:RB%$ &" BL&&"6$+ B:'"/+:

%) &3'%&$:1:@$C< ;.<6!"$ #;&C:1/% &B3R LCP6%&3 "RR:$JR .:; %P:6:MR

!J6:, !6(R:, &;@C6$B$CL+ &!L&"$+, ".%@F@$C(+ C%$ %.%@F@$C( &;11:@$&'(.

0) 3 #3'$:;6@/%, %R<C13&3 C%$ '"B%&!3'%B$&'(+ &MR?"BFR .6:B<&"FR #"R

"/R%$ C%?(1:; "MC:13.



62

@) 3 <'"&3 %R<C13&3 .6:P:6$CJR :#3@$JR C%$ .6:P:6$CJR "C?L&"FR

#;&!"6%/R:RB%$.

#) ;.<6!:;R #;&C:1/"+ &B3 6:A, B%!MB3B% C%$ %C6/0"$% "6@%&$JR .:; %.%$B:MR

&"$6L+ :R:'<BFR, :R:'%B:.:$A&"$+, &;&!"B$&':M+.

A&P%1J+ :$ .$: &MR?"B"+ C%$ .:1M.1:C"+ %.%$BA&"$+ &B3R "P30$CA 31$C/%,

:#3@:MR &B3R "./B%&3 BFR .6:013'<BFR C%$ &" <11"+ C%B%&B<&"$+ "CB(+ %.( B$+

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, ..! . "1%P6L+ R:3B$CL+ C%?;&B"6A&"$+, @"R$CA %RF6$'(B3B%,

%R".%6CA+ "C.%/#";&3, C%B%&B<&"$+ .:; :P"/1:RB%$ C;6/F+ &" ."6$0%11:RB$C< %/B$%.

Z &;&&J6";&3 BFR .:11JR C%$ #$%P(6FR %;BJR #;&C:1$JR &" '%?3BL+ @;'R%&/:;

C%$ 1;C"/:;, $#/F+ &B3 !J6% '%+ (.:; 1"/.:;R 3 .6J$'3 %R%@RJ6$&3 C%$ 3 &F&BA

%RB$'"BJ.$&3 %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA C%$ .6JB3 &!:1$CA 31$C/%, C<R"$ .:1M #M&C:1: B:

L6@: B3+ #$<@RF&3+ C%$ B3+ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+. O.F&#A.:B" C%$ B: /#$: B: "C.%$#";B$C(

&M&B3'% &;RB36"/ A C%$ ".$B"/R"$ %;BL+ B$+ C%B%&B<&"$+. I"R$CJ+ .<RBF+ ".$C6%B"/ 3

"RBM.F&3 (B$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ "@C%B%&B<?3C%R :6$&B$C<, %R?/&B%RB%$ &B$+ ?"6%."/"+,

&;R:#"M:;R B:;+ '%?3BL+ C%$ &B% !6(R$% '"B< B3 #";B"6:0<?'$% "C.%/#";&3.

W6;%'%+)4)+'? 9$%B=D0"#"

O #"MB"6:+ <T:R%+ &B:R :.:/: LRB:R% &B6LP"B%$ B: "6";R3B$C( C%$ .6%CB$C(

"R#$%PL6:R %P:6< B3 &MR#"&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR '" 2;!:C:$RFR$C<

.6:01A'%B%. N.F+ !%6%CB36$&B$C< 1""$ : Silver (1989) ":$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

"/R%$ #;&C:1/"+ 9FA+" C%$ ".36"<9:;R (1"+ B$+ .1";6L+ B3+. " L6";R"+ .:;

%R%&C:.:MRB%$ %.( B:R Pickar (1988) L!"$ #$%.$&BF?"/ (B$ :$ LP30:$ '" '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+, &" &M@C6$&3 '" LP30:;+ !F6/+ B$+ #;&C:1/"+ %;BL+, .%6:;&$<9:;R

!%'31(B"63 %;B:"./@RF&3 @$% B3 &!:1$CA B:;+ C%B<&B%&3, PBF!$C(B"63

2;!:C:$RFR$CA %R<.B;T3, "/R%$ #"CB$C:/ &" "TFB"6$C( L1"@!:, L!:;R %R".%6CA

C:$RFR$CA %RB/1323. A.( <11"+ L6";R"+ ;.:&B36/9"B%$ (B$ :$ LP30:$ '" '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+ "'P%R/9:;R .6:01A'%B% &B3R C:$RFR$CA &;'."6$P:6<, #;&C:1/"+ &B$+

:'%#$CL+ &!L&"$+, "RJ @"R$CJ+ P%/R"B%$ (B$ "/R%$ 1$@(B"6: #3':P$1"/+ C%$ %.:#"CB:/

%.( B:;+ &;''%?3BL+ B:;+. T"1"$JR:RB%+ B3R %R%&C(.3&3 BFR B"1";B%/FR

"6";R3B$CJR #"#:'LRFR, %R%PL6"B%$ (B$ :$ LP30:$ '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

.%6%.L'.:RB%$ .$: &;!R< @$% 2;!:?"6%."/% @$% #$<P:6:;+ 1(@:;+, '" &;!R(B"6:;+

B% .6:01A'%B% %.( B$+ #$%.6:&F.$CL+ &!L&"$+ C%$ "C#31J&"$+ %RB$C:$RFR$CA+

&;'."6$P:6<+.



63

I"R$C<, B% .%$#$< C%$ :$ LP30:$ '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R

."6$&&(B"6% .6:01A'%B% C%$, (.F+ ;.:&B36/9"B%$, #;&C:1"M:RB%$ &B: .L6%&'% C%$

&B3R C%B<CB3&3 B:M C<?" &B%#/:; 2;!:C:$RFR$CA+ %R<.BMT3+ (Silver and

Brunstetter, 1987). \P30:$ '" .6:01A'%B% 1 .! . .6:P:6$C:M C%$ @6%.B:M 1(@:;, '"

%#"T$(B3B% &B$+ #$%.6:&F.$CL+ &!L&"$+, '" PBF!$CL+ ".$#(&"$+ &" &.:6 "/R%$ P%R"6(

.(&: %6R3B$C< '.:6"/ R% ".36"%&B:MR &B3R .:1M #M&C:13 C%$ C%?:6$&B$CA 31$C$%CA

."6/:#: .:; #$L6!:RB%$. N.F+ @/R"B%$ %RB$13.B( %.( (&% .6:%R%PL6?3C%R, B%

&;R%$&?3'%B$C< C%$ &;'."6$P:6$C< .6:01A'%B% '.:6"/ R% .<6:;R B:R BM.: (1FR

BFR #$%@RF&B$CJR C%B3@(6$JR BFR #M: B%T$R:'3B$CJR &;&B3'<BFR (ICD-9 C%$

DSM-III-R). 0 Silver %R%PL6"$ .F+ #"R ;.<6!:;R &B%?"6< #"#:'LR% @$% B3R

&;!R(B"63 "'P<R$&3 :6$&'LRFR BM.FR #$%B%6%!JR, ".$C6%B"/ ('F+ 3 <.:23 (B$

;.<6!"$ '"@%1MB"63 &!L&3 %R<'"&% &" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C%$ #$%B%6%!L+

&;R%$&?3'%B$C:M BM.:; (Clark, 1970, Rutter & Y ;Ie, 1973, Bale, 1981, Perlmutter et

al, 1983, Rutter & Giller, 1983, Bender, 1987).

H &!L&3 1:$.(R '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR '" &;R%$&?3'%B$C< C%$

&;'."6$P:6$C< .6:01A'%B% "/R%$ #"#:'LR3 C%$ :'(PFR% %.:#"CBA. A ;B( .:;

!6"$<9"B%$ #$"6"MR3&3 C%$ %.:B"1"/ LR% "6JB3'% C1"$#/ (Ruter & Giller, 1983) "/R%$

3 PM&3 C%$ &3'%&/% %;BA+ B3+ &!L&3+. I$% B3R %.<RB3&3 &B: "6JB3'% %;B( L!:;R

#$%':6PF?"/ #M: ;.:?L&"$+.

H .6JB3 ;.(?"&3 ?"F6"/ B% 2;!$%B6$C< .6:01A'%B% %.(66:$% B3+ &!:1$CA+

%.:B;!/%+, 3 :.:/% :#3@"/ &" !%'31A %;B:"CB/'3&3, &" &;R%$&?3'%B$C< .6:01A'%B%

C%$ "R &;R"!"/% &" #$%B%6%!L+ &;'."6$P:6<+. \6";R"+ .:; "R$&!M:;R B3R ;.(?"&3

%;BA L!:;R #"/T"$ (B$: %) B: '%?3&$%C( .6:P/1 .%$#$JR '" #$%B%6%!L+ &;'."6$P:6<+

"/R%$ &" .:11L+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ %R<1:@: '" B: .6:P/1 .%$#$JR '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

(Rutter et al., 1970, Varlaam, 1974, Meltzer et al., 1986), 0) C<.:$% 0"1B/F&3 &B:

&!:1"/: ".$#6< ?"B$C< C%$ &B% .6:01A'%B% &;'."6$P:6<+ (Ayllon & Roberts, 1974),

C%$ @) '" B3R ."6<BF&3 B:; &!:1"/:; '"$JR:RB%$ :$ #$%B%6%!L+ &;'."6$P:6<+ (Elli:tt

& V:ss, 1974, Kelly & Phili6s, 1979). H% .6L."$ R% %R%P"6?"/ (B$ ;.<6!:;R

.%6<1131% <11"+ L6";R"+ .:; #"R "R$&!M:;R B3R ;.(?"&3 %;BA, ;.:&B36/9:RB%+ (B$

:$ #$%B%6%!L+ &;'."6$P:6<+ "'P%R/9:RB%$ .6$R %.( B$+ @RF&B$CL+ #;&C:1/"+, '.:6"/

C%$ %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% (McMichael, 1979, Richman et al., 1982).

H #"MB"63 ;.(?"&3 ?"F6"/ (B$ B(&: :$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ (&: C%$ B%

.6:01A'%B% &;'."6$P:6<+ L!:;R '$% C:$RA %$B$:1:@/% .:; '.:6"/ R% "/R%$

C:$RFR$C:-:$C:@"R"$%C:/ .%6<@:RB"+ A $#$:&;@C6%&$%C< !%6%CB36$&B$C<, (.F+ 3



64

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%, 3 PBF!$CA $C%R(B3B% &;@CLRB6F&3+ C%$ 3 .%6:6'3B$C(B3B%

(Off :rd et al., 1978, Richman et al., 1988)



65

,RWGP\>UQJ WG@\@SF E> GHJQ@GRVM .UQRLNP>M

EVQT QK?GKJO@RSF EXHJQJM

4" 0<&3 BLB:$"+ ?"F63B$CL+ .6:&"@@/&"$+ L!:;R %R%.B;!?"/ .6:@6<''%B% @$%

B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&3 .%$#$JR '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR '<?3&3+.

B(!:+ B3+ .%6L'0%&3+ "/R%$ R% "C.%$#";B:MR LB&$ B% .%$#$< J&B" R% C$R3B:.:$:MR

B$+ @RF&B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+ .:; #$%?LB:;R '" B3 0:A?"$% "$#$CA+ "T<&C3&3+ -

"C.%/#";&3+ @$% R% :#3@3?:MR &B3 #$(6?F&3 - %;B:#$(6?F&3, '<?3&3 -

%;B:'<?3&3. DR C%$ 3 L6";R% @$% &B6%B3@$CL+ &" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

L!"$ T"C$RA&"$ %.( B% 'L&% B3+ #"C%"B/%+ B:; j70 (Torgesen, 1977, Wong, 1979) 3

&MR#"&3 L6";R%+ C%$ .6%CB$CA+ ;.A6T" #M&C:13. G:11< #31%#A %.( B%

.6:@6<''%B% C%$ B: ;1$C( B3+ "C.%/#";&3+ #"R C%BL13T%R &" 0"1B/F&3 B3+

"./#:&3+. \!:;R @/R"$ .:11L+ .6:&.<?"$"+ C%$ L!:;R %R%.B;!?"/ "'."$6$C< C%$

"P%6'(&B3C%R %.( "6";R3BL+ .:11< .6:@6<''%B% @$% B3 0"1B/F&3 B3+ "./#:&3+ BFR

'%?3BJR '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ (Deshler, Schumaker, 1986). Q$ .6:&.<?"$"+

%;BL+ ."6$1<'0%R%R #$#%&C%1/% C%$ C%?:#A@3&3 '%?3BJR “ R% #3'$:;6@A&:;R

&B(!:;+, R% &;11LT:;R B$+ C%B<1131"+ #$%#$C%&/"+ C%$ R% :#3@3?:MR .6:+ B3R

"./B";T3 &B(!FR” (Mayer, 1987). =:$R(+ &B(!:+ "/R%$ R% 0:3?3?:MR :$ '%?3BL+ R% %RB$'"BF./&:;R B% '%?3&$%C< B:;+ .6:01A'%B%. Z "C.%/#";&3 "/R%$ '%C6:!6(R$% (6

"0#:'<#"+ '" LR% !6(R:) C%$ %.%$B"/ '$C6L+ :'<#"+ '%?3BJR (1 '" 6 <B:'%).

7: .$: :1:C136F'LR: C%$ %R%.B;@'LR: ':RBL1: .%6L'0%&3+ 'L&F

&B6%B3@$CJR, L!"$ %R%.B;!?"/ &B: WR&B$B:MB: \6";R%+ @$% B$+ 4%?3&$%CL+

S;&C:1/"+ B:; G%R".$&B3'/:; B:; Cansas.

M'PFR% '" B: ':RBL1: %;B(, F+ "T<&C3&3 BFR &B6%B3@$CJR :6/9"B%$ 3

.6:&L@@$&3 "R(+ @RF&B$C:M L6@:; %.( LR% <B:': C%$ %R%PL6"B%$ &B: .J+ &CLPB"B%$

C%$ "R"6@"/ (B%R .6:@6%''%B/9"$, ".$B"1"/ C%$ %T$:1:@"/ B3R "./#:&A B:; .<RF &B:

@RF&B$C( %;B( L6@: C%$ B% %.:B"1L&'%B< B:;.

B(!:+ B:; .6:@6<''%B:+ "/R%$ R% #$#%!?:MR C%$ R% "T%&C3?:MR :$

&B6%B3@$CL+ '" %.:B"1"&'%B$C( C%$ ".$B;!A B6(.:. 4$% &B6%B3@$CA #$%PL6"$ %.( '$%

0%&$CA #"T$(B3B% A B%CB$CA '"1LB3+. B% ."6$&&(B"6% &!:1$C< .6:@6<''%B%, B(&:

:$ 0%&$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+, (&: C%$ :$ B%CB$CL+ '"1LB3+ &;RA?F+ %.:B"1:MRB%$ %.( LR%

&MR:1: 03'<BFR A '$% .:6"/% &!"B$CA '" '$% &;@C"C6$'LR3 %.%/B3&3. j %;BL+ B$+

."6$.BJ&"$+ 3 #$#%&C%1/% @/R"B%$ 'L&F B3+ &;@C"C6$'"R:.:/3&3+ C%$ %R<1;&3+



66

?"'<BFR.

7% 0A'%B% ..! . '$%+ '"@<13+ #$%/6"&3+ '.:6"/ R% @6%P:MR C%$ R%

.%6%B363?:MR LB&$ J&B" R% :#3@A&:;R &" '$% &;@C"C6$'LR3 LC0%&3. D.j B3R <113

'"6$<, '$% &B6%B3@$CA %.:B"1"/B%$ %.( C6$B$CL+ C%B";?;RBA6$"+ @6%''L+ C%$

C%R(R"+, .:; %P:6:MR B3R ".$1:@A BFR C%1MB"6FR #"T$:BABFR A #$%#$C%&$JR

.6:C"$'LR:; R% .6:!F6A&"$ B: .%$#/ &B3 1A23 %.:P<&"FR C%$ &B3R ;1:.:/3&A B:;+,

C%?J+ C%$ &B3R "./1;&3 .6:013'<BFR. B3R "C.%/#";&3 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR #"R

@/R"B%$ .6:&L@@$&3 "R(+ @RF&B$C:M %RB$C"$'LR:; %11< B: <B:': C%B";?MR"B%$ LB&$

J&B" R% .6:&"@@/&"$ %;B( B: %RB$C"/'"R: %.( '(R: B:;, C$R3B:.:$JRB%+ B$+

C%B<1131"+ @RJ&"$+ C%$ #"T$(B3B"+ .:; L!"$ &!"B$C< 'j %;B(. Q#3@"/B%$ #31%#A R%

'<?"$ .J+ R% '%?%/R"$.

Z .6:&L@@$&3 B3+ "C.%/#";&3+ 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR '.:6"/ R% @/R"$ '" <'"&"+ A

L''"&"+ #$#%CB$CL+ B%CB$CL+. B3R ."6/.BF&3 .:; @/R"B%$ !6A&3 L''"&FR B%CB$CJR :

'%?3BA+ .%6%C$R"/B%$ R% C$R3B:.:$A&"$ C%$ R% !63&$':.:$A&"$ &B6%B3@$CL+ 'L&% %.(

B: ;.(#"$@'% "6JB3&3 - &!3'%B:.:/3&3 - #$(6?F&3 C%$ %1131".$#6%&B$CA

C%?:#A@3&3 (! . 1).

Q "$#$C(+ C%B";?MR"$ B: '%?3BA C%$ C%?J+ 3 "C.%/#";&3 "T"1/&&"B%$, 0%?'$%/%

B:R .%6%C$R"/ R% %R%1<0"$ ;.";?;R(B3B% @$% B3R ".$B;!A C%$ %.:B"1"&'%B$CA

:1:C1A6F&3 B:; ?L'%B:+. " '"6$CL+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ : #<&C%1:+ #"R .%6:;&$<9"$ B3R

“C%1MB"63” &B6%B3@$CA %11< 0:3?<"$ B: '%?3BA R% B3R %R%C%1M2"$ : /#$:+.

B3R ."6/.BF&3 .:; !63&$':.:$"/B%$ <'"&3 B%CB$CA, 3 .6:&L@@$&3 "&B$<9"B%$

&B3R "T"M6"&3 "R(+ %.:B"1"&'%B$C:M C%$ ".$B;!3'LR:; &;&BA'%B:+ &!"B$C< 'j LR%

?L'% C%$ : #<&C%1:+ "C.%$#"M"$ : /#$:+ B: '%?3BA &B3R C%B<11313 &B6%B3@$CA.

DP:M ".$1"@"/ 3 &B6%B3@$CA, : #<&C%1:+ "C.%$#"M"$ B: '%?3BA &B$+ %.%6%/B3B"+

.6:h.:?L&"$+ .:; %;BA %.%$B"/ C%$ .6:F?"/ B3R <'"&3 ;1:.:/3&3 C%$

%R%B6:P:#(B3&A B3+ %.( B:R /#$: B:R '%?3BA. Z CM6$% #$%P:6< %R<'"&% &B$+ #M:



67

.6:&"@@/&"$+ L@C"$B%$ &B: 6(1: B:; #%&C<1:; - "C.%$#";BA. B$+ L''"&"+ B%CB$CL+ :

#<&C%1:+ :#3@"/ B: '%?3BA &B3 @RJ&3 C%$ &B3 !6A&3 B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+, "RJ &B3R

<'"&3 3 &B6%B3@$CA #$%&%P3R/9"B%$ C%$ #$#<&C"B%$ %.( B: #<&C%1:. B: ':RBL1:

B:; =<R&%+, (.F+ #$%':6PJ?3C" M&B"6% %.( 20 ."6/.:; !6(R$% .6:013'%B$&':M,

!63&$':.:$:MRB%$ L''"&"+ B%CB$CL+ @$% B3R "C.%/#";&3 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR. Z

'%C6(!6:R3 "'."$6/% B:;+ L#"$T" (B$, %R C%$ :$ '%?3BL+ '.:6"/ R% #$#<&C:RB%$ B3

&B6%B3@$CA, #"R %R%C%1M.B:;R B% :PL13 B3+, #"R "/!%R C/R3B6% R% B3 '<?:;R C%$ #"R

'.:6:M&%R R% B3 @"R$C"M&:;R @$% .6:&F.$CA !6A&3. A'"6% #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R

"'.1:CA B:; '%?3BA &B3R "C.%/#";&3 - "TLB%&3, &B3 &;''"B:!A B:; &B:R L1"@!: C%$

&B3R .6:&F.$CA #L&'";&3 B:; &B: &MR:1: B3+ "C.%$#";B$CA+ #$%#$C%&/%+ (Lenz,

1992).

7$+ &B6%B3@$CL+ '.:6:M'" R% B$+ #:M'" 'L&% %.( BL&&"6$+ #$%&B<&"$+:

%) 7 AE/: D #% 9($+(;>0()% #:@ /#$"#:3+'D@ .:; '%?%/R"$ B: .%$#/. ,/R%$

#"#:'LR: (B$ &B: '%?3BA "R;.<6!"$ 3 #$%#$C%&/% B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+ .:; #"R %.:B"1"/

&;11:@A %R:6@<RFBFR C%R(RFR &;'."6$P:6JR .:; :#3@:MR &" %R:6@<RFB%

%.:B"1L&'%B%. Z &B6%B3@$CA .:; ?% #$#%!?"/ .6L."$ R% C%B";?MR"$ B: .%$#/ .6:+ B$+

“C%1MB"6"+” $#L"+, :6@%RF'LR"+ '" B3R “C%1MB"63” %C:1:;?/%, LB&$ J&B" R%

:#3@3?"/ &B$+ “C%1MB"6"+” @RF&B$CL+ "C#31J&"$+. 7% 0A'%B% B3+ "C.%$#";B$CA+

&B6%B3@$CA+ .6L."$ R% ;.:#"$CRM:;R &B: '%?3BA R% !63&$':.:$"/ &;@C"C6$'LR"+

@RF&B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+, R% B:; ;.:#"$CRM:;R R% !63&$':.:$"/ B3 '"B%@RJ&3 '"

%;B:"6FBA&"$+ - %;B:"CB$'A&"$+, R% !63&$':.:$"/ B$+ C%B<1131"+ #"T$(B3B"+ A

C%R(R"+ C%$ R% C<R"$ B$+ C%B<1131"+ "RL6@"$"+ .:; ?% B:R 0:3?A&:;R &B3R

%R%B6:P:#(B3&3. Q$ "RL6@"$"+ %;BL+ .6L."$ R% &;R#L:RB%$ '" R:3B$CL+ .6<T"$+, (.F+

"6'3R"/"+ A .136:P:6/"+. N1% B% 0A'%B% .6L."$ R% "CB"1"&B:MR &" &MRB:': !6(R:

@$%B/ %R '"&:1%0A&"$ '"@<13 !6:R$CA ."6/:#:+ B: .%$#/ T"!R<"$. G"6$BB< 0A'%B% A

"6'3R"/"+ .6L."$ R% %.:C1"/:RB%$. ,./&3+ .6L."$ R% #/R:RB%$ .136:P:6/"+ &!"B$C<

'" B: @$%B/ !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ :$ &B6%B3@$CL+, .(B" C%$ .:M !63&$':.:$:MRB%$. Z

:6?:1:@$CA %;BA 0<&3 @$% B3 &B6%B3@$CA #$#<&C"B%$. I"R$C< 3 &B6%B3@$CA

."6$1%'0<R"$ C%B";?;RBA6$"+ @6%''L+ &!"B$C< '" B:R B6(.: &CL23+ C%$ #6<&3+ C%B<

B: &!"#$%&'(, B3R "CBL1"&3 C%$ B3R "CB/'3&3 "R(+ @RF&B$C:M L6@:;.

0) S;(2+"/0>@ '"+ %$3?)4/: #:@ /#$"#:3+'D@ . 4$% "C.%$#";B$CA &B6%B3@$CA

'.:6"/ R% %.:CB3?"/ C%$ R% @"R$C";?"/ ";C:1(B"6% %R L!"$ B% .%6%C<BF

!%6%CB36$&B$C< &!"#$%&':M : 7: %6!$C( "./."#: .136:P:6$JR .6L."$ R% C%?:6$&B"/

".%C6$0J+ A R% "RB%!?"/ &B% 0A'%B% B:; &!"#$%&':M. B3R .%6L'0%&3 .6L."$ R%



68

"R&F'%BF?"/ LR% &M&B3'% %R<C13&3+ @$% R% #$";C:1MR"$ B% 0A'%B% B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+

C%$ BFR "6'3R"$JR. =<?" 0A'% %;B:M B:; &;&BA'%B:+ .6L."$ R% "/R%$ '$C6( C%$ R%

."6$1%'0<R"$ 1/@"+ 1LT"$+ C1"$#$< .:; ?% #$";C:1MR:;R B3R <'"&3 &MR#"&3 '"

@RF&B$CL+ "RL6@"$"+ .:; %.%$B:MRB%$ @$% B3R :1:C1A6F&3 B:; 0A'%B:+. Z

#;R%B(B3B% %R<C13&3+ %;T<R"$ .6::#";B$C< '" B:R %6$?'( BFR 03'<BFR, B% :.:/%

#"R .6L."$ R% ;."60%/R:;R B% ".B<. 7: &M&B3'% %R<C13&3+ .6L."$ R% &!"B/9"B%$ '"

B3 #$%#$C%&/% @$% B3R :.:/% &!"#$<&B3C" 3 &B6%B3@$CA. 7L1:+, 3 @1F&&$CA #:'A .:;

!63&$':.:$"/B%$ @$% R% %.:#J&"$ B% 0A'%B% B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+ .6L."$ R% "/R%$ %.1A

C%$ :$C"/%.

@) 7 ;$:/+0>#:#" #:@ /#$"#:3+'D@ . Z &B6%B3@$CA .6L."$ R% C%B";?MR"$ B:

'%?3BA LB&$ J&B" R% %RB%.:C6$?"/ &B$+ %.%$BA&"$+ A &B3R "./1;&3 &;@C"C6$'LRFR

.6:013'<BFR. B6%B3@$CL+ .:; "/R%$ <'"&% !6A&$'"+ '.:6"/ R% %.:?3C";B:MR C%$

R% @"R$C";?:MR &MRB:'%. ,/R%$ %.%6%/B3B: C<?" &B6%B3@$CA R% &;R#L"B%$ '" B$+

%.%$BA&"$+ .:; L!:;R B"?"/ %.( B3R %6!A C%$ R% '.:6"/ R% @"R$C";?"/ &" .:$C/1"+

C%B%&B<&"$+ '" '%C6:.6(?"&'% :PL13.

#) KF?/':/: - ('9"-2(6/: /#+@ /#$"#:3+'G@ . 7% "C.%$#";B$C<

!%6%CB36$&B$C< .:; "/R%$ &3'%RB$C< .6:C"$'LR:; R% @/R"$ 3 0%&$CA "C.%/#";&3 &"

&B6%B3@$CL+ "/R%$ :

1) Q '%?3BA+ .6L."$ R% &;'PFRA&"$ R% '<?"$ B3 &B6%B3@$CA C%$ R% C%B%R:A&"$

B: &C:.( C%$ B% :PL13 B3+.

2) Q "C.%$#";BA+ .6L."$ R% ."6$@6<2"$ C%$ R% "6'3R"M&"$ &B: '%?3BA .:$"+

P;&$CL+ C%$ R:3B$CL+ "RL6@"$"+ .6L."$ R% C$R3B:.:$A&"$.

3) Q '%?3BA+ .6L."$ R% '<?"$ .J+ R% !63&$':.:$"/ LR% &M&B3'% %R<C13&3+

"R&F'%BF'LR: &B3 &B6%B3@$CA .%6L'0%&3+, LB&$ J&B" R% #$";C:1;R?"/ 3 #$%#$C%&/%

%;B:'<?3&3+.

4) Q '%?3BA+ .6L."$ R% C%B%R:A&"$ B3 #$%#$C%&/% "T<&C3&3+ B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+,

R% &;''"BL!"$ C%$ R% .6:01L."$ B3 #$%#$C%&/% %.(CB3&A+ B3+.

5) Q '%?3BA+ .6L."$ R% &;''"BL!"$ .1A6F+ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% "C.%/#";&3+ &"

C<?" 0A'% B3+ @$% R% '.:6L&"$ R% :#3@3?"/ &B3R %;B:'(6PF&3.

6) G6$R %.( B3R "P%6':@A .6L."$ R% @/R"$ L1"@!:+ B3+ C%B%R(3&3+, LB&$ J&B" :

"C.%$#";BA+ R% "/R%$ &/@:;6:+ @$% B$+ @RJ&"$+ B:; '%?3BA &!"B$C< '" B3 &B6%B3@$CA.

7) Z "P%6':@A "C.%/#";&3+ B3+ &B6%B3@$CA+ .6L."$ R% T"C$R<"$ '" L1"@!: C%$

C%?:#A@3&3 %.j B:R "C.%$#";BA C%$ .6::#";B$C< .6L."$ : '%?3BA+ R% '<?"$ R% B3R

!63&$':.:$"/ %.( '(R:+ B:;.



69

8) G6L."$ R% .6:F?3?"/ LR% &M&B3'% %T$:1(@3&3+ LB&$ J&B" '%?3BA+ C%$

"C.%$#";BA+ R% TL6:;R %R : '%?3BA+ '%?%/R"$ .J+ R% '%?%/R"$.

9) DP:M B: .%$#/ %.:CBA&"$ B3 &B6%B3@$CA "C.%/#";&3+ .6L."$ R% :#3@3?"/

&B3 &B6%B3@$CA @"R/C";&3+ B3+ @RJ&3+.

,RWG@\>UK@RB WNGPQ@L O@G KJF GFK@E>KSW@QJ KTF GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

D.j (&% %R%PL6?3C%R &B: .6:3@:M'"R: C"P<1%$: @/R"B%$ P%R"6( (B$ 3

"C.%/#";&3 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR '<?3&3+ '.:6"/ R% %.:B"1L&"$ LR%R %.:B"1"&'%B$C(

B6(.: %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ BFR .%$#$JR '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. N.F+ ('F+

".$&3'<R?3C", : B6(.:+ %;B(+ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ 'L!6$ &A'"6% @/R"B%$ &" ."$6%'%B$C(

"./."#:, 'L&% &B% .1%/&$% "6";R3B$CJR CLRB6FR, @$%B/ 3 &MR#"&3 BLB:$FR

.6:@6%''<BFR '" B3R "C.%$#";B$CA .6%@'%B$C(B3B% #"R '.(6"&" %C('3 R%

%.:#J&"$. \R%+, C%$ /&F+ : .$: &3'%RB$C(+ .%6<@:RB%+ B3+ #;&C:1/%+ &MR#"&3+

L6";R%+ C%$ .6%CB$CA+, "/R%$ B: /#$: B: "C.%$#";B$C( .1%/&$:.

N.F+ "/R%$ @RF&B(, &" #$"?RL+ "./."#: B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

%RB$'"BF./9:RB%$ &;RA?F+ "/B" &" "#$CL+ B<T"$+ "/B", &B% .1%/&$% B3+ &!:1$CA+

LRB%T3+, &B3R “C%R:R$CA” .%6%#:&$%CA B<T3 '" .%6<11313 "R$&!;B$CA #$#%&C%1/%.

D.j (&% %R%PL6?3C%R ('F+, 3 C%B3@:6$:.:/3&3 .%$#$JR '" BLB:$"+ #;&C:1/"+

:;&$%&B$C< 0%&/9"B%$ &B3R "./#:&3 C%$ ."6$1%'0<R"$ LR%R "B"6:@"RA .13?;&'(, :

:.:/:+ #"R L!"$ .<RB:B" B$+ /#$"+ "C.%$#";B$CL+ %R<@C"+. \R% C:$R( B:;+ .6(013'%,

.:; "R#"!:'LRF+ %.:B"1"/ %.(66:$% B:; "C.%$#";B$C:M &;&BA'%B:+, "/R%$ 3 "1%P6<

%R".<6C"$% .:; ?"F6"/B%$ (B$ .%6:;&$<9:;R C%$ .:; '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&"$ &B3R

%.:CB3'LR3 %R$C%R(B3B% C%$ &B3 &!:1$CA %.:B;!/% (Diener, Dweck, 1978).

Q6$&'LR% %.( B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< B(&: B3+ C%R:R$CA+ - .%6%#:&$%CA+ B<T3+,

(&: C%$ B3+ "$#$CA+ '.:6"/ R% @/R:;R ."6$&&(B"6: C%B%R:3B< %R ?"F63?:MR

%.(66:$% '$%+ @6%P"$:C6%B$CA+ - #$:$C3B$CA+ .6:&L@@$&3+, 'L&% &B% .1%/&$% B3+

:.:/%+ 3 "C.%/#";&3 ?"F6"/B%$ F+ #$%#$C%&/% .%6%@F@A+(Apple, 1974). Q$ '%?3BL+

%.:B"1:MR %C%BL6@%&B% ;1$C< B% :.:/% .6L."$ R% ':6P:.:$3?:MR, C%$ &B(!:+ B3+

"C.%/#";&3+ "/R%$ R% #$%':6PJ&"$ B% !%6%CB36$&B$C< C%$ B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ BFR

'%?3BJR '" BLB:$: B6(.: J&B" R% %.:CBA&:;R .6:C%?:6$&'LR"+ "T"$#$C"M&"$+,

!6A&$'"+ @$% B3R .%6%@F@A. f%6%CB36$&B$C< B:; &;&BA'%B:+ "/R%$ : C<?"B:+

L1"@!:+ C%$ 3 ':R(#6:'3 ".$C:$RFR/%. N&: ."6$&&(B"6: "TFB"6$C( L1"@!: #L!:RB%$

B% .%$#$< %.( B: #<&C%1: A B: .6(@6%''%, B(&: .$: %.:B"1"&'%B$CA "/R%$ 3 '<?3&3." '$% L6";R% "?R$C:M ".$.L#:; &B$+ Z.G.D. &!"B$C< '" B$+ B<T"$+ .:; %C:1:;?:M&%R



70

B3 @6%P"$:C6%B$CA - #$:$C3B$CA .6:&L@@$&3, #$%.$&BJ?3C" (B$ :$ '%?3BL+ &.<R$%

L.%$6R%R %.:P<&"$+ &!"B$C< '" ?L'%B% '<?3&3+ C%$ : #<&C%1:+ %.:B"1:M&" B:

"./C"RB6: B3+ "C.%$#";B$CA+ #$%#$C%&/%+. D;B(+ L.%$6R" %.:P<&"$+ (!$ '(R: @$% B:

."6$"!('"R: C%$ B: ;1$C( B3+ #$#%&C%1/%+ %11< C%$ @$% B3R "R@LR"$ :6@<RF&3 B:;

!J6:; C%$ B:; !6(R:;, C%?J+ C%$ BFR C:$RFR$CJR %1131".$#6<&"FR BFR .%$#$JR

(Goodlad, 1984). ,./&3+ L!"$ ;.:&B36$!B"/ (B$ 'L&% &" LR% BLB:$: .1%/&$: :$

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ '.:6"/ R% .3@<9:;R %.( B% “.6L."$” B3+ @6%P"$:C6%B/%+ C%$

(!$ %.( B3R "C.%$#";B$CA %R%@C%$(B3B% (Hobbs, 1975, Reschly, 1984).

B$+ B<T"$+ (.:; P:$B:MR .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, .:11L+ P:6L+

"RB:./9:RB%$ "R#"/T"$+ '$%+ '3!%R$&B$CA+ .6:&L@@$&3+ (Heshusius, 1982). 7%

"T%B:'$C";'LR% .6:@6<''%B% "C.%/#";&3+ .:; &!"#$<9:RB%$ @$% B% .%$#$< %;B<

C%?:6/9:RB%$ &B3R %6!A B3+ !6:R$<+ C%$ .%6%'LR:;R %'"B<013B% @$% 9 'AR"+ A C%$

.%6%.<RF. .<R$% #" : '%?3BA+ &;''"BL!"$ &j %;BA B3 #$%#$C%&/% (Ysseldyke,

1983).

\R% <11: .6(013'% B:; .%6%#:&$%C:M &!:1"/:; '" %6R3B$CL+ ".$.BJ&"$+ @$%

B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ "/R%$ :$ ."6$:6$&B$C:/ &B(!:$ .:; B/?"RB%$ %.( B:

."6$"!('"R: BFR .6:@6%''<BFR. N.F+ #$%./&BF&" : Goodlad (1983) B: ."6$"!('"R:

BFR .6:@6%''<BFR AB%R B: /#$: @$% (1:;+ B:;+ '%?3BL+ C%$ %P:6:M&" &B3R

"C'<?3&3 0%&$CJR #"T$:BABFR (.F+ %R<@RF&3, @6%PA, %6$?'3B$CA. S6%&B36$(B3B"+

.:; &!"B/9:RB%R '" #3'$:;6@$C(B3B%, %;B(R:'3 &CL23 A "./1;&3 .6:013'<BFR '"

B3 &;''"B:!A B:; '%?3BA %.:;&/%9%R A AB%R "RB"1J+ ;.:0%?'$&'LR"+. Z

#$#%&C%1/% BFR 0%&$CJR #"T$:BABFR &" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ ?"F6"/B%$

B(&: &3'%RB$CA J&B" .:11L+ P:6L+ %@R::MRB%$ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ .6:@6%''%B$&'LR"+

@$% B:;+ <11:;+ '%?3BL+ .:; '.:6"/ R% "R#$%PL6:;R B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+, (.F+ ..! . ':;&$CA, P;&$CA, %@F@A, C .%. Q$ ."6$:6$&':/ %;B:/ &B:;+

&B(!:;+ '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&:;R B:;+ '%?3BL+ '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ &" %.:B;!/%,

"RJ .%6<1131% B:;+ "'.:#/9:;R R% &;R%@FR/9:RB%$ '" B:;+ <11:;+ '%?3BL+ &"

B:'"/+ .:; L!:;R '"@%1MB"6"+ $C%R(B3B"+.

Q$ %RB%@FR$&B$CL+ :6@%RFB$CL+ #:'L+ .:; %P:6:MR B3R :6@<RF&3 B3+ B<T3+

C%$ B3 &;'."6$P:6< B:; #%&C<1:; %.:B"1:MR LR% <11: .6(013'% B:; "C.%$#";B$C:M

&;&BA'%B:+, '" %6R3B$CL+ "./&3+ ".$.BJ&"$+ &" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+

(Good, Stipek, 1983, Goodlad, 1984). 7;.$C<, '%?3BL+ B3+ /#$%+ !6:R:1:@$CA+

31$C/%+ :'%#:.:$:MRB%$ &" “B<T"$+” C%$ %T$:1:@:MRB%$ F+ .6:+ B3R "./#:&3 '" "R$%/%

C6$BA6$%. Q$ '%?3BL+ ('F+ '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ "/R%$ P;&$C( R% '3R L!:;R



71

"R$%/% "./#:&3 A "B:$'(B3B% %RB%.(C6$&3+ &B% "R$%/% C%?:6$9('"R% &!:1$C<

C%?AC:RB%. \B&$ .%6%B36"/B%$ B: P%$R('"R:, %C('3 C$ (B%R &3'"$JR:;R .6(:#:,

&.<R$% R% "R$&!M:RB%$, @$%B/ 3 "./#:&A B:;+ .%6%'LR"$ &!"B$C< !%'31A &" &M@C6$&3

'" B:;+ <11:;+ '%?3BL+. Q$ #$%6C"/+ %;BL+ "'."$6/"+ %.:B;!/%+ '.:6"/ R% :#3@A&:;R

&" '"$F'LR3 .6:&.<?"$%, "RJ .%6<1131% '.:6"/ R% #3'$:;6@A&:;R C%$ <11"+

%6R3B$CL+ ".$.BJ&"$+, (.F+ !%'31A %;B:"CB/'3&3, %.<?"$% C%$ <@!:+, .:;

#$:@CJR:;R B% %6!$C< B:;+ .6:01A'%B% (Thomas, 1979, Licht C%$ Kistner, 1986).

7L1:+, :$ ."6$:6$&'LR"+ ";C%$6/"+ @$% &;''"B:!A BFR '%?3BJR &B3 1A23

%.:P<&"FR &!"B$C< '" B: ."6$"!('"R: C%$ B$+ #$%#$C%&/"+ '<?3&3+ %.:B"1:MR LR%R

&3'%RB$C( %R%&B%1B$C( .%6<@:RB%, .:; :#3@"/ &B3R L11"$23 .:$C$1:':6P/%+ C%$

C<R"$ B: &!:1"/: LR%R &B%B$C( '3!%R$&'(. 4L&% &j %;B( B: .1%/&$:, B% .%$#$< '"

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ %RB$'"BF./9:RB%$ F+ “.6(013'%” .:; '.:6"/ R%

%RB$'"BF.$&B"/ '" '$% "$#$CA #$#%&C%1/%, .<1$ B3+ /#$%+ ':6PA+ (Oliver, 1976).

% W?LQVOO@QJ KLU OFTQK@RL_ W>\PLU QKJF >RWGP\>UQJ KTF WG@\@SF E>

GHJQ@GRVM .UQRLNP>M

4$% C%$R:M6@$% .6(B%&3 @$% LR% &!:1"/: .:; ?% '.:6:M&" R% C%1M2"$ B$+

%R<@C"+ (1FR BFR .%$#$JR C%$ C;6/F+ %;BJR .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R .6:01A'%B%

'<?3&3+ %.:B"1"/ B: "C.%$#";B$C( &M&B3'% B:; @RF&B$C:M ."#/:;.

Z ?"J63&3 %;BA @$% B3 1"$B:;6@/% B:; &!:1"/:; L!"$ B3 0<&3 B3+ &B3 ?"F6/%

@$% B% %R%1;B$C< .6:@6<''%B% B:; John Dewey (Popkewitz, 1983). Q Dewey

%.L66$.B" B$+ C%?:6$&'LR"+ %RB$C"$'"R$CL+ .6%@'%B$C(B3B"+ C%$ B$+ &B%B$CL+,

C%?:6$&'LR"+ %RB$1A2"$+ B:; &!:1$C:M .6:@6<''%B:+. I$% B:R Dewy

.6%@'%B$C(B3B% "/R%$ '/% #;R%'$CA #$%#$C%&/% 3 :.:/% (B%R .%6:;&$<9"B%$ '"

&B%B$C:M+ (6:;+, #3'$:;6@"/ 2";#"/+ "RB;.J&"$+. =%B< &;RL."$% LR% .6(@6%''%

.6L."$ R% CB/9"B%$ #3'$:;6@$C< .<RF &B$+ "'."$6/"+ B3+ 9FA+ C%$ R% 1%'0<R"$ ;.(23

B:; B% "R#$%PL6:RB% C%$ B% B%1LRB% BFR '%?3BJR. Z %1131"./#6%&3 %R<'"&% &B:

<B:': C%$ B: ."6$0<11:R B:;, P;&$C( C%$ C:$RFR$C(, :#3@"/ &" '/% #$%#$C%&/%

“@RF6$'/%+”, &;11:@$&':M C%$ #$"6"MR3&3+ 'L&% %.( .6%@'%B$CL+ "'."$6/"+ C%$

.6<T"$+. 4"?:#:1:@$C< 3 #$%#$C%&/% %;BA %.:CB<B%$ 'L&% %.( B3R "./1;&3

.6:013'<BFR '" .:$C/1"+ "R%11%CB$CL+ 1M&"$+. Q '%?3BA+ C%$ : #<&C%1:+

%R%93B:MR B:;+ &B(!:;+ C%$ B$+ @RJ&"$+ '" #$%6CA %1131"./#6%&3 C%$ #"R "/R%$

.%?3B$C:/ #LCB"+ B3+ @RJ&3+ A "CB"1"&BL+ BFR #"T$:BABFR (Morris C%$ Pal, 1976).



72

Z B<T3 .6L."$ R% %RB$.6:&F."M"$ LR% '$C6(C:&': .1:;6%1$&B$CJR C%$

#3':C6%B$CJR #$%#$C%&$JR, LB&$ J&B" B% .%$#$< R% %.:CBA&:;R B3 @RJ&3 'L&F B3+

"'."$6/%+. 4" B:R B6(.: %;B( '.:6"/ R% .6:F?3?"/ 3 "R&F'<BF&3 BFR .%$#$JR '"

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, %11< C%$ (1FR BFR .%$#$JR &B: /#$: "C.%$#";B$C(

."6$0<11:R.

7: &M&B3'% B:; @RF&B$C:M ."#/:; %.:B"1"/ &MR?"&3 B3+ &CL23+ B:; Dewey

C%$ B3+ 2;!:1:@$CA+ ?"F6/%+ B:; Kurt Levin. M'PFR% '" B:R Bigge (Bigge, 1982,

Bigge & Hunt, 1980) B: &M&B3'% %;B( ?"F6"/ B3R "C.%/#";&3 F+ '$% #$%#$C%&/% '"

B3R :.:/% :$ '%?3BL+ @/R:RB%$ $C%R:/ R% %RB%.:C6/R:RB%$ &B: ."6$0<11:R B:;+ .$:

%.:B"1"&'%B$C< C%$ R% "C.136JR:;R B$+ %R<@C"+ C%$ B:;+ &B(!:;+ B:;+. =%?J+ :

'%?3BA+ %1131".$#6< '" B: ."6$0<11:R 3 #$#%&C%1/% @/R"B%$ '$% #$%#$C%&/%

#$%.6%@'<B";&3+ %R<'"&% &B: '%?3BA C%$ &B: #<&C%1: (Adelman C%$ Taylor, 1983).

Q$ &B(!:$ B3+ '<?3&3+ "/R%$ .:$C/1:$ C%$ %RB%R%C1:MR B3R %R:':$:@LR"$% BFR

'%?3BJR. 7: .6:](R B3+ '<?3&3+ "/R%$ 3 %.(CB3&3 @RJ&"FR, :6%'<BFR, %6!JR,

@"R$CJR %T$F'<BFR, C%?J+ C%$ 3 ."6%$BL6F %R<.B;T3 B3+ $C%R(B3B%+ B:; '%?3BA R%

'%?%/R"$. Z ";?MR3 @$% B3 '<?3&3 06/&C"B%$ &B% !L6$% B:; '%?3BA. Q 6(1:+ B:;

#%&C<1:; .:; %RB$.6:&F."M"$ B% "R#$%PL6:RB% B3+ C:$RFR/%+, #$";C:1MR"$ C%$

C%?:#3@"/ B3 '<?3&3, #3'$:;6@"/ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ @M6F %.( B% "R#$%PL6:RB% B:;

'%?3BA C%$ .6:C%1"/ B3R ".$?;'/% @$% '<?3&3. Z '<?3&3 'L&F B3+ &;R"6@%&/%+

"R?%66MR"B%$ C%$ C6$BA6$% (.F+ 3 !6:R:1:@$CA 31$C/% C%$ 3 &!:1$CA $C%R(B3B% #"

?"F6:MRB%$ &3'%RB$C< &B% .1%/&$% %;B:M B:; &;&BA'%B:+. ,./&3+ #" #/R"B%$

L'P%&3 &B3R "./#:&3 BFR '%?3BJR '" 0<&3 B$+ %R%'"R('"R"+ R(6'"+. =<?" '%?3BA+

?LB"$ B:;+ #$C:M+ B:; &B(!:;+ &" #$%.6%@'<B";&3 '" B: #<&C%1: C%$ : 6;?'(+

.6:(#:; &" &M@C6$&3 '" B:;+ <11:;+ '%?3BL+ #" ?"F6"/B%$ &3'%RB$C(+. NB%R :$

'%?3BL+ C<R:;R 1<?3 %;B< %.:#/#:RB%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% '<?3&3+ C%$ : #<&C%1:+

#$";C:1MR"$ B:;+ '%?3BL+ R% %T$:1:@A&:;R B3R :6?(B3B% C%$ B3R .:$(B3B% B3+

.6:&F.$CA+ B:;+ "./#:&3+.

;'."6%&'%B$C< '.:6"/ C%R"/+ R% ;.:&B36/T"$ (B$ LR% BLB:$: .1%/&$:

"C.%/#";&3+ '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ $#%R$C( @$% C<?" .%$#/, $#$%/B"6% @$% (.:$: .%$#/ L!"$

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. Q$ %6!L+ B3+ "C.%/#";&3+ 'L&F &B6%B3@$CJR '" L''"&"+

B%CB$CL+ #$#%&C%1/%+, .:; ?"F6:MRB%$ F+ 3 #$#%CB$CA 'L?:#:+ ".$1:@A+ @$% B%

.%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, 'L&% &j LR% BLB:$: .1%/&$: '.:6"/ R% %.:#J&:;R

B% %R%'"R('"R% %.:B"1L&'%B% C%$ : '%?3BA+ &" #$%6CA %1131"./#6%&3 '" B:

#<&C%1:, 'L&% %.( B3 #$%#$C%&/% #$(6?F&3+ - %;B:#$(6?F&3+ - %;B:'<?3&3+,



73

'.:6"/ R% T"."6<&"$ B$+ #;&C:1/"+ B:; '%?%/R:RB%+ .J+ R% '%?%/R"$. \B&$ ?%

'.:6L&"$ R% ".$B";!?"/ 3 &MR#"&3 B3+ L6";R%+ '" B3R .6%CB$CA, .:; ?% :#3@A&"$ C%$

&B3R .136L&B"63 C%B%R(3&3 C%$ "6'3R"/% B:; .6:01A'%B:+ BFR '%?3&$%CJR

#;&C:1$JR 'L&% %.( B3R C%?3'"6$RA "'."$6/% C%$ .6%CB$CA.



74

"Y@LNBOJQJ GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

H "'."6$&B%BF'LR3 %T$:1(@3&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR L!"$ C%?:6$&B$CA

&3'%&/% @$% B3R :6?A %RB$'"BJ.$&3. K <?" ?"6%.";B$C( &!A'%, :.:$%&#A.:B" %6!A+

A C%B"M?;R&3+, 0%&/9"B%$ &B3R 1".B:'"6"$%CA "CB/'3&3 (1FR BFR .%6%'LB6FR B:;

.6:01A'%B:+. H %T$:1(@3&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR "/R%$ L6@: &MR?"B: C%$

%.%$B"/ #$".$&B3':R$CA .6:&L@@$&3. H PM&3 C%$ 3 ':6P:1:@/% BFR #;&C:1$JR, (.F+

"/#%'" F+ BJ6%, C%$ 3 .:1;.1:C(B3B% &B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&3, (.F+ ?% ."6$@6%P"/,

".$0<11:;R &" (1% B% &B<#$% .6:&L@@$&3+ B3 &;RB:R$&'LR3 "'.1:CA #$%P(6FR

"$#$CJR. K %B< B3 @RJ'3 '%+ B: L6@: %;B( .6L."$ R% %R%1%'0<R"B%$ %.( ;."M?;R:;+

"$#$C:M+ P:6"/+.TLB:$:$ "/R%$ B% :6@%RF'LR% I%B6:.%$#%@F@$C< - G%$#:2;!$%B6$C<

CLRB6%, "P(&:R .1%$&$JR:RB%$ %.( B:;+ C%B<1131:;+ "$#$C:M+, (.F+

G%$#:2;!$<B6:;+, Y;!:1(@:;+, G%$#%@F@:M+, =:$RFR$C:M+ K"$B:;6@:M+.

I$% B3R :1:C1A6F&3 B3+ %T$:1(@3&3+ %.%$B"/B%$ '"@<1:+ %6$?'(+ "T"B<&"FR.

G:11L+ P:6L+ '.:6"/ R% @/R"$ C%B<!63&3 C%$ R% %6!/&"$ '$% %1;&/#% "T"B<&"FR '"

%.:BL1"&'% B3 !6:R$CA, :$C:R:'$CA C%$ 2;!$CA B%1%$.F6/% .%$#$:M C%$ @:R$JR,

!F6/+ 3 .13?J6% BFR "T"B<&"FR R% #$%&P%1/9"$ C%$ B3R %.:B"1"&'%B$C(B3B% C%$

:6?(B3B%.A.( B3 #$CA '%+ '%C6(!6:R3 "'."$6/% &B:R ,113R$C( !J6: L!:;'"

C%B%1AT"$ &B: .%6%C<BF S$%@RF&B$C( !A'%.

I . I "#$%'%+)4)+'> +/#%$+'>

II . W6;%=%3+'G@ (F(#?/(+@

I I I . 1"+2%X6;+"#$+'D - I "#$+'G@ (F(#?/(+@

IV. E '#-0:/: 0"J:/+"'%E (9+9G2%6

I "#$%'%+)4)+'> +/#%$+'>

T: $%B6:C:$RFR$C( $&B:6$C( "/R%$ "TLB%&3 %R%@C%/% &" C<?" ."6/.BF&3 C%$

%.:B"1"/ B3 0<&3 @$% B$+ ;.(1:$."+ "T"B<&"$+. H 1A23 B:; .6L."$ R% @/R"B%$ %.(

"$#$C";'LR: K :$RFR$C( K"$B:;6@( A @$%B6( A <11:R "$#$C(. O$ .136:P:6/"+ #/R:RB%$

%.( B:;+ @:R"/+ A/C%$ <11% 'L13 B3+ :$C:@LR"$%+. M"@<13 &3'%&/% L!:;R :$

.136:P:6/"+ .:; .%6L!:RB%$ %.( %;B:M+ .:; .%6%.L'.:;R. " :.:$%#A.:B"

."6/.BF&3 .:1M !6A&$'3 "/R%$ 3 ".%$#%@F@$CA LC?"&3" (%.( &!:1"/:, #<&C%1:).

\!:;R "./&3+ &3'%&/% :$ .136:P:6/"+ .:; ;.<6!:;R &B% %B:'$C< 0$01$<6$% ;@"/%+,

C%?J+ C%$ C<?" "TLB%&3 A @RF'<B";&3 "$#$C:M.



75

O$ <T:R"+ &B:;+ :.:/:;+ ?% C$R3?"/ B: $&B:6$C( "/R%$:

• 1".B:'"6"$%CA ."6$@6%PA B:; .6:01A'%B:+ (.%6:M&% C%B<&B%&3)

• %B:'$C( $&B:6$C( ("@C;':&MR3, B:C"B(+, &B<#$% %R<.B;T3+, C .B.1 .)

•

$%B6$C( $&B:6$C( • C136:R:'$C(

• &;R%$&?3'%B$CA, C:$RFR$CA %R<.B;T3

• :$C:@"R"$%C( $&B:6$C(

O L'."$6:+ "$#$C(+ .:; .%/6R"$ B: $%B6:C:$RFR$C( $&B:6$C( C%B";?MR"B%$ A#3

%.( B:;+ 1(@:;+ .%6%.:'.A+ C%$ B% .6JB% &B:$!"/% .:; &;11L@"$ C%$ ".$C"RB6JR"$

B: "R#$%PL6:R B:; &B$+ .136:P:6/"+ "C"/R"+ .:; P%/R"B%$ .F+ &;R#L:RB%$

."6$&&(B"6: '" B: .6(013'%. A.:B"1"/ '' %;BA B3R LRR:$% C%$ B3R %6!A B3+

#$<@RF&3+.

W6;%=%3+'G@ (F(#?/(+@

H &;&B3'%B$CA .%6%BA63&3 B:; .%$#$:M .:; .%6L!"$ 0%&$C< &B:$!"/% @$%

(1:;+ B:;+ B:'"/+ C%$ 3 "CB/'3&3 B:; R:3B$C:M B:; #;R%'$C:M %.:B"1:MR B3 0<&3

B3+ 2;!:1:@$CA+ %T$:1(@3&3+, 3 :.:/%, %R%1(@F+ '" B3R C<?" ."6/.BF&3, '.:6"/ R%

&;'.136F?"/ C%$ '" <11"+ "T"B<&"$+. D.( B:R .:1M '"@<1: %6$?'( 2;!:1:@$CJR

C6$B36/FR .:1M 1/@% L!:;R .6:&%6':&B"/ A &B%?'$&B"/ &B3 !J6% '%+. H"F6:M'" (B$

.$: C%B<1131% @$% B3R "CB/'3&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR "/R%$ C%B< C%B3@:6/"+

B% "TA+:

• N %%0(#$+'?

%) K"CB$C( B"&B '" "$C(R"+ Peabody %R%?"F63'LR: (Peabody Picture

Vocabulary Test-Revised P.P.V.T.-R). T: B"&B %;B( &!"#$<&B3C" @$% B3R %T$:1(@3&3

.6:&13.B$C:M 1"T$1:@/:; &" <B:'% %.( 2,6 - 40 "BJR (D ;nn & D ;nn, 1981). I$% B3R

"P%6':@A C%$ "6'3R"/% B:; "/R%$ %;B:R(3B: (B$ %.%$B"/B%$ "C.%/#";&3. G"6$L!"$ #M:

"R%11%CB$CL+ P(6'"+. A.:B"1"/ #$"6";R3B$C( B"&B R:3':&MR3+ C%?J+ C%$

%T$:1(@3&3+ BFR 1"$B:;6@$JR B:; 1(@:;. S"R !63&$':.:$"/B%$ %.( '(R: B:; @$%

#$<@RF&3 <11< .<RB:B" &" &;R#;%&'( '" <11% C6$BA6$%.

0) K 1/'%C% N:3':&MR3+ Stanford-Binet - %R%?"F63'LR: (The Stanford Binet

Intelligence Scale Revised). H"F6"/B%$ .%6%#:&$%C( B"&B, %R%.BM!?3C" B: 1916 %.(

B:R L. Terman F+ %R%?"J63&3 B3+ C1/'%C%+ Binet-Simon, &;R:#"M"B%$ %.( .1:M&$%

0$01$:@6%P/%. A'"6% !63&$':.:$"/B%$ 3 %R%?"J63&3 1985 (Thorndike et al., 1985)



76

3 :.:/% ."6$L!"$ BL&&"6$+ ";6"/"+ :'<#"+ @RF&B$CJR $C%R:BABFR C%$ .%6L!"$

".$'L6:;+ .136:P:6/"+ .L6% %.( B: @"R$C( #"/CB3 R:3':&MR3+. X63&$':.:$"/B%$

.:1M "CB(+ %.( B3R .%$#%@F@$CA C%$ &B3 0$:'3!%R/%, &B: &B6%B(, "RJ %.:B"1"/ C%$

B3 0<&3 .:11JR <11FR R::'"B6$CJR C6$B36/FR.

@) T"&B R:3':&MR3+ @$% .%$#$< B:; Vechsler - %R%?"F63'LR: (WISC-R). T:

WISC-R "/R%$ #$"?RJ+ /&F+ B: .$: @RF&B( "T%B:'$C";'LR: B"&B R:3':&MR3+ C%$

!63&$':.:$"/B%$ ";6MB%B% C%$ &B3 !J6% '%+ '"B< %.( .6:&%6':@A. A.:B"1"/ 'L6:+

B:; B"&B Vechsler C%$ "/R%$ C%B<1131: @$% .%$#$< %.( 6 'L!6$ 16,11 !6(RFR.

H ";6MB3B% B3+ !63&$':.:/3&A+ B:; :P"/1"B%$ &B: (B$, .L6% %.( B3R "CB/'3&3

B3+ R:3':&MR3+, .%6L!"$ C%$ <11"+ &3'%RB$CL+ .136:P:6/"+.

G6JB:, 3 /#$% 3 R:3':&MR3 "C1%'0<R"B%$ F+ 'L6:+ B3+ (13+ .6:&F.$C(B3B%+.

" &;R#;%&'( C%$ '" <11% C6$BA6$% !63&$':.:$"/B%$ C%$ @$% B3 2;!:1:@$CA

%T$:1(@3&3

S"MB"6:, '" B3 #$!:B('3&3 B3+ R:3':&MR3+ &" .6%CB$C( C%$ 1"CB$C( &CL1:+

#/R"$ %T$(1:@% &B:$!"/% @$% B:;+ #M: CM6$:;+ B6(.:;+ LCP6%&3+ BFR %R?6J.$RFR

#"T$:BABFR

T6/B:, %.( L6";R"+ %R<1;&3+ .%6%@(RBFR L!:;R "RB:.$&B"/ B6"$+ CM6$"+

:'<#"+: %) 1"CB$CA C%B%R(3&3, .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ ;.:#:C$'%&/"+ .136:P:6/"+,

:':$(B3B"+, 1"T$1(@$:, C%B%R(3&3, 0) %RB$13.B$CA :6@<RF&3, .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+

;.:#:C$'%&/"+ &;'.1A6F&3 "$C(RFR, B%CB:.:/3&3 "$C(RFR, :':$(B3B"+, 1%0M6$R?:$

C%$ @) .%6:;&/% A (!$ #$<&.%&3+ .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ ;.:#:C$'%&/"+ %6$?'3B$CA,

%6$?':/ C%$ CJ#$C"+ (Kaufman, 1975). H M.%6T3 %;BJR BFR :'<#FR L!"$

".$0"0%$F?"/ %.( .13?J6% '"1"BJR B(&: &" P;&$:1:@$C< (&: C%$ &" .%$#$< '"

%R".<6C"$"+.

TLB%6B:, &;!R< &" &;R#;%&'( '" <11"+ "T"B<&"$+ .%6L!"$ .136:P:6/"+ @$% B3

R";6:P;&$:1:@$CA C%B<&B%&3. O.F&#A.:B" "."$#A 0%&/9"B%$ &" &!:1$CL+ @RJ&"$+,

0:3?<"$ &B3R "CB/'3&3 B3+ &!:1$CA+ .:6"/%+.

H Searls (1975) &B3R %R%&C(.3&3 BFR "6";R3B$CJR #"#:'LRFR @$% B3 !6A&3

B:; WISC &B3R %T$:1(@3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+ %R%PL6"$ (B$ ;.<6!:;R #M: '<11:R

&B%?"6< ";6A'%B%: %) B% .%$#$< '" #;&C:1/"+ %R<@RF&3+ B"/R:;R R% .%6:;&$<9:;R

231(B"63 "./#:&3 &B: "CB"1"&B$C( %.( (,B$ &B: 1"CB$C( 'L6:+ C%$ 0) B"/R:;R R%

L!:;R !%'31(B"63 "./#:&3 &" .LRB" %.( B% ;.:BL&B+ .136:P:6/"+, %6$?'3B$CA,

%6$?':/, CJ#$C"+ C%$ '"6$CL+ P:6L+ B: 1"T$1(@$:.

O Kaufman (1981) %'P$&03B"/ B3 !6A&3 B:; WISC-R F+ #$%@RF&B$C:M



77

C6$B36/:; &" .%$#$< '" "$#$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ '<?3&3+ &B36$9('"R:+ &" "6";R3B$C<

#"#:'LR%. G%6(1% %;B< B: WISC-R !63&$':.:$"/B%$ ";6LF+ C%$ %&P%1J+ &"

&;R#;%&'( .<RB:B" '" <11"+ #:C$'%&/"+ .%6L!"$ !6A&$'% &B:$!"/%.

#) W11$R($+ T"&B Y;!:@1F&&$CJR IC%R:BABFR (ITPA). T: B"&B %;B(

!63&$':.:$A?3C" &" '"@<13 LCB%&3 B% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% %.( "6";R3BL+, C1$R$C:M+

C%$ .%$#%@F@:M+, .:; %&!:1:MRB%$ '" B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C;6/F+ @$%B/ &;R#L"$

B3 #$%@RF&B$CA '" B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR B:; 1(@:;, .:; (.F+

"/R%$ @RF&B(, %.:B"1:MR B3 0<&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. A ;B(+ "/R%$ C%$ :

1(@:+ .:;, .%6< B$+ %RB$C6:;('"R"+ %.(2"$+, "/R%$ B: C6$BA6$: ".$1:@A+ @$%

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ (Tarn: p:l, 1969, Kaplan & Sad:ck, 1985).

O 1(@:+ &;R/&B%B%$ %.( &MR?"B"+ #$%#$C%&/"+ (.F+ "/R%$ 3 .6(&1323 C%$ 3

LCP6%&3 .:; .6:h.:?LB:;R "R%.:?AC";&3, ".$&J6";&3 @RJ&"FR C%?J+ C%$

%R<C13&3 C%$ :1:C1A6F&3. T$+ #$%#$C%&/"+ %;BL+ C%?J+ C%$ B$+ %1131".$#6<&"$+

%R<'"&% &B$+ #$<P:6"+ #"T$(B3B"+ .:; %.%6B/9:;R B: 1(@: '"B6<"$ B: ITPA C%$

'.:6"/ R% #J&"$ B3 0<&3 @$% '$% ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3. G%6(1 ' %;B< B: C6$BA6$:

#"R #/R"$ 1M&"$+ &!"B$C< '" B3R .:1;&MR?"B3 #$%#$C%&/% B:; 1(@:;, %.1< %R:/@"$

#6(':;+ @$% R% C%B%R:A&:;'" B$+ #$%B%6%!L+ B:; C%$ R% 0:3?A&:;'" &B3R

%RB$'"BJ.$&A B:;+.

T: B"&B C%B%&C";<&B3C" @$% R% !63&$':.:$3?"/ &%R %6!$C( #$%@RF&B$C(

(6@%R: 'LB63&3+ #$%B%6%!JR 1(@:; '<?3&3+. G$: &;@C"C6$'LR% '.:6"/ R%

0:3?A&"$: %) &B3R %C6$0A #$<@RF&3 "$#$CJR ."6$:!JR B:; 1(@:; :$ :.:/"+, A

.%6:;&$<9:;R "$#$CA %R<.B;T3 A "$#$CL+ #;&C:1/"+ C%$ 0) &B:R C%B%6B$&'(

"T%B:'$C";'LRFR ?"6%.";B$CJR .6:@6%''<BFR @$% B3 0"1B/F&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR.

T: I11$R($+ T"&B C%B%&C";<&B3C" %.( B:;+ S. K /rk C%$ J. McCarthy B: 1961

C%$ %R%&B%?'/&B3C" B: 1968 %.( B:;+ Paraske R: poul:s, I. C%$ K /rk, S. B3R E11<#%

&B%?'/&B3C" B: 1973 %.( B:R I. G%6%&C";(.:;1:. T: ?"F63B$C( .6(B;.: B:; ITPA

0%&/9"B%$ &B3 ?"F6/% B:; Charles Osg:od &!"B$C< '" B3R %R?6J.$R3 @1J&&% C%$

".$C:$RFR/% (Osg::d, 1957) C%$ ."6$1%'0<R"$ B6"$+ #$%&B<&"$+: (!A'% 2): 1) B$+

#$(#:;+ ".$C:$RFR/%+, 2) T$+ 2;!:@1F&&$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+ C%$ 3) T% "./."#%

:6@<RF&3+.

1. S/:#:$ ".$C:$RFR/%+: A R%PL6:RB%$ &B:R B6(.: '" B:R :.:/: @/R"B%$ 3

.6(&1323 BFR "6"?$&'<BFR C%$ 3 %RB%.(C6$&3 &' %;B<. T: ITPA L!"$ #M: #$(#:;+:

B3R :.B$C:C$R3B$CA ( R/s ;al mot:r) C%$ B3R %C:;&B$C:PFR3B$CA (a ;ditory R:caI). O$

#/:#:$ %;BL+ L!:;R ".$1"@"/ @$%B/ &!"B/9:RB%$ <'"&% '" B3 &!:1$CA '<?3&3 C%$



78

%@F@A.

2. Y;!:@1F&&$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+: H #$<&B%&3 %;BA ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ 1"$B:;6@/"+

.:; "R"6@:.:$:MRB%$ @$% B3R %.(CB3&3 B:; 1(@:;. T: ITPA ."6$1%'0<R"$ B6"$+

#$"6@%&/"+: %) T3R .6(&1323 .:; %R%PL6"B%$ &B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ .:; "/R%$ %R%@C%/"+

@$% B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 C%$ C%B%R(3&3 BFR .%6%&B<&"FR. 0) B3 &;&!LB$&3, B3R

:6@%RFB$CA #31%#A 1"$B:;6@/% '" B3R :.:/% @/R"B%$ 3 "&FB"6$CA "."T"6@%&/% BFR

%RB$1A2"FR, BFR .%6%&B<&"FR C%$ BFR "RR:$JR '" 1:@$C( B6(.:. H #$"6@%&/% %;BA

C$R3B:.:$"/B%$ '"B< %.( B3R .6(&1323. @) T3R LCP6%&3 .:; %R%PL6"B%$ &B$+

$C%R(B3B"+ .:; "/R%$ %R%@C%/"+ @$% B3R LCP6%&3 BFR $#"JR '" 1(@: A '" C$RA&"$+. H

#$"6@%&/% %;BA C$R3B:.:$"/B%$ '"B< %.( B3R .6(&1323 C%$ B3 &;&!LB$&3.

3. E./."#% :6@<RF&3+: A R%PL6:RB%$ &B: 0%?'( 1"$B:;6@$CA+ :6@<RF&3+ BFR

"'."$6$JR B:; %B(':;. T: C1$R$C( .6(B;.: B:; ITPA L!"$ #M: "./."#%: %) T: R:3B$C(

"./."#: .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ '" B$+ :.:/"+ B: <B:': ".$B"1"/ 1:@$CL+

"&FB"6$CL+ #$"6@%&/"+, %.%6%/B3B"+ @$% B3R .6(&1323, B3 &;&!LB$&3 C%$ B3R

LCP6%&3. 0)T: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M .:; ."6$1%'0<R"$ B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ C%$

#"T$(B3B"+ '" B$+ :.:/"+ B: <B:': ".$B"1"/ %;B('%B"+ C%$ '3!%R$CL+ "RL6@"$"+. B:

"./."#: %;B( :$ #"T$(B3B"+ "/R%$ %C:M&$"+, %11< C%1MB"6% :6@%RF'LR"+ C%$

:1:C136F'LR"+. H &;'."6$P:6< &' %;B( B: "./."#: 0%&/9"B%$ &B3 &;!R(B3B% BFR

".%R%1A2"FR C%$ &B:;+ .1":R%&':M+ B3+ .6:&F.$CA+ "'."$6/%+ C%$ "/R%$

%.:BL1"&'% (!$ &C(.$'3+ 1:@$CA+ .6:&.<?"$%+ %11< '3!%R$CA+ !F6:!6:R$CA+

#$%&MR#"&3+ .%6%&B<&"FR. H lnhelder (Kass, 1966) &;R#L"$ B: "./."#:

%;B:'%B$&':M '" B3R .%6%&B%B$CA &CL23, B3 #$%#$C%&/% #31%#A '/'3&3+ B3+

.6%@'%B$C(B3B%+ A %RB$&B:$!/%+ %R<'"&% &B3R %RB$@6%PA '/'3&3 C%$ &B3R

.6%@'%B$C(B3B%. T: R:3B$C( "./."#:, C%B< B3R lnhelder "./&3+, &;R#L"B%$ '" B3

1"$B:;6@$CA &CL23, B3R B%T$R('3&3 #31%#A C%$ C%B3@:6$:.:/3&3 BFR "RR:$JR. O$

Penfield C%$ R : berts (Kass, 1966) L!:;R &;R#L&"$ B: ':RBL1: B:; ITPA C%$ C;6/F+ B:

"./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M '" B3R "@C"P%1$CA 1"$B:;6@/% 3+ "."T"6@%&/%+ BFR

.136:P:6$JR. A ;BA &;R/&B%B%$ %.( :.B$C:%C:;&B$C3 .6(&1323, "&FB"6$CA

#$"6@%&/% &B:R "@CLP%1: (#$%BA63&3, "RR:$:.:/3&3) C%$ LCP6%&3 3 :.:/% &B:

':RBL1: B:; ITPA "CP6<9"B%$ '" 2;!:@1F&&$CA @RF&B$CA $C%R(B3B% .:; %RB$&B:$!"/

'" @RF&B$CA $C%R(B3B% A &;''"B%013BA '<?3&3+.

T: .%6%.<RF ?"F63B$C( .6(B;.: :#A@3&" &B3R C%B%&C";A #J#"C% ".$'L6:;+

B"&B+, LT$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#: C%$ LT$ &B: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M. M" 0<&3 B%

".$'L6:;+ %;B< B"&B+ L!:;R C%B%6B$&?"/ %RB/&B:$!% ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B% (.F+



79

%;B( .:; .%6:;&$<9"B%$ &" <11: C"P<1%$: B: M.W.M. .6(@6%''% @$% B3R %R<.B;T3

BFR $C%R:BABFR B:; 1(@:;. T% ".$'L6:;+ B"&B+ B:; ITPA "/R%$:

1. E6'3R"/% %C:;&B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR (Audit:ry rece6ti:n): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

C%B%R(3&3+ "RR:$JR .:; .6:&PL6:RB%$ %C:;&B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R %C:;&B$CA

#/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% .6(&1323+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#:.

2. E6'3R"/% :.B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR ( Risual rece6ti:n): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

C%B%R(3&3+ "RR:$JR .:u .6:&PL6:RB%$ :.B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R :.B$CA #/:#:,

%R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% .6(&1323+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#:.

3. ;&!LB$&3 %C:;&B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR (Audit:ry Ass:ciati:n): E/R%$ 3

$C%R(B3B% &;R#;%&':M $#"JR .:; .6:&PL6:RB%$ %C:;&B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R

%C:;&B$CA #/:#: %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% &;&!LB$&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B:

R:3B$C( "./."#:.

4. ;&!LB$&3 :.B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR (Visual Ass:ciati:n): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

&;R#;%&':M $#"JR .:; .6:&PL6:RB%$ :.B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R :.B$CA #/:#:,

%R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$%#$C%&/% &;&!LB$&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#:.

5. ECP6%&3 '" B: 1(@: (Verbal ex6ressi:n): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% 1"CB$CA+

LCP6%&3+ "RR:$JR. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3 1"CB$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/%

LCP6%&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#:.

6. \CP6%&3 '" C$RA&"$+ (Manual expressi:n): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% C$R3B$CA+

LCP6%&3+ "RR:$JR. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R C$R3B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/%

LCP6%&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: R:3B$C( "./."#:.

7.M RA'3 %C:;&B$CJR %C:1:;?$JR (Audit:ry mem:ry): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

%R%@RJ6$&3+ A %R<C13&3+ "6"?$&'<BFR .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ "T%C:1:;?3B$C< C%$

%C:;&B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R %C:;&B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% 'RA'3+

C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

8. M RA'3 :.B$CJR %C:1:;?$JR (Visual mem:ry): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

%R%@RJ6$&3+ A %R<C13&3+ "6"?$&'<BFR .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ "T%C:1:;?3B$C< C%$

:.B$C<. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R :.B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% 'RA'3+ C%$

:6@%RJR"B%$ &B: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

9. O1:C1A6F&3 "11$.JR .6:B<&"FR (Grammatic cl:sure): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

%;B('%B3+ !6A&3+ B3+ #:'A+ B3+ @1J&&%+. G"6$1%'0<R"$ %C:;&B$CA C%$ :.B$CA

#/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% :1:C1A6F&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B: "./."#:

%;B:'%B$&':M.

10. O1:C1A6F&3 :.B$CJR .%6%&B<&"FR (Visual cl:sure): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%



80

B:; .%$#$:M R% 06/&C"$ LR% :.B$C( "6L?$&'% %.( '$% 3'$B"1A .136:P:6/%.

G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R :.B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% :1:C1A6F&3+ C%$

:6@%RJR"B%$ &B: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

11. O1:C1A6F&3 "11"$.JR 1LT"FR (Audit:ry Cl:sure): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% B:;

.%$#$:M R% 06/&C"$ '$% 1LT3 %.( '$% 3'$B"1A 1LT3 .:; B:; .6:&PL6"B%$ %C:;&B$C<.

G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R %C:;&B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% :1:C1A6F&3+ C%$

:6@%RJR"B%$ &B: "./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

12. ;@C"6%&'(+ @1F&&$CJR P?(@@FR (S:und blending): E/R%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

&MR?"&3+ '"':RF'LRFR &;11%0JR A P?(@@FR '$%+ 1LT3+ &" '$% 1LT3. G"6$1%'0<R"$

B3R %C:;&B$CA #/:#:, %R%PL6"B%$ &B3 #$"6@%&/% :1:C1A6F&3+ C%$ :6@%RJR"B%$ &B:

"./."#: %;B:'%B$&':M.

") T: Detroit Test '%?3&$%CA+ $C%R(B3B%+ (DTLA-2). A.:B"1"/ "TL1$T3 B:;

%6!$C:M B"&B Detroit C%$ C%B%&C";<&B3C" B: 1980 %.( B:R D. Hammil.

G6FB:C;C1:P(63&" F+ DTLA-2 B: 1985. H LC#:&3 %;BA 0%&/&B3C" &B$+ ?"F63B$CL+

%.(2"$+ BFR Spearman C%$ Guilf :rd (.:1;.%6%@:RB$CA <.:23 R:3':&MR3+) C%?J+

C%$ &B% ?"F63B$C< ':RBL1% #$!:B('3&3+ B3+ @RF&B$CA+ #6%&B36$(B3B%+ BFR Osg::d,

Luria C%$ Sperry.

A.:B"1"/B%$ %.( LRB"C% ;.:#:C$'%&/"+ C%$ "CB(+ %.( B:;+ ".$'L6:;+ #"/CB"+

.%6L!"$ C%$ &;R?L&"$+ 0%?':1:@$JR .:; %RB$.6:&F."M:;R B:'"/+ B3+ %R<.B;T3+

(@1F&&$CA, @RF&B$CA, C$R3B$CA C%$ ."6$:!A .6:&:!A+). A ;BA "/R%$ C%$ 3 .6FB:B;./%

B:; C6$B36/:;. H $C%R(B3B% C%$ 3 R:3':&MR3 '.:6:MR R% ?"F63?:MR F+ B%;B(&3'"+

LRR:$"+. O$ $C%R(B3B"+ .:; %T$:1:@:MRB%$ &;R#L:RB%$ '" B3 &!:1$CA '<?3&3 !F6/+

0"0%/F+ R% "/R%$ B"&B "./#:&3+ (McLoughlin & Lewis, 1981). U.<6!"$ @1F&&$CA

.6:&%6':@A &B% E113R$C< (T9:;6$<#:;, 1989).

T% 11 ".$'L6:;+ B"&B+ B:; C6$B36/:; "/R%$:

l. A RB/?"B"+ 1LT"$+ LRR:$"+ (W:rd Opp:site)

M"B6< '$% ;231:M ".$.L#:; 1"T$1:@$CA $C%R(B3B% .:; ."6$L!"$ B3R C%B%R(3&3

B3+ 1LT3+ "6L?$&'% C%$ &%R &;RL."$% B3R %.(#:&3 B3+ 1LT3+ %.<RB3&3 .6:P:6$C<.

WW. A R%.%6%@F@A .6:B<&"FR (Sentence imitation)

O "T"B%9('"R:+ .6L."$ R% %R%.%6<@"$ '" B3 &F&BA &"$6< .6:B<&"$+ .:; B:;

#/R:RB%$ .6:P:6$C<. H $C%R(B3B% &!"B/9"B%$ 1$@(B"6: '" B3 'RA'3 C%$ ."6$&&(B"6:

'" B3 &MRB%T3. " '"@%1MB"6"+ .6:B<&"$+ "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B: : "T"B%9('"R:+ R%

".$&B6%B"M&"$ B3 @RJ&3 &MRB%T3+ @$% R% .6:!F6A&"$ &B3R %R%.%6%@F@A.

WWW. G6:P:6$CL+ #:C$'%&/"+ (Oral Directi:ns)



81

H ;.:#:C$'%&/% %;BA .6:h.:?LB"$ .:1M.1:C"+ #$%#$C%&/"+ @1F&&:1:@$CA+ C%$

%P363'LR3+ &CL23+, C%?J+ C%$ $C%R(B3B"+ :.B$CL+, C$R3B$CL+ C%$ 'RA'3+.

IV. AC:1:;?/% 1LT"FR (W:rd Sequences)

Z3B"/B%$ 3 ".%R<1323 &"$6<+ 1LT"FR %&MR#"BFR, '"':RF'LRFR.

V. S3'$:;6@/% $&B:6/%+ (St:ry C:nstructi:n)

I/R"B%$ %.( ./R%C"+ :.B$C< "6"?/&'%B% M"B6< B3R $C%R(B3B% "RR:$:.:/3&3+

C%$ LCP6%&3+. AT$:1:@"/B%$ B: "RR:$:1:@$C( ."6$"!('"R:, 3 %C:1:;?/% BFR

@"@:R(BFR, 3 :R:'%&/% BFR !%6%CBA6FR, .6:&.<?"$% @$% !$:M':6 C .1 ...

VI. A R%.%6%@F@A &!"#/FR (Design Repr :ducti:n)

AT$:1:@"/B%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% :.B$CA+ 'RA'3+ C%?J+ C%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% &!"#$%&':M.

Vll. AC:1:;?/"+ %RB$C"$'LRFR (Obiect Sequences)

I/R"B%$ %T$:1(@3&3 @$% B3R :.B$CA 'RA'3 C%$ $C%R(B3B% #$%BA63&3+ B3+

&"$6<+.

Vlll. ;'0:1$CL+ &!L&"$+ (Symb:lic Relati:ns)

AT$:1:@"/ B3 '3 1"CB$CA R:3B$CA $C%R(B3B%.

IX. ,RR:$:1:@$CA &;&!LB$&3 (Matching C:nce6tual)

M"B6< B3R $C%R(B3B% &;&!LB$&3+ '$%+ "$C(R%+ "6L?$&'% '" '$% <113 .:;

".$1L@"B%$ %.( :'<#% 10 "$C(RFR '" #$%P:6"B$C( ."6$"!('"R:.

X. O1:C1A6F&3 1LT"FR (W:rd Fragment)

AT$:1:@"/B%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% :1:C1A6F&3+ B;.F'LRFR 1LT"FR.

XI. Q1:C1A6F&3 @6%''<BFR (Letters Sequences)

AT$:1:@"/B%$ 3 $C%R(B3B% :1:C1A6F&3+ @6%PA+ @6%''<BFR %.( '3

:1:C136F'LR% "6"?/&'%B%.

• A)#+=:9#+'?

%) :.B$C:C$R3B$C( Gestalt Test B3+ Bender (Bender Gestalt Test)

E/R%$ LR% &MRB:': '3 1"CB$C( "T%B:'$C";'LR: %RB$13.B$C( B"&B.

K %B%&C";<&B3C" B: 1938 %.( B3R Lauretta Bender '" CM6$: &B(!: R% %T$:1:@"/ B3

&!L&3 %R<'"&% &B3R %RB/1323 C%$ &" #$<P:6:;+ BM.:;+ 2;!:.%?:1:@/%+.

A.:#"/!?3C" !6A&$': &" "RA1$C"+, $#$%/B"6% &%R .6:0:1$C( B"&B .6:&F.$C(B3B%+,

C%$ &" .%$#$< &%R "R#"$CB$C( &;R%$&?3'%B$CJR .6:013'<BFR, R";6:1:@$CJR

#;&1"$B:;6@$JR, &!:1$CA+ "B:$'(B3B%+ C%$ '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR.

A.:B"1"/B%$ %.( "RR$< P$@:M6"+ .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &B:R "T"B%9('"R: T"!F6$&B< C%$ .6L."$ R% B$+ %RB$@6<2"$ '" B3 '"@%1MB"63 #;R%BA %C6/0"$%. E."$#A



82

#"R %.%$B"/ !6A&3 1(@:; "/R%$ C%B<1131: C%$ @$% <B:'% '" #;&C:1/"+ ".$C:$RFR/%+.

E./&3+ "1%!$&B:.:$:MRB%$ #$%P:6L+ .:; :P"/1:RB%$ &" .:1$B$&'$C:M+ .%6<@:RB"+.

H %T$:1(@3&3 B:; B"&B #"R "T%6B<B%$ %.( B3 ':6PA %;BA C%?%;BA, %11< %.(

B3 &!L&3 B3+ ':6PA+ '" B: ;.(&B6F'% !J6:; (.1%/&$:). H 'RA'3 #"R %T$:1:@"/B%$.

0) A R%?"F63'LR: B"&B :.B$CA+ #$%BA63&3+ B:; Benton (Benton Re Rised Visual

Retention Test)

E/R%$ LR% "T%B:'$C";'LR: C1$R$C( C6$BA6$: .:; %T$:1:@"/ B3R :.B$CA %RB/1323

C%$ 'RA'3, B$+ :.B$C:#:'$CL+ $C%R(B3B"+, C%?J+ C%$ B$+ '"B%TM B:;+

%1131".$#6<&"$+.

=1$R$CL+ L6";R"+ L!:;R #"/T"$ (B$ B: B"&B "/R%$ !6A&$': "R#"$CB$C( C6$BA6$:, &"

&;R#;%&'( C%$ '" <11"+ "T"B<&"$+, @$% "RA1$C"+ C%$ .%$#$< '" "@C"P%1$CL+ 01<0"+

C%$ #;&1"$B:;6@/"+. E$#$C(B"6% @$% B% .%$#$< "/R%$ !6A&$': @$% B:R "RB:.$&'(

'%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. G%6<1131% #/R"$ "R#"/T"$+ C%$ @$% &;R%$&?3'%B$C:M BM.:;

#$%B%6%!L+ (".$?"B$C(B3B%, %.<?"$%, C%B<?1$23, %RB$C:$RFR$CA &;'."6$P:6<).

T: B"&B %.:B"1"/B%$ %.( B6"$+ "R%11%CB$CL+ ':6PL+ (C,D C%$ E). =<?" ':6PA

L!"$ #LC% &!L#$% '" '/% A ."6$&&(B"6"+ P$@:M6"+. M.:6"/ R% !:63@3?"/ '" BL&&"6"$+

BM.:;+:

O "T"B%&BA+ #"/!R"$ C<?" &!L#$: @$% 10 #";B"6(1".B% C%$ : "T"B%9('"R:+

.6L."$ R% B: %R%.%6<@"$ %'L&F+ !F6/+ R% B: 01L."$.

O "T"B%&BA+ #"/!R"$ C<?" &!L#$: @$% 5 #";B"6(1".B% C%$ : "T"B%9('"R:+ .6L."$

R% B: %R%.%6<@"$ %'L&F+ !F6/+ R% B: 01L."$.

O "T"B%9('"R:+ %RB$@6<P"$ B% &!L#$%.

O "T"B%&BA+ #"/!R"$ &B:R "T"B%9('"R: C<?" &!L#$: @$% 10 #";B"6(1".B% C%$ :

"T"B%9('"R:+ .6Ln"$ R% B: %R%.%6<@"$ !F6/+ R% B: 01L."$ M&B"6% %.( 15

#";B"6(1".B%.

Q !6(R:+ .:; %.%$B"/B%$ @$% B3 !:6A@3&3 "/R%$ 5 1".B< @$% C<?" &!L#$:. H

%T$:1(@3&3 "/R%$ .:$:B$CA C%$ @/R"B%$ '" 0<&3 B% 1<?3 (%P%/6"&3 ."6$P"6"$%CA+

P$@:M6%+, %RB$&B6:PL+, 1<?3 '"@L?:;+ C .B.1 .).

@) ET"1$CB$C( B"&B :.B$CA+ %RB/1323+ B3+ 4. Frosting (De ReI:6me3taI Test :f

Visual Perception)

E/R%$ LR% %R%1;B$C( %RB$13.B$C( B"&B .:; '.:6"/ R% !:63@3?"/ %B:'$C< A

:'%#$C<. =%B%&C";<&B3C" %.( B3R Marianne Fr :sting C%$ L!"$ !63&$':.:$3?"/

";6MB%B% F+ #$"6";R3B$C( "RB:.$&B$C( C6$BA6$: @$% .%$#$< .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+,

"/R%$ ('F+ C%B<1131: C%$ @$% .%$#$< 'L!6$ 8 !6(RFR.



83

O6$&'LR"+ ;.:#:C$'%&/"+ B:;, (.F+ 3 #$<C6$&3 ':6PA+ .1%$&/:;, 3

B:.:?LB3&3 C%$ :$ &!L&"$+ &B: !J6: &;R#L?3C%R $#$%/B"6% '" B$+ '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+. T% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% L!"$ #"!B"/ C6$B$CA &" #$<P:6% "./."#%. O$ R(6'"+

B:; ?"F6:MRB%$ .$% .%6F!3'LR"+ C%$ #"R %RB$.6:&F."M:;R B: @"R$C( .13?;&'(

(C:larr ;s:, 1975). H .6:@RF&B$CA B:; %T/% @$% B: 1(@: C%$ B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ LRR:$"+

C%$ &!L&"$+ "/R%$ ."6$:6$&'LR3 (Sabatin:, 1985). G%6(1% %;B< %.:B"1"/ LR% !6A&$':

"6@%1"/: &" '$% @"R$C(B"63 %T$:1(@3&3 B:; .%$#$:M.

A.:B"1"/B%$ %.( .LRB" ".$'L6:;+ B"&B+:

l. O.B$C:C$R3B$C(+ &;RB:R$&'(+: M"B6<"$ B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R%

&;RB:R/9"$ B: !L6$ '" B: '<B$ B:;.

ll. 4:6PA .1%/&$:: T: B"&B %;B( '"B6<"$ B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R%

%RB$1%'0<R"B%$ &!A'%B%-':6PL+, B% :.:/% 06/&C:RB%$ &" .1%/&$% .:; .6::#";B$C<

@/R:RB%$ .$: &MR?"B%.

lll. B%?"6(B3B% &!A'%B:+: G"6$1%'0<R"$ B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 @"F'"B6$CJR

&!3'<BFR .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &" .:$C$1/% '"@"?JR C%$ ?L&"FR 'L&% &B: !J6:,

C%?J+ C%$ B3 #$<C6$&3 &!3'<BFR %.( <11% .%6(':$% &!A'%B%.

IV. T:.:?LB3&3 &Bo !J6:: M"B6<"$ B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% %R%@RF6/9"$

&!A'%B%-':6PL+ .:; .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ %R%&B6%''LR% A '" %RB/?"B3 C%B"M?;R&3 'L&%

&" &"$6L+ &!3'<BFR.

V. !L&"$+ &B: !J6:: AT$:1:@"/ B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M R% %R%1M"$ %.1<

&!A'%B% C%$ .6(B;.%. T: .%$#/ .6L."$ R% %RB$@6<P"$ #$<P:6"+ @6%''L+ .:;

#3'$:;6@:MR &!A'%B% '" 0<&3 C%?:#3@3B$CL+ B"1"/"+.

Q !6(R:+ .:; %.%$B"/B%$ &;R:1$C< @$% B3 !:6A@3&3 B:; B"&B #"R ;."60%/R"$ B%

45 1".B<.

T: B"&B '%+ #/R"$ .136:P:6/"+ @$% B3 @"R$CA %RB$13.B$CA $C%R(B3B% B:;

.%$#$:M, C%?J+ C%$ @$% B$+ ".$'L6:;+ %RB$13.B$CL+ $C%R(B3B"+ .:; %T$:1:@"/. EB&$

'.:6:M'" R% L!:;'" '$% C%1MB"63 "$C(R% BFR "R#:%B:'$CJR #$%P:6JR .:;

.%6:;&$<9:RB%$ &B3R %RB$13.B$CA 1"$B:;6@/%. TL1:+ #$%?LB"$ C%$ %RB/&B:$!%

?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B% @$% B3 0"1B/F&3 BFR ."6$:!JR .:; .%6:;&$<9:;R

%R".<6C"$"+.

#) A RB$13.B$C: - C$R3B$C( #$"6";R3B$C( C6$BA6$: Purdue(Purdue Perceptual-

Motor Survey

T: C6$BA6$: %;B( 0%&/&B3C" &B3 ?"F6/% B:; Kephart @$% B3R

%RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$CA %R<.B;T3. M'PFR% '" B3 ?"F6/% %;BA :$ %RJB"6"+ R:3B$CL+



84

#$%#$C%&/"+ %.:B"1:MR "TL1$T3 BFR 0%&$CJR C$R3B$CJR C%$ %RB$13.B$CJR #"T$:BABFR.

I$’ %;B( C%$ B%;B/9"$ B3R $C%R(B3B% '<?3&3+ '" B3R %RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$CA $C%R(B3B%.

T: C6$BA6$: #"R "/R%$ B"&B %11< (6@%R: .%6%BA63&3+ C%$ %T$:1(@3&3+ B3+

&;'."6$P:6<+, '" BLB:$% #:'A .:; ".$B6L."$ 0%?':1(@3&3 C%$ ?"6%.";B$C(

&!"#$%&'(. H .%6%BA63&3 #$"6"MR3&3 @/R"B%$ &" .LRB" B:'"/+:

1. I&:66o./% C%$ B<&3: H "TLB%&3 #/R"$ 4 0%?':M+ "R#"/T"$+ @$% B3 0<#$&3

.<RF &" &%R/#% C%$ B3R $C%R(B3B% B:; .3#A'%B:+. `%?':1:@"/B%$ 3 0<#$&3 '.6:&B<

./&F C%$ &B% .1<@$%, C%?J+ C%$ :$ %R%.3#A&"$+ C%$ B% '$C6< .3#3'%B<C$%. O$

#6%&B36$(B3B"+ %;BL+ %RB$C%B:.B6/9:;R B$+ $C%R(B3B"+ $&:66:./%+ C%$ &B<&3+.

2. E$C(R% &J'%Bo+ C%$ #$%P:6:.:/3&3: H "TLB%&3 #/R"$ .LRB" 0%?':M+

"R#"/T"$+ %.( B$+ "TA+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+: %) .6:&#$:6$&'(+ '"1JR B:; &J'%B:+, 0)

'/'3&3 C$RA&"FR, @) B6LT$': '" "'.(#$%, #)Krauss Weber (93B<'" %.( B: .%$#/ R%

&3CJ&"$ .6JB% B: ".<RF C%$ '"B< B: C<BF 'L6:+ B:; &BL6R:;) C%$ ") <@@"1:$ &B:

!$(R$ (.%$!R/#$ .:; B: .%$#/ T%.1JR"$ C%$ C:;R<"$ B% .(#$% C%$ B% !L6$% (.F+ :$

<@@"1:$).

3. A RB$13.B$C o-C$R3B$C(+ &;RB:R$&'(+: H "TLB%&3 #/R"$ "PB< 0%?':M+

"R#"/T"$+. O$ BL&&"6$+ %.( #6%&B36$(B3B"+ "./R%C%": R% &!"#$<9"$ #31%#A B: .%$#/

B:R ./R%C% CMC1:;+, :6$9(RB$"+ C%$ C<?"B"+ @6%''L+ '" B% #M: !L6$% B%;B(!6:R% C%$

B6"$+ %.( B3 "6;?'$CA @6%PA" (6;?'(+, %.%1L+ C$RA&"$+ C%$ %11%@A C%B"M?;R&3+).

4. QP?%1'$C(+ L1"@!:+: H "TLB%&3 #/R"$ BL&&"6$+ 0%?':M+ "R#"/T"$+. T: .%$#/

.%6%C:1:;?"/ B3R C/R3&3 "R(+ PFB"$R:M %RB$C"$'LR:; '" B% #M: '<B$% B%;B(!6:R%,

'" B: #"T/ C%$ B: %6$&B"6( T"!F6$&B< C%$ BL1:+ '" B% #M: '<B$% .%6%C:1:;?"/ B:

PFB"$R( %RB$C"/'"R: C%?J+ C$R"/B%$ %.( '%C6$< .6:+ B: /#$:.

5. A RB/1323 ':6PA+: H "TLB%&3 #/R"$ #M: 0%?':M+ "R#"/T"$+. Q "T"B%&BA+ #/R"$

&B: .%$#/ R% %RB$@6<2"$ "PB< &!A'%B% '" .6::#";B$C< %;T%R('"R3 #;&C:1/%,

%R<1:@% '" B3R 31$C/% B:;. " .%$#$< '$C6(B"6% %.( 6 !6(RFR #/R:RB%$ B% 4 .6JB%

&!A'%B%, &" .%$#$< 6-7 !6(RFR B% 5 &!A'%B% C%$ &" .%$#$< '"@%1MB"6% %.( 7

!6(RFR (1% B% &!A'%B%.

H &;R:1$CA %T$:1(@3&3 '%+ #/R"$ "R#"/T"$+ @$% B3 &;R:1$CA %RB$13.B$C:-

C$R3B$CA $C%R(B3B% B:; .%$#$:M, C%?J+ C%$ ".$'L6:;+ "R#"/T"$+ @$% B$+ ;.:."6$:!L+

.:; "T"B<9"$. M" 0<&3 B: #$%@RF&B$C( .6:P/1 '.:6"/ R% C%B%6B$&B"/ %R<1:@:

?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''%.



85

• T (/# 9$%/49+'>#:#"@

%) T: T"&B H"'%B$CA+ A RB/1323+ (Thematic Apercepti:n Test T.A.T.).

K %B%&C";<&B3C" B: 1938 %.( B:R Murray '" 0<&3 B3 #$CA B:; ?"F6/% @$% B3R

.6:&F.$C(B3B%.

A.:B"1"/B%$ %.( 31 %&.6('%;6"+ C<6B"+ .:; #/R:RB%$ &B:R "T"B%9('"R: @$% R%

PB$<T"$ '$% $&B:6/%. B$+ $&B:6/"+ %;BL+ .6:0<11:RB%$ 3 P%RB%&/%, 3 &CL23, B%

&;R%$&?A'%B% C%$ .6:3@:M'"R"+ "'."$6/"+. T: B"&B !:63@"/B%$ &" <B:'% <RF BFR 7

"BJR. S3'$:;6@A?3C%R .%6%11%@L+ .:; !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ &" .%$#$< .6:&!:1$CA+ C%$

&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ (Bell:ck,1975).

0) T: B"&B &!"#$%&':M %R?6J.:; (Draw A Person). f63&$':.:$"/B%$ &A'"6%

@$% B3R "CB/'3&3 C%$ B3+ R:3':&MR3+ C%$ B3+ .6:&F.$C(B3B%+ (Mach:Rer, 1949,Harris, 1963).

B3R C1%&&$CA B:; "P%6':@A 93B"/B%$ %.( B:R "T"B%9('"R: R% &!"#$<&"$ LR%

<R?6F.: !F6/+ "$#$CL+ C%B";?MR&"$+. ;.<6!:;R .:11< &!A'%B% @$% B3R %T$:1(@3&3

(Swens:n, 1966).

" '$C6(B"6: 0%?'( !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ C%$ <11% .:1M @RF&B< %.( <11"+

."6$.BJ&"$+ C6$BA6$% (R :rschach, MMPI, &;'.1A6F&3 .6:B<&"FR, C .%.).

1"+2%X6;+"#$+'D - Y==(@ +"#$+'G@ (F(#?/(+@

H G%$#:2;!$%B6$CA "TLB%&3 .%6L!"$ .136:P:6/"+ @$% B3R "CB/'3&3 @"R$C(B"6%

B3+ .6:&F.$C(B3B%+ C%$ BFR ".$.L#FR %R<.B;T3+, "RJ #/R"$ &;&B3'%B$C< C%$

1".B:'"6"$%C< (1% B% &B:$!"/% @$% B3 ':6PA C%$ B: ."6$"!('"R: BFR .6:013'<BFR.

H "TLB%&3 ."6$1%'0<R"$, (.F+ &" C<?" <113 ."6/.BF&3, '$% B;.$CA ."6$@6%PA B3+

2;!$CA+ C%B<&B%&3+: &;R%/&?3'%, &CL23-."6$"!('"R: &CL23+, C:$RFR$CL+ &!L&"$+

%1131".$#6<&"$+, .6:&%6':&B$CA $C%R(B3B%, 1"$B:;6@/% R";6$C:M &;&BA'%B:+,@1J&&% - :'$1/%, @RF&B$CA C%B<&B%&3, %';RB$CA :6@<RF&3, C .B.1 . E$#$C(B"6% &B3R

."6/.BF&3 B3+ .$?%RA+ '%?3&$%CA+ #;&C:1/%+ #/R"B%$ '"@<13 &3'%&/%:

%) &B3R C$R3B$CA %R<.B;T3, '" B3R "CB/'3&3 B3+ %#6A+ C%$ 1".BA+

C$R3B$C(B3B%+ C%$ B3R %R%9AB3&3 BFR A.$FR R";6:1:@$CJR &3'"/FR 0) &B3 @1F&&$CA

%R<.B;T3, '" "CB/'3&3 B:; &CL1:;+ B3+ C%B%R(3&3+ C%$ LCP6%&3+ @) &B3R "CB/'3&3

B3+ &;R%$&?3'%B$CA+ C%$ C:$RFR$CA+ C%B<&B%&3+, $#$%/B"6% &B% '"@%1MB"6% .%$#$<

C%$ B:;+ "PA0:;+. H "TLB%&3 ?% .6L."$ "./&3+ R% C%1M2"$ C%B%&B<&"$+ .:; &;!R<

&;R;.<6!:;R '" B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+, (.F+ B3 #$%B%6%!A B3+ .6:&:!A+ '" A



86

!F6/+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%.

T% &B:$!"/% B3+ .%$#:2;!$%B6$CA+ "TLB%&3+ L!:;R '"@<13 &3'%&/% @$% B3R

"#6%/F&3 B3+ #$<@RF&3+ C%$ B:R %.:C1"$&'( <11FR .%?:1:@$CJR C%B%&B<&"FR .:;

'.:6"/ R% #3'$:;6@:MR .%6(':$% .6:01A'%B%, (.F+ 1 .! . '$% @"R$CA %RF6$'(B3B%,

'$% &:0%6A &;R%$&?3'%B$CA #$%B%6%!A, LRB:R"+ C%B%&B<&"$+ &BL63&3+, C .%. I$% B3

#$<@RF&3 C%$ #$%P:6:#$<@RF&3 !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ :$ &!"B$C:/ ./R%C"+ C6$B36/FR B:;

DSM-lll-R C%$ WCD-9. I$% B3R %T$:1(@3&3 "/R%$ !6A&$'% C%$ C<.:B" %R%@C%/% B%

.:6/&'%B% <11FR "T"B<&"FR (.F+ %C:;:1:@$CA+, :P?%1':1:@$CA+,

.%$#:R";6:1:@$CA+, HEI C%$ %T:R$CA+ B:':@6%P/%+.

?#%'#<A<%.9 +U6:#-5

M" B3R "TLB%&3 %;BA ".$#$JC"B%$ : "RB:.$&'(+ #;&C:1$JR &B% #$<P:6%

"./."#% &!:1$CA+ '<?3&3+: %R<@RF&3, @6%PA, :6?:@6%P/%, %6$?'3B$CA, C%B%R(3&3.

I$% B: &C:.( %;B( !63&$':.:$"/B%$ %R<1:@: .%$#%@F@$C( ;1$C(, (.F+ C"/'"R% @$%

%R<@RF&3, C%B%R(3&3, B"&B %6$?'3B$CA+, C .B.1 . T: ;1$C( %;B( #"R .6:L6!"B%$

;.:!6"FB$C< %.( C<.:$% &B%?'$&'LR% B"&B+ &!:1$CA+ "./#:&3+, %C('3 C$ %R

;.<6!:;R %;B<. K <?" "$#$C(+ '.:6"/ R% C%B%&C";<9"$ C%$ R% !63&$':.:$"/ #$C( B:;

;1$C(.

E'"/+ !63&$':.:$:M'" %.( B: 1984 ;1$C( .:; C%B%&C";<&%'" @$% B$+ %R<@C"+

%;BL+ &B3R I%B6:.%$#%@F@$CA U.36"&/% B:; K LRB6:; Y;!$CA+ U@$"$RA+

H"&&%1:R/C3+. T: ;1$C( &B36/9"B%$ &B: %R%1;B$C( .6(@6%''% B:; U.:;6@"/:;

G%$#"/%+ J&B" R’ %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ &B$+ @RJ&"$+ .:; .%/6R:;R B% .%$#$< %.( B:

&!:1"/:. G6:h.:?LB"$ @$% C<?" B<T3 P:/B3&3 B:;1<!$&B:R #M: '3RJR. A6!$C<

"P%6'(&%'" B: ;1$C( %;B( B: 1984 &" 345 '%?3BL+ BFR B6$JR .6JBFR B<T"FR. T3R

_R:$T3 B:; 1986 B: /#$: ;1$C( "P%6'(&B3C" &" 1.039 '%?3BL+ BFR B"&&<6FR

.6JBFR B<T"FR S3':B$CJR !:1"/FR B:; N:':M H"&&%1:R/C3+. H "P%6':@A L@$R"

%.( '"B"C.%$#";('"R:;+ &B3 EKSE (%C%#3'%]C( LB:+ 1985-1986) '" ".:.B"/% &B%

.1%/&$% BFR '%?3'<BFR Y;!:.%$#%@F@$CA \6";R%- Y;!:.%?:1:@/%-E$#$CA A@F@A.

B:R ./R%C% .%6:;&$<9"B%$ B: #"/@'% B3+ L6";R%+ C%B< 31$C/%, PM1: C%$ B<T3



87

EU?IEGKG

H B%T$R('3&3 L@$R" &" B6"$+ :'<#"+ '" 0<&3 B3 ':6PA, B:R %6$?'( BFR 1%?JR

C%$ B3 0%6MB3B% BFR #;&C:1$JR (C%?(1:; A .:1M "1%P6L+ #;&C:1/"+, 'LB6$"+,

&:0%6L+).

O *3'+2 : (0) =+137%-:+2 9 .#4;1/, ',-./1(+2 9 1345

(1) = *6:8%+2 ',-./1(+2 9 1(<# 1345

(2) =-/>#89 ',-./1(# - $/113 1345

A R%1;B$C< B% C;6$(B"6% ";6A'%B% %.( B% #$<P:6% "./."#% B3+ L6";R<+ '%+

"/R%$ B% %C(1:;?%:

A FXOFTQJ

" (,B$ %P:6< B:;+ BM.:;+ 1%?JR .%6%B36:MRB%$ &;!R(B"6% C%$ &B$+ BL&&"6"$+

B<T"$+ :$ .%6%.:$A&"$+, :$ &;@!M&"$+ PFR3LRBFR C%$ &;'PJRFR, :$ .6:&?%P%$6L&"$+,

:$ %RB$&B6:PL+ C%$ :$ ".%R%1A2"$+. O %6$?'(+ BFR 1%?JR &;R:1$C< %R"0%/R"$ 'L!6$

B3R I C%$ .%6:;&$<9"$ .BJ&3 &B3 S. " .:&:&B$%/% C%B%R:'A, "RJ ;.:!F6:MR :$

.%6%.:$A&"$+, :$ &;@!M&"$+ C%$ :$ %RB$&B6:PL+ (.:; &!"#(R "T%P%R/9:RB%$), :$

".%R%1A2"$+ %;T<R:RB%$ %.( B3 ` .6:+ B3 S C%$ :$ .6:&?%P%$6L&"$+ L!:;R B3

'"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B3 I B<T3 (G/R. 1).

O$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ (:'<#% 2) .%6:;&$<9:;R '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B3R A'

C%$ I (13% C%$ 15% %RB/&B:$!%), '"$JR:RB%$ C%B< 50% (&;!R(B3B% 7%) &B3 ` C%$

&B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &B: 4% (.:&:&B( .:; %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ C%$ .6:+ B% #$"?RA

#"#:'LR%). Q$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B3 ` C%$ I

B<T3 (.:&:&B< 31% C%$ 33% %RB/&B:$!%), "RJ &B3R A C%$ &B3R S C;'%/R:RB%$ &B% /#$% "./."#% (22% C%$ 20% %RB/&B:$!%). T% C:6/B&$% @"R$C< .%6:;&$<9:;R 1$@(B"6"+

&:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ &B$+ B6"$+ .6JB"+ B<T"$+. B3R S C;'%/R:RB%$ &B% /#$% "./."#% '"

B% %@(6$%. O$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+ "'P%R/9:;R '$C6(B"63 &;!R(B3B% &B% C:6/B&$% &"

(1"+ B$+ B<T"$+ (I&B(@6%''% 1). " (,B$ %P:6< B3R .:$(B3B%, :$ .%6%B:R$&':/ "/R%$

1$@(B"6: &;!R:/ &B3R A B<T3, "RJ C;'%/R:RB%$ &B% /#$% &!"#(R "./."#% &B$+ B6"$+

".('"R"+ B<T"$+ ('/% '"@<13 %MT3&3 &B3 I %.:#/#"B%$ &B:R .%6%B:R$&'( '$%+

&;@C"C6$'LR3+ 1LT3+: B6%B:M %RB/ B6<B:;). Q$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R

'"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% &B3R A C%$ I B<T3 (18% C%$ 16% %RB/&B:$!%) "RJ &B3 S



88

&!"#(R '3#"R/9:RB%$. O$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+ #$%B36:MRB%$ &B% /#$% "./."#% &B$+ B6"$+

.6JB"+ B<T"$+ (30%, 33% C%$ 31% %RB/&B:$!%) C%$ '"$JR:RB%$ &B3 S &" 18%.

A R<1:@"+ #$%C;'<R&"$+ .%6:;&$<9"$ C%$ : !6F'%B$&'(+. O$ #;&C:1/"+ &B:R B6(.:

%R<@RF&3+ (&;11%0$CA, &;11%0$CA-6L:;&%) '"$JR:RB%$ 0%?'$%/% %.( B3R A .6:+ B3

S (.:; ('F+ #$%B36:MRB%$ &" &!"B$C< ;231< "./."#% (18%).

?(!#.#2 1. N,7!;:5:# :E$/, 1#4P! #!3<!A-52 W : #<;8%# , J : ./8(:-%#



89

Z-:;<8#**# 1: N,7!;:5:# *6:8%A!--/>#8P! ',-./1%P! #!3<!A-52 -:%2 :6--+8%2

:3U+%2 .

A FK@O?G]I

" (,B$ %P:6< B:;+ BM.:;+ 1%?JR .%6%B36:MRB%$ &;!R(B"6% C%$ &B$+ BL&&"6"$+

B<T"$+ :$ .%6%1"/2"$+, .%6%.:$A&"$+ C%$ “C(113'% 1LT"FR”. Q %6$?'(+ BFR 1%?JR

&;R:1$C< %;T<R"$ 'L!6$ B3 I C%$ "'P%R/9"$ .BJ&3 &B3 S (G/R. 2).



90

?(!#.#2 2. N,7!;:5:# :E$/, 1#4P! #!:%<8#=92 W : #<;8%# , J : ./8(:-%#

Q$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ '"$JR:RB%$ %.( B3R A .6:+ B3 ` (5%, 1.5% %RB/&B:$!%)

C%$ C%B(.$R &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B: 3% - 4%. Q$ 'LB6$"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R '$% %MT3&3

&B$+ ` C%$ I B<T"$+ (%.( 17% &" 26%) C%$ &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &B: 13%

($&B(@6%''% 2). Z-:;<8#**# 2: N,7!;:5:# *6:8%A!--/>#8P! ',-./1%P! #!:%<8#=92 -:%2 :6--+8+%2

:3U+%2 .



91

O?HLO?G]PG

" (,B$ %P:6< B:;+ BM.:;+ 1%?JR :$ C%B3@:6/"+ '" B3 '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B%

"/R%$ :$ .%6%1"/2"$+, .%6%.:$A&"$+, "C(113'% 1LT"FR" C%$ &M@!;&3 P?(@@FR .:;

':$<9:;R %C:;&B$C<. Q$ B6"$+ .6JB"+ C%B3@:6/"+, '"B< %.( C<.:$"+ #$%C;'<R&"$+ '"B%TM ` C%$ I, &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &" .:&:&B< &!"B$C< ;231< (27%-18% C%$

11% %RB/&B:$!%), 1/@: !%'31(B"6% %.( B3R A (34%-21%-14% %RB/&B:$!%). E$#$C<

@$% B3 &M@!;&3 P?(@@FR .:; ':$<9:;R %C:;&B$C< &3'"$JR"B%$ '$% '"@%1MB"63

&;!R(B3B% &B3 ` C%$ S (35%-41% %RB/&B:$!%) &" &!L&3 '" B3R A' C%$ I (11%-21%

%RB/&B:$!%).

O %.(1;B:+ %6$?'(+ 1%?JR &;R:1$C< "'P%R/9"$ C%$ "#J %MT3&3 'L!6$ B3R I

C%$ '"@<13 .BJ&3 &B3 S (G/R. 3).

?(!#.#2 3. N,7!;:5:# :E$/, 1#4P! /84/<8#=(#2 W : #<;8%# , J : ./8(:-%#

O$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ '"$JR:RB%$ C%$ &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &B: 5%. O$

'LB6$"+ .%6:;&$<9:;R %MT3&3 &B3 ` C%$ I (%.( 25% &" 35% C%$ 30% %RB/&B:$!%)

C%$ &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &B: 13% ($&B(@6%''% 3).



92

Z-:;<8#**# 3: N,7!;:5:# *6:8%A!--/>#8P! ',-./1%P! /84/<8#=(#2 -:%2 :6--+8+%2

:3U+%2 .

K GKGFBJQJ

O$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ (:'<#% "2") '"$JR:RB%$ &B3 ` C%$ I B<T3 (%.( 16% &"

10% C%$ 13% %RB/&B:$!%) C%$ &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &" !%'31< "./."#% (3%) .:;

%RB$&B:$!:MR &B% #$"?RA #"#:'LR%.

Z-:;<8#**# 4: N,7!;:5:# *6:8%A!--/>#8P! ',-./1%P! .#:#!;5-52 -:%2 :6--+8%2

:3U+%2 .



93

O$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+ (:'<#% "1") '"$JR:RB%$ %6C"B< %.( B3R A &B3 ` (32%

=%$ 20% %RB/&B:$!%), .%6:;&$<9:;R '/% %;T3'LR3 &;!R(B3B% &B3 I (29%) C%$

&B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S &B: 15% (I&B(@6%''% 4).

T% %@(6$% "'P%R/9:;R B$+ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ &" '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% %.( B%

C:6/B&$% &B$+ B6"$+ .6JB"+ B<T"$+. B3 S B<T3 #"R ;.<6!:;R #$%P:6L+.

A?@HEJK@RI

O$ &:0%6L+ #;&C:1/"+ (:'<#% "2") %;T<R:;R %.( B3R A C%$ ` (%.( 3% &"

16%), .%6:;&$<9:;R LT%6&3 &B3 I (49%) C%$ &B%?"6:.:$:MRB%$ &B3 S (&B: 26%).

O$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+ %;T<R:;R %.( B3R A. &B3 ` (%.( 10% &" 24%) C%$

'"$JR:RB%$ .6::#";B$C< @$% R% &B%?"6:.:$3?:MR &B3 S &B: 9% (I&B(@6%''% 5).

Z-:;<8#**# 5: N,7!;:5:# *6:8%A!--/>#8P! ',-./1%P! W8%4*5:%.92 -:%2 :6--+8%2

:3U+%2 .

T(&: B% %@(6$% (&: C%$ B% C:6/B&$% "'P%R/9:;R B$+ #;&C:1/"+ &B% /#$% ."6/.:;

"./."#%. !"B$C< '" B3R ;231A &;!R(B3B% BFR &:0%6JR #;&C:1$JR %6$?'3B$CA+ &B3

I, %11< C%$ &B3 S B<T3, '.:6:M'" R% C<R:;'" B$+ .%6%C<BF ;.:?L&"$+ :

%) B3R "TLB%&A '%+ %T$:1:@"/B%$ (I C%$ S B<T3) C;6/F+ : %6$?'3B$C(+

&;11:@$&'(+ C%$ 1$@(B"6: 3 $C%R(B3B% &B$+ .6<T"$+.

0) Q %6$?'3B$C(+ &;11:@$&'(+ #$#<&C"B%$ C%B< B: %R%1;B$C( .6(@6%''% %.(



94

B3 I B<T3.

@) E/R%$ P%R"6( (B$ :$ '%?3BL+ &" '"@<1% .:&:&B< #"R L!:;R .6:!F6A&"$ &B3R

C%B<CB3&3 B:; &;11:@$&':M.

#) O$ #;&C:1/"+ #"R '.:6:MR R’ %.:#:?:MR %.:C1"$&B$C< &" .6:01A'%B%

C%B%R(3&3+ ((.:; B% .:&:&B< #;&C:1$JR "/R%$ &3'%RB$C< !%'31(B"6%).

S"R .6(C"$B%$, 1:$.(R, &;R:1$C< @$% "$#$CA #;&C:1/% &B3R %6$?'3B$CA. I$% B:

%6C"B< &;93B3'LR: ?L'% B3+ "'P<R$&3+ ."6$&&(B"6FR #;&C:1$JR &B% "'$C6<"

.%$#$< 01L.:;'", '" 0<&3 (1% B% .%6%.<RF &B:$!"/% (B$ ;.<6!"$ &;R:1$C< '$% B<&3

"'P<R$&3+ BFR #;&C:1$JR &" '"@%1MB"63 &;!R(B3B% (G/R. 15).

?(!#.#2 15. N,!/1%.3 $/-/-:3 ',-./1%P! <%# :%2 :6--+8%2 :3U+%2

"M@R?X"

N: 260

"M>OXNG"

N: 749

A R<@RF&3 12.3% 9.1%

A RB$@6%PA 2.3% 3.6%

O6?:@6%P/% 7.7% 7%

K %B%R(3&3 12.4% 9.8%

A6$?'3B$CA 32.7% 25.7%

I$% %C6$0L&B"63 "CB/'3&3 BFR #$%P:6JR %R<'"&% &B% "'$C6<" C%$ "'"@<1%"

.%$#$< "P%6'(&B3C" B: C6$BA6$: ! 2 @$% C<?" @RF&B$C( %RB$C"/'"R:: %) &;R:1$C< @$%

B$+ BL&&"6"$+ B<T"$+ C%$ 0) !F6$&B< &" #M: :'<#"+, @$% B3R A C%$ ` %.( B3 '$% '"6$< C%$ I C%$ S %.( B3R <113. S$%.$&BJ?3C%R &;R:1$C< &B%B$&B$C< &3'%RB$CL+ #$%P:6L+

@$% B3R %R<@RF&3 (&" "./."#: 10%) C%$ @$% B3R %6$?'3B$CA (&" "./."#: 0.5%). B$+

&;@C6/&"$+ C%B< :'<#"+ B<T"FR #$%.$&BJ?3C%R &B%B$&B$C< &3'%RB$CL+ #$%P:6L+ @$%

B3R %R<@RF&3 &B$+ #M: .6JB"+ B<T"$+(&" "./."#: 2.5%) C%$ @$% B3R %6$?'3B$CA &B$+

'"R #M: .6JB"+ B<T"$+ &" "./."#: 0.1%, &B$+ I C%$ S &" "./."#: 1%.



95

"FK@E>KSW@QJ KTF GHJQ@GRSF .UQRLN@SF

O$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ %.:B"1:MR B% B"1";B%/% !6(R$% %RB$C"/'"R: LRB:R3+

"R%&!(13&3+ .:11JR "$#$CJR C%$ "$#$C:BABFR. H ".$&B3':R$CA L6";R% '%+ L!"$ A#3

0:3?A&"$ &3'%RB$C< &B3 ?"F6/% C%$ &B3R .6<T3. N'F+ 1(@F B3+ .:1;.1:C(B3B%+

C%$ .:1;':6P/%+ BFR .6:013'<BFR "/R%$ .6:P%RL+ (B$ .L6% %.( B$+ %'P$&03BA&"$+

C%$ #$%PFR/"+ ;.<6!:;R %C('3 .:11< "6FBA'%B% %R%.<RB3B%.

H %&<P"$% C%$ B% C"R<, 3 '"@<13 &;!R(B3B% BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR, 3

;."6%.1:M&B";&3 C%$ @"R/C";&3 #3'$:;6@:MR LR% !J6: &B:R :.:/: .%6"$&P6M:;R

.:11:/ ""$#A':R"+" C%$ "?%;'%B:.:$:/". S"R "/R%$ B;!%/: @"@:R(+ 3 " ;."6!6A&3" B:;

(6:; #;&1"T/% .:; B"/R"$ '<1$&B% R% @/R"$ '$% ":$C"/%" C%$ "#3':P$1A+" C%B<&B%&3,

C;6/F+ '"B%TM .%$#%@F@JR C%$ @:RLFR. ,;R(3B: "/R%$ (B$ :$ @:R"/+ @/R:RB%$ "M.$&B:$

C%$ ";<1FB:$. A R %;B( $&!M"$ #$"?RJ+, &B3R ,11<#% :$ #$%&B<&"$+ "/R%$ '"@%1MB"6"+,

#"#:'LR:; (B$ 3 ".$&B3':R$CA L6";R% BJ6% <6!$&" R% %R%.BM&&"B%$, ;.<6!"$ '"@<13

L11"$23 "$#$CJR C%$ 3 "$#$CA "C.%/#";&3 &B:R B:'L% BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR

"/R%$ &!"#(R %RM.%6CB3. H .:11%.1A %$B$:1:@$CA .6:L1";&3 C%$ 3 .:1;':6P/% BFR

'%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR ".$0<11:;R LR% .:1M.1";6: C%$ ";L1$CB: ?"6%.";B$C(

&!A'%. H 'L!6$ &A'"6% "'."$6/% L!"$ #"/T"$ (B$ LR% BLB:$: &!A'% ."6$1%'0<R"$ &%R

0%&$C( C:6'( B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .%$#%@F@$CA C%$ .1%$&$JR"B%$, %R<1:@% '" B3R

."6/.BF&3, %.( 2;!:1:@$CL+, $%B6$CL+ C%$ <11"+ ?"6%.";B$CL+ .6:&"@@/&"$+. A ;B(

.:; L!"$ '"@<13 &3'%&/% @$% B3R %.:B"1"&'%B$C(B3B% "/R%$ 3 &B%?"6A, #$%6CA+ C%$

&;RB:R$&'LR3 &;R"6@%&/% (1FR BFR "$#$CJR. H "T"1$CB$CA PM&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR

#;&C:1$JR ".$0<11"$ B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&A B:;+ A#3 %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/%.

4FTQKX H>?GW>UK@RX W?LO?XEEGKG

G%1$(B"6%, '" 0<&3 B3R %$B$:1:@$CA "6'3R"/% BFR #;&C:1$JR C%$ B3 ?"F63B$CA

C%B"M?;R&3 BFR "6";R3BJR "/!%R %R%.B;!?"/ %RB/&B:$!% ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B%,

(.F+ 1 .! . .6:@6<''%B% &B36$@'LR% &B3R %R<.B;T3 B:; 1(@:; (Mykleb ;st),

2;!:@1F&&$C< (Minsk :ff), %RB$13.B$C:C$R3B$C< (Fr :sting), C .<. M"6$C< %.( %;B<

L@$R%R $#$%/B"6% #3':P$1A C%$ !63&$':.:$A?3C%R ";6MB%B%.

?8/<83**#:# #!3$:,U52 :/, 1;</,

O$ #$%B%6%!L+ ".$C:$RFR/%+ '" :6@%R$CA .6:L1";&3 %.:B"1:MR B: ?"F63B$C(



96

;.(0%?6: BFR .6:@6%''<BFR %;BJR. S/R"B%$ 0<6:+ C;6/F+ &B$+ ;.<6!:;&"+

#$%B%6%!L+ 1(@:;, ;.:0:3?"/B%$ ('F+ @"R$C(B"6% 3 @1F&&$CA %R<.B;T3. T%

.6:@6<''%B% B:; Mykleb ;st C%$ B3+ Barr @ ?"F6:MRB%$ C%B<1131% @$% '$C6< .%$#$<,

"RJ B3+ McGinnis @$% '"@%1MB"6% .%$#$< C%$ "PA0:;+ (M@ers & Hammill., 1976,

Gearheart, 1973, Reyn:lds & Mann, 1987). T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% B:;

Mykleb ;st (J:hns:n & Mykleb ;st, 1967, Mykleb ;st, 1965, Mykleb ;st, 1955) "/R%$

LR% :1:C136F'LR: .6(@6%''% @$% B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR

C%B< B:'"/+. O$ ?"6%.";B$CL+ B"!R$CL+ %P:6:MR B:R .6:P:6$C( 1(@:, B3R %R<@RF&3,

B:R @6%.B( 1(@:, B3R %6$?'3B$CA C%$ B3 '3 1"CB$CA '<?3&3. O$ #;&C:1/"+ %.( B:R

.6:P:6$C( 1(@: '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ .6:&13.B$C:M A "CP6%&B$C:M BM.:; (#;&P%&$CL+

#$%B%6%!L+). G$: &;@C"C6$'LR%, &B3R ."6/.BF&3 #;&C:1$JR .6:&13.B$C:M BM.:;

@/R"B%$ 0%?'$%/%, &B%#$%CA ".%R"C.%/#";&3 @$% B3 0"1B/F&3 B3+ $C%R(B3B%+ BFR

.%$#$JR R% #$%C6/R:;R A!:;+, PFRA'%B%, &;11%0L+, 1LT"$+. H "C.%/#";&3 @/R"B%$ &"

:6@%RF'LR: .1%/&$: '" 0<&3 B$+ C%?3'"6$RL+ "'."$6/"+. B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR

"CP6%&B$C:M BM.:;, 3 ".%R"C.%/#";&3 @/R"B%$ &" B6"$+ B:'"/+:

&B3R $C%R(B3B% %R<C13&3+ C%$ !6A&3+ %C:;&B$CJR .136:P:6$JR .:; '.:6"/

R% ;.:&B36/9:RB%$ '" B3R :.B$CA #/:#:,

&B3R %C:;&B$C:-C$R3B$CA :1:C1A6F&3 '" %R<.B;T3 B3+ .6:P:6$CA+

".$C:$RFR/%+ C%$

@) &B3 #:'A B:; 1(@:; '" %C:;&B$C:-@1F&&$C< &;&BA'%B% %R<1:@% '" %;B<

B3+ "C'<?3&3+ TLRFR @1F&&JR.

B:R B:'L% B3+ %R<@RF&3+ (#;&1"T/%) '"@%1MB"63 &3'%&/% %.:CB< 3

"T%B:'/C";&3. T: ?"6%.";B$C( &!A'% 6;?'/9"B%$ %R<1:@% '" B: %R 3 #;&C:1/% "/R%$

:.B$C:M A '$CB:M BM.:; (:.B$C:-%C:;&B$C:M).

B3R .6JB3 ."6/.BF&3 3 ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 &B36/9"B%$ %6!$C< &B3

#$#%&C%1/% '"':RF'LRFR P?(@@FR .:; #$%PL6:;R :.B$C<, &B3 &;RL!"$% @/R"B%$

&;R#;%&'(+ '" <11:;+ P?(@@:;+ C%?J+ C%$ &;R#;%&'(+ &" 1LT"$+, P6<&"$+ C%$

.6:B<&"$+. ,./&3+, #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R :.B$CA ':6PA B:; B;.F'LR:; 1(@:; (&!A'%

.:; .%/6R"$ '$% 1LT3). B3 #"MB"63 ."6/.BF&3 ('$CB(+ BM.:+) #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3

#$#%&C%1/% &;R#;%&B$C< B3+ 1LT3+ '" B: "RR:$:1:@$C( B3+ ."6$"!('"R:. H

#$#%&C%1/% @/R"B%$ '" $"6<6!3&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR (<6?6%, .6:?L&"$+, 1LT"$+, C .B.1 .)

B:R B:'L% B:; @6%.B:M 1(@:; : Myklebust #$%C6/R"$ B6"$+ ':6PL+ #;&C:1$JR:

B3 #;&@6%P/% (dysgraphia),

#;&C:1/% :.B$CA+ %R<C13&3+ (revisualisation), C%$



97

#;&C:1/"+ @6%''%B$C:M C%$ &;RB%CB$C:M BM.:; (formulation and syntax).

B3 #;&@6%P/% #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R :.B$C:C$R3B$CA :1:C1A6F&3. B% .6JB%

&B<#$% B: .%$#/ .%6%C:1:;?"/ B:R "C.%$#";BA R% C<R"$ @6%''L+ C%$ &!A'%B%. B3

&;RL!"$% C<R"$ ".%B$B:M6%" C$ (B%R PB<&"$ &B: &3'"/: R% '3 !6"$<9"B%$ 0:A?"$%,

%R%.%6<@"$ '(R: B:; B% &!A'%B% '" B3 0:A?"$% C:;C/#FR. M" B3R /#$% B"!R$CA

.6:!F6"/ &B% @6<''%B%, (.:; #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 C;6/F+ &B3R B:.:?LB3&3 &B: !J6:. "

."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR :.B$CA+ %R<C13&3+, .%6:;&$<9:RB%$ %6!$C< B% @6<''%B% &"

'"@%1MB"6: 'L@"?:+ C%$ B: .%$#/ "R$&!M"B%$ R% @6<P"$ '" !:RB6( '%6C%#(6:.

G%6<1131% #/R:RB%$ 1"CB$CL+ :#3@/"+, LB&$ J&B" R% #$";C:1;R?"/ 3 .6:&:!A B:;

.%$#$:M, %.%6%/B3B3 &B3 ?"6%."/% %R".%6C"$JR 'RA'3+. TL1:+, #/R:RB%$ %C:;&B$C<

C%$ :.B$C< "6"?/&'%B%.

H %RB$@6%PA 0:3?< .:1M &' %;BL+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+. B$+ #;&C:1/"+ @6%''%B$C:M

C%$ &;RB%CB$C:M BM.:; B: .%$#/ @6<P"$ '" ;.%@(6";&3

B% .6JB% &B<#$% : "C.%$#";BA+ ;.:#"$CRM"$ B% 1<?3 &B: .%$#/, %6@(B"6% B:

"R$&!M"$ R% B% %R%@RF6/9"$ '(R: B:;.

" ."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR &B:R B:'L% B3+ %6$?'3B$CA+ (#;&%6$?'3&/%) 3

?"6%.";B$CA %@F@A, &M'PFR% '" B:R Mykleb ;st, &B36/9"B%$ &B3R %R<.B;T3 C%$

!6A&3 "RR:$JR .:; %R%PL6:RB%$ &" .:&(B3B"+, &"$6<, '"@L?3, !J6:. H %6$?'3B$CA

&CL23 0%&/9"B%$ &" '"@<1: 0%?'( &B3R :.B$CA %RB/1323. l#$%/B"6% B% .%$#$< '"

#;&%6$?'3&/%

#;&C:1"M:RB%$ &B3R %RB/1323 B3+ ':6PA+. I$' %;B(, #6%&B36$(B3B"+ (.F+

&;R%6':1:@A&"$+, p ;zzles, B('.:1"+, C .%., 0:3?:MR. TL1:+, .6:@6<''%B%

&"$6$:?LB3&3+, B%T$R('3&3+, %6/?'3&3+, C .%., 0%&$&'LR% &B3 ?"F6/% B:; Piaget "/R%$

$#$%/B"6% !6A&$'%.

B:R B:'L% B3+ '3 1"CB$CA+ '<?3&3+ :$ #;&C:1/"+ %R%PL6:RB%$ &" .6:01A'%B%

C:$RFR$CA+ %RB/1323+ C%$ C%?3'"6$RL+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+, (.F+ C%B%R(3&3

."6$0<11:RB:+, !J6:;, !6(R:;, C%B"M?;R&3+ C%$ %;B:%RB/1323+. H ?"6%.";B$CA

.6:&L@@$&3 &B36/9"B%$ &" C%?3'"6$RL+ "'."$6/"+ '" B"!R$CL+, (.F+ &;R#;%&'(+

"$C(RFR, '" .6%@'%B$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+, !6A&3 2%1$#$:M, "C:;B&(", "$C(R% &J'%B:+

'" C%?6LPB3, 6;zzles '" 'L13 &J'%B:+, C .B.1 ., ,./&3+ "/R%$ %.%6%/B3B"+ %&CA&"$+

@$% B3 &;@CLRB6F&3 B3+ .6:&:!A+ C%$ B3 '"/F&3 B3+ ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%+.

T: 1967 :$ Johns:n & Mykleb ;st .%6:;&/%&%R &B: 0$01/: B:;+ Learn$ng

Disabilities: \d ;cati:nal Principles and Practices, B$+ “...0%&$CL+ %6!L+ .:; #$L.:;R

B3 ?"6%."/% BFR 2;!:R";6:1:@$CJR #$%B%6%!JR '<?3&3+”. ,."$#A .$&B"M:;'" .F+



98

:$ %6!L+ %;BL+ "/R%$ .<RB% "./C%$6"+ C%$ !6A&$'"+ &B% !L6$% B:; C%1:M .%$#%@F@:M

.:; "6@<9"B%$ &B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .%$#%@F@$CA, (.:$: .6(@6%''% C$ %R "P%6'(9"$, B$+

.%6%?LB:;'" '" &;RB:'/%.

H #$#%&C%1/% .6L."$ R% "T%B:'$C"M"B%$.

T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ &B: 0%?'( "B:$'(B3B%+ B:;

.%$#$:M.

H #$#%&C%1/% ."6$:6/9"B%$ &B: "./."#: .:; B: .%$#/ &;''"BL!"$.

%R 0<&3 @$% B3R B%T$R('3&3 :'%#:.:/3&3 .6L."$ R% ?"F6"/B%$ 3 $C%R(B3B%

.6(&1323+ C%$ C%B%R(3&3+ C%$ (!$ 3 $C%R(B3B% LCP6%&3+. H #$#%&C%1/% R% '3R

;."60%/R"$ B: (6$: %RB:!A+.

N% !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ #$%$&?3B$C:/ "6"?$&':/.

N% L6!:RB%$ &B3R ".$P<R"$% :$ %R".<6C"$"+, !F6/+ R% #/R"B%$ $#$%/B"63 L'P%&3

&B3R /#$% B3 #;&C:1/%.

H #$#%&C%1/% @/R"B%$ &" :1(B3B"+, ;.<6!:;R ('F+ ."6$:6$&':/.

NB%R !6"$<9"B%$ #/R"B%$ ?"6%.";B$CA 0:A?"$% C%$ @$% B3R %RB/1323.

N% "1L@!:RB%$ &3'%RB$CL+ .%6<'"B6:$, (.F+ .6:&:!A, 6;?'(+, %'"&(B3B% C%$

'L@"?:+, (.:; !6"$<9"B%$.

N% %R%.BM&&:RB%$ B(&: 1"CB$CL+ (&: C%$ '3 1"CB$CL+ "'."$6/"+.

H .6:&L@@$&3 R% &B36/9"B%$ C%$ &" C6$BA6$% &;'."6$P:6<+ C%$ &"

R";6:1:@$CL+ ;.:?L&"$+.

T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% B3+ H:rtense Barry (1961) %P:6< C;6/F+ .%$#$< '"

%P%&$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+. G6:B"/R"B%$ $"6%6!3'LR3 "C.%/#";&3 &" BL&&"6$+ B:'"/+:

"$C(R% &J'%B:+: @/R"B%$ "C.%/#";&3 &B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 .6:&J.FR :$C"/FR

%B('FR, '"1JR &J'%B:+ '" 9F@6%P$CA, C(2$':, C%?6LPB3 C%$ C:MC1"+,

#$%B%6%!L+ %RB$1A2"FR: 3 "C.%/#";&3 @/R"B%$ '" .:$C/1% ;1$C< B"!R$CL+ '"

&B(!: B3R <&C3&3 B:; .%$#$:M &B3R :.B$CA C%$ %C:;&B$CA %RB/1323 C%$ &B3R %PA,

#$<C6$&3 ':6PA+ .1%$&/:; C%$ !J6:;: 3 "C.%/#";&3 @/R"B%$ '" :.B$C< C%$

%C:;&B$C< "6"?/&'%B% C%$

C$R3B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+: @/R"B%$ "T<&C3&3 &B3R %#6A C%$ 1".BA C$R3B$C(B3B%

C%?J+ C%$ &B3R :'$1/%. G%6<1131% '" B3R "C.%/#";&3 &B:;+ .%6%.<RF B:'"/+

%6!/9"$ 3 0:A?"$% @$% B$+ #;&C:1/"+ B:; 1(@:;, .6:&13.B$C:M C%$ "CP6%&B$C:M.

B%&$CA C%B"M?;R&3 C%$ &B(!:+ "/R%$ 3 %;&B36A :6@<RF&3, B% T"C<?%6% (6$% C%$ 3

".$CLRB6F&3 B:; ?"6%.";B$C:M .1%$&/:;.

T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% B3+ Mildred A. McGinn$s (1963) "/R%$ @RF&B( &%R





100

&" &;@C"6%&'( P?(@@FR C%$ C$R3B$CJR "'."$6$JR. H ?"6%.";B$CA .:6"/% %C:1:;?"/

BL&&"6% &B<#$% '" .6::#";B$CA #;&C:1/%. A6!/9"$ %.( &;R#;%&':M+ @6%''<BFR .:;

.%6:;&$<9:RB%$ .6:P:6$C< C%$ @6%.B<. B3 &;RL!"$% #$#<&C:RB%$ &;R#;%&':/

@6%''<BFR C%$ 1LT"$+ %.( B;.F'LR: 1(@:. B: B6/B: &B<#$: #/R:RB%$

.:1;.1:C(B"6"+ 1LT"$+ C%$ .6:B<&"$+, "RJ &B: BLB%6B: #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &" 1LT"$+ .:;

."6$L!:;R P?(@@:;+, B:;+ :.:/:;+ B% .%$#$< &;@!L:;R.

C=4//%=%3+'? 9$%3$?00"#"

T% ."6$&&(B"6% @RF&B< .6:@6<''%B% &B36/9:RB%$ &" ?"F63B$CL+ %.(2"$+ B3+

R";6:P;&$:1:@/%+ C%$ 2;!:1:@/%+. A6C"B:/ ('F+ "$#$C:/ .6:&L@@$&%R ?"6%.";B$C<

B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ 0%&$9('"R:$ &B$+ ?L&"$+ @RF&BJR @1F&&:1(@FR (Ch:msk @,

Jac:mbs:n, C .%.). T: .$: @RF&B( %.( B% .6:@6<''%B% B:; BM.:; %;B:M "/R%$ B3+

Fitzerald .:; &;'.136J?3C" %6@(B"6% %.( B3R Bassie P ;gh. G6(C"$B%$ @$%

.6(@6%''% %;&B36< #:'3'LR: B: :.:/: C%B%&C";<&B3C" @$% CFP< .%$#$<, %6@(B"6%

('F+ <6!$&" R% !63&$':.:$"/B%$ C%$ &" ."6$.BJ&"$+ '%?3&$%CJR .6:013'<BFR,

%C:;&B$C:M A :.B$C:M BM.:;. G"6$1%'0<R"$ B6"$+ ."6$:!L+ #$#%&C%1/%+: &B3R .6JB3

@/R"B%$ "C'<?3&3 1"T$1:@/:;, :#3@$JR C%$ "CP6<&"FR C%?3'"6$RA+ !6A&3+, &B3

#"MB"63 #$#<&C"B%$ 3 @6%''%B$CA C%$ &B3R B6/B3 '" 0<&3 '$% “1LT3-C1"$#/”

&;R#L:RB%$ B% #M: .%6%.<RF. I$% B:R 1(@: %;B(R B: .6(@6%''% "/R%$ @RF&B( F+ “1LT3 C1"$#/” (Key-W:rd). T% %.:B"1L&'%B% %.( B3 !6A&3 B:; &" '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+ #"R L!:;R %C('% "CB$'3?"/.

A)#+=:9#+'%'+):#+'? /6/#D0"#"

O$ 'L?:#:$ C%$ B"!R$CL+ B3+ C%B3@:6/%+ %;BA+ L!:;R C%?%6< "T"1$CB$C(

.6:&%R%B:1$&'( C%$ #/R:;R L'P%&3 &B% %6!$C< C$R3B$C< ".$B"M@'%B% C%$ &B3R

:.B$C:-!F6$CA %R<.B;T3 B:; .%$#$:M. ,#J %RAC:;R '"6$C< %.( B% .$: @RF&B<

.6:@6<''%B% %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''%

B3+ Fr :sting 0%&/9"B%$ &B: %RB/&B:$!: #$%@RF&B$C( C%$ ?"F6"/B%$ C%B<1131: @$%

.%$#$< '" :.B$C:%RB$13.B$C< .6:01A'%B% B% :.:/% .6:L6!:RB%$ %.( "@C"P%1$CL+

01<0"+ C%$ #;&1"$B:;6@/"+. \@$R" ";6MB%B% @RF&B( C%$ !63&$':.:$A?3C" C%B< B3

#"C%"B/% B:; ‘70 C%$ &" .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. A.:#"/!B3C" ('F+ .$:

!6A&$': &" .%$#$< .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+. \!"$ #"!B"/ %6C"BL+ P:6L+ C6$B$CA,

.6(&P%B% (Mitchell, 1965) @$% B:R 1(@: (B$ "/R%$ ".$'"6$&'LR: .%6%?"B$C< &M'PFR%

'" B: #$%@RF&B$C( 'L6:+. T: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% B:; Kephart 0%&/9"B%$ &B:



101

%RB/&B:$!: #$%@RF&B$C( B:; B'A'%. G"6$1%'0<R"$ BL&&"6$+ B:'"/+ "C.%/#";&3+:

:.B$C:-C$R3B$CA "C.%/#";&3 '" %&CA&"$+, (.F+ %R%.%6%@F@A &!3'<BFR,

&!L#$% '" C:;C/#"+, #%CB;1:@6%P$CA, %&CA&"$+ %R<.B;T3+ "RR:$JR C%B"M?;R&3+,

!J6:;, '"@"?JR, C .B.1 .

D$&?3&$:C$R3B$CA "C.%/#";&3: &B3R %6!A #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R $&:66:./%, &B3

&;RL!"$% &B3R "$C(R% B:; &J'%B:+ C%$ BL1:+ &B3R %'P$#"T$(B3B% C%$ .1";6/F&3. H

"T<&C3&3 %P:6< B3R %#6A C%$ 1".BA C$R3B$C(B3B%.

A&CA&"$+ @$% B3R C$R3B$C(B3B% BFR :P?%1'$CJR 0:10JR C%$

,C.%/#";&3 %RB/1323+ B3+ ':6PA+ '" %&CA&"$+ (.F+ 6;zzles,

&;R%6':1:@A&"$+, C .%. O$ 0%&$CL+ %&CA&"$+ @$% B3R :.B$C: C$R3B$CA "C.%/#";&3 "/R%$

@RF&BL+ &%R “,C.%/#";&3 &" G/R%C%”.

,/R%$ %;B:R(3B: (B$ &B: ?"6%.";B$C( %;B( .6(@6%''% %@R:"/B%$ 3 %C:;&B$CA

#/:#:+. I$% B:R 1(@: %;B(R C%$ : /#$:+ : Kephart .6:B"/R"$ .%6<11313 !6A&3 BFR

?"6%.";B$CJR .6:@6%''<BFR B:; ITPA A C%$ <11FR.

W6;%3=4//+'? 9$%3$?00"#"

B%&$9:RB%$ (1% &B3 ?"F6/% B:; Osg::d @$% B3R %R?6J.$R3 @1J&&% C%$

".$C:$RFR/%. O S. Kirk %RL.B;T" C%$ #$%'(6PF&" B: C1$R$C( #$%@RF&B$C( ':RBL1:.

M" 0<&3 B: ':RBL1: %;B( %R%.BM!?3C%R #$<P:6% ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B% (.F+

B3+ Karnes (1972) C%$ B: .$: @RF&B( C%$ :1:C136F'LR:, BFR Minsk :ff, Wisman &

Minsk :ff (M.W.M.). M" 0<&3 B: #$%@RF&B$C( 'L6:+, &" &;R#;%&'( '" "$#$C(

"6FB3'%B:1(@$: .:; #$%?LB"$ B: .6(@6%''%, #$%':6PJR"B%$ B: C%B<1131: @$% C<?"

.%$#/ ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% .:; %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ &B:;+ 12 B:'"/+ B:; ITPA. H

"P%6':@A B:; '.:6"/ R% @/R"B%$ &" .%$#$< '" .6:01A'%B% '<?3&3+, :'$1/%+, C%?J+

C%$ '" C%?;&B"6A&"$+. ,./&3+, 1(@F B3+ "T"1$CB$CA+ B:; #:'A+, '.:6"/ R%

!63&$':.:$"/B%$ C%$ &" :.:$:#A.:B" .%$#/ .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+. GL6% %.( B3R

"T%B:'$C";'LR3 "P%6':@A !63&$':.:$"/B%$ C%$ &" '$C6L+ :'<#"+.

1$%3$?00"#" 3+" 9"+2+? 0( (3'(A"=+'D B=?B:

O$ Stra ;ss & Lehtinen (1947) "/R%$ %.( B:;+ .6FB:.(6:;+ &B:R B:'L% B3+

L6";R%+ C%$ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ .%$#$JR '" "@C"P%1$CL+ 01<0"+. M" 0<&3 B$+ %.(2"$+

B:;+, : Cru$ckshank C%$ &;R"6@<B"+ (1961) &;RL#"&%R B3R "1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA 01<03 '" B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. N.F+ "/R%$ @RF&B(, 1/@: %6@(B"6% : Clements



102

(1966) C%?$L6F&" B:R (6: “"1<!$&B3 "@C"P%1$CA #;&1"$B:;6@/%” (Minimal Brain

Dysfuncti:n) .:; 06AC" '"@<13 %.A!3&3 C%$ B%;B/&B3C" '" B$+ /#$"+ B$+ '%?3&$%CL+

#;&C:1/"+ C%?J+ C%$ B: ;."6C$R3B$C( &MR#6:':.

T% .6:@6<''%B% .:; #$%':6PJ?3C%R &%R &;RL!"$% BFR .%6%.<RF %.(2"FR

0%&/9:RB%$ &B: @"@:R(+ (B$ ;.<6!"$ '$% .:11%.1A #$%&MR#"&3 BFR #$%P(6FR

P1:$]CJR ."6$:!JR (Hebbs, 1949) C%$ (B$ @$% B3 &!:1$CA '<?3&3 %.%6%/B3B3

.6:h.(?"&3 "/R%$ 3 :1:C136F'LR3 %RB$13.B$CA :6@<RF&3. \B&$, &B% .6:@6<''%B%

#/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R "R"6@:.:/3&3 '" B% C%B<1131% "6"?/&'%B% (1FR BFR #$(#FR

".$C:$RFR/%+ (:.B$CA, %C:;&B$CA, %.B$CA, C$R%$&?3B$CA). A.";?MR:RB%$ &" .%$#$<

.6:&!:1$CA+ C%$ &!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+.

H Lehtinen "P<6':&" B% .6:@6<''%B< B3+ F+ #$";?MRB6$% &B: C:Re Sch::l f :r

Brain- lnjured children in Racine, Wisc:nsin.

O$ .%$#%@F@$CL+ %6!L+ B:; .6:@6<''%B(+ B3+ "/R%$:

• %;&B36A #('3&3 B:; ."6$0<11:RB:+ '" &;&B3'%B$CA %.:P;@A :.B$CJR

"6"?$&'<BFR J&B" R% '"$JR:RB%$ 3 #$<&.%&3 .6:&:!A+ C%$ 3 ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%.

I/R"B%$, LB&$, &" .6JB: "./."#: L1"@!:+ B3+ &;'."6$P:6<+,

• 3 #$#%&C%1/% @/R"B%$ &" '$C6L+ :'<#"+ 'L!6$ 12 .%$#$< C%$ &" '"@<1: !J6:,

• #/R"B%$ L'P%&3 &B3R %R<.B;T3 BFR #;R%B:BABFR .:; ;.<6!:;R. H Lehtinen

.$&B"M"$ (B$ LB&$ ;.:0:3?:MRB%$ C%1MB"6% C%$ :$ B:'"/+ %R".%6C"$JR. T: .6(@6%''%

B3+ .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ &B:!"M"$ &B3R %R<.B;T3 B3+ &!:1$CA+ "B:$'(B3B%+, "RJ B:

B3+ &!:1$CA+ "/R%$ C%?%6< ?"6%.";B$C(, .6:&%R%B:1$&'LR: &B$+ ".$'L6:;+ #;&C:1/"+

(%R<@RF&3+, @6%PA+, %6$?'3B$CA+). O Cruickshank &B: .6(@6%''< B:; #/R"$ L'P%&3

&B3R #$".$&B3':R$CA #$%@RF&B$CA %T$:1(@3&3. k"!F6/9:;R '’ %;B(R B:R B6(.: #M:

:'<#"+ .%$#$JR, 3 .6JB3 '" C1$R$C< R";6:1:@$C< ";6A'%B% C%$ 3 #"MB"63, !F6/+

%;B<, '" &;'.BJ'%B% ('F+ .:; B3R ;.:#31JR:;R. O$ .%$#%@F@$CL+ %6!L+ "/R%$:

• ."6$:6$&'(+ :.B$CJR C%$ %C:;&B$CJR "6"?$&'<BFR @$% B:R L1"@!: B3+

&;'."6$P:6<+, 0) :'<#"+ 10 .%$#$JR &" '$C6( !J6:,

• %;&B36< #:'3'LR: 3'"6A&$: .6(@6%''% C%$

• "R/&!;&3 C%$ "'.1:;B$&'(+ B:; !63&$':.:$:M'"R:; ;1$C:M .:; C%B< '"@<1:

'L6:+ .6:L6!"B%$ %.( B% .6:@6<''%B% BFR Kephart, M:ntess:ri C%$ Kirk (Myers &

Hammill, 1976, Gearhart, 1973).



103

:?LQALN@RI JN@RPG

H ?"6%.";B$CA .%6L'0%&3 C%B< B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% &B:!"M"$ &B3 '"/F&3

BFR %R%.B;T$%CJR .6:013'<BFR .:; ?LB:;R B: .%$#/ &" “".$C$R#;R(B3B%” (at risk)

@$% "'P<R$&3, &B3 &!:1$CA 9FA, '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. N.F+ ."6$@6<P"B%$ &B:

:$C"/: C"P<1%$:, B% .6:01A'%B% %;B< %R%PL6:RB%$ C;6/F+ &B3R C$R3B$CA C%$

@1F&&$CA %R<.B;T3. _6%, B% .6:@6<''%B% "$#$CA+ 0:A?"$%+ &B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/%

.6L."$ R% ."6$1%'0<R:;R #6%&B36$(B3B"+ @$% B3R %R<.B;T3 BFR $C%R:BABFR &B:R

C$R3B$C( C%$ @1F&&$C( B:'L%. U.<6!:;R #"#:'LR% .:; &B36/9:;R B3R <.:23 (B$ 3

L@C%$63 %R%@RJ6$&3 .%$#$JR &" “".$C$R#;R(B3B%” C%$ 3 .6J$'3 LR%6T3 ?"6%.";B$CA+

0:A?"$%+ L!:;R ?"B$C< %.:B"1L&'%B% C%$ .$: &;@C"C6$'LR% “0"1B$JR:;R B3R .:$(B3B% 9FA+ BFR .%$#$JR %;BJR, .6:1%0%/R:;R B3R "'P<R$&3 #";B"6:@"RJR

.6:013'<BFR .:; ".$0%6MR:;R B3R .6FB:@"RA #;&C:1/%, .6:&PL6:;R &3'%RB$C<

:$C:R:'$C< :PL13 &B3R C:$RFR/%...” (Shearer & M:ri, 1967, Lerner et al., 1967).

G%6(':$% #"#:'LR% 0@%/R:;R C%$ %.( B: .6(@6%''% Head Start (H ; bbell, 1983,

Kanengiser, 1985). G6(C"$B%$ @$% B: .$: #%.%R36(, "CB"B%'LR: C%$ 0%?$<

#$"6";R3'LR: "C.%$#";B$C( .6(@6%''%, .:; <6!$&" B: 1965 C%$ C<1;2" A#3 .<RF

%.( 550.OOO .%$#$< .6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+. G"6$1%'0<R"$ .%$#$< !%'31JR

:$C:R:'$CJR &B6F'<BFR C%$ &B:!"M"$ &B3 0"1B/F&3 B3+ &F'%B$CA+ ;@"/%+,

&;R%$&?3'%B$CA+ C%$ C:$RFR$CA+ %R<.B;T3+, B3+ &B<&3+ &!L&3+ BFR @:R$JR '" B%

.%$#$<, BFR R:3B$CJR B:;+ #;R%B:BABFR. ML&% %.( B3R .:11%.1(B3B% BFR &B(!FR,

B"1";B%/% "6";R3B$C< #"#:'LR% '%+ 1LR" (B$ .%$#$< .:; "RB<!?3C%R C%$

%C:1:M?3&%R B: .6(@6%''% "/!%R %6@(B"6% '$C6(B"63 %R<@C3 @$% "$#$CA

"C.%/#";&3, 1$@(B"6% '.1"T/'%B% '" B: R(':, ;231(B"6"+ %R%1:@/"+ "6@%&/%+. H

%.:#:!A B3+ &3'%&/%+ B3+ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR %.( B3R

.6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% :#A@3&" &B$+ H.G.A. &" ".LCB%&3 B3+ &!"B$CA+ R:':?"&/%+ (the

Educati:n :f the Handicapped Act Amendments :f 1966) C%$ @$% B3R 31$C/% 3-5 "BJR.

M"6$C< %.( B% @RF&B< ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B% .:; %R%PL6?3C%R L!:;R

#$%':6PF?"/ LB&$ J&B" R% "/R%$ &;R:1$C< A "R 'L6"$ C%B<1131% @$% .%$#$<

.6:&!:1$CA+ 31$C/%+ (.6:@6<''%B% Fr :stig, Minsk :ff C%$ BFR Stra ;ss & Lehtinen).

O$ C%B";?;RBA6$"+ %6!L+ C%$ B"!R$CL+ B3+ ?"6%.";B$CA+ .%$#%@F@$CA+ "/R%$ FPL1$'"+

C%$ "#J, "RJ %.:CB< (1F+ $#$%/B"63 &3'%&/% 3 2;!:C:$RFR$CA .6:&L@@$&3. H

&;''"B:!A BFR @:RLFR %.:B"1"/, '.:6:M'" R% .:M'", B3 0<&3 B3+ ?"6%.";B$CA+



104

#:;1"$<+. \R% %.( B% 0%&$C< 'L!6$ BJ6% .:6/&'%B% B:; .6:@6<''%B:+ Head Start

"/R%$ .F+ 3 (13 "6@%&/% %.:0%/R"$ .$: %.:B"1"&'%B$CA (B%R &;''"BL!"$ 3 :$C:@LR"$%

B:; .%$#$:M, B:;1<!$&B:R : LR%+ %.( B:;+ #M: @:R"/+. ,./&3+, &3'%RB$C(+

%.:#"$CRM"B%$ : 6(1:+ B3+ .6:&!:1$CA+ %@F@A+ &B3R L@C%$63 %R%@RJ6$&3 C%$

.6(1323. H &;R"$&P:6< BFR "$#$CJR &B3R 31$C/% %;BA '.:6"/ R% "/R%$ C%?:6$&B$CA.

A R%P"6('%&B" $#$%/B"6% &B:R .%$#/%B6: C%$ &B: .%$#%@F@$C( .6:&F.$C( BFR

P:6LFR .6:&!:1$CA+ %@F@A+.



105

'ALN@RI JN@RPG

$>?GW>UK@RI :G@\GOTO@RI

.UQRLNP>M GFXOFTQJM RG@ O?G]IM

H ?"6%.";B$CA 0:A?"$% %6!/9"$ :;&$%&B$C< '"B< %.( LR% A C%$ ."6$&&(B"6%

!6(R$% &!:1$CA+ P:/B3&3+. O ?"6%.";BA+ .%$#%@F@(+, &" &;R"6@%&/% .<RB% '" B%

<11% 'L13 B3+ #$".$&B3':R$CA+ :'<#%+, #$%':6PJR"$ C%$ .6:&%6'(9"$ B:

?"6%.";B$C( .%$#%@F@$C( .6(@6%''% .:; ".$1L!B3C" F+ B: .$: C%B<1131:, %R<1:@%

'" B3R ."6/.BF&3 .:; %RB$'"BF./9"$. A R"T<6B3B% %.( B: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''%

&B: :.:/: C%B%1A@"$ : C<?" .%$#%@F@(+, ;.<6!:;R :6$&'LR"+ C%B";?;RBA6$"+ %6!L+

:$ :.:/"+ .$&B"M:;'" .F+ .6L."$ R% "'."6$L!:RB%$ &B% ?"6%.";B$C< .6:@6<''%B% @$%

B3R %R<@RF&3 C%$ @6%PA. ,/R%$ %;B:R(3B: (B$ :$ %6!L+ %;BL+ #"R %.%6B/9:;R :$ /#$"+

C<.:$: .6(@6%''%, %11< 0:3?:MR &B3R C%1MB"63 "P%6':@A C%$

%.:B"1"&'%B$C(B3B%. N.F+ %R%PL6"B%$ &B: %RB/&B:$!: C"P<1%$:, #;&C:1/"+

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+ ':6P:.:$:MRB%$ '"B< %.( ".%6CA &!:1$CA P:/B3&3 C%$

".36"<9:;R &" '$C6( A '"@<1: 0%?'(, %R<1:@% '" B3 &:0%6(B3B< B:;+, B$+ ."6$:!L+

B:; 1(@:; (@6%P:PFR3B$C(, &3'%&$:1:@$C(, ':6P:&;RB%CB$C(). B$+ ."6$&&(B"6"+

."6$.BJ&"$+ :$ #;&C:1/"+ .%/6R:;R "1%P6< A 'LB6$% ':6PA. B:;+ '%?3BL+ %;B:M+ 3

"C'<?3&3 @/R"B%$ %6!$C< '" 0<&3 B$+ C%?$"6F'LR"+ '"?(#:;+, (.F+ ."6$L!:RB%$ &B%

%R%1;B$C< .6:@6<''%B%. T% .6:@6<''%B% %;B< 0"0%/F+ "T%B:'$C"M:RB%$ %R<1:@%

'" B3R ."6/.BF&3. ,<R 1 .! . &" LR% .%$#/ #"R L!"$ %.:#J&"$ 3 :1$CA 'L?:#:+ /&F+ ?%

.6L."$ R% !63&$':.:$3?"/ 3 %R%1;B$C:&;R?"B$CA C%$ %RB/&B6:P%. ,/R%$ %R%@C%/: 3

"C'<?3&3 B3+ %R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+ R% %6!/9"$ %.( B: &3'"/: &B: :.:/: B: .%$#/

&B%'<B3&" 1(@F B3+ #;&C:1/%+ B:;. " <11"+ ."6$.BJ&"$+, 3 %6!A @/R"B%$ %.( B:;+

P?(@@:;+ C%$ &;11%0L+ C%$ '"B< ."6R<"$ &B$+ 1LT"$+, .6:B<&"$+ C%$ C"/'"R%.

U.<6!:;R ."6$.BJ&"$+ .:; B% %6!$C< &B<#$% "/R%$ C%B%CB3'LR% C%$ LB&$

.%6%C<'.B:RB%$. " (1"+ ('F+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+ : ?"6%.";BA+ .%$#%@F@(+ .6L."$ R%

"/R%$ &/@:;6:+ (B$ B: .%$#/ L!"$ C%B%CBA&"$ B% .6:3@:M'"R% &B<#$% C%$ 3 .6:&.<?"$%

&;R"!/9"B%$ !F6/+ “C"R<”. M" B: .L6%&'% &" 1LT"$+, .6:B<&"$+ C%$ C;6/F+ C"/'"R%, :

.%$#%@F@(+ .6L."$, "CB(+ %.( B: 0%?'( #;&C:1/%+, R% 1%'0<R"$ ;.(23 B$+ "'."$6/"+

1(@:; C%$ B% "R#$%PL6:RB% B:; C<?" .%$#$:M. B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3 .:;

@/R"B%$ '" 0<&3 B: C"/'"R: '.:6:MR R% P%R:MR !6A&$'"+ :$ .%6%C<BF C%B";?;RBA6$"+ %6!L+:



106

• #$%0<9"B%$ B: C"/'"R:, %R<1:@% %.( B:R .%$#%@F@( A B: .%$#/

• : .%$#%@F@(+ 93B< %.( B: .%$#/ C%$ B: C%B";?MR"$ J&B" R% %R%.%6<@"$

@6%.B< B3R $&B:6/%. M.:6"/ R% L!"$ %R:$!B( #/.1% B: 0$01/: B:;

• ;.:#"$CRM"B%$ &B: .%$#/ :$ .6:B<&"$+ .:; C<R"$ R% "/R%$ '$C6L+ (&"$6< C%$

.6(B%&3)

• : .%$#%@F@(+ 0<9"$ B: .%$#/ R% #$%0<&"$ PFR%!B< B3R $&B:6/% .:; L@6%2",

;.:@6%''/9:RB%+ B$+ 1LT"$+ C1"$#$<

• '.:6"/ R% B:; 93B3?"/ R% C(2"$ B$+ .6:B<&"$+ C%$ R% B$+ ".%R%&;@C6:BA&"$ &"

C"/'"R:

• '$C6( 'L6:+ B:; C"$'LR:; ;.%@:6"M"B%$ @$% :6?:@6%P/%

• @6<P:RB%$ T"!F6$&B< :$ RL"+ 1LT"$+

• B: .%$#/ %&C"/B%$ &B3R .6:P:6$CA %.(#:&3 B:; C"$'LR:;.

O.F+ "/R%$ P%R"6(, %C:1:;?JRB%+ B$+ %6!L+ %;BL+ @/R"B%$ B%;B(!6:R% <&C3&3

&B3R %R<@RF&3, @6%PA C%$ C%B%R(3&3. O$ %6!L+ %;BL+ %.:#"$CRM:RB%$ !6A&$'"+ C%$

&B3 '"1LB3 BFR #";B"6";(RBFR '%?3'<BFR %.( B% :.:/% '<1$&B% '.:6"/ :

.%$#%@F@(+ R% 06/&C"$ '"6$CL+ P:6L+ B% C"/'"R% .:; !63&$':.:$"/. G6L."$ R%

&3'"$F?"/ (B$ LR%+ <."$6:+ .%$#%@F@(+ '.:6"/ R% #/R"$ C"/'"R% .:; #"R

%RB%.:C6/R:RB%$ &B: 0%?'( #;&C:1/%+ B:; .%$#$:M. B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .6:&L@@$&3

#;&C:1$JR %R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+ !63&$':.:$:MRB%$, "CB(+ %.( B: C"/'"R:, @6%.BL+

%&CA&"$+ C%$ .%$!R/#$%, (.F+:

• !3'%B$&'(+ .6:B<&"FR %.( 1LT"$+ .:; #/R:RB%$ &" B;!%/% &"$6<.

• O1:C1A6F&3 1LT"FR &B$+ :.:/"+ ;.<6!"$ B: .6JB: C%$ B: B"1";B%/: @6<''%.

O$ 1LT"$+ %;BL+ ."6$1%'0<R:RB%$ &" .6:B<&"$+. =%$ "#J '.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$"/B%$ 3

'L?:#:+ B3+ .:11%.1A+ ".$1:@A+.

• O'%#:.:/3&3 1LT"FR, %RB/?"B"+ LRR:$"+, &;RJR;'%, .%6<@F@%, C .B.1 .

O$ .%6%.<RF %&CA&"$+ C%$ .%$!R/#$% %R%PL6:RB%$ "R#"$CB$C<. M"@<13

&3'%&/% %.:CB:MR 3 "P";6"B$C(B3B% C%$ 3 #3'$:;6@$CA P%RB%&/% C<?" .%$#%@F@:M.

" ."6$.BJ&"$+ .:; &;R;.<6!:;R @6%''%B$C:M C%$ &;RB%CB$C:M BM.:; #;&C:1/"+,

.6<@'% .:; &;RA?F+ &;'0%/R"$ B: ?"6%.";B$C( .6(@6%''% "'.1:;B/9"B%$ '"

B"!R$CL+, (.F+:

• !6A&3 P?:@@$CJR &;'.1"@'<BFR '" %;T%R('"R3 #;&C:1/% (#/P?:@@:$, #$.1:/

C%$ B6$.1:/ P?(@@:$, &;R#;%&'(+ B:;+ &" &;11%0L+)

• #$<C6$&3 :'(3!FR P?(@@FR C%$ 1LT"FR, ..! . 0 – P - ?, 1<'.% - '.<1%

• "C'<?3&3 C%R(RFR .:; #$L.:;R PFRA"RB% C%$ &M'PFR%



107

• "C'<?3&3 C%B%1AT"FR

• "C'<?3&3 CB3B$CJR, %RBFR;'$JR

• %&CA&"$+ '" &MR?"B"+ 1LT"$+, .%6<@F@% C%$ &;RJR;'%

• %&CA&"$+ ."6$"!:'LR:; '" CM6$"+ C%$ #";B"6"M:;&"+ .6:B<&"$+, C%?J+ C%$

'"B%B6:.A B:; ";?M 1(@:; &" .1<@$: C%$ %RB/&B6:P%

• "'.1:;B$&'(+ 1"T$1:@/:;.

OB%R 3 #;&C:1/% %R<@RF&3+ C%$ @6%PA+ "/R%$ &:0%6A '.:6"/ C%$ .<1$ R%

!63&$':.:$3?:MR (&% %R%PL6:RB%$ .$: .<RF @$% B$+ "1%P6L+ C%$ 'LB6$"+ #;&C:1/"+,

%.%$B"/B%$ ('F+ .6:&"CB$C(B"63 "T"$#/C";&3 C%$ '"@%1MB"63 !6:R$CA #$<6C"$%.

,.$.1L:R, &B% %6!$C< C;6/F+ &B<#$% '.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$3?:MR 0:3?3B$CL+

B"!R$CL+, (.F+:

• !6A&3 "R(+ BM.:; @6%''<BFR

• !6A&3 B6$&#$<&B%BFR @6%''<BFR. I"R$C< .$: %.:B"1"&'%B$CL+ "/R%$ :$

#$%$&?3B$CL+ B"!R$CL+, (.F+ @6%PA '" TM1: &B3R <'':, !:RB6< ':1M0$% C .%.

• B%;B(!6:R3 "C'<?3&3 P?(@@FR .:; ':$<9:;R, ..! . 0 - P, # - ?, % - :, " - F,

C .B.1 . #$#%&C%1/% B3+ P:6<+ BFR @6%''<BFR %.( %6$&B"6< .6:+ #"T$<. \B&$

'"$JR:RB%$ :$ %RB$&B6:PL+

• P?:@@$CA - PFR3B$CA %R<@RF&3 C%$ @6%PA

• ".$1:@A 1LT"FR :$C"/FR &B: .%$#/ %.( B3R C%?3'"6$RA "'."$6/%.

G%1$(B"6% @$R(B%R &!"B$C< '"@<13 !6A&3 '%@R3B:PJR:;, "$#$C< @$% B3R

%R<@RF&3. A'"6% %.:P"M@"B%$ @$%B/ %.%$B"/ '"@<13 &;@CLRB6F&3 .6:&:!A+ C%$

LRB%&3 '" %.:BL1"&'% R% C:;6<9"$ C%$ R% #$%&.< B: .%$#/.

T6/' o =-(@ '"#")>:/:@

N.F+ L!"$ ."6$@6%P"/ &B% &!"B$C< C"P<1%$% 3 C%B%R(3&3 &;R#L"B%$ &B"R< '"

B$+ "T"1$CB$CL+ #$%B%6%!L+ B:; 1(@:;, :$ :.:/"+ C%$ %.:B"1:MR B3R %R?"CB$C(B"63

/&F+ ':6PA '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. H 0"1B/F&3 BFR #;&C:1$JR :6@<RF&3+,

1"T$1:@/:; C%$ !6A&3+, B(&: .6oP:6$C<, (&: C%$ @6%.B<, %.:B"1:MR B:R &B(!: B3+

?"6%.";B$CA+ .%$#%@F@$CA+. O$ B"!R$CL+ .:; !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ .6L."$ :.F&#A.:B"

R% 0%&/9:RB%$ &B$+ C:$RL+ "'."$6/"+ 1(@:; B:; C<?" .%$#$:M C%$ R% B: C$R3B:.:$:MR

@$% (1: C%$ ."6$&&(B"63 ".%PA '" B:R 1(@:, &" (1"+ B:; B$+ ':6PL+. H "R"6@3B$CA

&;''"B:!A B:; .%$#$:M &B3R (13 #$%#$C%&/% %.:CB< "#J $#$%/B"63 &3'%&/%.

U.<6!:;R %RB$C6:;('"R"+ %.(2"$+ @$% B: C%B< .(&: :$ !63&$':.:$:M'"R"+ %.(



108

B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .%$#%@F@$CA B"!R$CL+ '.:6:MR R% ".$PL6:;R '"@<13 0"1B/F&3.

G<RBF+, @$% C%1MB"6% %.:B"1L&'%B%, %.( B3 'L!6$ BJ6% "'."$6/% ?"F6"/B%$

%R%@C%/% 3 '%C6(!6:R3, &B%?"6A C%$ &;!RA "P%6':@A B:; C<?" .6:@6<''%B:+.

A R"T<6B3B% %.( B: .6(@6%''% B:; ?"6%.";BA .%$#%@F@:M ;.<6!:;R C<.:$"+ @"R$CL+

B"!R$CL+ !6A&$'"+ @$% (1"+ B$+ ."6$.BJ&"$+, (.F+:

%) B"!R$CA "6FBA&"FR - %.%RBA&"FR: :$ "6FBA&"$+ ".$1L@:RB%$ LB&$ J&B" R%

".$B6L.:;R &B: .%$#/ ."6$&&(B"6"+ %.( '/% &F&BL+ %.%RBA&"$+. f6"$<9"B%$ @$’ %;B(

R% %.:'%C6;R?:MR :$ .%$#%@F@:/ %.( B3R B<&3 B:;+ R% L!:;R C%B< R:;R C%$ R%

."6$'LR:;R '$% C%$ '(R3 :6?A %.<RB3&3 (Wright Answer Syndr :me). B:3?( .6:+

B3R C%B"M?;R&3 %;BA 3 !6A&3 %6R3B$CJR "6FBA&"FR (..! . B/ #"R '.:6"/+ R% C(2"$+

'" B: '%!%/6$).

0) T"!R$CA "C.%/#";&3+ '" 0<&3 1LT"$+ - C1"$#$< (.F+: .6JB: - #"MB"6: - B6/B:

A LB&$ J&B", "."$#A, (B%R, .6$R BJ6% '"B<, C .%. O .%$#%@F@(+ #/R"$ BLB:$"+ 1LT"$+ C%$

93B< %.( B: .%$#/ '" 0<&3 %;BL+ R% :6@%RJ&"$ .6:B<&"$+ A/C%$ .%6%@6<P:;+. A ;B(

'.:6"/ R% @/R"B%$ .6:P:6$C< A/C%$ @6%.B<.

@) T"!R$CA C%B%&C";A+ C%$ !6A&3+ C"$'LR:; @$% LR% ?L'% '" 0<&3 &"$6<

"6FBA&"FR .:; #/R:RB%$ %.( .6$R. O$ "6FBA&"$+ '.:6"/ R% %P:6:MR B$+

&;@C"C6$'LR"+ @RJ&"$+ C%$ .136:P:6/"+ B:; .%$#$:M, &;&!"B/&"$+, :'%#:.:$A&"$+,

@"R$C"M&"$+, .6:&F.$CA C6/&3 C%$ &B<&3 B:; .%$#$:M, C .:.C . T% .%$#$< '" B%

.6:01A'%B% C%B%R(3&3+ #;&C:1"M:RB%$ .:1M &B3R :6@<RF&3 C%$ %.(#:&3 '" B:

@6%.B( C%$ .6:P:6$C( 1(@:. H B"!R$CA B3+ !6A&3+ C"$'LR:; !"$6(@6%P:; A

B;.F'LR:; #$";C:1MR"$ .:1M. T: C"/'"R: .6L."$ R% %RB%.:C6/R"B%$ &B: "./."#:

%R<@RF&3+ C%$ C%B%R(3&3+ B:; .%$#$:M, '" ."6$"!('"R: .:; ."6$:6/9"B%$ &"

&;@C"C6$'LR: ?L'%. Z3B:M'" %.( B: .%$#/ R% B: #$%0<&"$ PFR%!B< A &$F.36< C%$ R%

B: %.:#J&"$ C%B(.$R &" &;R"!A @6%.B( 1(@:. M.:6"/ R% !63&$':.:$3?"/ C%$ 3

'L?:#:+ B3+ %.(#:&3+ '" "6FBA&"$+ %C('3 C%$ .:11%.1A+ ".$1:@A+. ;R$&B:M'"

.<RB:B" B3 !6A&3 '$C6JR .6:B<&"FR C%$ .%6%@6<PFR. " ."6/.BF&3 '"@<13+

#;&C:1/%+ &B3R .%6%@6%P:.:/3&3 &!"#$<9"$ : .%$#%@F@(+ ."6$:6$&B$C< .1%/&$%.

AC:1:;?"/ '%9/ '" B: .%$#/ &3'%&$:1:@$CA C%$ ':6P:&;RB%CB$CA #$(6?F&3. NB%R

;.<6!:;R .6:01A'%B% &"$6$:?LB3&3+ C%$ !6:R$CA+ %C:1:;?/%+ !63&$':.:$"/B%$ 3

B"!R$CA B:; "C:2/'%B:+" &" "R(B3B"+ C%$ 3 %R%#('3&3 B:; C"$'LR:; '" B3 &F&BA

&"$6<. G%6%'LR"$ :.F&#A.:B" : &B(!:+ B3+ C%B"M?;R&3+ B:; .%$#$:M &B3R

%;B:#$(6?F&3. T% C"/'"R% '.:6"/ R% #/R:RB%$ C%$ .6:P:6$C< %.( B:R .%$#%@F@(, '"

B3R /#$% C%B(.$R .:6"/%. I$% B3R C%B%R(3&3 C%$ "C'<?3&3 RLFR A #M&C:1FR 1LT"FR



109

"RR:$JR C%$ B3R LRB%TA B:;+ &B: "RR:$:1:@$C( &M&B3'% B:; .%$#$:M, .:; LB&$ C$

%11$J+ "/R%$ ."6$:6$&'LR:, #"R ;.<6!:;R :;&$%&B$C< "$#$CL+ B"!R$CL+. ,'."$6$C<

P%/R"B%$ (B$ 0:3?:MR B"!R$CL+ (.F+: 3 "6'3R"/% RLFR 1LT"FR '" B%;B(!6:R3

"C'<?3&3 &MR?"BFR C%$ .%6<@F@FR, 3 "C'<?3&3 &;RJR;'FR C%$ %RB/?"BFR, C%?J+

C%$ .6:?L&"FR C%$ .6:&P3'<BFR, 3 !6A&3 1"T$C:M C%$ 3 C%6B"1:.:/3&3. H !6A&3

C%B<1131FR .%$!R$#$JR (&B%;6(1"T%, %RB$&B:$!/&"$+, C .%.) '.:6"/ R% C<R"$ .$:

";!<6$&B3 B3R "P%6':@A BFR B"!R$CJR %;BJR.

I"R$CJ+, B% .%$#$< '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ ;&B"6:MR &B3R :6@<RF&3 B3+

'"1LB3+. ,'P%R/9:;R %#;R%'/"+ &B3R %T$:.:/3&3 BFR "'."$6$JR C%$ @RJ&"FR .:;

A#3 L!:;R, '"$:R"CB:MR &B3 &MR#"&3 C%$ :1:C1A6F&3 RLFR @RJ&"FR C%$ "RR:$JR,

#"R TL6:;R .F+ R% ?;':MRB%$ %;B< .:; '%?%/R:;R. O$ #;&C:1/"+ %;BL+ :#3@:MR

&;RA?F+ &’ LR% B6(.: C%$ &!A'% '"1LB3+ ('" B3 &;'0:1A BFR @:RLFR C%$

.%$#%@F@JR) '" .%?3B$C(B3B% C%$ "T<6B3&3. Y.:&B36/9"B%$ &A'"6% (B$ 3 "$#$CA

.%$#%@F@$CA '.:6"/ R% 0:3?A&"$ &B:R B:'L% %;B(R #$#<&C:RB%+ &B% .%$#$<

&B6%B3@$CL+ '<?3&3+ (Sch ;maker et al., 1986) (.F+ :$ .%6%C<BF:

K$4#D/(+@ 9%6 '?)(+ #% -2+% #% 9"+2- /#%) ("6#> #%6:

C<R"$ &$F.36< A PFR%!B< "6FBA&"$+ &B:R "%;B( B:; @$% B: ;1$C( '"1LB3+. O

"&FB"6$C(+ 1(@:+ B: 0:3?< R% :6@%RJ&"$ B(&: B: “ ;1$C(” (&: C%$ B3R "R @LR"$

&;'."6$P:6< '"1LB3+. G:$: "/R%$ B: .6(013'%; T/ "/'%$ ;.:!6"F'LR:+ R% C<RF;

G:$: "/R%$ B: &!L#$( ':;: GJ+ '.:6J R% .6:!F6A&F; ,P%6'(9F B: .6(@6%''%;

GJ+ B: LC%R%;

1$>B=(X: '"+ 9"$"'%=%EJ:/::

M" B3 &B6%B3@$CA %;BA B: .%$#/ #$#<&C"B%$ R% #$%':6PJR"$ ;.:?L&"$+ @$% B: B$

.6(C"$B%$ R% '<?"$ &B: &;@C"C6$'LR: '<?3'% A B$ ".%C:1:;?"/. M" B3 &B6%B3@$CA

.%6%C:1:M?3&3+ "1L@!"$ %R :$ ;.:?L&"$+ .:; LC%R" "/R%$ &F&BL+ C%$ .%6%C:1:;?"/

%R %;B< .:; L'%?" "/R%$ 1:@$C< C%$ %R &;R#L:RB%$ '" .6:3@:M'"R"+ @RJ&"$+.

A6#%G=(3;%@ :

M" B3 &B6%B3@$CA %;BA B: .%$#/ '%?%/R"$ R% "1L@!"$ C%$ R% ".%13?"M"$ (&%

L'%?". B:3?$LB%$ LB&$ &B: R% C%B%R:"/ C%$ R% ?;'<B%$.

T6/'%=-(@ "$+J0:#+'D@ /'GX:@

O$ 0%&$CL+ %6$?'3B$CL+ #"T$(B3B"+ %.:#"$CRM:RB%$ %R%@C%/"+ @$% B3 9FA B:;

C%?LR%. ,/R%$ %.%6%/B3B"+ C%?3'"6$R< C%$ &;R"!J+, ?% 1L@%'", &B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&3



110

C%$ "./1;&3 .:11%.1JR C%B%&B<&"FR. A#;R%'/"+ &B:R B:'L% %;B(R #;&C:1"M:;R B:

<B:': (!$ '(R: ".%@@"1'%B$C< %11< C%$ &" .:11L+ #6%&B36$(B3B"+ B3+ C%?3'"6$RA+

9FA+. O$ %6R3B$CL+ ".$#6<&"$+ "."CB"/R:RB%$ C%$ &" 2;!:C:$RFR$C( "./."#: (.:;

#3'$:;6@:MR &3'%RB$C< .6:01A'%B%, C;6/F+ #$%'L&:; B:; %$&?A'%B:+ %R".<6C"$%+

C%$ B3+ !%'31A+ %;B:"CB/'3&3+ B3 ?"6%.";B$CA #$#%&C%1/% BFR '%?3'%B$CJR "/R%$

!6A&$'"+ :$ .%6%C<BF %6!L+ (Lerner, 1969):

• ,#6%/F&3 "B:$'(B3B%+ @$% B3R "C'<?3&3 BFR '%?3'%B$CJR. T% '%?3'%B$C<

%.:B"1:MR LR% &;R"!A BM.: '<?3&3+. ,/R%$ &3'%RB$C( R% "1L@!:;'" B$+

.6:3@:M'"R"+ @RJ&"$+ @$% R% 0"0%$F?:M'" (B$ : '%?3BA+ L!"$ B$+ 0<&"$+ @$% B3R

B6L!:;&% M13.

• G%6:!A ".%6CJR ";C%$6$JR @$% "T<&C3&3 C%$ ".%R<1323. O$ &B6%B3@$CL+

.%6L'0%&3+ .6L."$ R% .%6L!:;R &B: '%?3BA B$+ ";C%$6/"+ @$% "T<&C3&3, L1"@!: C%$

".%R<1323. G6:@6<''%B% ;.:1:@$&BJR '.:6"/ R% 0:3?A&:;R %.:B"1"&'%B$C< &B3R

C%B"M?;R&3 %;BA.

• I"R/C";&3 &" RL"+ C%B%&B<&"$+. O$ '%?3BL+ .6L."$ R% '<?:;R R% @"R$C"M:;R

'$% #"T$(B3B% &" .:11L+ C%B%&B<&"$+. G.! . '.:6"/ R% "T%&C3?:MR &B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+

.6<T"$+ '" "P%6':@A &" .6:01A'%B% .:; C%B%&C";<9:;R :$ /#$:$ A :$ #<&C%1:$.

O$ #;&C:1/"+ %6$?'3B$CA+ &CL23+ #$%C6/R:RB%$ @"R$C< &" #M: '"@<1"+

C%B3@:6/"+: %) %;BL+ .:; %P:6:MR B$+ %6$?'3B$CL+ .6<T"$+ C%$ 0) %;BL+ .:; %P:6:MR

B:R '%?3'%B$C( &;11:@$&'(. G%6(B$ :$ ?"6%.";B$CL+ &B6%B3@$CL+ #$%PL6:;R &B$+

#M: .%6%.<RF C%B3@:6/"+ C%$ &B$+ #M: ."6$.BJ&"$+ .6L."$ R% %.:P"M@"B%$ 3

'3!%R$CA '<?3&3 C%$ R% %R%.BM&&"B%$ 3 &;R#;%&B$CA. H B"1";B%/% &;@C"RB6JR"$

.:11< .1":R"CBA'%B% %R<'"&% &B% :.:/% 3 .6:&%6':@A C%$ '"B%P:6< B3+ @RJ&3+,

B: T".L6%&'% #;&C:1$JR <'"&3+ 'RA'3+, C .%. (Departement :f \ducation and

Science, 1979).

B3R ."6/.BF&3 #;&C:1$JR %6$?'3B$CJR .6<T"FR 3 "P%6':@A B3+

&;R#;%&B$CA+ '"?(#:; &3'%/R"$ (B$ :$ .6<T"$+ #"R #/R:RB%$ '"':RF'LR% %11<

."6$1%'0<R:RB%$ &’ LR% #/CB;: &B:$!"/FR B% :.:/% &;R#L:RB%$ C%$ &;&!"B/9:RB%$

'"B%TM B:;+. O$ .6<T"$+ #/R:RB%$ %R< 9"M@3 A C%$ (1"+ '%9/. O$ ./R%C"+ B3+

.6:.%/#"$%+, B:; 0<6:;+, B:; (@C:;, B: ;.:#"C<'"B6: "/R%$ &B3 #$<?"&3 B:; .%$#$:M.

H '<?3&3 .6:F?"/B%$ '" B3R "P%6':@A BFR .%6%C<BF .LRB" %6!JR (D.E.S., 1982).

I$% B3R "C'<?3&3 BFR %6$?'3B$CJR .6<T"FR !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ .6:01A'%B%

%.( :$C"/"+ C%?3'"6$RL+ C%B%&B<&"$+ (..! . %RB/ R% 93B:M'" %.( B: .%$#/ R% 06"$ B:

%.:BL1"&'% B:; 3 + 4 "/R%$ C%1MB"6: R% B:; .:M'", L!"$+ 3 ':1M0$%, &:; LP"6" :



111

.%..:M+ <11% 4, .(&% L!"$+ BJ6%;).

T: .%$#/ .%6%C$R"/B%$ R% #3'$:;6@"/ #$C< B:; %R<1:@% .6:01A'%B%. e?"/B%$ R%

!63&$':.:$"/ #$<P:6% ;1$C< B% :.:/% #$";C:1MR:;R &B3 &;@C"C6$'"R:.:/3&3 BFR

%6$?'3B$CJR &;'0(1FR.

M%?%/R:;'" &B: .%$#/ B:;+ ?"'"1$J#"$+ '%?3'%B$C:M+ C%R(R"+, (.F+ B3+

B%;B(B3B%+ (3 + 4 = 4 + 3, 3 x 4 = 4 x 3), B3+ %RB$'"B<?"&3+ (3 + 4 = 7, 7 - 3 = 4, 3 x

4 = 12, 12 = 4 : 3), C .%. H "R%&!(13&3 %.( B3R .6:&!:1$CA 31$C/% '" B%T$R:'A&"$+,

.%6L!"$ B$+ 0<&"$+ @$% BLB:$:; "/#:;+ "P%6':@L+.

H .6%CB$CA "P%6':@A C%$ "R/&!;&3 BFR @RJ&"FR .:; L!"$ %.:CBA&"$ B: .%$#/

".$B;@!<R"B%$ '" B$+ ";C%$6/"+ .:; .%6L!:RB%$ @$% "T"6"MR3&3 C%$ <11FR %R<1:@FR

C%B%&B<&"FR '" #$%P:6"B$C< C<?" P:6< ;1$C< C%$ (!$ '" %.1L+ C%$ &;R"!"/+

".%R%1A2"$+.

M.:6:MR R% !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ %6$?':'3!%RL+ (B%R B: .%$#/ "/R%$ .$% &" ?L&3

R% "1L@!"$ B: %R%'"R('"R: %.:BL1"&'%.

B3R ."6/.BF&3 #;&C:1$JR '%?3'%B$C:M &;11:@$&':M 3 ".$C6%B:M&%

#$#%CB$CA #$%#$C%&/% "/R%$ %;BA B3+ "./1;&3+ .6:013'<BFR (Pr : blem S:l Ring). H

#$%#$C%&/% %;BA ."6$1%'0<R"$ ".$1:@A C%$ !6A&3 &;R#;%&':M "RR:$JR A #"T$:BABFR

&" RL"+ A #$%P:6"B$CL+ C%B%&B<&"$+. T: Nati:nal Council :f Teachers :f

Mathematics (1980) ;.:&BA6$T" (B$ 3 #$%#$C%&/% "./1;&3+ .6:013'<BFR %.:B"1"/

B3R C:6;P%/% .6:B"6%$(B3B% &B3 #$#%&C%1/% BFR '%?3'%B$CJR. H ?L&3 %;BA

C;6$%6!"/ %.( B: 1985 &B% %R%1;B$C< .6:@6<''%B%, B(&: B3+ C%R:R$CA+, (&: C%$ B3+

"$#$CA+ "C.%/#";&3+ (Resnick & Resnick, 1985). G6:C"$'LR:; B% .%$#$< R%

C%B%CBA&:;R B3 #$%#$C%&/% "./1;&3+ .6:013'<BFR .6L."$ R% #$#%!?:MR B$+ "TA+

&B6%B3@$CL+ '<?3&3+ (M:ntag ;e & B:s, 1966):

• R% #$%0<9:;R B: .6(013'% PFR%!B<

• R% B: 1LR" '" #$C< B:;+ 1(@$% PFR%!B<

• R% 1LR" B3 &CL23 B:; .6:01A'%B:+

• R% C<R:;R ;.:?L&"$+, &!"B$C< '" B% %R%'"R('"R% %.:B"1L&'%B%

• R% "CB$':MR B3 1M&3

• R% C<R:;R B:;+ ;.:1:@$&':M+ C%$

• R% ".%13?"M:;R B: %.:BL1"&'%.

O$ &B6%B3@$CL+ %;BL+ %.:#"$CRM:RB%$ !6A&$'"+ &B3 ?"6%.";B$CA .%$#%@F@$CA

&" ."6$.BJ&"$+ #;&C:1$JR %6$?'3B$C:M &;11:@$&':M. A.:B"1:MR LR%

%.:B"1"&'%B$C( 'L&: &B% !L6$% B:; L'."$6:; C%$ "T:$C"$F'LR:; '’ %;BL+



112

.%$#%@F@:M. A&P%1J+ ('F+ ?% .6L."$ R% P6:RB/9"$ : .%$#%@F@(+ R% ".$1L@"$

.6:01A'%B% .:; L!:;R <'"&: .6%CB$C( %.:BL1"&'% &B3 9FA B:; .%$#$:M, .:;

C%1M.B:;R ";6M P<&'% C%?3'"6$RJR #6%&B36$:BABFR C%$ B% :.:/% #"R ."6$:6/9:RB%$

&" LR% C%$ '(R: B6(.: "./1;&3+. O$ ?"6%.";B$CL+ B"!R$CL+ .:; .%6%BL?3C%R #"R

%6C:MR '(R"+ B:;+ @$% B3R %RB$'"BJ.$&3 BFR '%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR. I/R:RB%$

:;&$%&B$CL+ C%$ %.:B"1"&'%B$CL+ &B% !L6$% B:; C%B<1131:; .%$#%@F@:M, .6<@'%

.:; %&P%1J+ "T%6B<B%$ %.( Bn R "C.%/#";&3 Bn R "'."$6/%, %11< C%$ B3R

.6:&F.$C(B3B< B:;.

W6;%'%+)4)+'D A)#+0(#<9+/:

\R%+ '%?3BA+ '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ L!"$ .:11:M+ 1(@:;+ R% .%6:;&$<&"$ .%6<1131% '" B3R /#$% B3 &!:1$CA #;&C:1/% C%$ .6:01A'%B% &;R%$&?A'%B:+,

&;'."6$P:6<+, C%?J+ C%$ C:$RFR$C<. A6C"/ '(R: R% &C"PB:M'" B3R C%?3'"6$RA

!6(R$% &BL63&3 B:; '%?3BA %;B:M, B% LRB:R% &;R%$&?A'%B% '"$:R"T/%+ C%$

%.:B;!/%+. T$+ ."6$&&(B"6"+ '<1$&B% P:6L+ B% .6:01A'%B% &;R%$&?A'%B:+ C%$

&;'."6$P:6<+ "/R%$ %;B< .:; .6JB% %R3&;!:MR C%$ .6:013'%B/9:;R B:;+

.%$#%@F@:M+ C%$ @:R"/+ C%$ (!$ 3 /#$% 3 &!:1$CA #;&C:1/%. H .%6:;&/% B3+

B"1";B%/%+ #$%.$&BJR"B%$ /&F+ B;!%/% %.( B3 #$"6";R3B$CA #$%@RF&B$CA "6@%&/% BFR

"$#$CJR. ,/R%$ ";R(3B: .F+ &B: '%?3BA %;B(R ?% .6L."$ R% .%6%&!"?"/ 3 C%B<11313

2;!:1:@$CA A/C%$ .%$#:2;!$%B6$CA 0:A?"$%, R% @/R"$ 3 %R<1:@3 "6@%&/% '" B3R

:$C:@LR"$< B:; C%$ B: &!:1"/:. N'F+ "/R%$ %#MR%B: R% L!:;'" #6%&B$C< C%$ '(R$'%

%.:B"1L&'%B% "P(&:R "T%C:1:;?"/ R% .%6%'LR"$ 3 %6!$CA '%?3&$%CA #;&C:1/%, 3

:.:/% ?% &;R"!/&"$ R% “%$':66%@"/” C%$ R% #$%B36"/ LB&$ C%$ B% #";B"6:@"RA

.6:01A'%B%.

I/R"B%$ LB&$ P%R"6A 3 %R<@C3 B3+ .:1M.1";63+ ?"6%.";B$CA+ .6:&L@@$&3+,

(.F+ &;!R< B:R/&?3C". H ?"6%.";B$CA .%$#%@F@$CA #$%B36"/ %&P%1J+ B:R .6JB:

6(1:, C%B< C%R(R% ('F+ #"R %6C"/, %P:M #"R C%1M.B"$ :MB" B: .%$#/ &%R &MR:1:,

:MB" &;R:1$C< B: ."6$0<11:R B:;. Q$ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ ".$#6:MR &’ (1:;+ B:;+

B:'"/+, "$&!F6:MR &’ (1"+ B$+ .1";6L+ B3+ 9FA+. A.( B3R "'."$6/% '%+ '.:6:M'" R%

;.:&B36/T:;'" .F+ #M&C:1% ?% &;R%RBA&:;'" ."6/.BF&3 '%?3&$%CA+ #;&C:1/%+

.:; R% '3 &;R:#"M"B%$, &" C<.:$: 0%?'(, '" :.:$:#A.:B" B6(.: %.( .6:01A'%B%

&;'."6$P:6<+ C%$ &;R%$&?A'%B:+, C:$RFR$C< C%$ :$C:@"R"$%C<. T% .6:01A'%B% %;B<

'.:6"/ R% &;R#L:RB%$ '" B3R /#$% %6!$CA %$B/%, %;BA .:; .6:C%1"/ C%$ B3 '%?3&$%CA



113

#;&C:1/% A R% "/R%$ #";B"6:@"RA, B: .$: &MR3?"+. T: .6JB: 1 .! . .%6%B36"/B%$

&;RA?F+ &B: &MR#6:': #$%B%6%!A+ .6:&:!A+, &B: :.:/: 3 '%?3&$%CA #;&C:1/%

&;R;.<6!"$ '" B% .6:01A'%B% .:; #3'$:;6@:MRB%$ %.( B3 @RF&BA B6$<#%

&;'.BF'<BFR: ;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%, #;&C:1/% .6:&:!A+, .%6:6'3B$C(B3B%. T:

#"MB"6:, "/R%$ .:1M !%6%CB36$&B$C(, C;6/F+ '"B< B3R S-E B<T3 B:; S3':B$C:M C%$

&B3R "P30"/%, 31$C/% C%B< B3R :.:/% C;6$%6!:MR B% #";B"6:@"RA .6:01A'%B%. H

#";B"6:@"RA+ "'P<R$&3 .6:013'<BFR ";R:"/B%$ &B3R ,11<#% C%$ %.( B3 @"R$CA

%R".<6C"$% &B:R B:'L% B3+ .6(1323+ C%$ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+. G%6%B36:MRB%$ LB&$

".$9A'$"+ C%?;&B"6A&"$+ A/C%$ 1<?3 &B3R L@C%$63 %R%@RJ6$&3 C%$ #$<@RF&3,

@/R:RB%$ &B3 &;RL!"$% <&B:!:$ A/C%$ 01%0"6:/ ?"6%.";B$C:/ !"$6$&':/, A 1"/."$ C<?"

"$#$CA 0:A?"$%. e+ &;RL."$% L!:;'" B3 #$%6CA &;&&J6";&3 &;R%$&?3'%B$CJR C%$

C:$RFR$CJR .6:013'<BFR &B: '%?3BA C%$ &B: ."6$0<11:R B:;. S"R 06/&C"B%$ '%C6$<

%.( B3R .6%@'%B$C(B3B% B: R% .:M'" (B$ &B$+ .$: 0"0%63'LR"+ %.( B$+ .%6%.<RF

."6$.BJ&"$+, 3 ?"6%."/% (B%R C%$ %R %6!/&"$, #"R '.:6"/ #;&B;!J+ R% .6:&PL6"$

.:11<.

H 2;!:C:$RFR$CA %RB$'"BJ.$&3 ?% &;'."6$1<0"$ B: /#$: B: .%$#/, B3R

:$C:@LR"$< B:;, B: &!:1$C( C%$ ";6MB"6: ."6$0<11:R. G%6L!"B%$ %.( B3R %6!A B3+

#$<@RF&3+ C%$ #$%':6PJR"B%$ %R<1:@% '" B% .6:01A'%B% C%$ B3R %T$:1(@3&A B:;+.

S$%6C"/ (&: !6(R: ;.<6!:;R :$ #;&C:1/"+, &;!R< "."CB"/R"B%$ !6:R$C< C%$ .L6%R B3+

?"6%.";B$CA+ .%$#%@F@$CA+. ,'.1LC:RB%$ &’ %;BA #$<P:6:$ "$#$C:/, (.F+ 2;!:1(@:$,

.%$#:2;!/%B6:$, C:$RFR$C:/ 1"$B:;6@:/ C%$ %R%1(@F+ B:; ?"6%.";B$C:M &!A'%B:+

.:; ?% ".$1"@"/ F+ %R%@C%/:, 2;!:?"6%.";BL+, ?"6%.";BL+ :$C:@LR"$%+, C .%. O

.%$#/%B6:+ '.:6"/ R% %.:#"$CRM"B%$ .:1MB$':+ &;R"6@<B3+, $#/F+ &B3R L@C%$63

%R%@RJ6$&3, "P(&:R ('F+ L!"$ #"!B"/ B3R C%B<11313 "C.%/#";&3. B3R (13

.6:&.<?"$% P%/R:RB%$ &;!R< !6A&$':$ "$#$C:/, (.F+ @;'R%&BL+,

%.%&!:13&$:?"6%.";BL+, "6@:?"6%.";BL+, 1:@:?"6%.";BL+, C .%.

H :$C:@LR"$% "/R%$ %;BA %.( B3R :.:/% ?’ %6!/&"$ 3 2;!:C:$RFR$CA "6@%&/%.

G$&B"M:;'" (B$ :$ @:R"/+ #$C%$:MRB%$ R% '<?:;R 1".B:'"6"$%C<, '" &%PAR"$%,

%'"&(B3B% C%$ "$1$C6/R"$% (1% B% #"#:'LR% C%$ &B$+ "CB$'A&"$+ B3+ .:1M.1";63+

#$%@RF&B$CA+ #:;1"$<+ @$% B3 &!:1$CA, 2;!:1:@$CA C%$ 2;!$%B6$CA C%B<&B%&3 B:;

.%$#$:M B:;+. S$C%$:MRB%$ R% @RF6/9:;R @$% B: R:3B$C( #;R%'$C( B:; .%$#$:M, B$+

$#$%/B"6"+ #;R%B(B3B"+ C%$ %#;R%'/"+, B3 &!:1$CA C%B<&B%&3, B% '%?A'%B% &B%

:.:/% #;&C:1"M"B%$, B:;+ 1(@:;+ .:; :#3@:MR &B3 #;&C:1/%, B% #";B"6:@"RA

&;R%$&?3'%B$C< C%$ C:$RFR$C< .6:01A'%B%, .J+ #3'$:;6@:MRB%$, B3 &3'%&/% B:;+.



114

d#3 %.( B$+ .6JB"+ &;R"6@%&/"+ '" B:;+ @:R"/+ ?% .6L."$ R% &;93B3?"/ B:

?"6%.";B$C( &!L#$: C%$ R% %R%1;?:MR :$ &B(!:$. T: %@FR$J#"+ "6JB3'% BFR @:R$JR

@$% B3R "TL1$T3 B:; .%$#$:M %.%$B"/ '$% .:1M .6:&"CB$CA, ;."M?;R3 "6@%&/% %.( B:;+

"$#$C:M+. B3R %6!$CA %;BA "6@%&/%, A &B3 &;RL!"$%, ?"F6"/B%$ %R%@C%/: R%

&;'."6$13P?:MR C%$ B% %R%@C%/% 'L13 B3+ :$C:@LR"$%+ C%$ C;6/F+ B% %#L1P$%. B3R

.:6"/% B3+ "6@%&/%+ '" B3R :$C:@LR"$% %R<1:@% '" B3R ."6/.BF&3, "/R%$ #;R%B( R%

.6:&B"?:MR C%$ <11"+ ':6PL+ ?"6%."/%+ (%B:'$CA, :'%#$CA, :$C:@"R"$%CA).

A'"6% %&P%1J+ #"R "/R%$ B(&: "MC:1: R% "/&%$ @:R$(+. ,/R%$ ('F+ P:0"6< .$:

#M&C:1: B: R% "/&%$ @:R$(+ .%$#$:M '" "$#$C( .6(013'% (M ;rphy, 1962, Sil Rer,

1974b) .:1M ."6$&&(B"6: (B%R 3 #;&C:1/% '(1$+ "/R%$ :6%BA, .6<@'% .:; &;RA?F+

$&!M"$ @$% B$+ '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ (Willmer & Grane, 1979). T% 1(@$% .:;

!63&$':.:$"/ : Sil Rer (1989), @$% R% ."6$@6<2"$ B3R C%B<&B%&3 %;BA,

%RB%.:C6/R:RB%$ &B3R .6%@'%B$C(B3B% %6C"B< C%1<: “... T: .%$#/ #"R %RB$#6< (.F+

B% <11%, #"R B% .<"$ C%1< &B: &!:1"/: 3 &;'."6$P:6< B:; '.:6"/ R% "/R%$

.6:013'%B$CA. ;!R< : .%$#/%B6:+ C%$ :$ .%$#%@F@:/ ".%;T<R:;R B% &;R%$&?A'%B%

%R".<6C"$%+ C%$ %.:B;!/%+ BFR @:R$JR '" B: R% '3 .%/6R:;R &B% &:0%6< B%

.%6<.:R< B:;+ A '" B: R% B:;+ !%6%CB36/9:;R ;."6%@!J#"$+. A.( B: &!:1"/:

C%B%P?<R:;R .%6<.:R% @$% B3R L11"$23 .6:(#:; C%$ @$% .6:01A'%B% &;'."6$P:6<+.

O LR%+ @:R$(+ '.:6"/ R% %$&?<R"B%$ .F+ C%1MB"6:+ B6(.:+ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+ "/R%$ 3

%;&B36(B3B%, "RJ : <11:+ .$&B"M"$ &B3 '"@%1MB"63 %R"CB$C(B3B% C%$ C%B%R(3&3. T:

%B:'$C( C%$ &;9;@$C( &B6"+ %R"0%/R"$. S"R "/R%$ &.<R$: R% 1LR" %.( B: &!:1"/: (B$

L!:;R LR% .%$#/ &;R%$&?3'%B$C< #$%B%6%@'LR:, .$?%R(R F+ &;RL."$% @:R$CJR

.6:013'<BFR...”. H "6@%&/% '" B:;+ @:R"/+ #"R '.:6"/ R% T"C$RA&"$ C%$ %C('3

."6$&&(B"6: R% "#6%$F?"/ C%$ R% "/R%$ %.:B"1"&'%B$CA, %R :$ "$#$C:/ .:; ?% B3R

%R%1<0:;R %@R::MR, ;.:B$':MR A %#$%P:6:MR @$% B3 2;!:1:@$CA C%B<&B%&3 BFR

@:R$JR. d#3 %.( B3 &B$@'A .:; B:;+ %R%C:$RJR"B%$ "./&3'% 3 #$<@RF&3, (B$ L!:;R

#31%#A LR% .%$#/ '" "$#$CA #;&C:1/% 0$JR:;R LRB:R% '$% C%B<&B%&3 “.6%@'%B$CA+

%.J1"$%+” (Sil Rer, 1969) '" B3R LRR:$% .F+ @C6"'/9"B%$ @$’ %;B:M+ LR% $#%R$C(, LR%

.6(B;.:, '$% "$C(R% .:; "/!%R %&P%1J+ #$%':6PJ&"$ @$% B: .%$#/ B:;+. Y.<6!"$

'"@<13 #;&C:1/% .%6%#:!A+ B3+ C%B<&B%&3+ .:; &;!R< P?<R"$ F+ B3R .1A63

<6R3&3 B3+ .6%@'%B$C(B3B%+. O$ @:R"/+ %;B:/ '.:6"/, .6:C"$'LR:; R% “%6R3?:MR” B:

.6(013'%, R% C%B%P"M@:;R %.( "TLB%&3 &" "TLB%&3, %.( "$#$C( &" "$#$C(, R%

%R%93B:MR C%$ R% .$&B"M:;R '%@$CL+ C%$ @6A@:6"+ 1M&"$+. ;!R< :$ @:R"/+ PB<R:;R

&" %;&B36A %;B:C6$B$CA, #$%C%BL!:RB%$ %.( &;R%$&?A'%B% %;B:':'PA+ C%$ "R:!A+.



115

H C:M6%&3 C%$ %.:@:AB";&3, 3 :6@A C%$ ".$?"B$C(B3B% .6:+ (1:;+, "$#$C:M+ C%$ '3,

&;!R< B:;+ #$%C%BL!:;R C%$ ".36"<9:;R B3R %@FR$J#3 .6:&.<?"$< B:;+ R%

0:3?A&:;R B: .%$#/. B: .1%/&$: B3+ 2;!:C:$RFR$CA+ %RB$'"BJ.$&3+, B: .%$#/ C%$ :

LP30:+ %RB$'"BF./9:RB%$ .:1M.1";6% C%$ .:1M':6P%, '" BLB:$: B6(.:, J&B" R%

C%1M.B:RB%$ C%$ :$ /#$:$ &%R &MR:1: C%$ B: ."6$0<11:R B:;+ &;R:1$C<. ,.$#$JC"B%$

:.F&#A.:B" 3 "R"6@3B$CA &;''"B:!A B:; .%$#$:M. A ;B( '.:6"/ R% T"C$RA&"$ C%$ R%

"#6%$F?"/ &B3 0<&3 B3+ .6%@'%B$C(B3B%+, '" B3 &F&BA %.%6!A+ "R3'L6F&3 C%$

.136:P(63&3 B:; .%$#$:M. H %.(C6;23, .%6%.136:P(63&3 C%$ .%6%.1<R3&3, (.F+

#;&B;!J+ .:1M &;!R< !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ %.( B3R .1";6< B:; &!:1"/:;, :$C:@LR"$%+

C%$ <11FR "$#$CJR, 1"$B:;6@"/ %6R3B$C< C%$ R%6C:?"B"/ B3R '%C6(!6:R3 "6@%&/%.

N.F+ %C6$0J+ %R%PL6?3C" @$% B:;+ @:R"/+ LB&$ C%$ B: .%$#/ #$C%$:MB%$ R% '<?"$ @$%

B: .6(013'< B:;, R% C%B%1<0"$ .:$"+ C%$ @$%B/ "/R%$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ B:;. ;93B:MRB%$

(1% '%9/ B:;. A R B: .%$#/ "/R%$ '$C6(, "R%.(C"$B%$ &B:;+ .%$#%@F@:M+ C%$ "$#$C:M+

R% 06:;R B:R C%B<1131: B6(.: C%$ 1(@$% J&B" R% '"B%PL6:;R %;B( .:; .6L."$ C%$

R% "/R%$ &/@:;6:$ .F+ B: .%$#/ .6%@'%B$C< B: C%B<1%0". S"R %6C"/ '(R: R%

#$%0"0%$J&:;'" B: '%?3BA (B$ :$ #;&C:1/"+ B:; #"R L!:;R &!L&3 '" C:;B%'<6% A

B"'."1$<, G6L."$ R% B:; #J&:;'" (1% B% &B:$!"/% J&B" R% C%B%1<0"$ @$%B/ C%$ .F+

&;'0%/R"$ %;B(. ,/R%$ %R%@C%/: R% %.:#L!"B%$ B3R '%C6(!6:R3 .:1M.1";63 #:;1"$<

.:; !6"$<9"B%$ C%$ R% '"BL!"$ &" %;BAR "R"6@3B$C<. AC('3 C%$ : &!"#$%&'(+ B:;

?"6%.";B$C:M .6:@6<''%B:+ '.:6"/ R% @/R"B%$ '" B3 &;R"6@%&/% B:;. G%6%C:1:;?"/

B3R (13 .:6"/%, 01L."$ B3R .6(:#:, "$&.6<BB"$ B3R %R%@RJ6$&3 C%$ 0$JR"$ B3R

$C%R:.:/3&3. S$%B36"/B%$ '’ %;B(R B:R B6(.: C%$ "R$&!M"B%$ B: C/R3B6: @$% &;RL!$&3

B3+ .6:&.<?"$%+ .:; (1: C%$ ."6$&&(B"6: .6L."$ R% B"/R"$ &B:R %;B:L1"@!: C%$

%;B:R:'/%. G%6<1131% 0:3?$LB%$ B: .%$#/ &B3R %R%9AB3&3, C%B%R(3&3, !6A&3 C%$

%T$:.:/3&3 BFR ?"B$CJR &B:$!"/FR B3+ .6:&F.$C(B3B<+ B:;. N1"+ :$ #;R%B(B3B"+,

C<?" $#$%/B"63 #"T$(B3B% A B%1LRB: %.:CB:MR '"@<13 &3'%&/% @$% B: %RL0%&'% B3+

%;B:"CB/'3&3+ C%$ &$@:;6$<+ @$% B3 0"1B/F&3 B3+ ?L&3+ B:; '"B%TM BFR

&;R:'31/CFR. NB%R B% .6:01A'%B% &;R%$&?A'%B:+ C%$ &;'."6$P:6<+ "/R%$ LRB:R%

?% !6"$%&B"/ %&P%1J+ .$: "T"$#$C";'LR3 C%$ '%C6(!6:R3 ?"6%.";B$CA 0:A?"$%, (.F+

%B:'$CA 2;!:?"6%."/%, ?"6%."/% &" :'<#%, C .%. .

O1% (&% ."6$@6<PB3C%R .%6%.<RF @$% B3R :$C:@LR"$% C%$ B: .%$#/, .6L."$ R%

"R&F'%BJR:RB%$ F+ C%B";?;RBA6$"+ %6!L+ &B3 #:;1"$< (1FR (&:$ "6@<9:RB%$ '" B:

.%$#/ %.( B: &!:1$C( C%$ ";6MB"6: ."6$0<11:R ("6@:?"6%.";BL+, @;'R%&BL+,

1:@:?"6%.";BL+, C .%.). ,R#"$CB$C< 1 .! . : #<&C%1:+ B3+ C%R:R$CA+ B<T3+ %6!/9"$



116

:;&$%&B$C< R% 0:3?< %.( B3 &B$@'A .:; @RF6/9"$ B$ &;'0%/R"$ '" B: '%?3BA B:;,

@$%B/ C%$ .J+ #;&C:1"M"B%$, (B$ L!"$ C%1A A C%$ %RJB"63 R:3':&MR3, (B$ #"R

.6(C"$B%$ @$% B"'."1$<. ,/R%$ @RF&BA 3 &!L&3 %R<'"&% &B$+ .6:&#:C/"+ B:;

#%&C<1:; C%$ B3R "./#:&3 B:; '%?3BA (R :senthal & Jac: bs:n, 1966, 1968) "RJ L!"$

9FB$CA &3'%&/% 3 %.:P;@A B3+ “B%'.L1%+” C%$ B:; &B$@'%B$&':M B:; '%?3BA %;B:M.

T: .6(013'% %;B( "/R%$ #;&B;!J+ C%$ ;.%6CB( C%$ /&F+ '" '"@<1"+ #$%&B<&"$+.

,.36"<9"$ B3 &CL23 C%$ &B<&3 B:; #%&C<1:;, B3 &B<&3 BFR &;''%?3BJR C%$ B:;

&!:1"/:; @"R$C< (H: bbs, 1975, R :senthal & Jac: bs:n, 1966, Dunn, 1968, MacMillan,

1982). ,.36"<9"$ B3R "./#:&3 C%$ @"R$CA "TL1$T3 B:; '%?3BA, B3 &B<&3 C%$

2;!:1:@$CA C%B<&B%&3 BFR '"1JR B3+ :$C:@LR"$%+. H "'."$6/% #"/!R"$ (B$ :#3@"/

&;!R< &" %.:P;@A %R%P:6<+ "$#$CJR #;&C:1$JR "R(+ '%?3BA %.( 'L6:;+ BFR

#%&C<1FR C%$ %RB$&B6(PF+, &" .6:&.<?"$% %.(C6;23+ %.( 'L6:;+ BFR @:R$JR. =%$

%&P%1J+ %;BA "/R%$ '$% '(R: &;RL."$% B:; P%$R:'LR:; B:; &B$@'%B$&':M. e+

%RB/?"B3 #$%#$C%&/% %T/9"$ R% &3'"$F?"/ (B$ &A'"6% .%6%B36"/B%$ B: P%$R('"R:

:!M6F&3+ ./&F %.( B3 #$<@RF&3 “#;&1"T/%” C%$ "C'"B<11";&3+ BFR ";"6@"B$CJR

#$%B<T"FR B:; C6<B:;+. O #<&C%1:+ B:; '%?3BA '" '%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+ '.:6"/ R%

.6:&PL6"$ .:11< '" '$C6A .6:&.<?"$% C<.:$%+ "T%B:'/C";&3+-"T"$#/C";&3+ &B:

.6(@6%''% C%$ B:R B6(.: "6@%&/%+ '" B:R '%?3BA B:;. O L.%$R:+ C%$ ".$06<0";&3

B:; '%?3BA, @$% B$+ .6:&.<?"$"+ .:; C%B%0<11"$ C%$ B3 '$C6A .6(:#: .:; "'P%R/9"$,

L!:;R '"@<13 &3'%&/%. T: /#$: A C%$ ."6$&&(B"6:, 0:3?< : #<&C%1:+ '" B: R% 2<T"$

R% 06"$ C%$ R% #:;1L2"$ 'L&% &B3R B<T3 '" B$+ #;R%B(B3B"+ C%$ $#$%/B"6"+ #"T$(B3B"+

B:; .%$#$:M %;B:M. /@:;6%, : #<&C%1:+ '.:6"/ R% 0:3?A&"$ &B: %RL0%&'% B3+

%;B:"CB/'3&3+, &B3 0"1B/F&3 B3+ "$C(R%+ B:; '%?3BA 'L&% &B3R B<T3, &B3R

%R<.B;T3 C%1MB"63+ &!L&3+ '" &;''%?3BL+. A R%PL6?3C%R "R#"$CB$C< C<.:$"+

C%B";?;RBA6$"+ %6!L+ @$% B3R "6@%&/% B:; #%&C<1:; '" B: '%?3BA B:; '"

'%?3&$%CL+ #;&C:1/"+. ,/R%$ ";R(3B: .F+ B% /#$% .6L."$ R% $&!M:;R @$% (1:;+ (&:$

0:3?:MR B: .%$#/ %;B(. S$%B%6%!L+ :$ :.:/"+ ;.<6!:;R &;!R< &" ."6$.BJ&"$+

'%?3&$%CJR #;&C:1$JR C%$ !%6%CB36/9:;R B3R (13 "$C(R%, "/R%$ 3

;."6C$R3B$C(B3B%, 3 '"@<13 #$<&.%&3 .6:&:!A+, 3 .%6:6'3B$C(B3B%. I$% B%

.6:01A'%B% %;B< %.:#"$CRM"B%$ C%B< C%R(R% %.%6%/B3B3 3 P%6'%C";B$CA 0:A?"$% 3

:.:/% L!"$ B:;+ .%6%C<BF &B(!:;+: 1) 0"1B/F&3 B:; "1L@!:; "./ BFR .%6:6'A&"FR,

2) '"/F&3 B3+ %R3&;!/%+ C%$ B:; "CR";6$&':M, 3) 0"1B/F&3 C:$RFR$CJR #"T$:BABFR

C%$ &!L&"FR, 4) C%1MB"63 :6@<RF&3 %.( B: @RF&B$C( "./."#: C%$ 5) 0"1B/F&3

1".B:M C$R3B$C:M &;RB:R$&':M (Garfinkel & Wender, 1989). M" B3R ;.:!J63&3 BFR



117

.%6%.<RF &;'.BF'<BFR, (.F+ #/R"B%$ &B:;+ .LRB" ".$#$FC('"R:;+ &B(!:;+, "/R%$

P%R"6( .F+ B: .%$#/ .L6% %.( B3 '"/F&3 BFR 0%&$CJR %;BJR #$%B%6%!JR @/R"B%$ .$:

#"CB$C( C%$ &B3 '<?3&3. ,.$.1L:R ";R:"/B%$ 3 "P%6':@A C%$ %.:B"1"&'%B$C(B3B%

BFR <11FR ?"6%.";B$CJR ':6PJR (.%$#%@F@$CA, 2;!:?"6%."/%, 1:@:?"6%."/%, C .%.).

T% P<6'%C% .:; !63&$':.:$:MRB%$ ."6$&&(B"6: C%$ '<1$&B% %6C"B< ";6LF+

((!$ &B3 !J6% '%+) "/R%$ C;6/F+ B% 2;!:#$"@"6B$C< '" .$: @RF&B( %.( %;B< B:

Ritalin (Methylphenidate). AC:1:;?:MR &B3 &;RL!"$% #$<P:6% %RB$C%B%?1$.B$C<

(."6$&&(B"6: B% B6$C;C1$C<) C%$ '$% &"$6< %.( <11% @RF&B< 2;!:P<6'%C% (B3+

:'<#%+ C;6/F+ BFR P%$R:?$%9$RJR C%$ 0:;B;6:P"R:RJR). T"1";B%/%, L!"$ &;93B3?"/

%6C"B< C%$ 3 Piracetam (N::tr :6) '" ";R:]CA '<1$&B% %R%P"6('"R3 "./#6%&3 "./

BFR @RF&B$CJR 1"$B:;6@$JR C%$ B3+ 'RA'3+. U.<6!"$ LR%+ $C%R(+ %6$?'(+ '"?(#FR

C%$ B"!R$CJR .:; !63&$':.:$A?3C%R C%$ "T%C:1:;?:MR R% !63&$':.:$:MRB%$

(:.B:'"B6$CA <&C3&3, !"$6:.6%CB$CA, !6A&3 '"@%0$B%'$RJR A <11FR &B:$!"/FR,

"$#$CL+ #/%$B"+, C .%.). T% %.:B"1L&'%B< B:;+ 'L!6$ &A'"6% #"R "/R%$ ".%6CA, @$’ %;B(

C%$ "./&3'% ?"F6:MRB%$ “%'P$1"@('"R"+” (Sil Rer, 1967). H #3':B$C(B3B% .:; C%B<

."6$(#:;+ %.:CB:MR "T3@"/B%$ ."6$&&(B"6: %.( B3R %R<@C3 BFR @:R$JR @$% <'"&%

C%$ (!$ #%.%R36< %.:B"1L&'%B%.





119

Z(Z3(14<"`("

Aram DM, Nation JE, (1980). Preschool language disorders and subsequent language

and academic difficulties. Communication Disorders,13:159-170.

Baddeley A, (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Barkley RA, (1981) . Learning disabilities. In Mash, E.J. and Terbal, xL.G. (Eds).

Behavioral Assessment of childhood Disorders 441-482. Guilford Press,

New York.

Bax M, Whitmore , (Feb. 1987) , The medical explanation of children on entry to

school . The results and use of Neurodevelopmental Assessment. In

Developmental Medicine and Clinical Neurology

Berger N, (1978). Why can’t John read ? Perhaps he ’s not a good listener. Journal of

Learning Disabilities ,11,633-638.

Birsch HG, (1962) , Dyslexia and Maturation of visual function. In S. Money (Ed.),

Reading Disability: Progress and Research Needs in Dyslexia, JohnHopkins Press, Baltimore.

Bradley L, Bryant PE,(1983) , Categorizing sounds and learning to read – a casual

connection . Nature 301, 419-421.

Chomsky(1972).. N. Language and mind (enlarged edition). New York Harcourt,

Brace and the World.

Corkin S, (1974). Serial ordering deficits , in inferior readers. Neuropsychologia, 12,347-354.

Downing J, (1973) , Cognitive factors in dyslexia. Children psychiatry and Human

Development,4, 115-120.

Eustis RS, (1947), Specific reading disability. New England Journal of Medicine, 237,

243-249.

Gillberg C, Gillberg Ch , (Febr. 1989 ). Children with Preschool Neurodevelopmental

Disorders, IV : Behavior and School Achievement at age 13.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology.

Hadders Algra M, Huisjes HJ, Touwen OCL , (Aug. 1988). Perinatal Risk Factors and

Minor Neurological dysfunction Significance for Behavior and School

Achievement at Nine Years . Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology.

Hall PK, Tomblin JB, (1978). A follow –up study of children with articulation and

language disorders. Speech and Hear Disorders 43, 227-242.

Hammill DD, Leigh JE, Mcnutt G, Larson SC , (1987). A new definition of learningdisabilities. In journal of Learning Disabilities, 20 , 107-113, Feb. 1987.

Harris & Sipay (1980). How to increase reading ability (9th ed.). Longman , New

York.

Herman K, (1959). Reading disability: a medical study of word blindness and

related handicaps. Munksgaard, Copenhagen.Kaplan HL, Sadock BJ , ( 1985), Modern Synopsis of Comprehensive Textbook of



Psychiatry IV, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.

King RR, Jones C, Lasky E, (1982). In retrospect : a fifteen – year follow-up report of

speech – language disorders in children. Language Speech Hear ServicesSchools, 13, 24-32.

Makita K, (1968), The variety of reading disability. In Japanese Children . AmericanJournal of Neuropsychiatry, 38, 599-614.

Mattis S, French JH, Rapin I, (1975) , Dyslexia in children and young adults: three

independent neuropsychological syndromes. Developmental Medicine and

Child Neurology, 17, 150-163.

Myklebust HR, Jonson DJ, (1962), Dyslexia in children. Exceptional children, 29, 14-

25.

Orton ST, (1925), Word Blindness in school children. In Archives of Neurology and

Psychiatry, 14, 581-615.

Rabinovitch RD, (1959), Reading and Learning Disabilities . In Arieti S. (ed.) ,American Handbook of Psychiatry, Basic Books, New York.

Shankweiler D, Liberman IY (1976). Exploring the relations between reading and

speech. In Knights, R.M. Bakker, D.J. (Eds.) The neuropsychology of

learning disorders: Theoretical approaches. Baltimore: University Park

Press,297-313.

Silver LB, Brunstetter RW , (1987). Learning Disabilities : Resent advances. In Basic

Handbook of Child Psychiatry, Vol. V, editor – in – chief, J Nospbpitz, p.494-502, Basic Books, New York, 1987.

Sparrow S, Sats P , (1970). Dyslexia laterality and neuropsychological development.

In Bakker Advances in Theory and Method. Rotterdam University Press,Rotterdam.

Strominger AZ, Bashir AS, (1977). A nine–year follow up of language-delayed

children. Presented at the Annual Convention of the American Speech-

Language and Hearing Association. Chicago.

Velutino FR (1978) Toward understanding of Dyslexia: Psychological Factors in

Documents

Mathisiakes Tzouriadou Barbas