Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages

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    Materials for a Comparative Grammarof the ene-aucasian(Sino-aucasian) Languages

    John D. _Santa Fe Institute

    The Dene-Caucasian (or Sino-Caucasian) language macro-family is de-fined here as including the following language families: Vasconic (Basque);North Caucasian; Burushaski; Sino-Tibetan; Yeniseian; andNa-Dene.1

    I PhonologyThanks to the pioneering work of S. A. STAROSTIN ([982], [98], etseq.)

    and S. L. NIKOLAYEV (99), we can deduce some of the features of the DC

    phonological system. There was a threefold contrast of stops and other occlus-

    ives: () voiceless (aspirated): T()2; (2) (voiceless) glottalized: T; and (3) voicedD. This pattern is best preserved in Caucasian and Na-Dene languages, and

    in Burushaski (where, however, the contrast is T: T : D.) In Basque the aspir-ated and glottalized forms have merged, leaving a twofold contrast: T() : D.In Yeniseian there is also a twofold contrast, but the laryngeal features have

    reversed:T() and Tmerged as *d,while Dbecame *t (in p~s Proto-Yeniseian). In Sino-Tibetan the developments have been more complicated

    (see the correspondences proposed by STAROSTIN[98,99]).3

    To avoid duplicating p~s extensive phonological tables cover-

    ing the three original families of the classic Sino-Caucasian hypothesis (Cau-

    casian, Sino-Tibetan, and Yeniseian), my emphasis here will be on the cor-

    respondences between Proto-Dene-Caucasian (PDC) and Basque.

    The following etymologies exemplify the above correspondences. Lan-

    guages are cited in the order: . Vasconic (Basque); 2. North Caucasian;

    3. Burushaski;. Sino-Tibetan; 5. Yeniseian; 6. Na-Dene.

    1

    I have also suggested the inclusion of ancient Sumerian in the Dene-Caucasianfamily. Because of special difficulties of ancient, extinct languages, it will be omit-

    ted from the present discussion.2In this paragraph T() stands for any voiceless (aspirated) occlusive, Tfor any

    glottalized occlusive, D for any voiced occlusive.3It appears that the presence (or absence) of prefixes in Sino-Tibetan has affected

    the correspondences of initial phonemes. To some extent this is also true in Basque.

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    6 g. _.A ComparativeGrammar of Dene-(Sino-)Caucasian Languages

    Labials:In general, PDC *p> Basque *p; PDC *p> Basque *b(initial),*p(medial); PDC *b> Basque *b.

    PDC *p:

    Basque *pincmembrane (covering an egg or nut)4~ Cauc: Proto-Lezgian*pin eyelash, feather > Agul (Keren) bibi eyelash, pinfeather,Agul (Burshag)pineyelash (cf. NCED 365) ~ Burushaski *phenVs> (Y)-phnasbrow, forehead hair, (H, N) -phnis,-phni(sg.) a braid that lieson the ear, (pl.) head hair (only of women, close cropped)

    Basque *puS- > (B)puspulu,puspulobubble, (B, G)pusla,puslo,(B)puxi-lu blisters5~ Batsbi pu bump, lump, Dargwa (Kaitag)pu-lik blad-der, (Akushi)puabubble, bladder < PNC *prwA(NCED 868)

    Basque *apal> (B, G) apalshelf ~ Avar epellid, cover, Inkhokhwari aparpole (for planking the ceiling) < PEC *apVV pole; board, cover(NCED 202)

    Basque *e-purdirump, buttocks ~ Archiprilarge intestine, Bezhtapiri bladder, lung, etc. < PEC *pHVrwV (NCED 8) ~ Burushaski*pha> (Y)phastomach (of fowl), (H, N) -phviscera (of fowl) ~ PST*Pat> Burmesephatto vomit, etc. (ST I: 98) ~ Na-Dene: (*wV)6> Eyakwvomit; PAth *wbelly > Kutchin vd,Kato -b,Navajo -bd, etc.

    Basque *epellukewarm, tepid ~ Yen: Kottphal~fal,Assanpfl-tu ~pal-tu hot, warm (cf. PY *apVSSEJ82)

    PNC *pnwresin, juice > Dargwapenresin, Lakpidew, sweat,etc. (NCED 8) ~ Burushaski *phuncdew ~ PY *pitglue > Ket hit,etc. (SSEJ 29)

    PDC *p:

    Basque *bilho> (BN, Z) bilho,(AN, BN) bilo,billohair, mane7~ Cauc: Lakiulli feather, Dargwa (Akushi) pla feather, Abkhaz -bramane,etc. < PNC *VVV(NCED 89) ~ Burushaski *phol- >phol(Y),phulu(H),phuru(N) feather

    4The claim of Latin origin ([TRASK995: 58]) is not credible. The semantic com-

    monality of skin ~ fur ~ hair is well attested. Cf. Ainu *kApskin, fur; *urfur coat,skin, hair of body, etc.5There has probably been some influence from Romance (cf. Latinpustula).6Proto-Na-Dene had no labial stops, only the semi-vowel *w.7Attempts have been made to derive this word from Latin pilu- hair, but this

    clearly would have become Basque *biru.The cluster -lh- indicates native Basque ori-gin. (See the discussion under *l.)

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    . -(-) Basque *apo> (B) apohoof ~ Bezhta, Hunzib aapaw, Ubykh -a(in

    -hand), etc. < PNC *Ha(NCED 55) ~ PST *bjH> Old Chin-ese *pe, *b femur, haunch, Tibetan d-pyi hip, hip-bone, Lushai

    pheilower leg (ST I: 2) Basque *apa> (AN, B, BN) apa kiss ~ Chechen oba,uba kiss, Khina-

    lugakiss, etc. < PNC *V(NCED 88) Basque *lape> (Z) lape shelter under the eaves of a shed ~ PEC *

    stone plate or shed > Chechen labashed; peak of cap, Avarebstone,etc. (NCED ) ~ Burushaski *tpi(H, N) tpi(smaller) stone terrace

    PDC *b:

    Basque *bihatomorrow ~ Rutul bgatomorrow, etc. < PEC *bgmorning,evening (NCED 292) ~ PY *pVk- morning > Ket hgem, etc. (SSEJ 25)

    Basque *bisabeard ~ Hunzib bila-ba beard, Bezhta bizal-ba mustache,Agul muurbeard, etc. < PEC *bilV(NCED 303) ~ Burushaski *bi-k(an-imal) hair, fur ~ PY *pistail (of birds) > Ket h, Kottpis, etc. (SSEJ 29)

    Basque *belaforehead ~ Rutul blforehead, Tindi balaedge, end,corner, etc. < PEC *bh (NCED 285) ~ Burushaski bal wall ~ ST:Tibetan dpralforehead (< *d-r-pal?)8

    Basque *bekoforehead ~ PEC *bwopart of face, mouth > Tsakhur bomuzzle, Chechen bagamouth, etc. (NCED 289) ~ Burushaski *bukthroat

    Basque *habepillar, beam ~ PEC *hwb> Avar ubpost, pole, stem,Tsez hibostick, etc. (NCED9) ~ PY *abVL- (~*habVL-)stick, pole >Ket b/ b,Sym bl9

    PEC *bm> Avar malfoot, Tsez bulahoof, etc. (NCED 30) ~ Burusha-ski *bumbla- in (Y) bmba-ltenankle [< *bumbla-ltenwith dissimilation(?)] ~ PST *phl> Tibetan bolupper part of foot, etc. (ST I: 8) ~ PY *bul>Ket bfoot, etc. (SSEJ 23)

    PST *pk> Old Chinese *pkwide, ample, etc. (ST I: 50) ~ Na-Dene:(*wVQ) > Tlingit wuqwide, broad, Eyak wwide, broad

    Dentals:PDC *t,*> Basque *t;PDC *d> Basque *t(initial), *d(medial)

    PDC *t:

    Basque *tu to spit, *itoi drop ~ PEC *twjV spit, spittle > Chechen

    tuj,etc. (NCED 99) ~ Burushaski thu to spit ~ PST *thj spit, *thok

    8S. A. p~prefers to compare instead PST *PHcheek (ST I: 93).9Forms taken from S. A. p~s comparative Yeniseian database available

    online at http:// starling.rinet.ru.

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    saliva (ST II: 63, 6) ~ PY *duK> Kott tuk saliva (SSEJ 22) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit tuto spit

    Basque *tini summit, top ~ Burushaski -thn point, summit, peak ~PST *tHtop > Tibetan s-te, etc. (ST II:2)

    Basque *toka (fine white) clay10 ~ Hunzib ta bog, Chechen arslush, mire, etc. < PEC *tVrwV(NCED 992)

    Basque *-te(e) in (AN, G, L) aus-ter, (G) aus-terre ashes ~ PEC *trVdung, mud > Akhwakh tereti ashes, dust, etc. (NCED 993) ~ Buru-shaski (Y) thr, (H) ther, (N) ther-k dirt ~ PY *dr powder, dirt >Kott tarandirt, etc. (SSEJ 220)

    Basque *betefull > (c) bete,(BN, Z) bethe~Chechen buthard, tough,Kabardian bda id., etc. < PNC *bVt (NCED 320) ~ Burushaski bumuch, many

    PST *dhw> Old Chinese *thweat voraciously, etc. (ST II: ); cf. Lepchathato eat ~ Na-Dene: Haida ta- to eat; PAth *tan- > Kato -taneat, etc.

    PDC *:

    Basque *ti-,*ti-pi> (AN, L) tipilittle, small, (B) tintinpoquito, trs peu,-tilla little (diminutive suffix) ~ Avar hina-bsmall, Lezgi i-mil few,Ubykh aless, smaller, etc. < PNC *iHV/ *HiV(NCED00) ~ PST *th(-k)(*thia(-k)) > Lushai t(tt) be small, little, Midzhu ka-tiysmall, etc. (ST II:59) ~ Na-Dene: Haida am- thin and rounded; Chipewyan -nthin, Ga-

    lice is-ansmall, Navajo -thin (of cloth, skin, stone), -hlittle, tiny Basque *tokiplace, location ~ Proto-Circassian *aplace > Adyge

    a,etc. ([KUIPERS95]) Basque *tanka / *tinka > (R, Z) tanka, (B) tanga drop (of liquid) / gota /

    goutte, (R) tinkaa little (of liquid) ~ Rutul androp, Avar indrop,etc. < PNC *Hn(NCED000) ~ PST *tk(*dk)> Old Chinese *tkdrop, Tibetan thig-s a drop, etc. (ST II:20)

    Basque *i-tain > (R) itain, (BN, Z) ithain tick ~ PNC *aHn nit >Akhwakh ani,Lak u,etc. (NCED 995)

    Basque *e-toi > (AN, B, G, L) etorri, (L) ethorri to come, (to adapt, getalong, and other meanings in B, G) ~ Avar ur- to run away, Udi t:ist:unto run, etc. < PEC *

    Vr(NCED 659) ~ PST *t(h)r> Tibetan durto run,

    Lushai turto urge, compel, hurry, etc. (ST II:2)

    10The supposed derivation from Latin tuscu- unrefined, dissolute ([TRASK

    995: 62]) is wildly improbable. By the accepted phonetic rules, tuscu- would becomeBasque *duzku,not toska,and the meanings have even less in common. Toskais thefine white clay used to make porcelain.

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    . -(-) 9 Basque *e-ten- > (AN, B, G, L) eten,(BN, L, Z) ethento break, cut ~ PEC

    *Vto cut, divide > Hunzib i- to divide, Tsakhur ea- to break, etc.(NCED 660) ~ PST *t(*tw)> Tibetan r-do-s to break, burst, etc. (STII:3); or cf. PST *tnto cut > Jingpo dan,Lushai tan,etc. (ST II:5)

    Basque *guti> (c) guti, (Z) gtifew, little ~ Lezgi g narrow, Lakkua- short, etc. < PNC *Hw/ *wH(NCED 690) ~ Burushaski*khushort ~ Na-Dene: Eyakguvery small, tiny

    Basque *-te- in izter (*i-s-te-)11 thigh ~ Chechen a front leg (of an-imal), Avar e/ efoot, etc. < PEC *w~ *w(NCED00) ~Burushaski *h- foot ~ PST *tH> Old Chinese *tfoot, heel (STII:23) ~Na-Dene: (*a-) > Haida s-ay,s-a- foot, aa- to step; Sarsi-s,-zto move ones own foot, etc.

    PNC *mhV > Chechen um kernel (of fruit, nut); marrow, etc.(NCED 00) ~ Burushaski *tum- > (H, N) tum nutshell, stone (offruit), (Y) tum shell (of nut, egg), fruit stone ~ PST *[t]mH seed,fruit kernel > Jingpo (-)tum,etc. (ST II:9)

    PNC *mVwing > Lak imufeather, etc. (NCED 995) ~ PST *[t]m(*[t]m) to carry on the shoulder > Burmese thamh,etc. (ST II: 35) ~Na-Dene: (*aw) > Haida awun feather, plume; Tlingit w longfeather; Eyak ah-feather, leaf; Navajo ,-feather,etc.

    PEC *VwV> Batsbi a- to lie (around), Bezhta u-to sleep, etc. (NCED

    035) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak -e/ -uto be (thus); PAth *-ewid. (KL 82) PST *t(r)H(~*d(r)H)knee, elbow > Old Chinese *truwrist, elbow,Lepcha k-thuelbow, Miri lag-duelbow (ST II:2) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingityelbow

    PDC *d:

    Basque *odol (*o-dol) blood ~ PST *t(h)lH meat, flesh > Lushai tlflesh, muscle, etc. (ST II: 58) ~ Na-Dene: (*de) > Eyak de blood;Chipewyan d, Navajo dblood, etc.12

    Basque *udagara (*u-dagara)13 otter ~ PEC *darwV > Andi daraweasel, marten, Lak t:ara weasel, ermine (NCED 399) ~ PY *tVrotter > Ket ta:,Kott thgr,etc. (SSEJ 283)

    11The elements *i-,*-s-,*-will be discussed below in the grammatical section.12The semantic connection blood ~ flesh is well known: cf. Russian

    blood ~ Greek flesh.13This is probably the oldest variant (others being ugadaraand the folk-etymo-

    logized ugaberewater animal). u- is either (h)ur- water or, more likely, a fossilizedclass prefix.

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    Basque *odi> (BN, Z) hodei,(AN, B, G, R) odei,(B, G) odai,(B, R) odoicloud (also thunder in B, G, AN, BN, R) ~ Dargwa (Akushi) dwind, Archi diodor, scent < PEC *dwiHVwind (NCED0)

    PEC *dn(~ -) > Avar dagum, Rutul dancheek, etc. (NCED 398) ~ST: Tibetan m-dan cheek14 ~ Na-Dene: *d > Eyak da face; Hupa-damouth, lips, Chipewyan -d,-dlip, beak, Navajo -dlip, bill

    Basque *tak-,in (L) takoin,(B) takoiheel (of a shoe) (lit. back [of] foot)~ PNC *dHw > Rutul daq back of head, Ubykh tq neck, etc.(NCED 399) ~ PST *tkneck > Garo gi-tok,etc. (ST II:8) ~ PY *tuV>Ket t (upper) back, Pumpokol tuk back(wards) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit

    dback, daplace behind one, -dafrom; Navajo dahoff, down off

    Sibilant affricates:PDC had three series of sibilants, and of sibilant

    affricates: front or hissing (s,c,c,), palatal or hissing-hushing (, ,,),and back or hushing (, ,,). Basque, unlike its neighboring Europeantongues, has an analogous contrast among lamino-alveolar (s, c), apico-alveolar (, ), and palato-alveolar (, ). (In Basque orthography these arez,tz;s,ts;and x,tx,respectively.) However, the present-day Basque seriesdoes not in every case correspond etymologically to the PDC series, sincethere has often been a kind of crossover, e. g., PDC *c,*c> Basque *, (insome cases), and PDC *, *> Basque *s.See below for particulars.15

    PDC *c:In association with labial vowels, PDC *cand *c> Basqueapico-alveolars (*, *), otherwise > Basque lamino-alveolars (*s,*c): Basque *agu mouse16~ PNC *crw > Adyge ca mouse, Tsakhur

    sokweasel, etc. (NCED 322) ~ Burushaski *arg> (Y) argflying squir-rel ~ PST *srai(H)> Old Chinese *sreweasel, etc. (ST IV:05) ~ PY*saqa squirrel > Ket saq,Kott aga, etc. (SSEJ 268) ~ Na-Dene: Haida

    14S. A. p~prefers to compare instead PST *t(H) > Old Chinese

    *tapalm of the hand, Burmese tabuttocks etc. (ST II: ).15STAROSTIN([98, etc.]) reconstructs clusters (*st, *s, *sd, *t) for apparent sib-

    ilant affricates that result in Yeniseian *t.So in the etymologies involving Basque

    *oowhole, *baomountain, *encun know, *sikiroram, and others. As far as Ican see, there is no difference between the Basque reflexes of PDC *st, *s, *sd, *t,and those of *c,*c,*,*.

    16The Basque initial *is unexpected, unless by remote influence of the fol-lowing u.Alternatively, the initial consonant may have been *(cf. Burushaski ar-g), or altered by affective palatalization. Note the variations in the correspondingAthabaskan words.

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    . -(-) 5tcolg, Tlingit calg squirrel, Eyak ck, PAth *clx ~ *lx ~ *cVlusquirrel > Ahtna celes,Mattole tcxalis, Carrier cols,etc. (KL0809)17

    Basque *ut(V)r(V)root > (B) sustar,(B, G) sustrai~Burushaski *che-rroot > (Y) cer,(H, N) chir,-chri~PY *- root > Ket ti:i, Kottiian,etc. (SSEJ 2)

    Basque *baowoods, forest, wilderness, *baa- wild ~ Akhwakh beamountain, Tindi besamountain, Archi sobmountain pasture, etc. Old Chinese *cewell, etc. (ST IV: 3) ~ PY *sin- > Kottinaspring, etc. (SSEJ 2)

    Basque *iu blind > (c) itsu, (Z) ts, (R) utsi ~ PEC *VV > Tindiec:u-b blind, Khwarshi sajsu dark, etc. (NCED 0) ~ ? Na-Dene:Mattole -coito be blind

    Basque*a-seari> (c) azeri,(Z, R) axeri[aeri], (AN, B, G) azari,(B) azegari,azagarifox18~ Tindi sari,Akhwakh ari,Tsez ziru,Archi s:olfox, etc.< PNC *chwl< *cEhwlfox, jackal (NCED 32) ~ Burushaski *halfox

    Basque *a-saro> azaro(Sal) autumn, (c) November ~ PNC *jwlV>Tindi c:ibarwinter, Khinalug cuwa-autumn, etc. (NCED 32) ~ cf. ST:

    Old Chinese

    *hiwautumn ~ PY *sir

    -> Ket isummer, etc. (SSEJ 25)

    Basque *hic> (c) hitzword, hitzeginto speak, talk ~ Chechen c- totell, Khwarshi is- to say, speak, etc. < PNC *[]mc (NCED 62) ~Burushaski *-s-/*-- to say (to someone)

    PDC *c:

    Basque *u> (c) su,(Z) sfire ~ Lak u,Ingush i,Ubykh m-fire, etc.< PNC *j fire (NCED 35) ~ Burushaski *i > (H, N) i fireplace,hearth ~ cf. Na-Dene: Haida (p~) aaanofire

    17h~and iregard the Haida, Tlingit, and Eyak words (also in Tsim-

    shian) as diffusions from Athabaskan. They also seem to regard the PAth words

    *clx~*lx~*cVluas originally compounds with *ce-rock as the first element.

    But squirrels are associated with trees, not rocks, and the proposed remote cognatesmatch well phonetically and semantically.

    18 In light of this evidence, the attempt to derive the Basque word for fox

    from a personal nameAsenariu([TRASK995:9;99: 299]) hardly requires comment.Most pertinently, there is no trace of a nasal vowel in Zuberoan or Roncalese. The

    archaic and quadrisyllabic Bizkaian forms (azegari,azagari< *a-seari) match verywell with the archaic Caucasian form *cEhwl.

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    Basque *oin> (c) soin,(Z) suin,s- shoulder, upper back, etc. ~ PEC*Hwjm leg bone > Lezgi um shin bone, etc. (NCED 555) ~Burushaski *- limbs, body parts ~ Na-Dene: PAth *cn bone >Hupa cn,Navajo cn,etc.; Eyak clbone

    Basque *oo> (c) osowhole, complete, entire; totally, very ~ Chechenz-na full, Tindi eu-b full, Ubykh a-z, etc. < PNC *V full,fill (NCED 525) ~ PST *ch> Tibetan chabe complete, full, etc. (STIV:9) ~ PY *utefull > Yug t,Kott ti,etc. (SSEJ 20)

    Basque *a-o> (c) atso old woman, (Sal) grandmother ~ Batsbi psuwife, Lak c:u- female, Ubykh b-za female, etc. < PNC *wjV wo-man, female (NCED 3)

    Basque *sama- > zamar (AN, BN) fleece, shorn wool, (Z) shaggymop of hair, (AN, BN, R, Z) animal hide used as raincoat by

    shepherds, etc.19~ PEC *wmeeyebrow > Lezgi r-am,Lak ani,etc.(NCED 36) ~ Burushaski *e[m]wool > e,pl. mi~ PST *chmhair(of head) > Garo mik-sam eyebrow, Kanauri cam wool, fleece, etc.(ST IV:9) ~ Yen: PY *cehair > Kott heai,etc. (SSEJ 23) ~ Na-Dene*c()> Tlingit seyebrow; Eyak ceyebrow

    Basque *e-sagu- > (c) ezagu-tu to know (a person), ezagun evident,known20~ Avar e:- to search, ask, Ubykha- to ask, etc. < PNC*EnV(n)to search, ask (NCED 359)

    Basque *siho> (BN, Z) ziho, (AN-Baztan) zigo fat, tallow ~ Tindi in-u-, Dargwa erx:- fat (adj) < PEC *nwVfat (adj) (NCED 362)21

    Basque *encun> (c) entzun,(Z) entznto hear, listen (B also to smell) ~PNC *m> Batsbi ab- know, get to know, Dargwa um-es to search,etc. (NCED 262) ~ Burushaski *-jc- > (H, N) -yc-,(Y) -yc- to see

    Basque *i-hinc> (L) ihintz,(BN, Sal, Z) ihitzdew ~PEC *xwmw> Lakxuna bog, Tindi hic:u bog, marsh, etc. (NCED 065) ~ Burushaski

    19Basque zamar has many meanings depending on dialect. Out-comparison

    indicates that the meaning hair is oldest, with specializations to wool, eyebrow,

    etc. Via the Basque diminutive form txamar, this is the ultimate source of Spanish

    chamarrawool, sheepskin, or leather jacket.20Some have sought to derive this word from Latin sapere(Spanish saber), butthe initial prefix e- is characteristic of native Basque verbs, not loanwords.

    21NCED offers alternative reconstructions: *nVor *nwV.The Basque formziho< *ixoallows us to choose the latter. Contra TRASK([995: 0]), there is no evid-ence for a Pre-Basque *zino.The Zuberoan form is simply [ho], with oral vowels.There could, of course, been a nasal vowel at some (very) early stage.

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    . -(-) 53humoisture (of field, ground) (? loan < Tibetan or Balti) ~cf. ST: PST*(s)> Tibetan husmoisture, humidity, etc. (ST V:80)

    Basque *aic> (BN) haitz,(AN, G, L) aitz,(B, Z) atx[a] rock, stone ~Avar u:stone, Chechen httavalanche, etc. < PNC *mV(NCED56) ~ cf. Na-Dene: Tlingit irock, stone, pebble

    PDC *: The Basque reflex is uniformly *s. Basque *susen > (c) zuzen straight, correct, right, honest ~ PNC

    *Hm > Chechen ena clean, pure, Godoberi in-ki clean, pure,Abaza b-zigood, etc. (NCED 552) ~ Burushaski *sesin- clean, clear >(Y) ssen-um, sesn-um, (H, N) sisn-um ~ cf. ST: PST *chia

    > Tibetan

    cha-s purified, clean, etc. (ST IV: 26) Basque *i-sa> (c) izarstar ~ Tindi c:aru,Dargwa (Chirag) zure,Abaza

    ja-a, etc. < PNC *whrstar (NCED098) ~ PST *ciar(*cer)> Bahingtyarto shine, Garo slsun, etc. (ST IV: 5)

    Basque *sikiro> (BN, L) zikhiro,(AN, G) zikirocastrated ram ~ PNC *-kgoat, kid > Karata :ierkid, Lak ukugoat, etc. (NCED09) ~ Bu-rushaski cigr(Y), chigr(N), chir(H) (she-)goat22

    Basque *sinagui ant23 > (L) zinaurri, (BN) xinaurri [inaui], (G)txingurri [igui], etc. ~ PNC *HmV ant > Chechen zingat,Ubykh ng,etc. (NCED093)

    Basque *selai> (c) zelaifield, meadow ~ PEC *lV> Avar :orplain,Rutul (Shin.) dlplain, plateau, etc. (NCED092)

    Basque *simi(n)c(a)> (AN, BN) zimitz, (L) zimintza bedbug24~ Darg-wa (Chirag) zimizal ant, Archi imila butterfly, Abkhaz a-malocust, etc. < PNC *mi/ *imi(NCED 823)

    Basque *sorhi> (BN, L, Z) zorhi,(AN, B, R) zoriripe, to ripen; fortune, luck,etc., (B) zolito mature, ripen; nimble, lively; omen25~ PNC *Vhealthy,

    22Assimilation or dissimilation has been in play, since the expected reflex in Bu-

    rushaski would be s-.23TRASK([99: 296]) reconstructs *zinagurri. Xinaurriand txingurriare diminut-

    ive palatalized forms of the original. Words such as (B) iurri,(Z) hrriant areclearly of separate origin at least as to the first element. Possibly several words have

    contaminated each other and merged. Cf. also (B, G) txindurriant.24Vasco-Caucasian insect words are very similar between the languages, ex-pressive, and cross-contaminating. Cf. also zinaurri,tximitxa,koko,kukuso.

    25The multiple, seemingly unrelated, meanings in Basque (and there are others),

    may perhaps be clarified by the Caucasian etymology: a basis of healthy, whole,

    whence prosperity in Hurrian, which is close to the Basque meaning luck, fortune.

    What is healthy and whole is also mature (ripe), and one who is healthy is fortunate.

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    whole > Lak ullu- healthy, whole, Dargwa (Tsudakhar) zara-se healthy,whole, Abkhaz a-b-z alive, living, Hurrian awl health, prosperity,etc. (NCED095) ~ ? PST *cj(? *cl) > Burmese haito save, etc. (ST IV:)

    PEC *nnavel > Chechen onga,Khinalug um,Dargwa zu,etc. (NCED096) ~ Burushaski *-s[m]> (Y) -s,pl. -smu,(H, N) -si,pl. -simucnavel,

    umbilical cord ~ Na-Dene: Eyak caumbilical cord; Navajo cnavel, etc.

    PDC *: The Basque reflex is lamino-alveolar *s. Basque *sursu- > (AN) zurzulo,zurzuil nape ~ Dargwa (Akushi) surs

    neck, Godoberi ors:agullet, etc. < PEC *wrV(NCED 33) Basque *a-hiNs-pa > (c) ahizpa, (Z) [h

    pa],26 (B) aizta sister (of a wo-

    man) ~ PNC *sister, brother > Bezhta is brother, isi sister, Darg-wa (Akushi) uzi brother, ruzi sister, Adyge brother, etc. (NCED669) ~ Burushaski *-u> (H, N) -o,(Y) -usister (of a woman); brother(of a man); husband of a sister of a man ~ PST *jH> Old Chinese *jelder sister, Proto-Kuki-Chin *teielder brother, etc. (ST IV:) ~PY *b[i]sbrother > Ket bip,Pumpokol bi,etc. (SSEJ 20)27~ Na-Dene:PAth *-V- brother/sister in Hupa --oolder brother, d-ehyoungersister, Navajo -d-younger sister, mother s sister, wifes sister, etc.

    Basque *asal > (c) azal, (Z) axal [al] skin, bark, peel28 ~ Abaza askin, bark, Budukh iskin (of cattle), Hurrian aiskin, etc. < PNC*wrwskin, color (NCED 228)

    Basque *ise- > (c) izeba,(BN-Aldude) izea,(B) izekoaunt29~ PEC *lwgirl, woman > Chechen d-ca paternal aunt, Lak du daughter,Tsakhur iigirl, etc. (NCED 952)

    (Cf. English whole~hale~hail~heal~health; Latin salus~salvus,etc.) The/h/ in theBasque word is mysterious, since NCED reconstructs no laryngeal in PNC. NCED

    also remarks that the/r/ in Dargwa is irregular: one expects/l/ < *. No doubt thephonology needs more work on both sides.

    26There is a mysterious nasalization in Zuberoan, which TRASK ([995: ]),

    following j~, reconstructs as *anizpa.In any case, the element -(h)iz- is com-pared with Caucasian *,etc. The element -pais probably related to West Caucasian*pa(as in Abkhaz a-p,Abazapason (CWC 63).

    27

    PY *b[i]spresumably incorporates a fossilized class prefix (*b-): cf. Chechenw-aabrother, etc.28This comparison assumes that -l is a suffix. Cf. similar endings in Basque

    magallap (q.v.), sabelbelly (q.v.). Roncalese has the mysterious form kaxal,withunexplained k-.

    29For the element -ba,see the note to ahizpa.For the fossilized prefix i-,see theMorphologysection, below.

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    . -(-) 55 Basque *asal shallow ~ PNC *lV short, narrow (< *VV) > Andi

    -oo- short, etc. (NCED02) ~ Burushaski *alshallow ~ PST *hnH(~ -H, -rH)shallow > Old Chinese *hen, etc. (ST IV:)

    PDC *, *: There is no difference between the Basque reflexes ofPDC *and those of PDC *(see below for the latter). They are initial *(or-thographic tx), secondarily > *(orth. x) in some (eastern) dialects; medial*s(orth. z); *in the clusters /k/ and /t/(orth. -sk-, -st-); final *c(orth. -tz). Basque *iki> (AN, B, BN, G) txikilittle30~ Dargwa (Chirag) ajfew,

    Agul ufew, etc. < PEC *wqV(NCED 39)31~ Burushaski *ki> (Y)kismall

    Basque *imia > (B, BN, G, R) tximitxa bedbug32 ~ Tabasaran amfly, Lak imualibutterfly, etc. PEC *imVV(NCED 39) ~ Burusha-ski (N) humusoa maggot that eats wool

    Basque *ahal> (Z) txahal, (BN, L, Z) xahal[ahal], (B) txaal[aal], (B, G)txal[al], (BN) xal[al], (R) xl[l] calf ~ Cauc: Andi oraheifer, Agulluheifer, Chechen sacalf, etc. < PEC *Hwl/ *Hlw(NCED 556)

    Basque *ou> (B) txorruroot of hair ~ PEC *wrVhair > Hunziburwomens hair, Archi rihair, etc. (NCED 38) ~ ? cf. Burushaski(Y) -uya the first hair of infants, (N) -huria, (H) -hqurahair cut in a fringe on the forehead, forelock33

    Basque *i-sdi> (c) izerdi, (B) izardi sweat, (AN, BN, R also) sap ~PEC *wV> Chechen ijblood, Avar go-b alive, etc. (NCED 36) ~PY *surred, blood > Ket blood, etc. (SSEJ 28)34

    Basque *(H)isu> (B, G) izufright, horror (G) fierce, bad-tempered ~ Bezh-ta hio,hfright, Lak ufright, Abkhaz -mclie, etc. < PNC *VmV(NCED 50) ~ Burushaski *(gn-) to be wild, frightful; to fear, be afraid

    Basque *ar-ka> (c) aska,(R) arskacrib, manger, trough ~ Ubykh abasin, tureen, etc. < PNC *w/ qw(NCED 332) ~ Burushaski (Y) iqsifting tray; a measure of grain ~ PST *[e]kladle (ST IV: 0) ~ Ketktrough for dough etc. (SSEJ 25) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak caak-dipper,Navajo caabasket, plate, etc.

    30 Vasconic is the source of Spanish chico, chica, etc. See other words in this

    section > Spanish. Initial // did not exist, of course, in Latin.31Cf. also PNC *iwshort > Chamalal iku-b small, short, etc. (NCED08).32 Vasconic > Spanish chinche bedbug, etc. See the foregoing note, and the

    note to zimitz.33Burushaski words appear to be compounded with -ya,-yahair.34For the semantic match of sweat ~ sap ~ blood, cf. Old English swtanto

    sweat and also to bleed.

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    Basque *harc> (c) hartz,artzbear, *hars-ko(i)nbadger35~ PEC *HVr[]V>Chechenetotter, Dargwa:armarten, squirrel, etc. (NCED03) ~ PY*as> Kott hbadger (SSEJ 299) ~ Na-Dene: Haida xucbrown bear;Tlingit xcbrown bear; PAth *xVc~*xVsbrown bear > Tsetsaut x,etc.36

    PDC *, *: As with PDC *, *, there is no difference between theBasque reflexes of PDC *and*(and*).The reflexes are consistently lam-

    ino-alveolar: initial *s (orth. z-); medial *s(orth. -z-) or *c (orth. -tz-); final *c(orth. -tz). Basque *sul/ *sur> (c) zur,(B-Arratia, Orozko) zulwood, timber, lumber

    ~ Andi ala branch, rod, Avar ul broom, besom, Tsakhur

    ol sheaf,etc. < PEC *w[](NCED03)

    Basque *hasito grow, swell; to grow, cultivate, bring up; seed; semen >(BN, L, Z) hazi,(B, G, AN, R) azi~ Avar i- to grow, Dargwa (Akushi)uz- to grow, etc. < PEC *VV (NCED 038) ~ Burushaski *-a- tonourish, grow > (H, N) -a-

    Karata alemane, Lak zulnap, pile, etc. < PEC *h(NCED0) ~Burushaski *al- /*al- > (H, N)jalalimilong hair (of people),ali,alibeard (of goat); (Y)jalhairy, hirsute (j=[],=retroflex affricate)

    Basque *bisabeard, etc. (See above, under PDC *b)PDC *: The Basque reflexes are uniformly apico-alveolar (*,*).

    Basque *olho/ *orho> (AN, L, Z) sorhomeadow, (G) sorofield, (B) so-lofield (prepared for sowing)37~ PEC *Hu> Lak luearth, ground,Ingush ilashes, dust, Tsakhurilearth, floor, etc. (NCED 32)

    Basque *ale/ *are> (c) sare,(B) salenet, grill, grate, stockade, manger38~Avar alfence, enclosure, Rutul alenclosure for milking sheep, etc. < PEC*a(NCED 33) ~ cf. Yen: PY *oL- > Ket twicker hurdle (SSEJ 28)

    Basque *arto> (c) asto,(R) arstodonkey ~ Ubykh d, Proto-Abkhaz-ian *adadonkey (CWC, p. 3) ~ Burushaski *hardV> (H, N) hard,(Y) ardstallion

    35This word has many variants: (Z) harzk,hazk,(R) azko,(L) azkuin,(BN) azkoin,

    (AN, L) azkona,(AN, B, G) azkonar,etc. It seems to be a compound of hartz+ *ko(i)n,the lat-ter of which may be cognate with Yeniseian *kwolverine (SSEJ 22, [BENGTSON998c]).

    36Na-Dene *xfor expected *: influenced by cultural factors (taboo, etc.)?37I consider the form sorho(with the cluster -rh-) to be native Basque, in con-

    trast to zoruground, floor < Latin solu(m).38^defines Bizkaian salemore precisely as Estacada puesto delante de

    pesebre para que los animales solo pueden asomar el morro.

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    . -(-) 5 Basque *lato> lasto(AN, B, G) straw (of wheat, barley, rye), (B) straw

    of maize, (R) straw (of oats, maize, barley) ~ PEC *aleaf; a kind ofplant > Akhwakhaaa kind of edible plant, Budukh straw, etc.

    Basque *e-ui> eutsi(B) to take, (AN, B, G) to take hold, seize, grasp ~Dargwa u-to gather, collect, Avar a:- to carry, Kabardian a-n totake, carry, etc. < PNC *w(NCED 253) ~ ? Burushaski *s- to bring,fetch ~ PST *H> Old Chinese *hoto take, etc. (ST IV: 2) PY *s-to hold, hold back > Ket us-qot, etc. (SSEJ 202)

    PEC *w> Udi acold, ice, etc. (NCED 36) ~ Burushaski *har-um cold, coldness ~ PST *chkcold > Lushai sik,etc. (ST IV: 28) ~ PY

    *- icy crust on snow > Kott k,,g,etc. (SSEJ 26) PEC *wV39 > Dargwa ii-kan small stone, etc. (NCED 382) ~

    Burushaski *hi mountain, hill ~ PY *s stone (SSEJ 2) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak ibeach, sand bank, gravel bank, sand, gravel

    PDC *: The Basque reflexes are the same as for PDC *(see above). Basque *ori/ *ol- > (c) txori[ori] ~ (AN, BN, L, Z) xori[ori] bird40~

    Chamalal or bird, etc. < PEC *HwlV(NCED 388) ~ ST: Tibetan m-hil-pa sparrow ~ PY *VilVbird > Kott nena-ili,etc. (SSEJ 20)

    Basque *aink- > (BN, Z) txainku[jk], (BN, L) xanku[aku], (G) txan-ket[aket] lame ~ PEC *nV> Rutul, Tsakhur antrap41(NCED 38)~ Burushaski *hag> (H, N) hag,(Y) aglame, crippled

    Basque *ehume> (c) txeme [eme], (R) xeme [eme], (BN) xehume, (Z)xehne demi-empan / span of thumb and index finger ~ Dargwa(Chirag) imspan, Lezgi ibspan, etc. < PNC *wimV(NCED 39)42~ cf. PST *m(*m)> Jingpoumthe length of two hand-breadths,with thumb extended between, Lushai sm a measurement equal totwice the length of the closed fist, etc. (ST IV:23)

    Basque *auso > (c) hauzo, auzo, (Z) izo neighbor ~ Chechen aguest, Ubykh p-a guest, etc. < PNC *Hw (NCED 62) ~ Buru-shaski *ai- > (Y) ain, (H, N) oinguest

    39PEC *wV(appears to be assimilated) < *wV?40

    We find this straightforward etymology more plausible than the convolutedderivation proposed by j~(see [TRASK99: 296]).

    41A trap cripples that which it catches.42NCED 392 notes: The original meaning was probably span between the

    thumb and the small finger Outside the Andian area *wimVobtained first themeaning span (in general), and sometimes the meaning span between the thumb

    and the fore-finger.

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    PEC *wli> Avar :adash tree, Rutul ulwillow (NCED 39) ~ PST*Va kind of bamboo > Lushai l, etc. (ST IV: 56) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingitalwillow

    Basque *ako,*aki> (c) askomany, much, aski enough ~ Kabardian-xa big, Lak -u- many, etc. < PNC *HqwV (NCED 386) ~Burushaski *q- > (H, N, Y) q-um wide, broad ~ cf. ST: PST *kenough > Tibetan hog,etc. (ST IV: 52)

    Basque *hoc> (c) hotz, (B, G, AN, R) otz cold ~ Hinukh ou cold,Chechen a ice, Ubykh cold, etc. < PNC *(r)HEwV / *wE(r)HVcold (NCED 393)43

    PDC *: There is no difference between the Basque reflexes of PDC

    *and*(and *). (See above).

    Basque *suma- > (c) zumarEnglish elm (Ulmus procera), (Z) znharelm,(G) zumaldi grove ~ PEC *mV > Hunzib umal bushes, Lezgi umquince, etc. (NCED0) ~ Burushaskiu~ju(< *< *um-) apricot ~cf. Yen: PY *[]am- berry > Kott amarulpi cranberries, etc. (SSEJ 308)

    Basque *sil-hagastake, fence ~ PEC *lV(~ --, --; --) > Tsez eli(~ --)wattle fence, Ingush el sheep-fold, etc. (NCED 08) ~ Burushaski(H, N)olimilk filter woven out of twigs ~ PST *iarH(*erH)> Lu-shai hiarbarn, granary, etc. (ST IV:3)

    Basque *sul/r> (c) zur,(B-Arratia, Orozko) zulwood, timber, lumber~ Andi alabranch, rod, Avar ulbroom, besom, Tsakhurolsheaf,etc. < PEC *w[](NCED03)

    Basque *soha> (c) zo(h)arclear (sky, weather), to clear ~ PEC *HuV-nto clear up (of weather) > Udi mu:urclear sky, etc. (NCED 6) ~ Buru-shaski *to clear (of sky), *nto half-clear (of sky), *to stop (rain-ing) ~ PST *j> Burmese to stop (rain or sound), to clear (weather),etc. (ST IV: ) ~ PY *- (*-)clear (of weather) (SSEJ89)

    Basque *Haice> (R) atzetree, (BN, Z) -tze(suffix in tree names) ~ PNC*H(r)w > Karata eela pine tree, Khwarshi aa tree, etc. (NCED59) ~ PY *i> Ketie,dietree trunk, Kott i(SSEJ 30)

    Basque *hasito grow, swell; to grow, cultivate, bring up; seed; semen> (BN, L, Z) hazi, (B, G, AN, R) azi ~ Avar i- to grow, Dargwa(Akushi) uz- to grow, etc. < PEC *VV(NCED038) ~ Burushaski *-a- to nourish, grow > (H, N) -a-

    43PNC reconstruction slightly modified (rin parentheses): It is not quite clear

    whether r- should be treated as a former class prefix or as part of the root. ([NCED:39]). There is no /r/ in the Basque word, so I would favor the former option.

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    . -(-) 59Lateral affricates: The original phonemes are well preserved in Na-

    Dene languages and some Caucasian languages (especially Avar-Andian

    and Tsezian). In Basque and Burushaski the reflexes are conditioned depend-

    ing on initial, medial, or final position. Initially all DC lateral affricates

    become Basque l-, Burushaski t-/d-. Medially they become Basque -d-,Burushaski -lt-/-ld- (-lj- before -i). Finally they become -l in bothlanguages. In Sino-Tibetan we find laterals *or *linitially, velars *k(~ *)finally. In Yeniseian the pattern is initial glide *j versus medial or finalliquid (PDC *> *lor *;PDC *> *r), or uvular (PDC *> *).

    PDC *:

    Basque *limuri> (Z) limurihumid, slippery ~ PEC *HwemVliquid >Avar:am-ja-b, etc. (NCED 68) ~ PST *m> Lushai tlumto draw in,go in, sink, etc. (ST III: 9) ~ Na-Dene: PEA *e> Navajo -h,wet object moves, etc.

    Basque *lisun> lizun(c) moldy, musty, mustiness, (AN, B, G) dirty, un-tidy ~ PEC *wilwVdirt; bog, marsh> Andi en:ubog, marsh, etc.(NCED 0) ~ cf. Na-Dene: Eyakick,ckdirt, dust; Sarsi -z(be)swampy, Chipewyan -smud, Navajo -mud, clay, etc.

    Basque *leaslipping, sliding; to slip, slide ~ PEC *V(r)to crawl >Karata:or-, etc. (NCED 22) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (Alaskan)uu tocrawl; Tlingituxto creep, crawl

    Basque *VdV> (B) erducome!, come ye!, (Z) orde-z go! ~ PNC *rtogo, walk, enter > Archi ai- to come, Lak ululets go!, etc. (NCED22)

    Basque *b-adinthe same, equal, even, smooth > (c) berdin,bardin~ PEC*wVnto resemble, similar > Avar r-e:-into be similar, resemble,Khwarshi a- similar, alike, etc. (NCED 26) ~ PST *m (*T-lm) >Old Chinese *to be the same, join, unite, etc. (ST III: )

    Basque *a-da> *ada> (c) adarhorn ~ PEC *wrV> Avar:arhorn,etc. (NCED ) ~ Burushaski *ltr> (H) -ltr,(Y) turhorn

    PEC *iwV-n > Avar:u-t- to run (away), etc. (NCED 639) ~ PST *j(H)to run, gallop > Old Burmese p-lijto run, etc. (ST II: 56) ~ Na-Dene:PAth *a-(d) > Chipewyan -, -to move fast, run, etc.

    PDC *: Basque *lokV- > (B, G) loki, (R) lokun, lokune temple (of head) ~ PEC

    *arw> Khwarshiooforehead, Avar arcap, etc. (NCED 5) ~cf. ST: PST *[]k > Tibetan ltag back part of the neck, nape; back,etc. (ST III: 62) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *a> Navajohtemples, etc.

    Basque *lirain> (B, G, L) lirainslender, svelte, lithe (esbelto [de perso-nas y animales]) ~ PNC *ilVthin > Avar erna-b, Khinalug rthin,

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    etc. (NCED 639) ~ Burushaski (H, N) tharn-um narrow, tight (of clothes)~ cf. Na-Dene: Haidaa- thin, flat object

    Basque *leo > (c) lerro line, file, row ~ PEC *wr() boundary >Avar:er garden bed, terrace, row, rank, Dargwa jara furrow, etc.(NCED 82)

    Basque *laha> (BN, L) lahar,(AN, B, G) laar,(AN, G) lar,(Z) nahar,(Sal)naar,(R) narbramble, creeping plant ~ PNC *wrV leaf > Andioli,Dargwa aleaf, etc. (NCED 8) ~ PST *(k)leaf > Mikir lo,Magari hla,etc. (ST III: 5)

    Basque *latostraw, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *edi> (c) erdihalf, middle ~ PNC *half, middle > Bezh-

    ta ao middle, ao-kos half, etc. (NCED 2) ~ PST *j navel,center > Tibetan ltenavel, center, etc. (ST III: 56) ~ PY *a()lhalf >Ket d-aa,etc. (SSEJ8)

    Basque *adacaxle (ehun-ardatzspindle) ~ PEC *nVspindle, pivot> Bezhta a spindle, Agul (Burshag) aril pivot of a spindle, etc.(NCED 236); cf. also PEC *lwhandle > Avar or:,etc.(NCED 238)

    PNC *Hnbottom > Bezhta o,Avar nu,etc. (NCED 590) ~ Bu-rushaski (H) tno rectum ~ PST *[lj] > Lushai thla lower, down,west, etc. (ST III: 30) ~ Na-Dene: Haida s-a-wul rectum; Navajo-hbottom, -buttocks

    Avar:angroin, Agul k:unankle, etc. < PEC *wVnV(NCED

    85) ~Burushaski *ltnbone > (H, N) -ltn,(Y) tenbone, bmba-ltenankle

    ~ Na-Dene: *H > Hupa -eh crotch, Chipewyan - between thelegs of, Navajoh,-hcrotch, etc.

    PDC *:

    Basque *lau > (c) larru, (B) narru skin, hide, leather ~ Dargwa(Akushi)guliskin, sheepskin, Avar:ercolor (< *skin) < PNC *li(NCED 89) ~ Burushaski *tar- > (H, N, Y) tar- skin bag44

    Basque *lai > (B) larri sadness, anxiety, anguish; sad, anxious, wor-ried, etc. ~ Chechen lrasevere, dangerous, Bezhta iarohard, etc.< PNC *wrVhard, severe, stern (NCED 92)

    Basque *u-dail> urdail(AN, B, G, L) stomach, (B) abomasum, (B, G)womb, uterus45~ PEC *raV stomach, abomasum, rennet > Tindi

    44Assimilation and dissimilation are probably at play in this etymology. (? PDC

    *ori~*eru> Bsq *lau,PNC*li,Bur *tar-.)45Caucasian has*raV, so assimilation or dissimilation is assumed. Lak :arlukid-

    ney requires metathesis (< PEC *arV), and assimilation would produce PEC *alV,

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    . -(-) 6b-e:u,Archi b-a,etc. (NCED 60) ~ Burushaski *-labdomen, bowels ~PST *w (*T-lw) belly, stomach > Tibetan lto, etc. (ST III: ) ~ cf.Na-Dene: Haida s-anintestines

    Basque *i-sdiblood, etc. (see above, under PDC *) PEC *iV to put > Bezhta gil- , etc. (NCED 6) ~ PST *uaH >

    Lushai tloto do, etc. (ST II: 8) ~ Na-Dene: Haida s-oto put inside,arrange, -omotion in a vehicle

    PNC *rVhare > Ingush lerg,etc. (NCED 88) ~ Burushaski *tur- (intur-n~tur-n marmot) ~ Na-Dene: PEA *un> Eyak -diyahsmouse, Navajoprairie dog, etc.

    Velars:The Basque reflexes are clear: PDC *k> Bsq *h,PDC *k> Bsq*k,PDC *g> Bsq *g.

    PDC *k:

    Basque *hac,*be-hacfinger, paw, thumb, toe, etc. ~ Avar kapaw, Dar-gwa kaa,ka(a)paw, etc. < PNC *kwnV~ cf. Na-Dene: PAth *-keclaw > Hupa -kec, Mattole -ex, etc.

    Basque *haundi > (c) handi, (BN, L) haundi, (B, G) aundi great, big,large ~ Proto-Circassian *ka(n)d much, many > Adyge kand ,Kabardian kad(Kuipers95)

    Basque *hri > (BN, L, Z) hiri, (BN, R) iri, (B, G) uri village, city ~PNC *ki> Avar kulfarmstead Abkhaz a-lahut, etc. (NCED 692)~ cf. ST: PST *g(h)ual > Tibetan khul domain, province, district, etc.(ST V: 2)

    Basque *hongood > (c) on,(BN, Z) hun~PEC *wVn/*nwV> Urar-tian gun right (not left), true, Avar karna-b right (< *kVnV-r-),Chechen dikagood, etc. (NCED 63)

    Basque *har- > (BN, L, Z) har-tu, (AN, B, G) ar-tu to take, receive ~Archi kar- to take with, provide, deliver, Abkhaz a-ga-r to bring,carry, etc. < PNC *ikr(NCED 632) ~ PST *g(h)r> Tibetan khurbur-den, load, khurto carry, convey, etc. (ST V: 25)

    PST *kw> Tibetan s-gu-stegs elbow, angle (cf. khyu elbow), Lushaikiu elbow, etc. (ST V: 55) ~ Na-Dene: Haida s-kyu- on ones shoul-der; Tlingit kyknee

    close to the Basque form. The Basque word also has the fossilized class prefix u- (seeMorphology, below).

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    PDC *k:

    Basque *kankano> (B) kankanolarge fruitstone, kernel, almond ~ PNC*r(-nV) > Avar ornu grape, berry, Abkhaz a-an nut, etc.(NCED 30) ~ Burushaski (N) khakhayo walnut (in the shell)46~ Na-Dene: Haida kankaay~kankaanunripe berries, Navajo -kseed, pit

    Basque *kako> (AN, B, G, R) kako,(Z) khakohook, (B) clothes hanger,clothes hook, etc.47~ Tabasaran atop, edge; point, tip, Abkhaz a-corner, etc. < PNC *w(NCED 33)

    Basque *ke,*e-ke,*kino> (c) kesmoke, (BN, L, Z) khe,(AN, R) eke,(B)ke/ kei- smoke; (BN, L) k(h)inobad odor, (Z) khobad taste ~ PNC

    *wnV smoke > Andi :oj smoke, Bezhta qo, Udi k:uin smoke,Lak uwsoot, etc. (NCED 38) ~ PST *ghiw> Burmese khwhsmoke,Lushai mei-khu,etc. (ST V: 2) ~ PY *gi()> Kott kismell (SSEJ 228)

    Basque *u-s-ki > (c) uzki anus48 ~ ST: Tibetan s-kyi-a anus ~ Na-Dene: Haida s-kyawtail; Tlingit krump, buttocks

    PEC *wmlip > Avar e, etc. (NCED 33) ~ PST *kham(*khm)> Lu-shai khammouth, etc. (ST V: 8) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (Skidegate) kdlip

    PEC *lwi > Chechen u forelock, tuft of hair, Tabasaran arhorn, plait, womans hair, etc. (NCED 23) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (A)

    skyaac,(M) skyaa,(S) skdjieyebrow; Tlingit xisimatted hair PNC *w> Dargwa aspleen, Adyge aentrails, intestines, etc.

    (NCED35) ~ PY *ki> Ket ktmeat, etc. (SSEJ 238) ~ Na-Dene: Haidakcabdomen, belly, stomach

    Basque *bekoforehead, etc. (see above, under PDC *b) Basque *tokiplace, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    PDC *g:

    Basque *gal- to lose, get lost; spoil, be spoiled, etc. ~ PEC * igwVtolose, get lost; steal > Tsakhur agal- to get lost, etc. (NCED 630) ~PST *koj(?*kol)> Burmese kwajto conceal, etc. (ST V: 59)

    Basque *goe> (c)gosehunger, hungry ~ PNC *gahunger > Lak k:a-i,Rutulga, etc. (NCED3) ~ Na-Dene: Galicegasbecome hungry

    46Unaspirated kis the expected reflex: this word has apparently been altered by

    phonosymbolic forces.47The relationship of this word to (BN, L, Z)gak(h)okey is uncertain. The latter

    could represent dissimilation of k(h)ako,or an original unassimilated form (if PNC*wis < *gw).

    48See below (DC morphology) for analysis of the fossilized prefixes u- and -z-.

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    . -(-) 63 Basque *e-gu> (c) egurfirewood ~ PEC *grV> Tsezgiri pole, Udi

    gor,gorgorpole, etc. (NCED0) ~ ST: ? Tibetan m-kharpole, stick PEC *gV> Tsezigilupole, Batsbigalbirch-tree, etc. (NCED29) ~ Bu-

    rushaski *galbridge; steps, cross-beams ~ PST *k> Tibetan m-galbilletof wood, Old Chinese *kn pole, etc. (ST V:5) ~ PY *glstump >Sym kl, etc. (SSEJ 228)

    PEC *gni(~ -e) > Dargwaganziladder, Lezgigrc:eldoor jamb, doorpost, etc. (NCED39) ~ Burushaskigancspindle; neck of sitar ~ Na-Dene: Haidagachouse post, Eyakgacladder

    Uvulars:The Basque reflexes are PDC *q > Bsq *k,PDC *q > Bsq *k,PDC *> Bsq *g.

    PDC *q:

    Basque *(e)-ken- > (c) ken-du, (Z) khen-t, (AN-Aezk.) eken, (AN, BN)eken-du to take away, remove; go away, leave ~ Tindi q:an- to snatch,take away, Khinalug aq:n- to hold, keep, catch, etc. < PEC *HVVn-(NCED 65)

    Basque *e-ka- > (c) ekarri, (Z) ekhar to bring ~ Archi a- to drag,carry, Andi q:ur-d-to pull, drag, etc. < PNC *HV(r)(NCED 55)

    Basque *kola in (BN) gar-kola, (BN, Sal) gar-khora nape ~ PEC*qHwwV > Tindi olu back of the head, Lezgi ew collar, etc.(NCED 89) ~ PST [*Kal] > Tibetan m-galjaw, Magarigalcheek, etc.(ST V:) ~ PY *ol cheek > Ket qet,Kott hl,etc. (SSEJ 302) ~ Na-Dene: Haida qlforehead, Eyak l-quhcheek49

    Basque *muku-> (B) mukurtrunk, base of tree, (Z) mkhrtrs gros-se bche50 ~ PEC *mwe oak-tree > Tsakhur moq, Avar mik:, etc.(NCED 8) ~ cf. ST: Old Chinese *mhktree, wood

    PEC *qVdVbrisket > Avar me-hd,Bezhtaade(NCED 89) ~ Burusha-ski *qVt- > (H) -qat,(N) -qhat,(Y) -qet-ara armpit ~ ST: Tibetan s-ked-pa waist ~ PY *qot- > Ket Imbat qtaahead, forward, etc. (SSEJ 263) ~Na-Dene: Haida (S) s-qt, (A) s-qut armpit; Tlingitt chest, breast;Navajo -dbreastbone

    Cauc: Udi qobehind, etc. < PEC *-VV(NCED

    026) ~ Burushaski *-qh> -qhi(H, N) hind end, arse, -xa(Y) female sex organ

    49Metonymy (semantic migration) is common in body-part words. Cf. the set

    beginning with Basque lokitemple (under PDC *). An accepted Indo-Europeanetymology includes Sanskrit kaka- armpit, Latin coxahip, Irish cossfoot(!).

    50See Morphology, below, for the fossilized ending -r.

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    PEC *qwV- egg > Avaro-n, Udi qoq-la, etc. (NCED 905906) ~ PST*Qo(w)H egg > Tibetan s-go-a egg(s), spawn, Burmese uegg, etc.(ST V:) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (M) qaw(bird) egg

    PEC *qwi > Lak q Adams apple; beak, Kryz ulu (< *u-ul)larynx, etc. (NCED 905) ~ Burushaski *qht> (H, N) -qht,(Y) -xt,-xatmouth

    Basque *kaiku > (AN, B, G, L) kaiku wooden bowl (used for milkingsheep)51PEC *qwqw> Avar hehbasket, Lezgiatrough, etc. (NCED899) ~ PST *guk> Garo khokbasket, etc. (ST V:6) ~ PY *qk- spoon > Ketqkt(), etc. (SSEJ 259) ~ Na-Dene: Haida qikwbasket, Tlingit qkwbasket52

    Basque *tak- heel, etc. (see above, under PDC *d) Basque *asko,*askimany, much; enough, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    PDC *q:

    Basque *kera> (AN) keratsstench, (Z) kharatsbitter, sour, (R) karatsbitter, (BN) karats stench ~ PNC *lV> Archi ala bitter, Ubykhasweet, etc. (NCED 92) ~ Burushaski *aq- > (Y) qaq-m, (H, N)aq(-um)bitter ~ PST *ghHbitter > Burmese khah,etc. (ST V:8) ~PY *qVqVr> Ket qlbitter, etc. (SSEJ 266)

    Basque *kel/da> (c) kedar,(Z) khedrre,(BN, L) kelder,(G) kelar, (R) ge-darsoot ~ Akhwakh :asoot, Lak it soot; flour dust, etc. < PEC*idV(NCED 92) ~ Na-Dene: Haida ayt/ aya ashes; Tlingit kl(wood) ashes

    Basque *koc/> (c) kokots,(BN, L) kokotz,(B) okotz(point of) chin; snout (ofanimal) ~ PEC *> Lak abite; mouth, Rutul, Tsakhur achin, etc.(NCED 90) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingitsjaw, Eyak l-qacjaw, angle of jaw

    Basque *u-kondo> (L) ukhondo,(AN-Baztan, B, Sal) ukondo,(BN-Aldude)ukhundoelbow53~ PEC *HwntV> Lezgi ntelbow, Hinukh ontuknee, etc. (NCED 925) ~ cf. ST: Tibetan s-gyid-pa knee-joint, knee-hol-low, calf ~ PY *g[i]d> Ket u-gitelbow, etc. (SSEJ 22) ~ Na-Dene: Eyakuhd~ud~hdknee; PAth *-()u> Hupa -go,Navajo -gdknee

    51Contra the supposition that kaikucomes from Latin caucu-,a very obscure word

    for drinking vessel ([TRASK995:8]). More likely this is an old Dene-Caucasian word

    preserved by the Basque shepherds for this lowly but basic use.52The Yeniseian and Na-Dene words suggest original *qVk-,with progressive as-

    similation in Caucasian and regressive assimilation in Sino-Tibetan.53^cites an archaic Bizkaian form, ukaondo,which appears to be influenced

    by the obscure word uk(h)oforearm (used by the th-century writer l~). Ithink uk(h)ondois the continuation of the most widespread Dene-Caucasian word forknee/elbow. See Morphology, below, for the fossilized prefix u-.

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    . -(-) 65 Basque *a-kain> (G) akain,akai,akaa,(B) akan (large) tick54~ Cauc:

    Chechenniglouse, Dargwa init, etc. < PEC *nV(NCED 9) ~Burushaski khin(H, N), khen(Y) flea ~ cf. ST: PST *kinant (ST V: 55)

    Basque *e-aki-n> (c)jakinto know (a fact)/ savoir (< *e-aki-n)55~Akh-wakh e-to know, Khwarshi i-to know, Dargwa a- / i-to hear,etc. < PNC *Eto know, hear (NCED 66) ~ Burushaski *-ki-to learn

    Basque (AN, BN, L) kaillu[kaiu] rind, bark, crust, peel ~ PEC *w-V> Akhwakh olicrust, rind, etc. (NCED 93) ~ Na-Dene: Haida qaskin; Sarsi -khide, Navajo -kaleather56

    Basque *o-ski> (c) oskishoe ~ PEC *HwwV(~*wHwV)> Dargwa(Akushi) foot, leg, Tabasaran aq heel, etc. (NCED 926) ~Burushaski oqsole of shoe ~ Na-Dene: Haida st a-qusiheel; Tlingitqos~usfoot; Eyak -qafoot, -qesankle

    PEC *Hwa> Lezgi armpit, Chamalal :uavagina, etc. (NCED922) ~ Burushaski (Y) qu armpit (of clothing) ~ Na-Dene: [qeH] >Chipewyan -(n)-ksarmpit, Hupa -qeh-, etc. (Go6)

    PEC *HwVlV > Tsez qla ankle, Lezgi l foot, kick, etc. (NCED92) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (M) quluuknee

    PEC *ar[H]V> Akhwakh ac:i-a(first) cousin, Rutul u-ud-did step-father, etc. (NCED 909) ~ PST *Krij> Burmese khrwiyh-ma daughter-in-law, sons wife, Jingpo khripaternal aunts daughter, sisters children, son-

    in-law (ST V:

    32) ~ PY *qar(

    )grandchild > Ket qal,Yug xarx,etc. (SSEJ256) ~ Na-Dene: [*qey] > Hupa -qeeybrother-in-law, Galice -keeyoo id.,Navajo -kkindred, relatives, etc. (Go6)

    PEC *m[]Vcartilage, gristle > Dargwa ams,Tabasaran aa,etc.(NCED 908) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak qahbone

    PY *qqante> Ket q:thunger, Arin ogat hungry, etc. (SSEJ 265) ~Na-Dene: Haida (A) qut (be) hungry, qudaal famine, qua to begfor food, (S) qudhungry

    Basque *u-dagaraotter, etc. (see above, under PDC *d)PDC *:

    Basque *gogo> (c)gogorhard; durable; rigid ~ PEC *wrVstone >Khwarshi ur, etc. (NCED

    6) ~ Burushaski (Y) or, (H, N) urstones ~ PST *Kor> Tibetangorstone(s), rubble, etc. (ST V:2)

    54See Morphology, below, for the fossilized prefix a-.55[MICHELENA96: 9].56The expected reflex in Sarsi and Navajo would be k. Unexplained.

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    Basque *ago,*egai> (c) agordry, egarrithirst57~ PNC *iwrdry, todry > Avar a:arab, etc. (NCED 63) ~ Burushaski (N) qharodried up ~PST *krdry > Old Chinese *kr, etc. (ST V: 50) ~ PY *qr,*qV[]i-dry > Kott -gal,Arin qoja,etc. (SSEJ 265) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit -qwantodry (salmon); PAth * dry > Ingalik -dry, Navajo -gn,etc.

    Basque *gilc> (c)giltz,giltzakey; joint58~ Hunzib ibar, (door-)bolt,Lak q:ia(door-)bolt, etc. < PEC *HwlV(NCED59) ~ PY *q> S.Ket qpole, etc. (SSEJ 258)

    Basque *gune> (BN, L, R)gune,(Z)gne,(AN, B, G) uneplace, space,interval, point59~ PNC *winV> Bezhta qun farmstead, Kabardian

    wna house, etc. (NCED ) ~ cf. ST: PST *qm house > Tibetankhyim,etc. (ST V: 5) ~ Na-Dene: [*qin~ *qun] house > Chipewyank-~ k-, Navajo kn,etc.

    Basque *go- > (c) gorri red; incandescent, gor-din raw60, gorringoyolk of egg ~ Burushaski (N) gir water that flows from a wound ~Na-Dene: Haida (S) ai, (A) y blood, sit (s-i-t) to be red (cf.Basque gorri-t become red); Tlingit -e / -i bright, shining; PAth*-ywhite > Navajo -g,etc.61

    Basque *hogei > (c) hogei, ogei, (BN, L) hogoi 20 ~ PEC * 20 >Dargwa a-,Khinalug a(n),etc. (NCED56) ~ PY *ektwenty > Ketk, etc. (SSEJ86)

    PNC *nHw/ *Hwn> Ubykh naqarmpit, Archi qunshoulder,etc. (NCED 853) ~ ST: Old Chinese *knshoulder ~ PY *ken- > Kotthnarshoulder, Arin qinaarm, etc. (SSEJ 236) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *-an arm > Mattole -gan-, Navajo -gn arm; foreleg (of animal);limb (of tree), Hupagan-tag shoulders, etc. (Go6, KL0)

    57Basque has several words for dry, depending on the referent. In Zuberoan agor

    applies only to sources and streams of water, tsal(q.v.)to aliments and terrain, eiharto the human body, animals, and vegetation, and idorto dryness in general ([LARRAS-QUET939]). In Bizkaian legoror idorapply to vegetation, igarto animals and bones([AZKUE905]). See also [TRASK995: 3].

    58Possiblygiltzkey andgiltzjoint are homonyms, of distinct origins. If so, it iskey that belongs with PEC *HwlV.

    59

    See the discussion by Trask (995: 36). AN, B, G unepossibly via an interme-diate form *bune.60The relation of raw ~ blood as in English raw(< hrw), cognate with Russian

    blood, Greek flesh, etc.61There is no *rin Proto-Na-Dene. PDC initial *rbecame PND *d(see under PDC

    *r), and in other positions it became a nasal (n)or glide (j).Here we posit PDC *Vr(i)blood, red > PND *aj.

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    . -(-) 6 PEC *wre hare > Hunzib qi, Budukh q:ur, etc. (NCED 2) ~ PST

    *qhr > Old Chinese *whr badger, Jingpo m-gan a species ofground rat, etc. (ST V: 6) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak rabbit; PAth *arabbit > Slavegah,Navajogh,etc.

    Laryngeals:The PDC laryngeals result in Basque *h,*,or . The rulesof conditioning are not yet clear.

    PDC *:

    Basque *a> (c) ar male ~ PEC *rwV male > Ingush rh ungelt,etc. (NCED 20) ~ Burushaski *hirman, male

    Basque *e-oan > (c) joan to go (root -oa-) ~ PNC *VwV- to go >Karata oan-,etc. (NCED06) ~ PST *to go > Burmese s-wah,etc.(ST V:) ~ PY *hejV> Kott hejato go, ride, etc. (SSEJ 23)

    Basque *onda-> (B, G) ondar sand, (AN) ondar bottom, (BN) hondarbottom, (L) hondarsand, bottom, (Z) undarremnant, residue62~ PEC*antV> Tsez atudirt, mud, Khinalug antearth, ground (NCED 20)

    PEC *V branch > Tindi hala, etc. (NCED 22) ~ PST *jl sprout,branch > Tibetanyal-ga branch, bough (ST IV: 82) ~ PY *ul-an twig> Ket ulan,etc. (SSEJ 200) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak a bough, limb, branch(of conifer); PAth *i> Hupa ipine boughs, Navajo evergreen

    boughs, etc.

    Basque *apalshelf, etc. (see above, under PDC *p)PDC *h/ *:

    Basque *huin > (Z) hn marrow, brain, (L) hui,fui marrow, pith,(B) un marrow, pith, etc. ~ PEC *hwnV > Akhwakh hini blood,Avar han meat, etc. (NCED 96) ~ Burushaski (Y) hun stone (offruit) ~ PST *jblood > Magari hyu,Mikir vi(ST V:2)63

    Basque *haga > (c) haga, aga long pole, rod ~ PEC *hwV > Karatahaa branch, etc. (NCED 85) ~ PY *qe branch > Kott og, etc.(SSEJ92)

    62There may be contamination with ondoside; residue and hondobottom (? (c) ur, (Z) hur water ~ PEC *wlV > Avar or river,Lezgi hl sea, liquid, etc. (NCED 53) ~ ? Burushaski hur woodenwater conduit, gutter

    Basque *nahi > (c) nahi, nai will, willingness, desire, wish ~ PEC*nh> Lak nihfright, Lezgi nehvicious, sinful, etc. (NCED 26) ~cf. Na-Dene: PAth *-ne mind > Navajo -n mind, -n (in -njealousy, grudge,y-nworry, lonesomeness), etc.

    Basque *ha> (c) har,ar,(R) rworm ~ ? PEC *abarVworm > Avarapra,etc. (NCED 508) ~ Burushaski (H, N) harKornwurm

    PEC *wmgV> Tindi hingar window, Kryz ag niche in wall, rooforifice, etc. (NCED 535) ~ Burushaski *hi door, gate, hi-baltarentrance to a village (serves as gathering place)

    PNC *h[]a> Andi hal steam, Udi el-mu soul, spirit, etc. (NCED85) ~ PST *lspirit > Tibetan lhathe gods, etc. (ST III: 2) ~ Na-Dene:Haida (S, M)oasteam

    Basque *habepillar, beam, etc. (see above, under PDC *b) Basque *aicrock, stone, etc. (see above, under PDC *c) Basque *ausoneighbor, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    Fricatives:Proto-Dene-Caucasian probably had several fricatives cor-

    responding to most of the positions of the occlusives: *s,*,*,*x,*.There

    are some indications that these fricatives may have had voiced allophones.(Cf. the conditions in Proto-Athabaskan, e. g. [KRAUSS& LEER98].) Forsome examples of reflexes:

    PDC *s/ *z:Generally, PDC *s> Basque *s(lamino-alveolar): Basque *sain> (c) zain,zai, (Z) za[] nerve, blood vessel, root ~

    PEC *mV> Chamalal s:sinew, muscle, Chechen sam-g sausage,Dargwa emsmuscle, etc. (NCED 959) ~ PST *(r-)s> Old Chinese *ssilk, thread, Jingpo l-satendon, sinew, etc. (ST IV: 96)64

    Basque *bi-si> (c) bizilife, alive65~ Lak s:i breath, vapor, Chechensasoul, etc. < PNC *HwV(NCED 96) ~ PST *sj(H)> Old Chinese *sij to die; death, etc. (ST IV: 02) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit sa, sen to

    breathe, blow; Eyak shto die66

    64See the note to Burushaski *-so[m]kidney, etc., below.65An instance of the fossilized prefix bi-/be- (see under comparative morphology).66The semantic developments to breathe > get tired > die are quite usual.

    (NCED 96). Cf. Russian [du] mind, soul, spirit : [du] to smother.

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    . -(-) 69 Basque *se- > (c) zer what?, zeinwhich?, etc. ~ PNC *j> Ingush se

    what?, Ubykh sa what?, etc. (NCED 958) ~ Burushaski *-sa-/ *-se- >b-sa-n what, which?, b-se why? ~ PST *su who? (ST IV: 08);Lepcha s-re which, what?, s-ba where?, etc. ~ PY *as- / *sV-(interrogative stem) > Ket ae what?, etc. (SSEJ 82) ~ Na-Dene:Haida g-su what?, us (yes-or-no question marker); Tlingit d-sawhat?, sa(interrogative particle), etc.

    PEC *n> Lak s:anforeleg, paw, pad, Udi sun elbow, etc. (NCED963) ~ Burushaski (H, N) -ssun,(Y) -ssenelbow ~ PST *sn> Tibetansenfingernail, toenail, etc. (ST IV: 99)

    Burushaski *as[m]> (Y) asmunstar, (H) asistar, asimuc stars ~PST *sstar > Old Chinese *s, Hruso li-tsostar, etc. ~ Na-Dene:PAth *sstar > Ahtna son,Carrier sm,Navajo s, etc. ([BENGTSON99: 29, 226])

    Burushaski *-so[m]kidney > (H, N) -so(pl. -somuc) ~ PST *siam> OldChinese *sm heart, Lepcha a-sm spirit, breath, Tibetan sem(s)soul, sem(s)to think, etc. (ST IV:00) ~ Na-Dene: Haida -sito wish;PAth *zinto think, feel > Sarsi -zn,Galice -san,Mattole -siin,-siin,-siil,Navajo -zn,etc. ([BENGTSON99: 22])67

    PDC */ *:Generally, PDC *> Basque *(apico-alveolar): Basque *i> (B, G) sitsmoth ~ PEC *wVa kind of biting insect >

    Lak sutick, Rutul tmidge, mosquitoetc. (NCED 988) Basque *e-Sne> Basque (B, BN, G, R, Z) ezne,(B, BN, G, L) esnemilk ~

    PEC *mV> Tindi :milk, Chechen inudder, etc. (NCED 982) ~Burushaski imilk, proceeds of milk68

    Basque *soi > (c) zorri louse69 ~ PEC *r worm > Lezgi ar, etc.(NCED 982) ~ Burushaski *ri locust ~ PST *ar louse > Rgyarungsar,etc. (ST IV:5)

    Basque *-a-/*-o (elements denoting kinship, as in o-sa-ba uncle,gura-so parent, alaba-so granddaughter, etc PNC *w > Andi w-ooson, j-oi daughter, etc. (NCED 6) ~ Burushaski (Y) -syoung(of animals); child (of humans), (H, N) -s-k(o) young (of animals);

    (jokingly) human child ~ Na-Dene: Eyakyah(womans) child; PAth67S. A. p~prefers to merge this etymology with Basque *sain,etc. (see

    above).68With secondary retroflex [] conditioned by following velar nasal.69Basque * is expected here. Affective palatalization, or depalatalization, has

    probably been at play.

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    *-ya little; (womans) child > Navajo -y child, little one, -ybaby,ylittle one

    Basque *beo > (c) beso arm ~ Chechen bii hand (of a child), Tsezbaafinger < PEC *wV(or *bV) (NCED 35)

    Basque *puS- bubble, etc. (see above, under PDC *p) Basque *goehunger, hungry, etc. (see above, under PDC *g)

    PDC *: Basque *-lh- between vowels (preserved only in northernBsq); *l- initially. Basque *i-lhinti> (c) ilindi,(Z) ilhintifirebrand, ember ~ PEC *wndV

    > Andiudi firewood, etc. (NCED 6) ~ Na-Dene: Eyak

    id ~

    d

    dead wood, dry wood; Chipewyan -r,-r,-r,-y to dry (leaves,bark, grass, etc. in the sun or by fire)70

    Basque *e-lhu-> (BN, L) elhur, (Z) lhr, (AN, G, R) elur, (B) erur, (B)edursnow71~PEC *wVsnow > Chechen l, etc. (NCED 68) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *u> Kato loofrost, Navajo -lhail; Eyak aglacier

    Basque *VlhV> (c) olo,(Z) olho[lho] oats; cf. (BN, Z) olha,(Z) alho,(B)alo wild oats ~ Cauc: PNC *wwV millet > Rutul xw bread, Lakamown crops, etc. (NCED 63)

    Basque *lance- (BN, Z) lantzer drizzle, fine and minute rain ~ PEC*[m]V to sift, filter > Chechen litt to filter, Bezhta acari sieve,etc. (NCED 58)

    Basque *lide > (AN, B) lerde, (G) lirdi, lerde drivel, saliva ~ PEC*wird > Agul furd manure, Avar xerd pus, etc. (NCED63) ~Burushaski i slime ~ PST *lt > Tibetan lud phlegm, mucus;manure, dung, etc. (ST III: 5) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *u > Kutchin dscar, Navajo dsore, etc.72

    Basque *luse> (c) luze long (time or things) ~ Burushaski *usn-umlong, far, tall ~ PST *lu long, far > Old Chinese *lhu far away,Burmese ludisproportionately tall, etc. (ST III:; *lu< *luh< *lus)

    70These words are all associated with fire making and its attendant materials.

    Cf. the note by TRASK([995:]).71Basque -ris a relic of the DC plural ending (see below).72This and the next two etymologies confirm the unusual development of PDC

    *> Burushaski =[] (voiced uvular fricative). For typology, cf. Old Armenian [ast] > (present day) [ast] star, etc.

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    . -(-) PDC *x/ *: > Basque *h,*g:

    Basque *ar-han> (c) aran,(BN, Z) arhanplum, sloe ~ Avargnipear,Hunzib h, etc. < PEC *nV pear (NCED 5) ~ Burushaski agrapes ~ Tibetan r-gunvine, grape, etc. (ST V:53)

    Basque *heo> (c) erro,(Z) herroroot (of tree, plant, tooth), also (B, G,AN, L) teat (of udder) ~ Avar rixvein, blood vessel, Lak x:asinew,tendon, string, etc. < PNC *wrV(NCED06)

    Basque *belha-> (BN, L, Z) belhar (first mowing of) hay, (AN, G, L)belar grass, hay, (B, G) berar, (B) bedar grass, hay ~ Lezgi wergnettle, Archi urk:iburdock, etc. < PEC *elV(NCED03)

    Basque *egi> (c)ergi steer, young ox, bull calf ~ Avar rex-d cattle,herd, Chechen dnicattle, Abkhaz -racattle, etc. < PNC *rVxwVcattle (NCED 956)

    Basque *u-hin > (L) uhin wave ~ PEC *n water > Chechen i,Andi :en,Tsakhur an,etc. (NCED 060) ~ Na-Dene: Haida (A) nwater, river, (S) nfresh water; Tlingit hnwater, river; Eyakto melt; PAth *-en> Navajo h,,hmelt (snow, ice), etc.

    PEC *xwlV > Lak xu bosom, cut (of dress), collar, Rutul xliarmpit, etc. (NCED 065) ~ Burushaski *hl-mun ribs > (Y) -hlmun,(H, N) -yalmun ~ Na-Dene: Haida (S) l, (A) l neck; PAth *-ulwindpipe, trachea > Hupa -wol,Chipewyan -l,etc.

    Basque *i-hincdew, etc. (see above, under PDC *c)

    PDC */ * : > Basque *h,*g(same reflexes as for PDC *x/ *): Basque *a-ho> (BN, L, Z) aho,(AN, B, G, R) ago,ao, (B) abo mouth ~

    PNC *w- in *wm(V)Vmouthful > Khinalugob,etc. (NCED082)~ PST *kh(H)> Old Chinese *khmouth (ST V: 0) ~ PY *owemouth > Yug xo,etc. (SSEJ 302) ~ Na-Dene: *Utooth > Tlingit ,Eyaku-,Navajo -tooth

    Basque *hari,hal- thread > (c) hari,hal,(ari,al-)73~ PEC *V> Tseze-ro sinew, Chechen al thread, etc. (NCED 06) ~ Na-Dene: Eyakehrope, cord, twine, string; to tie

    Basque *o-he> (BN, L, Z) ohe, (BN-Aldude, Baigorri) ofe,(B, G, L) oge,etc. bed ~ Tabasaran ainbed (cf. a- to sleep), Agul aunmattress(cf. aa- to sleep), etc. < PNC *aVrto fall, lie (NCED 23)

    73This is one of several Basque words that have -r- in free form, but -l- in com-

    binatory form as first element in a compound ([TRASK99: 88ff.]). The latter form

    (hal-) reflects the earlier stage, as attested in Caucasian and Na-Dene.

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    Basque *(H)oileaf > (B) orrileaf (of a tree), (G) orrileaf (of maize,cabbage, lettuce ~ Avar:ortops (of plants), Agularmeadow, etc.< PEC *r(NCED00)

    Cauc: Botlikhadarustream, brook, Laktaramountain stream, etc.< PEC *HwadVrV (NCED 8) ~ Burushaski (Y) nderes, ondolesWasser, das ber viele Steine fliet

    Basque *e-sagu- to know, etc. (see above, under PDC *c) Basque *harcbear, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    Resonants:Proto-Dene-Caucasian also had resonants and glides, e. g.

    *m,*n,*r,*l,*w,*j.Some examples of reflexes are as follows:

    PDC *m:

    Basque *muga> (c) mugaborder, limit, frontier ~ Chechen moaline,row, Avar muq:line, etc. < PEC *mrw(NCED 83)

    Basque *mihi> (BN, L, Z) mihi, (G) mii, (B) min tongue ~ Tindi mic:itongue, Andi mi:i, Tabasaran melz, Ubykh ba, etc. < PNC *mltongue (NCED 802)

    Basque *miko > (BN, L) miko a little, a little bit ~ Chamalal miu-bsmall, Rutul mu-dyoung, etc. < PEC *miwV(NCED 82)

    Basque *muin> (G) muin,mui,(L) muinmarrow, sap, BN muinmarrow,brain, etc.. ~ Akhwakh minahead, Udi mbrain, marrow, etc. < PEC*mhnbrain, head (NCED 9) ~ PST *nH/ *nkbrain > Old Chinese *n,Burmese uh-hnauk,etc. (STII: 5) ~ PY *d brain > Ket d,Kott -na(SSEJ 223).

    PEC *wmV(eye-)witness > Chechen batrue, Dargwa bi-ri witness(NCED050) ~ PST *mjkeye > Old Chinese *muk,Tibetan mig,Mo-shang mak,etc. (ST I: 3) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit w(wq)eye; PAth *-n()-we- > Ingalik -ma,Navajo -neye, etc. ([BENGTSON99: 26])

    PNC *medge > Lak mitip, point, etc. (NCED 83) ~ Burushaskimuend, side, border ~ PST *mt> Old Chinese *mtend, tip (STI:5) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *wsriverbank > Hupa mis,Navajo bs,etc.

    PNC *mHK(V)Vflint > Chechen mqaz,Lak nuwa,etc. (NCED 88) ~Na-Dene: Tlingit wgknife; Eyak wg-g; PAth *we()knife > Ta-naina va,Navajo b,etc. (KL06)74

    PST *mH (*mk) war, army > Tibetan d-mag army, host, war,Burmese mak soldier, war, etc. (ST I: 6) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *-w >

    74Because the Dene-Caucasian proto-language dates to the Paleolithic, knife

    here must originally have denoted a stone knife rather than metal knife.

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    . -(-) 3Ingalik n-va war, -ma to struggle, wrestle, Mattole -bah, -ba togo to war, Navajo -bwar, etc. ([BENGTSON99: 223])

    Basque *sama- fleece, etc. (see above, under PDC *c) Basque *ehumedemi-empan, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *limurislippery, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *suma- elm, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *muku-trunk, etc. (see above, under PDC *q)

    PDC *n:

    Basque *negu> (c) negu winter ~ PNC *wnV=*wnV> Chechena /

    na- winter, Lak

    i- /

    in- summer, etc. (NCED 82) ~ PST

    *(h)n> Tibetan d-gun winter, etc. (ST V: 3) ~ cf. Na-Dene: Haidaqn-at summer, qn-el spring

    Basque *niga- > (B) negartears, rennet, (Z) nigartears, (AN, L) negalskin rash, etc. ~ Dargwa nertear, Chechen noa pus, etc. < PEC*nw (NCED 88) ~ Burushaski (H) nagi, (N) magi boil, ulcer ~PST *nk/ *npus > Tibetan r-nag~s-nag,etc. (ST II:0) ~ PY *dkpus > Ket d, Kott tak(SSEJ 223)

    PEC *nHmdV> Andi nidueyebrow, eyelash, Lak nnt:a-baforehead, etc.(NCED 853) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *-nenface > Ahtna -nen, Hupa -nn,etc.

    Basque *nahiwill, willingness, desire, etc. (see above, under PDC *h) Basque *i-taintick, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    PDC *r: Generally, PDC *r> Basque *(orthographic rr): Basque *e-eka> (c) errekaravine, rivulet, arroyo ~ Tindi re:a gorge,

    ravine, etc. < PNC *rw (NCED 953) ~ ? PY *()K- or *()K-mountain > Kott dixmountain, kh-lgmountain ridge75

    Basque *hei> (c) herri,erricountry, town, inhabited place, people ~ PNC*whri> Lak ra-l army, troops, Abaza r army, troops, Hurrianr-adwarrior, etc. (NCED 29) ~ cf. ST: PST *rH> Old Chinese *r(h)captive, Tibetan dgra (d-g-ra) enemy, foe, etc. (ST II: 52) ~ PY *har- >Kott arn-gt slave, Assan xran-get servant, Arin ar,ara Arin (ethn-onym), etc. (SSEJ 230)

    Basque *hai> (c) harri,arristone, rock ~ PEC *HrVsmall stone, gravel> Akhwakhairoad metal, Lezgiiremroad gravel, etc. (NCED03)

    Basque *e-bi> (c) erbi hare, (B) erbi-ude weasel (*gi > bi)~PNC*rw weasel, mouse > Tindi re:u weasel, etc. (NCED 95) ~ PST[*ruak] rat > Burmese k-rwak,etc. (ST II:00)

    75See the discussion in S. A. p~s comparative Yeniseian available online

    at http:// starling.rinet.ru.

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    Tsez ri butter, Avar rax milk, etc. < PNC *rw (NCED 99) ~Burushaski *dltarbuttermilk ~ PST *rjkthick fluid, liquid grease >Lushai sa-hriakoil, grease, etc. (ST II: 8)

    PNC *rewbone > Hunzibora,Agul irk:,etc. (NCED 528)~ PST *rk/*rbone > Burmese khra, etc. (ST II:60) ~ Yeniseian: PY *u-a rib >Ket uetrib, etc. (SSEJ 200) ~Na-Dene: Eyak despine, backbone, spinalcolumn

    PST *rkpheasant > Tibetan s-reg-papheasant, partridge, etc. (ST II:65) ~ Na-Dene: PAth *dxgrouse, spruce hen > Ahtna dex,Navajo dh,etc. ([BENGTSON99: 29])

    Basque *adahorn, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *e-gufirewood, etc. (see above, under PDC *g) Basque *ago,*egaidry, thirst, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *gogohard, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *haworm, etc. (see above, under PDC *h)

    PDC *l~ :

    Basque *lekabean pod, husk ~ Chechen lagfruit-stone Khinalug li/liigrain, etc. < PNC *lV(NCED )

    Basque *lami- > (AN, BN, R) lamika-tu, (BN) lamizka-tu to lick ~ Andilam- to lick, Dargwa (Akushi) limi-kes to lick, etc. < PEC *amV(NCED 5) ~ PST [*lem]tongue > Bahing liam,Kanauri lemlick, etc.

    (ST III:6) Basque *e-uli fly (insect) > (c) euli, (AN, BN, L) uli, (G) elbi, (R) llu,

    (Z) l, etc. ~ ? Cauc: Archi hiliku, hilku fly, nisin-hiliku bug ~Burushaski *halal- > (Y) halalbutterfly, moth, (H, N) holalasid.

    Basque *elhe> (c) elhe,ele word, conversation, story ~ PEC *lHwV>Inkhokwari loje word, sound, voice, Dargwa lui number (NCED) ~ PST *lsing > Old Chinese *lawsing, song, etc. (ST III: 30) ~Na-Dene: PAth *-lito sing > Kato le, etc.

    Basque *slo > (c) zulo hole, cave, sudur-zulo nostril, ipurt-zuloanus, (G) musu-zulonostril, (L) zulho,(Z) xilo[ilo] hole, etc. ~ PEC*wV > Avar ulu pipe, Bezhta elo horn (< *tube), etc. (NCED

    98) ~ Burushaski *li> (H, N) litube, spout, gun barrel Karata alemane, Lak zulnap, pile, etc. < PEC *h(NCED0) ~

    Burushaski *al- /*al- > (H, N)jalalimilong hair (of people),ali,alibeard (of goat); (Y)jalhairy, hirsute (j=[],= retroflex affricate)

    Lezgi le eagle, etc. < PNC *lHw (NCED 8) ~ PST *lk / *l >Tibetang-lageagle, vulture, etc. (ST III: 8) ~ PY *dVeagle > Ket di,

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    . -(-) 5etc. (SSEJ 225) ~ Na-Dene: Haida o, u heron, Tlingit laq, laheron, crane, etc. ([BENGTSON99: 29])

    PEC *wn> Chechen neskin, Agul leskin, etc. (NCED 55) ~ PST[*s-ljun] > Chepang hlyunto undress, peel, hlyuto skin, Tibetan un-pa bark, rind, peel, skin ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit lnbark; Eyak hbark

    PST *lttongue > Old Chinese *lat,Magari let,etc. (ST III: ) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit lutongue; Eyak la([BENGTSON99: 26])

    Basque *selaifield, meadow, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque (c) *gal- to lose, etc. (see above, under PDC *g) PEC *Vbranch, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    PDC *l ~(*) > Basque *-r- (between vowels, often with a stemvariant ending in *-l) Basque *a-beredomestic animal/ (combinatory form *abel-)~ Udi bele

    cattle, Chechen bulaaurochs, etc. < PNC *bV(=NCED 3) Basque *a-seari/ *a-seal- > (c) azeri fox / (combinatory form azel-)~

    Tindi sari, Archi s:ol fox, etc. < PNC *cEhwl ~ (NCED 32)Burushaski *halfox

    Basque *erdaraforeign (language) / (combinatory form *erdal-),as in er-dal-dunnon-Basque-speaker, foreigner ~Khwarshiarguest, Chechenlla- neighbor, etc. < PEC *lV(=NCED 90) ~ PST *r> Old Chinese*rnneighbor, Burmese rwijfriend76

    Basque *gari wheat / (combinatory form *gal-) ~ Cauc: Tindi :eru,Rutull,Archi qoqol,etc. wheat < PEC *le(NCED62)

    Basque *ugari/ *ugal- > (AN, B, G) ugariabundant / (B, G) ugal-du toincrease, multiply ~ Dargwa (Akushi)ala-l big, Tindi e:ala-b long,etc. < PNC *HuV/ *HlV(NCED 550)

    Basque *are/ *alenet, grill, etc. (see above, under PDC *) Basque *ori/ *ol- bird (see above, under PDC *) Basque *kerabitter, etc. (see above, under PDC *q) Basque *hari/ *hal- thread, etc. (see above, under PDC *)

    PDC *w:

    Basque *behe> (c) behefloor, ground, lower part, bottom, beheanbelow,down, under(neath), etc. ~ Tindi be:ibottom, buttock, Godoberi ladi-ba:ulower part, below, etc. < PNC *wA(NCED23)77

    76See S. A. p~s comparative databases (Sino-Tibetan and Sino-Caucasian)

    available online at http:// starling.rinet.ru.77A Caucasian root with changing class prefixes. Karata re:ilower part, below

    has the prefix *r- rather than *w-,as in Tindi and Godoberi.

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    Basque *bahe > (BN, L, Z) bahe, (B, G, R) bae sieve ~ Tsakhur wex:asieve, Kabardian w-xa-n-n to sift, etc. < PNC *wi(NCED 630)

    Basque *be-/bi- fossilized class prefix, as in (c) be-hatzthumb, toe, be-larri ear, bi-zi life, etc.78~ PNC *w- (marker of II-class singular): cf.e. g.Tindi b-e:u stomach, b-a:i in the middle; WC fossilized b- or

    p-: Ubykh b-a eye,p-aguest, etc. ~ cf. ST: Garo bi-bikbowels, bi-bal flower, bi-mik sprout, bi-ti egg, etc.; Tibetan b-in face ~ cf.Na-Dene: PAth *w- (3rdperson singular)

    Basque *ude> (c) urde pig (*bu- > u-) ~ PNC *wHrw> Tsez beo,Lezgi wak boar, pig, etc. (NCED 0) ~ PST *wk pig > Burmese

    wak,Lushai vok,etc. (ST I:2) PST *wat > Burmese a-wat clothes, wat to wear, Gyarung te-wyet

    clothes, Rawang nu-wat to cover breasts with breast-cloth ~ Na-Dene: PAth *wa> Kutchin vit,vid-i sleeve, Chipewyan -brsleeve,Carrier badmittens ([BENGTSON99: 223])

    Basque *baowoods, etc. (see above, under PDC *c) Basque *beoarm (see above, under PDC *) Basque *belhahay, etc. (see above, under PDC *x/ *) PEC *wmV(eye-)witness, etc. (see above, under PDC *m)

    PDC *j:

    Burushaski *jn all, altogether ~ PST *j all, everything > Tibetanyo-ba everything, altogether, etc. (ST IV: 8) ~ PY many > N. Ket n,Yug :n, etc. (SSEJ 98) ~ Na-Dene: *ya- all > Tlingit y- entirely,severally, all; Mattoleya-,ya-all, etc.; cf. Haidaynbig

    PNC *jVcw mouse > Dargwa waca mouse, Abkhaz -je squirrel(NCED 685) ~ PST *j> Tibetanyoshare (astronomical), Kanauri p-yurat, etc. (ST IV: 8) ~ PY *jtamouse > Ket ut,Assanjuda,etc. (SSEJ 233)

    PNC *jfire, etc. (see above, under PDC *c)Dene-Caucasian Vowels

    The original vowel system of Dene-Caucasian has been studied much

    less than the consonants. The following observations pertain to the

    correspondences between Basque vowels and the Caucasian (PNC/PEC)vowels postulated by NIKOLAYEVand STAROSTIN([99]).

    Basque /a/ regularly corresponds to Caucasian *a(*, *):

    78See the Morphologysection, below, for further details.

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    . -(-) Basque (h)a- (article, demonstrative) ~ PEC *h (emphatic demon-

    strative stem: NCED36)

    Basque sare ~ sale net, grate; stockade ~ Avar al fence < PEC*a(NCED 33)

    Basque hatz finger, paw ~ Avar ka paw, etc. < PNC *kwnV(NCED 0)

    Basque izar(i-zar) star, etc. ~ Tindi c:aru star, etc. < PNC *whr(NCED098)

    Basque sabelbelly, stomach ~ PNC *bVkidney, liver (NCED06)Basque lastostraw ~ PEC *aleaf; a kind of plant (NCED 3)Basque sagu mouse ~ PNC *crw weasel, marten (mouse in

    Circassian: NCED 322)

    Basque hari, hal- thread ~ PEC *Vsinew, thread (NCED06)Basque (R) atzetree~ PNC *H(r)wtree (NCED 59)Basque har, (R) rworm ~ PEC *abarVworm (NCED 508)Basque haga long pole ~ PEC *hwV> Karata haa branch, etc.

    (NCED85)

    In several cases Basque /a/ corresponds to Caucasian *e, in theenvironment of a liquid or lateral affricate:

    Basque belarri(be-larri)ear ~ PNC *Heear (NCED 56)

    Basque k(h)aratsbitter ~ PNC *lVbitter (NCED 92)Basque zaharold ~ PNC *swrhoold, year (NCED 968)Basque harristone ~ PEC *HrVsmall stone, gravel (NCED03)Basque larri sadness, anguish ~ PNC *wrV hard, severe, stern

    (NCED92)Basque (Z) lape shelter under the eaves of a shed ~ PEC *p

    stone plate or shed (NCED )Basque laio~lanbrofog, mist ~ PEC *rnwVcloud, fog (NCED 9)Basque (AN) barda belly, paunch ~ PEC *brV large intestine

    (NCED 29)Basque hardo tinder (made from fungus) ~ PEC *wV a kind of

    grass (NCED 230)

    Basque /e/ corresponds to Caucasian *eand *:Basque bek(h)o forehead, beak ~ PEC *bwo part of face, mouth

    (NCED 289)Basque erdihalf, middle ~ PNC *half, middle (NCED2)Basque negar~nigar tear ~ Dargwa ner tear, etc. < PEC *nw

    (NCED 88)Basquegosehunger, hungry ~ PNC *gahunger (NCED3)

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    Basque habepillar, beam ~ PEC *hwbpost, pole, tower (NCED9)Basque sare ~ sale net, grate; stockade ~ PEC *a enclosure,

    fence (NCED 33)Basque zelaiplain ~ PEC *lVplain, plateau (NCED092)Basque (archaic Bizkaian) zenot ~ PEC *not (NCED0)Basque lemarudder ~ PEC *mroof (NCED )Basque herriinhabited place, people ~ PNC *whripeople, troop

    (NCED 29)Basque hegiridge ~ PEC *wrmountain ridge (NCED 536)

    Basque /i/ corresponds to Caucasian *iand *:

    Basque hildead; die; kill ~ PNC *iwdie; kill (NCED 66)Basque ipini~imiito put ~ PEC *ima(n)to stay, be (NCED 20)Basque izeba(ize-ba)aunt ~ PEC *lwgirl, woman > Chechen d-ca

    paternal aunt (NCED 952)

    Basque zikirocastrated goat ~ PNC *kgoat, kid (NCED09)Basque (BN, L) miko little (bit) ~ PEC *miwV small, young one

    (NCED 82)

    Basque tximitxa[imia] bedbug ~ PEC *imVVbutterfly (NCED 39)Basque hirivillage, city ~ PNC *kifarmstead, hut (NCED 692)Basque ilindi~ilhintifirebrand ~ PEC *windVfirewood (NCED 6)Basque lirdi (~ lerde) drivel, saliva ~ PEC *

    wird

    manure, pus

    (NCED 63)

    Basque ihintz(< *i-xinc) dew ~PEC *xwmwdirt, bog (NCED065)Basque ahizpa (a-hiz-pa) sister (of a woman) ~ PNC * sister,

    brother (NCED 669)

    Basque (h)osindeep place in a river ~ PEC *wn< *wnVwell,spring (NCED 232)

    Basque /o/,the least frequent vowel, corresponds to Caucasian *o,alsoto Caucasian *e,*,and *(in labial environments)79:

    Basque osowhole, complete ~ PNC *Vfull, fill (NCED 525)Basque atso (a-tso) old woman ~ PNC *wjV woman, female

    (NCED 3)Basque zor(h)i~(B) zolifortune, luck; to mature, ripen ~ PNC *V

    healthy, whole (NCED095)

    Basque sor- body (in compounds) ~ PEC *rVbody (NCED 36)

    79Note the convergent developments (> o)in Caucasian.

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    . -(-) 9Basque otsowolf ~ PNC *brwolf > Andi boo,etc. (NCED 29)Basque or~(Z) hor~hodog ~ PEC *HwjrV- (oblique stem) dog

    > Budukhor,etc. (NCED03)Basque (B) txorru [ou] root of hair ~ PEC *wr hair > Avar

    or,etc. (NCED 38)Basque aho(a-ho) mouth ~ PNC *w- in *wm(V)V mouthful >

    Khinalugob,etc. (NCED082)Basque olho~olo oats ~ PNC *wwV millet > Chechen ho, etc.

    (NCED 63)

    Basque /u/ corresponds to Caucasian *wV, *Vw:80

    Basque zu you (polite) ~ PNC *w you (plural) > Lak zu, etc.(NCED086)

    Basque zur~ (B) zulwood ~ PEC *wstick, branch > Andi ul,etc. (NCED 3)

    Basque (h)urwater ~ PEC *wlVriver, reservoir > Lezgi hl,etc.(NCED 53)

    Basque (h)unbrain, marrow, pith ~ PEC *hwnVblood (meat) >Lak (NCED96)

    Basque bul(h)archest, breast ~ PEC *wludder, breast (NCED65)Basque idulki(i-dul-ki)block of wood ~ PEC *dwstick (NCED05)Basque elhur~elur(< *e-u-r)snow81~PEC *wVsnow (NCED 68)

    The most common syllabic structure of PDC nouns was typically

    CV(C)CV, and traces of this original pattern are frequent in Basque and

    some Caucasian (Dagestanian) languages:82

    (final -i/-e)Basque azerifox ~ Tindi sarifox, etc. (NCED 32)Basque hirivillage, city ~ Avar kulfarmstead (NCED 692)Basque mihitongue ~ Tindi mic:itongue, etc. (NCED 802)Basque txori/ori/ bird ~ Tindi uri-aa quail (NCED 388)

    Basque erdihalf, middle ~ Tindi b-a:iin the middle (NCED2)Basque ilindi~il(h)intifirebrand ~ Andiudifirewood (NCED 6)

    80Note the convergent developments (> u)in Caucasian.81Basque -ris a relic of the DC plural ending (see Morphology, below).82Note that in the cited cases Basque and Caucasian words have similar final

    vowels (i/e =i/e; u/o =u/o).

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    Basque ipurdirump, buttocks ~ Bezhtapiribladder, lung (NCED 8)Basquegosehunger, hungry ~ Lak k:aihunger, etc. (NCED3)Basque aberedomestic animal ~ Udi belecattle (NCED 3)Basque habepillar, beam ~ Avar ubpost, pole, stem (NCED9)Basque sare~salenet, grate; stockade ~ Avar alfence (NCED 33)

    (final -u/-o)Basque sagumouse ~ Avar ca:weasel, etc. (NCED 322)83Basque itsublind ~ Tindi ec:u-b blind, etc. (NCED0)Basque txainku[jk] ~ xanku[aku] lame ~ Burushaski hag~

    aglameBasque ukondoelbow ~ Hinukh ontuknee, etc. (NCED 925)Basque (dial.) mikoa little (bit) ~ Chamalal miu-b small (NCED 82)Basque (B) kankano stone, kernel, almond ~ Avar ornu grape,

    berry (NCED 30)

    Basque otsowolf ~ Andi boowolf, etc. (NCED 29)Basque sorho~solomeadow, field ~ Lak luearth, ground (NCED 32)

    The other western DC language, Burushaski, also preserves traces of

    the CV(C)CV structure:

    Burushaskiolifilter woven out of twigs ~ Tsez eliwattle fence,etc. (NCED08)Burushaski (H) tnorectum ~ Avar nubottom, etc. (NCED 590)Burushaski un~ onseed ~ Botlikh xuniseed, etc. (NCED02)Burushaski orstones ~ Chechen qrastone, etc. (NCED6)Burushaski hurg~horgup(hill), ascent ~ Dargwa (h)urqi moun-

    tains, etc. (NCED 536) Burushaski tum~ tumnutshell, stone (of fruit) ~Abkhaz a-ampeach (NCED00)

    Burushaski phulu ~phol feather ~ Dargwa pla feather(NCED 89)

    Burushaski (Y) hunstone (of fruit) ~ Akhwakh hiniblood (NCED96)Burushaski (Y) argflying squirrel ~ Avar ca:weasel, etc. (NCED 322)

    In the remaining DC languages (Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian, Na-Dene) there

    is a strong tendency to reduce all words to monosyllabic forms, or at least to

    83This looks like an equation of Basqueg[] =Caucasian *, but the Avarissecondary here, according to NCED (322), < PNC *crw(-, -)weasel, marten(mouse in Circassian).

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    .

    . -(-) 8reduce syllables by apocope or syncope. Indeed, this tendency to reduce

    syllables is found to varying degrees in all DC branches. For example, in

    Basque final vowels frequently have been lost when a root contains a nasal

    or rhotic (PNC or PEC reconstructions represent the earlier stage):

    Basque zain ~ za nerve, blood vessel (cf. PEC *mV muscle,intestine NCED 959); Basque mun~muin~mu marrow, brain, pith(cf. PEC *mhnbrain, head NCED 9); Basque or~hordog (cf. PEC*HwjrV- dog NCED03);

    Basque armale (cf. PEC *rwVmale NCED 20; Burushaski hir

    man, husband)

    II Dene CaucasianMorphologyThe complete reconstruction of Proto-Dene-Caucasian morphology is

    potentially a vast field of study that will require decades or even centuries

    of further study (cf., e. g., the corresponding field of Proto-Indo-Europeanmorphology). Here I will attempt to summarize some earlier proposals and

    suggest some new possibilities.

    A: The Dene-Caucasian Noun

    Class / Gender: There is evidence from all DC branches that therewas a system of noun classification in Proto-DC. Systems of this type,

    more or less transformed, persist to this day in many (28) Caucasian

    languages,84 Burushaski,85 and Yeniseian (Ket).86 In the other languages

    (particularly Basque and Sino-Tibetan) only fossilized vestiges remain. In

    the comparison of Basque with other DC languages, it has long been

    known that Basque frequently has leftover initial segments that appear

    to be fossilized prefixes. The most striking of these is probably *be-/bi-.The original separability of this element is shown even by internal

    reconstruction in words such as Basque hatz finger, paw vs. be-hatzthumb, toe (meanings vary widely depending on dialect); Basque herde,

    84For East Caucasian, see, e. g., [CATFORD9]; [SCHULZE-FRHOFF992]; [SCHMIDT

    99]. In West Caucasian only Abkhaz and Abaza preserve a distinction human-non-

    human ([CATFORD9: 298]).85See BERGER([9], [998]).86See WERNER([99]).

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    helder drivel is bilder (< *bi- +helder) in the Gipuzkoa dialect. These andother examples are listed with probable cognates in other DC languages:

    Basque *be-hac thumb, toe (vs. unprefixed *hac finger, paw) ~Avar kapaw, etc. (NCED 0)

    Basque *be-Hasu[m]bile ~ PNC *wjmgall, anger (NCED 329) ~Burushaski -snspleen ~ PST *snliver (ST IV: 03) ~ PY *seliver ~Na-Dene: Eyak sat,Tanaina zi,Navajo zdliver (if < *sVN-t)

    Basque *be-laiear ~ Batsbi lar< *lari-ear, etc. (NCED 56)Basque *be-gi eye ~ West Caucasian *b-a, Chechen (archaic) ba,

    etc. eye (NCED 250)Basque *be-lhaun knee (with stem variant *be-lhaur-) ~ Akhwakheeloelbow, etc. (NCED 0)

    Basque (G) bi-lderdrivel (vs. unprefixed helder,herdein other dialects)~ Karata hanasweat, etc. (NCED 509) ~ Na-Dene: Haidaansaliva

    Basque *bi-s-ka- back ~ Caucasian: Abkhaz azka back ~Burushaski -sqa on ones back ~ ST: Tibetan s-ku body ~ Na-Dene:Haida s-kuback

    Basque *bi-rik(a) lung ~PNC *jrw heart > Avar ra, Lezgi ri,etc. (NCED 68) ~ PST *r*rkbreast (ST IV: 6)

    Basque *bi-silife, alive ~ Lak s:ibreath, vapor, Chechen sasoul,etc. (NCED 96) ~ PST *sj(H)to die (ST IV: 02) ~ Na-Dene: Tlingit sa,

    sento breathe, blow; Eyak shto die87

    Semantically, all of