materials selection for wear reslstance.pdf

8/19/2019 materials selection for wear reslstance.pdf

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CHAPTER 41MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR

RESISTANCE

Andrew W. PhelpsUniversity of Dayton Research InstituteDayton, Ohio

1 INTRODUCTION 1275

2 PROPERTIES OF WEARMATERIALS 1276

3 MATERIALS SELECTIONPROCESS 1276

4 MANUFACTURING PROCESSSELECTION 1278

5 BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS 1279

6 SUBSTRATE SELECTION 1280

7 SURFACE MODIFICATIONS 1280

8 FILM THICKNESS 1280

9 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLESOF WEAR MATERIALS 1281

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1282

1 INTRODUCTION

The selection of materials and methods for wear applications is an importantpart of both technological advancement and manufacturing activities. However,materials selection is often viewed as a random process or worse. The individualscharged with designing new parts, developing new processes, or overseeing com-ponent trade study projects rarely have had the opportunity or time needed todevelop a ‘‘feel’’ for the general materials performance of metals, ceramics, orplastics during a typical undergraduate university education. The good news is

that ignorance is curable and its treatment should leave no permanent scars.Methods and approaches to solving materials problems have been developedover time that may help clarify needs and reduce the degree to which materialsselection may be considered a ‘‘black art.’’ Materials application, performance,and manufacturability are all key parts in the selection for wear resistance ap-plications, but the general methods are also extensible to other areas of materialsselection.

There is a great deal of interest in replacing hard metallurgical coatings withmaterials and systems that are more environmentally benign and are capable of

providing equal or better performance than those materials they replace. Mate-rials replacement efforts have traditionally relied on the shotgun approach wherea material is simply substituted for another. This particular approach, however,

Handbook of Materials Selection, Edited by Myer KutzISBN 0-471-35924-6 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York


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1276 MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WEAR RESISTANCE

rarely ensures success. Numerous factors must be taken into account whenchoosing a replacement for a hard coating. These factors include the temperature,work face pressure, chemical environment, materials compatibility, elastic con-stants, and cost. If more environmentally benign materials were easily substituted

for traditional hard materials, then they would have been long ago. Becausethere is no direct substitution, it is necessary to tailor the replacement materialsto the specific application.

The main tasks in materials selection for wear application are to first specifyperformance needs and then financial needs. The order of these activities isimportant because, while a lower cost component part may be preferred, thatless expensive part’s performance must be suited to the task. It is very difficultto specify a part mainly on cost without knowing the performance design limits.This chapter is concerned mainly with the issue of performance, but one always

needs to be aware of the cost of component acquisition or manufacture.The information base and deposition techniques developed for one class of materials can typically be extended to other materials in the same class. Ex-amples of this include hard coatings such as silicon carbide and titanium nitride,soft coatings such as silver and gold, hardened metal alloys, and polycrystallineceramics. General wear surface selection methodology for one class of materialsmay be extended to other unrelated classes.

2 PROPERTIES OF WEAR MATERIALS

A wear material may be used to reduce dimensional changes due to unwantedmaterial removal, reduce frictional losses, to tailor the physical performance of a component, and/or to provide a physically stable working surface. Wear canbe divided into several categories such as adhesive and abrasive wear that takeplace during sliding contact. Surface fatigue and deformation wear are an impactor loading rate phenomenon, and corrosive wear is caused by the interaction of the wear surface with the local environment. These wear mechanisms may actsingly or in combination with one another to alter a surface. The proper selectionof a material for a wear application will strongly depend on both the type of wear to be countered and on the wear environment. The wear environment can

be dry, wet, warm, cold, and so on. Wear taking place in a corrosive marineenvironment will be more damaging than the marine environment or the wearalone. Wear phenomenon is a factor in applications where it might not be readilyapparent. Optical windows that are exposed to the natural elements have a needfor wear protection where dust, sand, and ice can impact and roughen soft opticalsurfaces. Fan and propeller blades in water can experience wear by cavitationerosion in water and bug and dust impact erosion in air.

3 MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS

The classic method of selecting a wear material is to use what has always beenused in the past for a particular application. There is a reason for this—it works.For example, steel ball bearings are relatively inexpensive and are superb atwhat they do if they are not pushed beyond their performance limits. A goodreason would be needed to replace steel ball bearings in an application for analternative material or a different type of bearing. Changes in performance needssuch as increased rotational speeds, a need for mass or volume reduction, altered


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3 MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS 1277

mechanical shock environment, or increased reliability could lead to a demandfor an alternative material.

Few particulars are provided here in terms of specific wear materials selection.Each wear application needs to be approached as a unique situation if a ‘‘best’’

result is to be achieved. That said, the following guidelines can allow for therapid selection and insertion of an optimal wear system into operational use.

1. Specify the maximum operational limits of the wear materials system forsafety and lifetime. Properties that make some wear films excellent for oneparticular application may be completely unsuitable for other uses.

2. Specify the normal operational parameters and acceptable performancecriteria of the wear materials system. Performance criteria would include thenumber of cycles of use and the physical and chemical exposure environment

before, during, and after use. This step provides for the selection of a broadrange of materials and technologies that could fit the needs of the application.No preemptive elimination of technology should be attempted at this stage. Someof the materials and technologies may later be found to be mutually exclusiveor inappropriate for use at a later point. Preemptive preselection at this pointmay eliminate ‘‘poor’’ candidates but also serves to too narrowly focus the ma-terials search too early in the process. Early candidate elimination is attractive,but it can eliminate an entire class of potential solutions and can possibly restrictthe ultimate wear material selection to a good solution but perhaps not the best

solution. The more care that is taken during this crucial step will enable theactual materials selection phase to be much smoother in terms of performance,availability, and price.

3. Establish the degree of mechanical, physical (thermal expansion, dielec-tric constant, and so on), and chemical compatibility the wear material musthave with the system. The real process of wear material selection begins oncethe preceding steps have been taken.

4. Material availability and cost are closely related factors usually taken intoaccount at the same time. The cost of a particular wear material is almost ex-

clusively controlled by its availability. Availability is directly controlled by prev-alence of use (numerous examples exist of high-priced finished parts made frommore common materials than their lower cost cousins) with the attendant savingsof resulting from high-volume manufacturing. Availability of raw materials andthe ability to work, shape, and form those materials can also influence materialscost.

Cubic boron nitride is an extremely hard wear material used in tooling forferrous metals where diamond is inappropriate. It is a completely synthetic ma-

terial not found in nature and is produced mainly as a bulk powder in high-pressure growth apparatus in limited batches. The powder is then used as a looseabrasive or it can be reworked into a solid piece of tooling. For all practicalpurposes, cubic boron nitride is unavailable as a directly applied coating.

The need to process the material after its synthesis adds yet another layer of expense to the cost of tooling. Cubic boron nitride tends to be expensive due toits availability. Titanium nitride is a fairly hard materials that is also completely


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synthetic but it is easy to produce. Inexpensive titanium-nitride-coated toolingis now available from many suppliers.

A General Hierarchy in Cost of Manufacture of Wear Materials

Bulk materials of commonplace composition that are easy to work and form

(a) Materials that can be made in final shape with no post processing

(b) Materials that can be made wear resistant after final shaping as bytempering of metal or firing a ceramic

Coatings of commonplace composition that may be applied to easily manu-factured substrates

(a) Coating applied under ambient conditions such as room temperatureand pressure

(b) Coatings formed in nontoxic water baths

(c) Coatings and treatments that require high temperatures and con-trolled atmospheres

(d) Small batch vacuum-based treatments

Wear materials that are formed ex situ and then are attached to a substrate

(a) Gluing(b) Cementing

(c) Brazing

(d) Diffusion bonding

Bulk materials of uncommon composition that are difficult to work and formsuch as solid carbides, borides, and silicides

4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS SELECTION

Process selection is a second-tier consideration in most instances of wear ma-terials selection. The physical properties of wear coatings may vary dependingon the deposition method and technique. The standard cost savings from con-tinuous and semicontinuous manufacturing methods such as extrusion and roll-ing versus stamping and milling operations also apply for wear materials.Method of manufacture becomes very important when directional or texturalproperty characteristics of a material need to be considered. Many of the phys-ical, optical, chemical, electrical properties of wear films will be controlled ormodified by their degree of deviation from perfection imparted during manufac-

ture. This is a common consideration in the area of composites manufacture.The component materials of a composite structure are only slightly more im-portant than the manner in which they are arranged in space and bound to oneanother. Workpieces with apparently similar material compositions can have dra-matically varied performance characteristics depending on the arrangement inspace of their component parts as influenced by their method of manufacture.The physical properties of wear films can be modified and controlled by altering


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5 BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS 1279

deposition parameters, using additives, changing substrate selection, and varyingthe seeding and nucleation method.

5 BASICS OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials tend to be one of two types: (1) bulk solids or (2) coatings, films,and surface treatments. A bulk wear material will typically provide long-termwear surface use. There is more of a wear part available for continued useprovided that significant dimensional changes have not affected the actual per-formance of the tool. However, the lack of availability of a wear material inbulk form or difficulty or expense in its manufacture can force the use of coatingsor films instead. Likewise, coatings or films can enable the use of a materialthat is unsuitable in the bulk form but has very good performance when com-bined with other materials in a multicomponent wear system. The trade-off in

the use of bulk and film materials is the possibility of enhanced performance of a coated tool versus the cost and effort required to make the coated tool. Otherfactors such as increased tool lifetime and length of time between tool changesmay make a coated wear system attractive with respect to an inexpensive bulk material system. Cost and availability are two factors that strongly govern theselection of a bulk material or a surface treatment for a particular wear appli-cation.

The following references provide a rich resource for review and further ex-ploration of the properties and behavior of wear materials: Buckley and Rabi-nowicz (1986), Apachitei and Duszczyk (2000), Bull and Matthews (1992), Bullet al. (1988), Formanek et al. (1993), Jackson and Mills (2000), Joost andSchwedes (1996), Karja et al. (1993), Foroulis (1984), Dobrzanski (2001), John(1984).

The general application of wear materials in varied situations are addressedin a number of the following references: Ball and Ward (1985), Balon andAizinbud (1989), Berns (1995), Bull et al. (2000), Burkle et al. (1995), Cooperet al. (1992), Franklin and Beuger (1992), Franklin and Dijkman (1995), Gagg(2001), Gandhi and Agrawal (1994), Garbar (1995), Gates and Eaton (1993),Geiger (1992), Hsu et al. (1991), Hsu and Shen (1996), Jang and Kim (1996),

Jilbert and Field (1998), Jones (1997), Jung (2000), Klocke and Krieg (1999),Korsunsky et al. (1995), Kuljanic (1992), Kurzynski (1996), Larsen-Basse(1990), Lempert (1988), Llewellyn (1996), Lohmann and Van Valkenhoef (1989), Lyons (1998), Mainwaring (1994), Manning et al. (1984), Margus andComerford (1994), Martinella (1993), Medley (1992), Meyerrodenbeck et al.(1992), Mikhailin et al. (1985), Nuttall (1985), Onate et al. (1998), Paller (1991),Pascheto and Behnood (1997), Pejryd et al. (1995), Penlington et al. (1995),Phillips and Knapp (1995), Ramalingam and Zheng (1995), Reinhard and Volz(1983), Robinson et al. (1993), Rozenberg et al. (1987), Sare and Arnold (1995),

Sessler et al. (1993), Sexton et al. (2001), Stack (1997), Stewart (1997), Stokesand Cooley (1985), Suchanek et al. (1999), Thompson (1994), Uma Devi andMohanty (1998), Voronenko (1992), Ward et al. (1996a), Wassell et al. (1997),and Wendl and Wupper (1991).

Hardness is related to wear in that if it is very difficult to break one bond,then the chances of breaking many bonds (wear) will be low. A related seriesof references deal with the use of hard materials in wear applications: Bulloch


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and Henderson (1991), Beck et al. (1993), Knotek and Loffler (1992), Knotek and Loffler (1991), Zahner and Menon (1995), Williamson and Bolton (1983).The selection of specific wear materials for specific applications is reviewed inAshby (1992), Bolvari and Glenn (1995), Bamkin and Piearcey (1990), Charles

et al. (1997), Carnes et al. (2000), Edwards (1994), Edwards (1997), Eyre (1991),Farrow and Gleave (1983), Fischer (1996), Sundaresan (1988), Syan (1994),Strafford (1996), Subramanian and Strafford (1993), Subramanian et al. (1996),Shubrook (1996), Glaeser (1992), Hogmark et al. (2000).

6 SUBSTRATE SELECTION

There are several basic principles involved in substrate selection for wear filmdeposition. The material has to be compatible with the chemistry of the wearfilm deposition and growth environment. The substrate cannot have a coefficient

of thermal expansion that is far greater or less than that of the wear film. Thiscriterion can be reduced in importance by the use of very thin films that tendnot to build up large internal stresses.

7 SURFACE MODIFICATIONS

The as-grown surfaces of some hard films are not suited for immediate use. Theas-formed surface of some wear materials can be very rough. The degree of roughness can prevent the use of these materials as bearings if there is no methodof making the surface smooth. These surfaces may be rough or chemically re-active and require an additional preparative step such as polishing or a ‘‘run in’’period prior to their use.

Films need to have less than a 0.4-m peak-to-valley roughness in generalto be used for bearings. Surfaces with roughness greater than 5 m peak-to-valley roughness have been found to be unacceptable and, in the absence of amethod of making the surface smooth, would prevent the use of these materialsas bearings. Mechanical polishing is preferably avoided to reduce the per-partfinishing cost as well as retain uniform dimensionality.

Making a wear film smooth to begin with reduces the likelihood of introduc-ing flaws into the film as well as making the process much less expensive.

Smooth wear films may be made by several different methods. These includepolishing, brazing the rough side down, growing the films very thin, or growingthem very smooth initially. Smooth films can be made if the average crystallitesize is small and if there is no room for the crystal to grow laterally. A thin,pinhole-free film can be grown if crystallites are densely packed. Making thefilm smooth initially reduces the likelihood of introducing flaws into the film aswell as making the process much less expensive.

8 FILM THICKNESS

A thin film will allow the physical properties of the substrate material to besampled during use. The scale of thickness is completely dependent on the scaleof the system. A thin film might be 0.5 m thick if the maximum foreign particlesize is 0.25 m in diameter where a thick film would be 5 m thick. Similarly,a thin film might be 70 m thick if the maximum foreign particle size is 20 min diameter where a thick film would be 200 m thick. How thick must a filmbe to be thick enough? The size and hardness of foreign particulate matter


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9 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF WEAR MATERIALS 1281

arriving at the bearing surface will determine the thickness of the wear film.

Thickness removal is comparable to cost because of time and material used

during finishing. Mechanical polishing can also be an agent of flaw introduction.

A brittle hard coating that is only a few microns thick would easily run a

through-crack.

9 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF WEAR MATERIALS

Wear materials are generally thought of in terms of metallurgical materials sys-

tems. Overall volume of wear materials would certainly demonstrate the impor-

tance of metals and metallurgy. There are a variety of other materials that have

and are being used in wear applications. While the total volume of these ma-terials combined is small compared to metals, they do represent a significant

fraction of wear materials. Ceramics are slowly being phased in as wear mate-

rials in expected and unexpected places. Ceramics are now being used in high-performance ball bearing applications as well as high-end cutlery. The studiesby Dellacorte and Steinetz (1994) and Riley (1996) review some of the uses and

methods of selection of ceramics for wear applications.

Polymers have had a traditional role in wear applications from Teflon bearing

sleeves to the rubber tires strapped to the sides of harbor tugboats. The followingworks provide some general guidelines for polymer use and selection in wear

applications: An et al. (1997), Besic (1995), Palmese and Chawalwala (1996),

Leger (1989), Price (1987), Wolpers and Hager (1990), Sysoev et al. (1986),

Sladkov et al. (1998), and Tewari and Bijwe (1991).Stone and natural glass were some of the original wear materials used by

humans. These materials continue to be used into the twenty-first century in

‘‘cutting edge’’ applications as described by Twitchen et al. (1995) and Erting-

shausen (1985).

Injection, stamping, and figure mold surfaces in materials process facilitiesface significant wear problems. This type of machinery will lose its dimensional

tolerance over time as it is used. An intricately carved stamping blank would

ideally never change its dimensions. This would reduce long-term production

costs and reduce the amount of mechanical downtime when workers are idledwhile waiting for a stamping press to be retooled. The following studies examine

wear materials for this type of application: Clarke (1985), Elfick et al. (1999),

Haggag (1989), Hu et al. (1999), Murray et al. (1997), Bahadur (1993), Ward

et al. (1996b, 1998), Hampson (1994), Gonzalez et al. (1999), Atkinson andBristol (1992), Aksit and Tichy (1998), Stack and Pungiwat (1998), and Haugen

et al. (1995).

The purpose of numerous refernces cited above is to provide a resource to

those interested in wear materials selection. References cited range from wear

materials selection criteria to interesting accounts and analyses of wear materialsapplication and failure. The following references may also be of interest: Blau

and Gardner (1996), Collins (1981), Colombie et al. (1987), Freimanis et al.

(2000), Fu et al. (2000), Gil Sevillano (1997), Hepp et al. (1997), Hornbogen

and Schafer (1981), Middleton and Coupland (1996), Moore (1981), O’Brien

(1982), Peterson and Ramalingam (1981), Samuels et al. (1981), and Wendl and

Wupper (1990).


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