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Chapter-III MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Page 1: MATERIALS AND METHODS - shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.inshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/33252/13/13_chapter 3.pdf · Abrus precatorius, Celastrus paniculata, Vitis auriculata,

1

Chapter-III

MATERIALS

AND

METHODS

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

40 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

Chapter-III MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter deals with the description of the study area, sample and sampling

techniques, method of data collection, variables and their measurements, and statistical

analysis for data processing and interpretation. This has been divided into five sections as

below:

3.1. Description of the study area

3.2. Sample and sampling technique

3.3. Method of data collection

3.4. Variables and their measurements

3.5. Statistical analysis of data

3.1. Description of the study area

3.1.1. Locale of study

Geographically the Bundu is a land locked block located in south-east region of

Ranchi district of Jharkhand state about 42 km away from the district headquarter on

National Highway-33. It lies on the undulated surface of Chhotanagpur plateau between

23011’- 23018’ North latitude and 85035’- 85058’ East longitude at an altitude of 337

meters (1105 feet) above mean sea level. It is bounded on the north-east by the Sonahatu

block, on the north-west by the Namkum block, on the south-east by Tamar and Erki

blocks and on the south-west by Erki block and Khunti blocks. The block is blessed with

all the natural resources and surrounded by mountains and forests. Surya Mandir and

Dassam fall are the main attraction and tourist spots. Dassam fall on Kanchi river has a

drop of about 150 feet caused by the scarp edge of Ranchi plateau.

3.1.2. Demography

According to the Census of India (2001) the block consists of 88 revenue villages

and 11 panchayats with a population of 62509 (31624 males and 30885 females) living in

11495 households and constituting 2.93% of the district population and 0.25% of the

state population. Of the total population 60.74% are schedule tribe, 4.76% are schedule

caste and rest 34.50% belongs to other social groups. The population density, number of

persons per family and sex ratio are 249.07 per sq. km, 5.44 and 978 female/1000 male,

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

41 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

respectively. The literates in the block are 23572 (16084 males and 7488 females)

accounting 44.02% of the total population.

Map 3.1.1. Map of the study site Source: jharkhand. gov.in

3.1.3. Sources of livelihoods

Unemployment and under-employment features are inherent in the block causing

low income and miserable life of the households. The work force constituted around

52.08% of the total labour force (53554) in the block. Out of the total work force of

27892 workers (15060 males and 12832 females), 57.82% are main workers and rest

42.18% are marginal workers. The work force is engaged mainly in cultivation (53.14%)

Location of Bundu Block

Bundu Block

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

42 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

followed by agriculture labour (33.51%), others (10.35%) and household industry

(3.00%) (Census of India, 2001).

3.1.4. Physiography, geology and soil

The major parts of the block are normally flat with scattered hillocks and frequent

steep gradient due to rolling hills. The general surface of the block is marked by the

presence of Doin- the lowland and Tanr- the upland. The rocky outcrops and ravines are

also common. The vegetative cover of the block comprises widespread distribution of sal,

palas, tamarind, kusum, mango, jackfruit, jamun, ber trees etc. The hilly terrains are

covered by reserved, protected and private protected forests (Zamindari and Khutkatti).

Plateau formation is the most striking topographical feature in the area. The general slope

of the area is moderate towards east. The geological formation is mainly quartz and

granite. Laterite is also present in some area. Soil is sandy loam with shallow to moderate

depths. Soil at some places is mixed with gravel. The hill top is completely devoid of

soil.

3.1.5. Tribal communities

As per Census of India (2001) the total tribal population in the block is 32528,

forming 60.74% of the total population. The main tribal communities in the block are the

Munda, the Oraon, the Lohara etc. They are socially, educationally, economically and

politically backward with accompanying impediments of illiteracy, poverty, malnutrition,

superstitions, addictions, ignorance and exploitation. They have their own ways of life,

traditions, cultural identities and customary modes of living closely intertwined with

nature. Forests are the common thread in all their aspects of life, whether it is birth,

marriage, livelihood or death.

3.1.6. Climate and weather

The block falls under tropical climate with three distinct and well marked seasons,

summer, monsoon and winter. The rainy (June-October), winter (November-February)

and summer (March-June) show marked variation in temperature, rainfall and humidity.

The average annual normal rainfall is 1413.60 mm, which is received during months of

mid-June to mid-September. In this area, the mean minimum temperature is 24°C and

mean maximum temperature is 37.2°C. May is the hottest month and December is the

coldest month of the year.

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

43 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

3.1.7. Land use and cropping pattern

The total land availability in the block is 25097 ha, of which 17.44% is under

forest, 3.59% is under culturable wasteland, 1.29% is under unculturable wasteland,

0.02% is under non-agricultural use, 8.41% is under irrigated cultivable land and rest

69.25% is under un-irrigated cultivable land. Rain fed agriculture using dry land varieties

of paddy form the main land use. Besides dry land paddy, villagers also cultivate maize,

mustard, ragi, groundnut, black gram, green gram, marua, niger, soyabean, arhar, urad,

gunja, surguja etc. The vegetables cultivated in the region include lady’s finger, gourds,

tomato, potato, drumstick, cauliflower, radish, turnip, carrot, chilly etc.

3.1.8. Water resources and irrigation

The principal river flowing through the block is Kanchi and there are 18 other

ephemeral hill streams and rivulets. Perennial springs are met within the more forested

hills. The man-made sources of water in the block are 82 well water, 65 hand pumps, 31

tank water, 2 tube well and 2 tap water. In the block, both the surface and lift irrigation

are in practice. The main sources of surface irrigation are tanks and canals. The main

source of lift irrigation is the tube well. Rainfall is erratic and irrigation facility through

tanks is inadequate. The total irrigated sown area in the block is 2110.49 ha, of which

39.32% is irrigated with government canal, 0.47% with private canal, 23.35% with well,

4.26% tube well, 9.96% with tank, 9.14% with river, 0.38% with lake, 0.12% with

waterfall and rest 13.00% with others.

3.1.9. Forest resources

The forest cover in the block is 4377.50 ha sharing 17.44% of the total

geographical area. The block falls under Bundu Range of Khunti Forest Division with

mostly northern tropical dry deciduous forest (5B/C2) (Champion and Seth, 1968). The

forests include a considerable wealth of land, soil, water, fuel, minerals, natural

vegetation, wild life, water life etc. Forests have multifarious uses and continue to be an

important source of livelihood and means of survival in the block. Forests are the source

of revenue, employment, shelter, housing materials, cloth, ornament, fuel, fodder/

grazing, timber, food, vegetables, medicines, fertilizer, fibre, floss, oilseed, cottage

industries and handicrafts and other Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) besides

playing a vital role in the environmental amelioration. There are possibilities to develop

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

44 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

and expand forestry resources for generating additional livelihood opportunities in the

block. The forest of the area is typically multi layered comprising of a top canopy, shrub

layer, lower canopy and lower grass and herb layer. The block has rich forests consists of

trees, shrubs, herbs, lianas etc. (Appendix-III).

Map 3.1.2. Forest resources map of the study site Source: jharkhand. gov.in

The important tree species include Shorea robusta, Mangifera indica, Artocarpus

heterophylus, A. lacoocha, Terminalia belerica, T. arjuna, T. chebula, T. tomemtosa,

Cassia fistula, Ficus bengalensis, F. glomerata, F. religiosa, Semicarpus anacardium,

Anogeissus latifolia, Mallotus philippinensis, Syzygium cumini, Bauhinia veriegata, B.

purpurea, Adina cordifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Acacia catechu, A. nilotica,

Schliechera oleosa, Madhuca indica, Ougeinia dalbergiodes, Butea monosperma,

Pterocarpus marsupium, Litsaea polyantha, Buchanania lanzan, B. angustifolia,

Boswellia serrata, Bombax ceiba, Albizzia procera, A. lebbeck, Lagerstroemia

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

45 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

parviflora, Zizyphus jujuba, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pongamia pinnata, Aegle

marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Spondias mangifera, Tamarindus indica, Anthocephalus

cadamba, Cedrela toona, Morus alba, Dalbergia sissoo, Bambusa arudinacea, Careya

arborea, Gmelina arborea, Melia azedarach, Alstonia scholaris etc. The shrub species

available are Annona squamosa, Antidesma diandrum, Indigofera arborea, Alangium

salviifolium, Carissa carandus, Phoenix acaulis, Lantana camara, Clausena excavata,

Emblica officinalis, Zizyphus mauritiana, Carissa opeca, Schrebera swietinoides, Vitex

negundu, Xylosoma longifolium, Wrighita tomentosa, Croton oblongifolius,

Elaeodendron glaucum, Casearia graveolens, Nyctanthes arbortristis etc. The tree

resources have a cultural significance and the tree-man relationship is very striking.

The ground vegetation consists of Curcuma amada, Atylosia scarabaeoides,

Allium spp., Sida cordifolia, Kaempferia rotunda, Imperata arudinaceae, Clerodendron

infortunatum, Apluda varia, Cynodon dactylon, Crotolaria striata, Sida veronicaefolia,

Heteropogon contortus, Mimosa pudica, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Swertia

pulchella, Elaphantopus scaber, Abutilon indicum, Crotolarice striata, Eulaliopsis

binata, Pollinidium angustifolium, Crytolopsis bucharnani, Flemingia chappar, Agave

spp., Argemone mexicana etc. The climbers and lianas found are Melothria heterophylla,

Chonemorpha macrophylla, Barleria spp., Argyria speciosa, Vanda parviflora,

Cryptobpis buchanani, Dioscorea belophylla, Porana paniculata, Gloriosa superba,

Abrus precatorius, Celastrus paniculata, Vitis auriculata, Bauhinia vahlii, Smilex

macrophylla, Asparagas recemosus, Ipomea trudentata, etc.

3.1.10. Livestock

As per eighteenth livestock census (2007) the total livestock population in the

block is 191650, of which 10.67% are bullock, 19.15% are cow, 4.53% are buffaloes,

29.06% are goat, 1.37% are sheep, 2.42% are pigs, 0.58% dog, 30.65% are poultry,

1.49% are duck and 0.07% turkey. The other animals namely, horse, pony and rabbit

jointly account a negligible percentage of the total livestock population in the block i.e.

0.01%. The tribal people rear the livestock for animal products such as milk, ghee, meat,

dung, manure etc. ploughing, religious sacrifices, entertainment, propitiation of gods and

celebrations. The residents of the block lead their livestock for open grazing in the forests

in vicinity of the villages.

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

46 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

3.1.11. Infrastructure

Bundu block has 66 primary schools, 21 middle schools and one inter college.

The citizens avail health facilities of 2 ayurvedic hospital and one health center. There are

8 post offices, 5 agricultural credit societies, several grameen banks and one branch of the

State Bank of India. There is one animal husbandry centre to look after the livestock in

the block. The block is linked with 12 private bus services and one national highway

(N.H.-33 between Ranchi and Jamshedpur) passing through Bundu which connect the

district head quarter. It has telephone and electricity connections and receives power for

domestic use. The block has one regular market, 2 cinema hall/ video hall, 2 sports clubs

and one stadium/ auditorium. It has access to both news papers and magazines.

3.2. Sample and sampling technique

3.2. 1. Selection of sample villages

The present study has been conducted in purposively selected Bundu block of

Ranchi district in Jharkhand. Nine sample villages out of the total eighty eight villages of

the Bundu block, having around 10% sampling intensity were selected using simple

random sampling technique for household survey. The sample villages selected

comprised Korda, Jojoda, Husirhatu, Banaburu, Nehalgara, Ghagrabera, Hesapiri,

Roredih and Kuchidih. The summary of sample selection process is given in the flow

chart as detailed in the Figure 3.2.1.

3.2. 2. Brief profile of the sample villages

The sample villages have considerable percentages of forest areas ranging

between 11.83 to 42.81%. The average land area under cultivation is 53.06% of the total

geographical area in the villages. Majority (75.74%-100%) of the population in the

villages are dominated by schedule tribes with an average sex ratio of 1028.22. The

literacy rate is very low varying between 24.52 to 44.87%. Average size of land holding

per household was found to be 1.89 ha. The percentage of main workers was 43.48 to

61.71%. The total livestock population ranged from 660 to 1752. A brief demographic

profile of the sample villages has been given in the Table 3.2.1. The sample villages have

a very low infrastructure development. The educational, medical, social, economic,

agricultural, irrigation, communication and transportation facilities in the sample villages

are very poor. The infrastructure profile of sample villages is presented in Table 3.2.2.

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

47 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

Purposive selection

State Jharkhand

District Ranchi

Block Bundu

Random selection

Villages Korda, Jojoda, Husirhatu, Banaburu, Nehalgara,

(10%) Ghagrabera, Hesapiri, Roredih and Kuchidih

Stratified random selection

Respondents Marginal Small Medium Large

(20%) Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer

(77) (43) (29) (15)

Total (164)

Fig. 3.2.1. Sampling procedure

Table 3.2.1.a. Demographic profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages

Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera A. Land use (ha) Village area 617.58 185.40 497.63 322.49 143.33 308.23 195.59 211.67 397.02 Forest 264.37 21.93 242.84 65.56 31.03 54.20 24.48 44.79 70.30 Cultivable waste 115.85 22.56 15.58 19.99 24.41 16.39 20.26 39.25 33.22 Other uses 27.48 23.10 25.77 21.36 15.07 22.22 20.74 26.43 42.12 Net sown 209.88 117.81 213.44 215.58 72.82 215.42 130.11 101.20 251.38 Irrigated 11.18 18.06 11.89 77.12 2.02 3.90 1.25 10.73 35.34 Un-irrigated 198.70 99.75 201.55 138.46 70.80 211.52 128.86 90.47 216.04 B. Human Population (no.) Households 196 60 110 122 63 83 34 77 71 Total population 973 305 629 682 360 431 161 378 467 Male 400 125 292 294 148 183 62 156 202 Female 424 138 264 279 143 190 76 154 208 Children 149 42 73 109 69 58 23 68 57 C. Sex ratio ST 1080 1104 897 973 893 1000 1277 1000 1030 SC - - - 821 - - - - - Others 973 - 1091 1056 1308 1778 1067 920 - All 1060 1104 904 949 966 1038 1226 987 1030 D. Literacy (no.) Total 241 118 248 239 77 146 55 76 180 Male 190 74 172 173 57 95 33 55 126 Female 51 44 76 66 20 51 22 21 54

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

48 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

Table 3.2.1.b. Demographic profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages

Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera E. Caste structure (no.) ST 678 263 533 434 231 348 107 262 410 SC - - - 102 - - - - - Others 146 - 23 37 60 25 31 48 - F. Land holding (households) Landless 17 2 2 5 5 - - 5 - Marginal 102 24 52 45 29 28 10 34 22 Small 44 18 24 36 17 26 9 24 18 Medium 25 10 22 28 9 18 8 9 16 Large 8 6 10 8 3 11 7 5 15 G. Employment status (no.) Total workers 481 158 252 313 142 224 60 171 253 Main 319 111 121 296 65 131 28 104 140 Marginal 162 47 131 17 77 93 32 67 113 Non-workers 343 105 304 260 149 149 78 139 157 H. Livestock population (no.) Bullock 209 115 152 193 83 127 40 65 105 Cow 232 219 309 204 153 287 49 114 95 Buffalo 78 39 43 63 32 44 17 40 36 Goat 554 129 381 444 135 370 116 206 184 Sheep 45 13 26 29 14 18 9 17 16 Pigs 68 18 43 47 18 26 13 24 30 Poultry 711 263 491 524 289 399 147 367 355 Duck 39 20 22 31 16 24 15 19 18 Turkey 4 - - 2 - 2 - 1 - Source: Census of India (2001) and Livestock census (2007).

Table 3.2.2. Infrastructure profile of the sample villages Particulars Villages

Korda Jojoda Husirhatu Banaburu Nehalgara Hesapiri Roredih Kuchidih Ghagrabera A. Basic amenities (no./ distance) Primary school 1 1 1 >10 km 1 1 <5 km 1 1 Middle school <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <5 km >10 km Post office <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <5 km <10 km Bank <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Hospital <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Primary health centre

<10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km >10 km

Market <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Co-operatives <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Self help groups <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km B. Transportation facilities (no./ distance) Paved road 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 Mud road 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 Foot path 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 Navigable river 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Navigable canal 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Bus service <10 km <5 km <5 km >10 km 1 <5 km <5 km >10 km >10 km C. Drinking water and irrigation facilities (no./ distance) Well 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Water tank - - - - - 1 1 1 1 Hand pump 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - River 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 Canal 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D. Other facilities (no./ distance) Electricity <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Telephone <10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Sports club >10 km <5 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km >10 km Source: Block Office, Bundu and Jharkhand Space Application Centre (JSAC), Dhurwa, Ranchi.

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

49 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

3.2. 3. Selection of the respondents

Selection of respondents was done by proportionate stratified random sampling

technique based on size of land holding namely, marginal (up to 1.0 ha), small (1.1 to 2.0

ha), medium (2.1 to 4.0 ha) and large (4.1 ha and above) following Haque et. al. (2010).

The sample size consisted of 20% of the total number of the households comprising all

categories of the land holders. Household heads were treated as respondents. Village-

wise distribution of respondents belonging to different farmer’s group is presented in

Table 3.2.3.

Table 3.2.3. Village-wise distribution of the respondents belonging to different farmer’s group Sl. No.

Village Farmer’s group Total Marginal Small Medium Large

1. Korda 24 (31.17)

09 (20.93)

05 (17.24)

02 (13.33)

40 (24.39)

2. Jojoda 05 (6.49)

03 (6.97)

02 (6.90)

01 (6.67)

11 (6.71)

3. Husirhatu 11 (14.29)

05 (11.63)

04 (13.79)

02 (13.33)

22 (13.41)

4. Banaburu 10 (12.99)

07 (16.28)

06 (20.69)

02 (13.33)

25 (15.24)

5. Nehalgarha 07 (9.09)

03 (6.98)

02 (6.90)

01 (6.67)

13 (7.93)

6. Hesapiri 06 (7.79)

05 (11.63)

03 (10.34)

02 (13.33)

16 (9.76)

7. Roredih 02 (2.60)

02 (4.65)

02 (6.90)

01 (6.67)

07 (4.27)

8. Kuchidih 08 (10.39)

05 (11.63)

02 (6.90)

01 (6.67)

16 (9.76)

9. Ghagrabera 04 (5.19)

04 (9.30)

03 (10.34)

03 (20.00)

14 (8.53)

10. Total 77 (100.00)

43 (100.00)

29 (100.00)

15 (100.00)

164 (100.00)

Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages

3.3. Methods of data collection

In order to achieve the research objectives, the present study included both

qualitative and quantitative methods. Data were collected by using both secondary

sources and primary field survey. Secondary sources included literature from various

journals, research reports, forest department records, village records, internet, previous

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Materials and Methods Chapter-III

50 “Studies on forest based tribal livelihood in Bundu block (Ranchi, Jharkhand)” Ph.D. Thesis, Mohammad Ajaz-ul-Islam-2012

researches, annual reports and other related documents of different governmental and

non-governmental agencies. Primary sources included structured interviews with selected

respondents, direct observation and participatory rapid rural appraisal. The primary data

were collected at individual/ household and village level, whereas the secondary data

were collected for block, village and household/ individual level.

3.3.1. Structured interview

The primary data have been collected by the personal interviews of the

respondents through well structured pre-tested interview schedules at both the village and

household level.

3.3.1.1. Interview schedule preparation

Interview schedules for both village as well as respondent survey were prepared

on the basis of earlier works, reconnaissance survey of the study area, discussion with the

local peoples and consultation with the experts based on the research objectives

(Appendix-I & II). The village schedule prepared included village level informations: a)

location and physiography, b) anthropological aspects, c) demography, d) agricultural

aspects, e) livestock population, f) status of forest, g) ecological aspects, h) need profile,

i) land utilization pattern, j) land distribution pattern, k) natural and manmade resources

(tapped and un-tapped), l) man power potential and employment status, m) economic

infrastructure, n) basic amenities, and o) specific problems.

The respondent schedule structured comprised household level informations: a)

socio-personal and economic characteristics viz., i) age, ii) education, iii) social

participation, iv) family composition, v) size of land holding, vi) main occupation, vii)

housing status, viii) farm power, ix) farm implements, x) livestock possession, xi)

material possession, xii) income from forestry, and xiii) gross annual income, b)

psychological characteristics: i) level of aspiration, ii) knowledge about forestry

practices, iii) adoption of forestry practices, iv) attitude towards forestry; c)

communication characteristics: i) use of information sources, and ii) extension contact; d)

situational characteristics: i) employment status, ii) migration status, and iii) utilization of

forest resources, e) livelihood assets status of the respondent based on different capitals;

f) forest based tribal livelihoods; i) livelihood importance of forest resources, ii)

livelihood generation from forest based employment, iii) contribution of forests resources

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to total livelihoods, iv) encouraging factors of forest based livelihood and v) discouraging

factors of forest based livelihood.

These variables were consisted of few questions/ items/ statements/ levels/

indicators/ ranges/ ratios/ labels/ orders etc. with suitable assignment of scores to

perceptions/ responses as per standard methods/ tests/ indices/ scales of Supe and Singh

(1969), Venkataramaiah (1990), Sreenath and Veerabhadraiah (1993), Ray et. al. (1996),

Kumar (2001), Singha and Talukdar (2002), Sharma (2005), Pandey (2005), Nagesha and

Gangadharappa (2006), Singha et. al. (2006) and Thakur and Sharma (2009). The data,

thus, generated through these multi-disciplinary approaches were used to provide

suggestions for bringing back the waste and barren lands to production and to determine

the feasibility of locale-specific forest based eco-friendly livelihood strategies evolved for

poverty alleviation and ecological stability.

3.3.1.2. Interview schedule pre-testing

The schedule was pre-tested in non-sample village among 15 randomly selected

respondents for necessary modifications.

3.3.1.3. Rapport building

A good response depends to a great extent on good rapport building by researcher

with respondents. The respondents were contacted and the purpose of the study was

explained to them. This helped a lot in getting sincere and honest views from the

respondents.

3.3.2. Direct observation

The qualitative analysis was done on the basis of personal observation and

interaction with the respondents. This technique helped the investigator to have first hand

on-the-scenes contact with the respondents, see the behaviour in natural situation and

study the situation based features of conduct.

3.3.3. Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA)

The Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal (PRRA) tools (Mukherjee, 1993) were

used as an alternative framework for data collection and analysis. Being participatory and

rapid in nature, these techniques are useful to focus attention on people, their livelihood

and their inter-relationship with socio-economic and ecological factors. The tools of the

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PRRA method included in the study are semi-structure interview with key informants and

focus group discussion.

3.3.3.1. Semi-structure interview

Using the checklist questions, the valuable key informants viz., NTFPs vendors,

forest product processors, saw millers, wood workers, wage labourers, foresters, old

people, leaders, school teachers and other forestry workers were interviewed for

information collection on socio-personal, economic, psychological, ecological and

situational attributes, existing livelihood assets status, livelihood generation from forest

based employment, encouraging and discouraging factors of forest based livelihood and

their effectiveness/ seriousness in the study area.

3.3.3.2. Focus group discussion

This method is appropriate for discussing the research topic in details. A small

group of people who are knowledgeable or who are interested in the research topic are

invited to participate in the focus group discussion. A good comprehensive recording of

what is being said and observed in the focus group discussion was done by the note-

maker of the team. Informations collected with the help of focus group discussions

proved beneficial because it saved villagers valuable time and researcher’s cost/ time. For

the perception analysis tool it was of great help. Focus group discussion was conducted

with 6-12 members at a time present in the meeting and an answer received from any

member got reviewed/ verified by other members present in the same group. Focus group

discussions helped to cross check and validate the data generated. The selected tools and

techniques were used to facilitate later analysis of the collected data.

3.4. Variables and their measurements

In order to have precise investigation on forest based tribal livelihood, the

selection of variables was made after an exhaustive review of available relevant

literatures, reconnaissance survey of the study area, intensive discussions with local

peoples, forest officials, extension scientists and other experts and also valuable

information collected by various organizations. The variables were measured by asking

specific questions. Several scales, indices or tests were developed using the techniques

adopted in previous studies (Supe and Singh, 1969; Venkataramaiah, 1990; Sreenath and

Veerabhadraiah, 1993; Ray et. al., 1996; Kumar, 2001; Singha and Talukdar, 2002;

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Sharma, 2005; Pandey, 2005; Nagesha and Gangadharappa, 2006; Singha et. al., 2006;

Thakur and Sharma, 2009). The following independent, dependent and additional

variables were finalized for the present investigation.

I. Independent variables

A. Socio-personal characteristics

1. Age

2. Education

3. Social participation

4. Family composition

B. Economic characteristics

1. Size of land holding

2. Main occupation

3. Housing status

4. Farm power

5. Farm implements

6. Livestock possession

7. Material possession

8. Income from forestry

9. Gross annual income

C. Psychological characteristics

1. Level of aspiration

2. Knowledge about forestry practices

3. Adoption of forestry practices

4. Attitude towards forestry

D. Communication characteristics

1. Use of information sources

2. Extension contact

E. Situational variables

1. Employment status

2. Migration status

3. Utilization of forest resources

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II. Dependent variable

1. Livelihood assets status

III. Assessment of forest based tribal livelihoods

1. Livelihood importance of forest resources

2. Livelihood generation from forest based employment

3. Contribution of forest resources to the total livelihoods

4. Encouraging factors of forest based livelihood

5. Discouraging factors of forest based livelihood

3.4.1. Measurement of independent variables

The independent variables were measured either using the indices or tests already

developed by the social scientists with little modification or schedules structured for the

purpose. The independent variables viz., age, education, social participation, size of land

holding, occupation, family composition, housing status, farm power, farm implements,

livestock possession and material possession were measured on the basis of “Socio-

economic status scale” developed by Venkataramaiah (1990). These variables were

quantified as follows.

3.4.1.1. Age

Approximate age of the respondents was recorded in terms of their chronological

age on the date of interview. The respondents were classified in three age groups namely,

young (up to 30 years), middle (31 to 50 years) and old (51 and above).

3.4.1.2. Education

Education has been operationalized as the academic qualification of the

individual. The respondents were categorized into seven educational levels and scored as

follows:

Category Score Illiterate 0 Below primary 1 Primary 2 Middle 3 High school 4 Intermediate 5 Graduate & above 6

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3.4.1.3. Social participation

It refers to the degree to which the respondents involved themselves in formal

organizations either as member or its office bearer. To measure the social participation of

the respondents the categories and scoring system were as follows:

Category Score

No membership 0

Membership of 1 organization 1

Membership of more than 1 organization 2

Office bearer of organization 3

Public leader 4

3.4.1.4. Family composition

The family composition of the respondents comprised both family type and

family size. There are mainly two types of families namely, nuclear and joint with scores

1 and 2, respectively. Similarly, based on size, families are classified as small (up to 5

members) and large (above 5 members) with scores 1 and 2, respectively.

3.4.1.5. Size of land holding

On the basis of the size of land holding, the respondents were categorized into

five classes viz., landless (0), marginal (up to 1.0 ha), small (1.1 to 2.0 ha), medium (2.1

to 4.0 ha) and large (4.1 ha and above) with scores 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

3.4.1.6. Main occupation

The occupation in which an individual is engaged for six months or more in a

year is termed as main occupation. Based on occupational pattern the respondents were

grouped into six categories and scores were assigned as follows:

Category Score

Wage labour 1

Caste occupation 2

Cultivation 3

Business 4

Service 5

Any other occupation 6

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3.4.1.7. Housing status

The housing status of the respondents included both type and number. The types

of house were no house, hut, katcha, mixed and pucca with their respective scores of 0, 1,

2, 3 and 4. The number of house were 1, 2 and more than 2 with scores 1, 2 and 3,

respectively.

3.4.1.8. Farm power

Farm power refers to the total number of the draught animals possessed by the

respondents. Farm power was categorized into four groups viz., no bullock, 1-2 bullocks,

3-4 bullocks and 5-6 bullocks assigning scores 0, 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

3.4.1.9. Farm implements

In order to measure the farm implement possession of the respondents, all the

important farm implements were listed in the interview schedule with their respective

scores as follows:

Farm implement Score

Wooden plough 1

Sickle 1

Spade 1

Axe 1

Harrow 1

Power tiller 2

Bullock cart 2

Pump set 2

Sprayer 2

Duster 2

Electric motor 2

Tractor 4

Any other 2

Entries were made against the items possessed by the respondents and their

numbers were indicated. The numbers of the items possessed were multiplied with their

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respective scores and the weighted scores were summed to compute status of the farm

implement possession. Based on summated score the respondents were classified into low

(score below 7), medium (score 7 to 12) and high (score above 12) farm implement

possession.

3.4.1.10. Livestock possession

The livestock possession of the respondents was measured by categorization into

four groups viz., no livestock, up to 5 livestock, 6 to 10 livestock and more than 10

livestock with scores 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

3.4.1.11. Material possession

To measure material possession of the respondents, all the important household

items were listed in the interview schedule with their respective scores in the parentheses

as follows:

Household material Score

Smokeless chulha 1

Stove 1

Sewing machine 1

Watch 1

Radio 1

Cycle 1

Wooden furniture 1

Pressure cooker 1

Improved storage bin 2

Biogas stove 2

Tape recorder 2

Scooter/ motor cycle 3

Any other 2

The items possessed were marked and their numbers were recorded in the

schedule. The numbers of the items possessed were multiplied with their respective

scores and the weighted scores were summed to compute status of the material

possession. The respondents were distributed into low (score below 6), medium (score 6

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to 10) and high (score above 10) level of material possession based on their summated

score.

3.4.1.12. Income from forestry

The income from forestry refers to the income derived by the people from direct

employment generated by forest and other allied departments, secondary employment in

wood-based and small scale forest-based enterprises and self-employment as collection,

processing and marketing of Non-Timber Forest Produces (NTFPs). It was measured by

evaluating the earnings from these sources and converting them into monetary value

using the scale of Singha and Talukdar (2002). The categorization and scoring procedure

for annual income earned from forestry were as follows:

Category Score

Up to ` 4000/ annum 1

` 4001 to 8000/ annum 2

` 8001 to 16000/ annum 3

Above ` 16000/ annum 4

3.4.1.13. Gross annual income

It is the total annual income received from different sources like agriculture,

horticulture, livestock rearing, forestry, small business, wage labour, rural artisan and

handicrafts and others. It was measured by evaluating the returns from these sources and

converting them into monetary value as per the scale of Singha and Talukdar (2002). The

annual incomes of the respondents were recorded in four categories with the assignment

of scores as follows:

Category Income level Score

Very low income Up to ` 15000/ annum 1

Low income ` 15001 to 30000)/ annum 2

Medium income ` 30001 to 60000/ annum 3

High income Above ` 60000/ annum 4

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3.4.1.14. Level of aspiration

According to Muthayya (1971) aspirations are goal-statements concerning future

level of achievement. Hence, aspirations are related to goals which include or can vary on

a number of attributes like income, residence, material possession, equipments etc. The

goals will vary according to socio-economic status and other factors. As aspiration

concern with the future level of possible achievement, it was thought to include this

variable in the study since the tribal are at the lowest rung of the society. Aspirations may

include areas related to education of sons and daughters, type of occupation of their sons,

increase in income, increase in land holding, increase in produce, the type of house,

agricultural implements, possession of furniture, material possession and increase in

livestock on which the aspiration could be measured. Out of these, aspirations regarding

children’s level of education, increase in income, agricultural implements, material

possession and increase in livestock in the near future were taken for this study. The

levels of aspiration of the respondents for these items were assessed using scale of Supe

and Singh (1969) as follows:

(i) Aspiration regarding children’s level of education

The aspiration regarding children’s level of education by the respondents was

measured by recording the level of education they expect to have for their children in the

near future. The levels of education are primary school, middle school, high school,

college and professional and technical with their respective scores of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

(ii) Aspiration regarding increase in income

To study the aspiration of the respondents regarding increase in income, questions

were framed to know what the respondents would like to have his income in the coming

years. The percentage increase in income was categorized in five levels as up to 25%, 26

to 50%, 51 to 75%, 76 to 100% and above 100% and the score assigned to these levels

were 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively.

(iii) Aspiration for agricultural implements

To measure the aspiration of the respondents for agricultural implements, the

items included were wooden plough, harrow, soil inverter, sprayer, electric motor,

thresher, winnowing fan, diesel engine and tractor. On the basis of the approximate

prices, these items were scored 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2 and 6, respectively.

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(iv) Aspiration for material possession

For knowing the aspiration on material possession by the respondents, the items

included were torch, cart, electrical items, radio, watch, brass utensils, steel utensils, silk

and woolen clothes, silver and gold ornaments. Each item was arbitrarily given one score.

The total score obtained by a respondent was taken into account for further analysis.

(v) Aspiration for increase in livestock

To assess the aspiration of the respondents for increase in livestock, the animals

included were cow, buffaloes, bullock, sheep, goat, pig, poultry and ducks. An arbitrary

score of one was given for each type of animal irrespective of their number that the

respondent would like to possess in the near future.

Calculation of aspiration level

The scores obtained by each of the respondents on the above five items on which

aspiration was ascertained were summed up as follows:

Level of aspiration = ∑ ( El + Ii + Ai + Mp + Lp )

Where, El = Increase in children’s level of education in the next three years

Ii = Increase income in the next three years

Ai = Increase in agricultural implements in the next three years

Mp = Increase in material possession in the next three years

Lp = Increase in livestock in the next three years

3.4.1.15. Knowledge about forestry practices

Knowledge is generally understood as an intimate acquaintance of an individual

with facts. English and English (1961) defined knowledge as “a body of understood

information possessed by an individual or by a culture’. In psychology, knowledge is

often referred to as the totality of cognitive behaviour with reference to physical and

hypothetical object. Rogers and Shoemakers (1971) while describing the model of

innovation decision process, considered knowledge as a function or stage of the decision

making process when the individual is exposed to the existence of an innovation and gain

some understanding of how it functions. Bloom et. al. (1956) viewed knowledge as

“those behaviour and test situations which emphasized the remembering either by

recognition or recall of ideas, material or phenomenon”. According to Coombs (1953) a

standardized knowledge test is “one that has been carefully constructed by experts in

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light of acceptable objectives or purpose, procedures for administering, scoring and

interpreting scores are specified in detail so that no matter who gives the test or where it

may be given, the results should be comparable and norms and degree of different ages or

status have re-determined.

Knowledge is one of the important components of behaviour and as such play an

important role in covert and overt behaviour of an individual. The variable indicated the

extent of knowledge in respect of forestry practices, the respondents possessed at the time

of interview. A knowledge scale developed by Kumar (2001) was used to determine the

extent of respondent’s knowledge about forestry practices. Ten selected forestry practices

related to major fields such as choice of tree species, afforestation, land and water

management, protection and management of plantation and extraction and sale of forest

produce which formed the knowledge test was incorporated in the interview schedule for

administration to the respondents. Each of the practices was provided with a four point

response categories as no knowledge at all (0), to a little extent (1), to a moderate extent

(2) and to a large extent (3). The summation of scores over all the practices of a particular

respondent indicated his level of knowledge about forestry practices.

3.4.1.16. Adoption of forestry practices

Adoption may be defined as a decision to make full use of an innovation (Rogers

and Shoemakers, 1971). Adoption here refers to the use adoption i.e. not only acceptance

for a technology in principle but its actual application in the field situation. Adoption of

forestry practices was measured with the help of a schedule developed by Nagesha and

Gangadharappa (2006). A set of ten forestry practices related to major fields such as

choice of tree species, afforestation, land and water management, protection and

management of plantation and extraction and sale of forest produce was prepared and

listed in the schedule. The adoption behaviour of practices were recorded as non

adoption, partial adoption and full adoption assigning the scores 0, 1 and 2, respectively.

On the basis of cumulative scores obtained by the respondents they were classified into

three groups of adoption level namely, low, medium and high following quartile

deviation formulae.

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3.4.1.17. Attitude towards forestry

The Webster’s new dictionary defines attitude as “a way of acting, feeling or

thinking ones mental disposition, mental set etc.” According to Thurstone (1946) attitude

is the degree of positive or negative effect associated with some psychological object like

symbol, phrase, slogan, person, institution, ideal or ideas towards which people can differ

in varying degrees. Rogers and Shoemakers (1971) viewed attitude as relatively enduring

organization of an individual’s belief about an object that predisposes his action.

According to Krech and Crutchfield (1948), attitude is an enduring organization of

motivational, perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspects of

individual’s world.

The attitude of respondents towards forestry was measured using a scale

developed by Sreenath and Veerabhadraiah (1993). The attitude scale was consisted of

ten especially collected statements from target group, relevant professionals and available

literatures related to the role of forests. The statements were scrutinized and edited as per

criteria set up by Edwards (1969). The respondents were asked to respond to each

statement in terms of their agreement or disagreement on five point continuum viz.,

strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree with their respective

scores of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. The individual’s total score was determined by summation of

scores on each item, which indicated his or her position on a scale of favourable-

unfavourable attitude toward forestry. The responses are analyzed to predict attitude

behaviour of respondents towards forestry following Likert’s method of summated rating

technique (1932).

3.4.1.18. Use of information sources

The use of information sources of the respondents was assessed by degree of

utilization of information sources among respondents using scale developed by Ray et. al.

(1996). A list of all possible information sources were included in the interview schedule

and utilization responses were recorded in four point continuum namely most often

(daily/ weekly), often (fortnightly/ monthly), sometime (half yearly/ yearly) and never

with scores 3, 2, 1 and 0, respectively. The cumulative scores of the respondents were

utilized for assessment of overall use of information sources as low, medium and high

based on mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.).

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3.4.1.19. Extension contact

The extension contact was measured following Ray et. al. (1996). To measure the

extension contact of the respondents, all the possible extension agents in the study area

were listed in the schedule. The respondent’s frequency of contacts with the extension

agents were provided with 3-point response categories. The 3-point continuum were

regularly, occasionally and never with scores 2, 1 and 0, respectively. The respondents

were classified into three categories namely, low, medium and high level of overall

extension contact based on mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.) of individual’s

cumulative scores.

3.4.1.20. Employment status

The various dimensions of the employment status of the respondents investigated

using the scale of Thakur and Sharma (2009) were as follows:

Dimension Category Score

(a) No. of workers in the family 1 1

2 2

3 3

>3 4

(b) Size of employment (Man days/ annum) Up to 200 1

201-300 2

>300 3

(c) Nature of employment Family labour 1

Self employment 2

Casual 3

Temporary 4

Regular 5

The scores obtained by the respondents over these dimensions were analyzed to

work out the man-to-work load (population in working age group and its employment

load) relationship to assess the man/ woman power potential, its utilization and the

possibilities of introducing new employment opportunities.

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3.4.1.21. Migration status

To study the magnitude of migration status of the respondents, the information

were collected about the various dimensions following the scale of Sharma (2005) as

follows:

Dimension Category Score

(a) No. of migrants in the family Nil 0

1 1

2 2

>2 3

(b) Migration distance No migration 0

Up to 50 km 1

51 to 100 km 2

Above 100 km 3

(c) Migration period No migration 0

Up to 4 month 1

5-8 months 2

Above 8 months 3

The scores received by the respondents over these dimensions were utilized in the

assessment of the various aspects of migration status based on appropriate indices and

scales.

3.4.1.22. Utilization of forest resources

To get the respondent’s perception towards the utilization of forest resources in

their daily life, ten broad classes of forest products were incorporated in the schedule and

the degree of utilization of these products were measured by a 4-point continuum scale

namely, very frequently (daily/ weekly), frequently (fortnightly/monthly), occasionally

(half yearly/ yearly) and never with their respective scores 3, 2, 1 and 0 as per Singha et.

al. (2006). By summation of the response scores against each of the forest products the

respondent’s cumulative scores were determined, which were utilized later for

assessment of the degree of utilization of forest resources in the respondent’s daily life.

The total rank score for each forest product was obtained by multiplying the frequency of

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responses with their respective scores and adding them. The total rank score was then

divided by the total number of respondents to get mean rank score. The forest products

were then arranged in descending order of utilization on the basis of their mean rank

score from I to X.

3.4.2. Measurement of dependent variable

3.4.2.1. Livelihood assets status

Livelihood can be defined as the capabilities, assets and activities required for a

means of living (Carney, 1998). A livelihood comprises people, their capabilities and

means of living including food, income and assets. Tangible assets are resources and

stores and intangible assets are claims and access. The concept of livelihoods integrates

ecological, economic and social wellbeing of the people. The assessment of existing

livelihood assets status of the respondent was based on information related to five

livelihood capitals namely, physical, natural, financial, human and social. Important

indicators for each of the five capitals were selected and measured using livelihood

assessment scale designed by Pandey (2005) after certain modifications as follows:

(i) Physical capital

Indicator Level of asset possession

(a) Housing No house (0)/ hut (1)/ katcha (2)/ mixed (3)/ pucca (4)

(b) Agricultural land Landless (0)/ marginal (up to 1.0 ha) (1)/ small (1.1 to 2.0 ha)

(2)/ medium (2.1 to 4.0 ha) (3)/ large (> 4.0 ha) (4)

(c) Farm materials

Wooden plough (1)/ sickle (1)/ axe (1) harrow (1)/ spade (1)/

duster (2)/ sprayer (2)/ power tiller (2)/ pump set (2)/ electric

motor (2)/ tractor (4)

(d) Transport vehicle No vehicle (0)/ cycle (1)/ bullock cart (2)/ motor cycle (3)

(e) Domestic items:

Cot (1)/ Chair (1)/ Watch (1)/ Smokeless chulha (1)/ Stove (1)/

Sewing machine (1)/ Pressure cooker (1)/ Radio (1)/ Mobile

phone (2)/ Kitchen utensil (1)/ Storage utensil (1)/ Others (1)

Physical capital is capital created by people themselves. For example, houses,

vehicles, agricultural machinery, communication facilities, transport infrastructure and so

on. The community assets such as buildings, roads, digging wells, tube wells, hand

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pumps and tools provide the security, mobility and capability that allow people to

produce, transform, exchange and consume goods. It is expected that increased earnings

from these facilities can be invested in physical assets including productive assets and

consumable items. The indicators selected to assess physical capital owned by the

respondents were housing, agricultural land, farm materials, transport vehicle and

domestic items. The asset possession of these indicators was assessed by the scoring

procedure as detailed above.

(ii) Natural capital

Indicator Level of asset possession

(a) Use of forest

resources

Browse for livestock (1)/ mulch/ compost (1)/ wooden utensils

(1)/ wooden tools (1)/ grasses for thatching (1)/ weaving fibres

(1)/ wild medicines (1)/ wild fruit wine (1)/ leaves for dona-

pattal making (1)/ wooden furniture (1)/ herbs (1)/ fruit products

(1)/ bamboo products (1)/ Fuel wood (1)/ Construction timber

(1)

(b) Use of water

resources

Drinking (1)/ irrigation (1)/ fishery (1)

(c) Use of land

resources

Field crops (1)/ silvicultural crops (1)/ horticultural crops (1)/

animal husbandry (1)/ fishery (1)/ Lac cultivation (1)/

Sericulture (1)

(d) Use of abiotic

resources

Rock for building, fences, retainer walls etc. (1)/ sand for

building (1)/ clay for pottery (1)/ clay for cosmetic / decoration

(1/) clay for building (1)

(e) Use of animal

resources

Insects (1)/ birds and eggs (1)/ animal meat (1)/ medicine (1)/

leather (1)/ cultural artifacts (1)

Natural capital refers to the forest, land, water, biodiversity and many

environmental services available to people. Conservation of natural capital is one of the

key aims of livelihoods improvement (Belcher, 2005). To achieve this objective tribal

people were given more rights and responsibilities over forest resources to improve the

stock and flow of resources. The indicators of natural capital included were forest, water,

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land, abiotic and animal resources. The ranges of uses of these indicators were assessed

to determine the respondent’s natural capital as given above.

(iii) Financial capital

Financial capital comprises savings, remittances and other cash assets. Financial

capital plays an important role in our economy, it helps us to facilitate the other types of

capital to be owned and traded. The indicators included for assessment of financial

capital comprised wages, savings, remittance/ credits, other cash assets and total income.

These indicators were quantified using the scoring pattern as follows:

Indicator Level of asset possession

(a) Wages Low (< ` 100/ day) (1)/ medium (` 101-200/ day) (2)/ high (> `

200/ day) (3)

(b) Savings No saving (0)/ savings up to ` 10000/ year (1)/ savings> `

10000/ year (2)

(c) Remittance/ credits No remittance/ credits (3)/ remittance/ credits up to ` 10000/

year (2)/ remittance/ credits > ` 10000/ year (1)

(d) Other cash assets No other cash assets (0)/ cash assets up to ` 10000 (1)/ cash

assets > ` 10000 (2)

(e) Total income Very low (Up to ` 15000/ annum) (1)/ low income (` 15001 to

30000)/ annum (2)/ medium income (` 30001 to 60000/ annum)

(3)/ high income (Above ` 60000/ annum) (4)

(iv) Human capital

Indicator Level of asset possession

(a) Education Illiterate (0)/ below primary (1)/ primary (2)/ middle (3)/

high school (4)/ intermediate (5)/ graduate & above (6)

(b) Occupational skill Highly skilled (2)/ poorly skilled (1)/ unskilled (0)

(c) Occupational knowledge Excellent (3)/ good (2)/ poor (1)

(d) Information access Regular (2)/ occasional (1)/ never (0)

(e) Health & nutrition Good (3)/ average (2)/ poor (1)

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Human capital consists of people’s education, knowledge, skills, information,

health and motivation. The human capital was assessed by the indicators namely,

education, occupational skill, occupational knowledge, information access and health &

nutrition using the scoring system as mentioned above.

(v) Social capital

Net worth of individuals can be judged by the networks they belong to. The gain

that individuals have due to belonging to a particular network is the social capital. Social

capital concerns the institutions that help us to maintain and develop human capital in

partnership with others; e.g. families, communities, committees, businesses, trade unions,

schools, self help groups, voluntary organizations, political parties etc. It also includes

networks, groups and trust. The social capital was assessed in terms of co-operation and

involvement of the respondents with various social organizations viz., communal society,

gram sabha, forest protection committee, voluntary organization and political party as no

membership (0)/ member (1)/ office bearer (2).

Calculation of livelihood assets status

The scores obtained on the above five capitals based on selected indicators were

summed up to determine the livelihood assets status of the respondents as follows:

Livelihood assets status = ∑ (Pc + Nc + Fc + Hc + Sc)

where, Pc = cumulative scores of indicators of physical capital

Nc = cumulative scores of indicators of natural capital

Fc = cumulative scores of indicators of financial capital

Hc = cumulative scores of indicators of human capital

Sc = cumulative scores of indicators of social capital

The respondents were classified into three levels of livelihood assets status as

low, medium and high using mean (x) and standard deviation (S.D.).

3.4.3. Assessment of forest based tribal livelihoods

3.4.3.1. Livelihood importance of forest resources

In order to study the livelihood importance of forest resources the informations

regarding range of resources and species available and their utilization pattern to meet

daily livelihood needs has been collected. The data on floral resources included name of

species, family, vernacular name, plant habit, flowering and fruiting period, part used and

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usage while the enumeration of faunal resources comprised name of species, vernacular

name, part used and usage.

3.4.3.2. Livelihood generation from forest based employment

The various aspects of livelihood generation from forest based direct and

secondary employment explored were type of forestry activities, number of members

employed, size of employment (man days/ year) and income earned. In order to study the

livelihood generation from NTFPs based self-employment the informations on collection,

consumption, employment generation (members employed, man/ days generated),

seasonality of collection and trade, sale and income related to various NTFPs namely,

fuel wood, fodder, timber, food/ fruit, vegetable, fibre/ floss, oilseed, medicine, cottage

industry/ handicrafts and others were collected. The quantification made was in principle

based on indirect estimation supported by intuitive judgment and cross checking with as

many informants as possible. After proper quantification of the informations gathered,

the data were utilized for analysis of the various aspects of livelihood generation from

forest based direct, secondary and self employment.

3.4.3.3. Contribution of forest resources to the total livelihoods To estimate the contribution of forest resources to total livelihoods the informations on

household annual income from all possible off-farm and on-farm sources viz., agriculture,

forest resources, labour, livestock, business/ shop, service and others has been collected.

The data generated were utilized to estimate the proportion of total income streams of

households ascribed to forest resources using percentage.

3.4.3.4. Encouraging factors of forest based livelihoods

A set of twelve important encouraging factors of forest based livelihood were

selected and listed in the schedule and administered to the respondents. The respondents

were asked to rate degree of effectiveness against each of the factors on a four point

continuum viz., most effective, effective, less effective and least effective with scoring

patterns of 3, 2, 1 and 0, respectively. Ranking technique based on mean cumulative

scores was applied to find out the degree of effectiveness of various encouraging factors

of forest based livelihood.

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3.4.3.5. Discouraging factors of forest based livelihoods

To study the discouraging factors of forest based livelihood and their degree of

seriousness the interview schedule was provided with a set of twelve factors to which the

respondents were asked to react. The respondents indicated their degree of seriousness in

terms of most serious, serious, less serious and least serious with their respective scores

of 3, 2, 1 and 0. The degree of seriousness of various discouraging factors of forest based

livelihood was worked out by ranking technique based on mean cumulative scores.

3.5. Statistical analysis of data

The observed data were systematically arranged, edited, coded with numerals or

symbols, classified into categories and tabulated for further analysis and meaningful

interpretation. It was based on proper treatment, measurement and scoring techniques.

Most of the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed on MS Excel and Statistical

Package Social Sciences (SPSS) software with the level of significance set at p<0.05. The

results were presented on the tables and figures. The data were analyzed using following

statistical devices as per Snedecor and Cochran (1967).

3.5.1. Frequency

The frequency (f) is used to denote how frequently a response or character

appears in a class or category.

3.5.2. Percentage

Percentages (%) are used in data presentation to simplify and reduce the numbers

in the standard form with base equal to 100.

3.5.3. Mean along with standard error

The mean is computed by the formula:

∑ f.x X =

N where, X = mean of the scores

∑ = summation

f = frequency of the class

x = class value or midpoint of the class interval

N = number of observations

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The standard error of mean is calculated by the formula:

ơ SEm =

√N ∑f.d2

where, ơ = standard deviation (√ ) of the distribution N

f = frequency of the class

d = deviation of the mid-value of the class from the mean

population

N = number of observations

3.5.4. Normal probability distribution

The respondents were classified into low, medium and high categories based on

different behaviours, characteristics or variables using mean (x) and standard deviation

(ơ) and following normal probability distribution as follows:

Category Score

Low < x – ơ

Medium x – ơ to x + ơ

High > x + ơ

3.5.5. Analysis of variance

The F test is applied using one way analysis of variance to find out the

significance of the mean difference among different land holding groups.

Statistically F value is calculated as follows:

SSb /(k-1) F-ratio =

SSw /(n-k) where, SSb = sum of squares between samples

SSw = sum of squares within samples

k-1 = degree of freedom between samples

n-k = degree of freedom within samples

n = total number of items in all the samples

k = number of samples

(Tj)2 (T) 2 SSb = ∑

nj n

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(Tj)2

SSw = ∑Xij2 ∑

nj where, Tj = sample total

T = ∑Xij

i = 1, 2, 3, …….treatments

j = 1, 2, 3, …….replications

Critical Difference

Critical Difference (CD) at 5% probability level was calculated to find out any

significant effect of difference between and among the different land holding groups by

the formula:

1 1 CD = √ EMS ( + ) x 5% table value of t on error df

n1 n2 where, EMS = error mean square

n1, n2 = number of scores/ observations in each group

3.5.6. Preference ranking

Ranking is an expression of people’s priority about their thoughts and feelings.

The preference ranking allows the researchers to determine quickly the preferences of

individuals and enables the priorities of different individuals to be easily compared. The

respondent’s responses against each of the item to be prioritized were recorded on a 3 to

5-point rating scale. The mean rank score for each item was obtained by multiplying the

frequencies with their respective weights, adding them up and dividing by the total

number of respondents as follows:

∑ sifi Mean rank score = n where, fi = frequency of the respondents for ith response

si = score of the ith response

i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5

n = total number of respondents

Finally, the items were ranked from high to low based on the mean rank score.

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3.5.7. Correlation analysis

Pearson‘s product moment co-efficient of correlation was worked out for

ascertaining the relationship between two variables using the formula:

N∑XY (∑X) ( ∑Y) rxy = √ (N∑X2 (∑X 2) (N∑Y2 (∑Y)2)

where, X and Y= original scores in variables X and Y

N = number of paired scores

∑XY = each X multiplied by its corresponding Y, then summed

∑X = sum of X scores

∑X 2 = each X squared, then summed

(∑X)2 = sum of X scores, squared

∑Y = sum of Y scores

∑Y2 = each Y squared, then summed

(∑Y)2 = sum of Y scores

For testing the significance of r, t value was calculated as:

r t = √N-2 on N-2 degree of freedom

√1-r2

where, r = co-efficient of correlation

N = number of paired scores

3.5.8. Multiple regression analysis

The multiple regression analysis was employed to determine the extent of

contributions of the independent variables to the dependent variable.

The fundamental prediction equation was:

Y = a1 + b1x1 +b2x2 +bnxn +En

where, a = intercept constant

x1 – xn = values of independent variables

b1 – bn = regression coefficients

n = number of independent variables

En = Error term

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3.5.9. Path analysis

The path analysis was carried out to get a clear picture of the direct and indirect

effects of the independent variables on the dependent variable. The variables through

which substantial indirect effects are channeled are also found out. The path co-efficient

to measure the influence along the path is calculated as follows:

σyx Pyx =

σy

where, Pyx = path co-efficient for the path X to Y

σyx = standard deviation of Y

= standard deviation of Y due to the influence of X, while

other causes are kept constant