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Masters of Forensic Science Thesis
Development of a Good Practice Frameworks in Forensic Science Research
By
Cecilia Jepchumba Tanui
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Forensic Science (Professional Practice and Research)
in
The School of Veterinary and Life Sciences
Murdoch University
Supervisors
Associate Professor James Speers (Murdoch)
Dr Shane S. Tobe (Murdoch)
Semester 1, 2 of 2019
ii
Declaration
I declare that this thesis does not contain any material submitted previously for the award of
any other degree or diploma at any university or other tertiary institution. Furthermore, to
the best of my knowledge, it does not contain any material previously published or written
by another individual, except where due reference has been made in the text. Finally, I declare
that all reported experimentations performed in this research were carried out by myself,
except that any contribution by others, with whom I have worked is explicitly acknowledged.
Signed:
iii
Acknowledgments
I want to show my gratitude to my supervisors Ass. Prof James Speers and Dr Shane Tobe for sharing
their pearls of wisdom with me during this research. I would like to appreciate my classmates who
have walked this long postgraduate journey with me.
I also note the great support I have had from my family who have been instrumental in creating a
conducive environment for me to work on this research.
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Table of Contents
Title Page …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. i
Declaration ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ii
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
Part One
Literature Review …………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part Two
Manuscript
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Part One
Literature Review
Development of a Good Practice Frameworks in Forensic Science Research
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Abstract
This paper focuses on the current best practices in the research methodology in the medical/
biomedical and biosciences disciplines and based on their recommendations and practices,
developing best practice frameworks in forensic science research. Robust procedures have
been identified and tested against several forensic papers that have been recently published
to prove if they meet the selected criteria. The study will access the information acquired
from previous forensic research papers and express the expectations of ideal forensic
research, and this will lead to the development of a forensic framework that can be applied
by researchers in different forensic disciplines. The idea that most of the forensic publications
lack adequate scientific foundation is a critical issue that needs to be addressed to improve
the validity and reliability of conclusions made in forensic science research. The 2009 National
Academy of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path
Forward pointing out the unscientific state of various forensic subfields has a clear indication
of a knowledge gap regarding the reliability of the methods used in the research process61.
The President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology62 report in 2016, has reviewed
the matter and made recommendations for further progress in the challenges facing forensic
science. The conclusion addresses the importance of developing forensic research culture
that follows the selected procedures aimed at improving forensic science research.
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Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 7
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 9
Research Questions ............................................................................................................................. 9
Hypothesis .........................................................................................................................................11
Null hypothesis ..............................................................................................................................13
Alternate hypothesis......................................................................................................................13
Experimental design ..........................................................................................................................13
Variables ............................................................................................................................................14
Dependent variable .......................................................................................................................15
Independent variable.....................................................................................................................15
Controlled variable ........................................................................................................................15
Samples ..............................................................................................................................................16
Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................17
Controls ..............................................................................................................................................17
Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................18
Fingerprints ........................................................................................................................................19
DNA ....................................................................................................................................................27
Entomology ........................................................................................................................................33
Toxicology ..........................................................................................................................................39
Blood Pattern Analysis .......................................................................................................................56
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................58
Recommendations ................................................................................................................................60
Keywords ...............................................................................................................................................69
Table of Figures ......................................................................................................................................72
List of Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................73
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................74
Method ..................................................................................................................................................75
Results and Discussion ...........................................................................................................................81
Research question .............................................................................................................................82
Hypothesis .........................................................................................................................................83
Experimental design ..........................................................................................................................85
Variables ............................................................................................................................................86
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Samples ..............................................................................................................................................87
Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................88
Controls ..............................................................................................................................................89
Standards ...........................................................................................................................................90
Summary addressing the research question .....................................................................................91
Additional findings .............................................................................................................................93
Statistical ANOVA Analysis .................................................................................................................95
Group 1: Disciplines .......................................................................................................................95
Group 2: Journals ...........................................................................................................................97
Group 3: Years of Publication ........................................................................................................99
ANOVA Results in Discussion .......................................................................................................100
The limitations of the study. ............................................................................................................101
Future directions..............................................................................................................................101
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................102
References ...........................................................................................................................................103
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Dependent and Independent Variables ..................................................................... 15
Figure 2 Graph analysis of the findings .................................................................................... 60
List of tables
Table 1 Analysis of Findings .................................................................................................... 57
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List of Abbreviations DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
PCAST: President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology
NAS: National Academy of Sciences
STR: Short Tandem Repeat
PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction
UV: Ultraviolet
CAN: Cyanoacrylate
GC-HRMS: Gas Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry
MIP: Molecular Inversion Probe
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Introduction
The Validity, credibility, and reliability of forensic science practice are significantly dependent
on a robust research base. The scientific community has acknowledged that the scientific
foundation of some of the present forensic methods requires strengthening. This
strengthening can be achieved through continuous research programs designed to advance
the reliability and validity of the available techniques and improve the development and
usage of current and better techniques1. It is important to note that deficient forensic
techniques which arise because of poor laboratory techniques, unsupported assumptions are
the result of the initial poor research techniques3. Several robust scientific components if
incorporated into forensic research, would improve it significantly. Some of the elements
include; Research questions, hypothesis, samples, variables, experimental design, data
analysis, and controls.
Research Questions
The research question is the aim of the study and the uncertainty that the researcher wants
to resolve. Research questions begin with a general concern and narrow down to a real
researchable issue2. Identification of the research question is the essential aspect of forensic
research because it sets the framework of analysis. It should emerge from the title, result or
findings and observed problems from the previous studies. The questions can be divided into
more specific objectives that will consequently lead to more precise methods and definition
of essential terms. The goals should be measurable, specific, time-framed, realistic, and
achievable and should cover the complete scope of the research4.
Developing a research question supported by relevant hypothesis, aims, and objectives is an
essential crucial step towards producing relevant results needed for evidence-based practice.
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A specific and well-defined research question provides guidance in decision making regarding
the study design as well as the population and consequently provides an insight into the data
to be collected and analysed2.
The first step towards the development of a research question involves familiarity with the
subject. These questions arise from the perceived knowledge within the area of study. It is
important to note where the boundary between the current knowledge and ignorance lies.
Therefore the need to know and understand best practice in research methodology is crucial,
and this will aid the researcher in developing the appropriate research question and
determine the uncertainties to be studied8.
There are several ways that a researcher can increase knowledge. These ways include
schematically searching the literature, in-depth interviews, and focus groups and interviews
with experts in the field8. These methods help in the increase of knowledge within the
particular study area. The literature review helps a scientist to identify the gaps which exist
and also get an idea about what other previous researchers have studied concerning the
topic. Forensic scientists should embrace this culture, and it will improve the results they will
obtain in their research process8.
Additionally, awareness of current trends and technological advances can assist with the
development of research questions. It is a necessity to be aware of technological
advancements to develop proper research questions2. In-depth knowledge also helps a
researcher to know how many studies need to be conducted whether only one review will be
sufficient to answer the questions or will more than one study be required. This practice will
ensure that the research has been undertaken to completion.
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For proper scientific research, the researcher should keep in mind that within the scope of
one study the presence of several research questions will affect and potentially increase the
complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the
actual feasibility of answering every question7. Therefore it would be prudent to establish a
single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. Several published
legal papers have failed because of the presence of many research questions. When this
happens, the study becomes very complicated, and the chances of encountering errors are
increased.
In summary, the fundamental research question should be clearly stated at the end of the
introduction of the proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the
intervention to be implemented and other detailed factors. A good research question should
determine the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific community and
potentially to the public, have clinical relevance and further current knowledge in the field7.
Hypothesis
In any scientific study, it is essential to have hypothesis-driven research. However, since this
is not always possible, there is the need for a null hypothesis, this is achieved mainly through
the formulation of hypothesis. This prediction is usually stated in a complete sentence; it uses
the observations made before the test to make an educated assertion. A hypothesis is a
statement communicating what needs to be proved or disproved through a study7. Scientific
research methods involve identification of a problem, gathering of relevant data, formulation,
and testing of the hypothesis. This process first consists of a scientist seeing or identifying an
issue related to the observation made. A hypothesis is then created to explain the inspection
and make predictions. The predictions are then tested by experiment, or further observation
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is further performed under controlled conditions4. At the end of the operation, the researcher
will have to use the results to decide if he can accept the hypothesis or reject it. The
hypothesis must stand up to questioning during the experiment. The hypothesis can be
approved or disproved through an experiment4.
Hypothesis testing maximises the reliability of research findings and contributes to the
reproducibility of results8. Appropriate use of exact scientific procedures leads to the
strengthening of inferences and reducing the potential for drawing spurious conclusions.
Consequently, rigorous science by researchers contributes to development in their scientific
knowledge and building credibility for their work. The hypothesis ought to be transparent
because unclearly stated hypotheses may lead to misinterpretation of results6.
Majority of the research studies in forensic science are suffering from problems such as
inadequate hypotheses, using data that does not represent casework conditions and tests on
the same data as explained in the PCAST report 201662.
Ideally, any research process should begin with a testable hypothesis that may be proved or
disapproved at the end of the experiment8. A poorly defined hypothesis is a recipe for wrong
results. Additionally, the hypothesis should be realistic and also needs to put into
consideration the methods and technology available. Forensic scientists should look out for
the simplest possible explanation for a natural occurrence or phenomena since it is the central
underlying principle and tool for establishing recognised proofs4 to improve the process of
suitable hypothesis formulation
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There are two types of hypothesis:
Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it is
believed to be accurate or because it is to be used as a basis for argument but has not been
proved. It is the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified
populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error. This kind
of hypothesis has severe outcome if an incorrect decision is made. For this, the null hypothesis
must be formulated very keenly.
Alternate hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to establish. The
alternate is the opposite of the Null Hypothesis. It is only reached if H0 is rejected7. In many
circumstances, the alternate hypothesis is the desired conclusion of the researcher.
Proper formulation of hypotheses is a basis for relevant scientific research.
Experimental design
The research design ought to be able to address the research questions. It ranges from
observational to experimental, allowing scientists to gather suitable data to support or reject
the hypothesis11. From the preliminary designs, scholars can be able to test whether their
interpretations are correct2. Even though these scientists can draw a countless variety of
innovative designs, most laboratory experiment, share one important characteristic. Suitable
design in research should be one that minimises bias while maximising the reliability of the
collected and analysed data4. Another main set of decisions in any study design is the choice
of the types of variables to be measured.
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The observational design allows the scientist to gather and use background information
concerning the principles being tested to predict better and understand the forthcoming
outcome8. This method enables the researcher to either choose to perform independent
research or look at similar experiments before making observations. Through this practice, it
becomes possible for the experimenters to answer the question of what precisely the test is
trying to explain.
An experimental design also specifies the scientific method, outlining the type of materials
used in the experiment in specific detail along with the exact procedures that will be taken10.
The plans must be detailed and accurate so that another researcher can repeat the
experiment and expect to get similar results. It is also necessary to list the methods used
because it may be useful to go back to them after the test to explain some of the results that
occurred. Lack of this has been noted in scientific research and has been attributed to the lack
of proper research in this field. There is a need for the researchers to adopt a good research
design which clearly outlines the methods used during the research process.
Variables
Variables refer to something that can change or vary14. A research design aims at looking for
a link between two or more variables. Identification of variables in scientific research helps to
determine how to analyse data and answer questions. In an analytic design, the researcher
studies the associations between variables for outcome prediction and drawing inference
concerning cause and effect. Considering the association between two variables, the first to
occur is called the predictor variable, and the other is the outcome variable. Mostly,
observational studies have a lot of predictor variables6. The credibility of research depends
on having the right selection of variables as it can influence the research findings4. The
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purpose of all research experiments is to describe and explain variance in the world9. In an
investigation, variables can either be dependent or, independent. Variables are not
manipulated but are instead observed as they naturally occur. The associations between
them are then studied.
Dependent variable
A dependent variable is one that depends on other factors. In an experiment, this variable is
usually observed about the changes that happen to the other elements8.
Independent variable
On the other hand, an independent variable is one that stands alone and is not changed by
the other variables being measured9, and this is the variable that is observed to see whether
it causes a change in other variables; the dependent variable.
Figure 1: Dependent and Independent Variables
A dependent variable is a variable being tested in a scientific experiment8. The dependent
variable is 'dependent' on the independent variable. As the experimenter changes the
independent variable, the change in the dependent variable is observed and recorded.
Controlled variable
This variable is fixed and constant; it does not change within an experimental framework. The
more variables that can be controlled and fixed, the more confidence you have in your results
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being influenced by your independent variable. In scientific research, the choice of variables
is very crucial to successful findings of the experiment8. Most of the forensic science research
is not appropriately conducted due to the poor choice of the variables or not controlling
variables, and this needs to be improved5.
Samples
Research investigation commences from a straightforward sampling of data. Nonetheless,
sometimes there is no guarantee about the accuracy and representativeness of the data. The
mere existence of data and the ability to acquire it does not necessarily imply data accuracy
or suitability to represent and or reconstruct a contamination event10. The samples used in
the research should be adequate and representative to have a trustworthy conclusion2. The
guidelines utilised in making samples comparisons in forensic disciplines lack thoroughly
detailed structure, and this is due to the lack of a standardised method of making
comparisons3. The samples contained in the research should reflect the relevant conditions
and populations specific to the case adequately. Errors were occurring in the interpretation
of research data, partly resulting from the use of minimal data samples to make comparisons
and consequently leading to poor results4.
The PCAST report 2016 discusses what should be expected in validation studies. PCAST
indicated that statistical methods are well developed and have been validated for single-
source DNA evidence and latent print analysis. However, PCAST reported that additional
studies are needed regarding the validity of forensic examinations in other forensic science
disciplines such as bite marks, impression and evidence62. Assessing the reliability and validity
of forensic investigations is a crucial step in developing sound science to measure the strength
of evidence and statisticians can contribute to the design and analysis of such studies.
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Data analysis
Suitable statistical tests should be applied for the form of data obtained. The statistics that
mainly clarify a research question first depend on the problem and secondly on the data4.
There are different methods applied to the data, and this can be a) Visual analysis of data, b)
classical statistics that include, specific interval, hypotheses, and others., and c) Bayesian
statistics2. The statistics applied in the research should correspond to the research question,
easy to understand, and able to produce results and this is significant in forensic science
research because the data obtained for the analysis can be easily analysed. A conclusion can
be made from the results5.
Biased samples have been a source of errors in research. These are samples are those in which
the method used to create the sample results in samples that are systematically different
from the population. An incorrectly drawn sample can bias the conclusions from the start7.
Overgeneralisation could also occur when the findings from one population might not apply
to another population. All of these errors result from incorrect data analysis. It is, therefore,
essential that a scientist uses a wide range of analytical tools.
Additionally, a multidisciplinary approach is required in forensic research mainly because
each discipline requires technical expertise while collecting and preparing evidence. Statistics
in data analysis has a crucial role to play in helping to address the challenges of forensic
science5.
Controls
Controls are used to minimise the effect of variables that are not the interest of the study12.
Through controls, scientists can ensure that there are no deviations in the experiment.
Scientific research can either be positively or negatively controlled. The main difference
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between positive and negative control is that positive control gives a response to the analysis,
whereas negative control does not provide an answer.
A positive control refers to a sample known to contain a particular substance, which would
cause a positive result and verify that the test works12. This type of test always gives the result
as a “yes.” It is a good indication to know if the test works. Hence, positive controls are used
to evaluate the validity of an examination9. In forensic science research, test validity is
fundamental in ensuring that the results obtained will be correct. Therefore scientists in this
field need to ensure they have controls to guide the research process. If the positive control
does not give the expected result, then a different method should be used.
A negative control is a sample which is known not to contain a particular substance, but which
would produce a negative result and verify that the test works12. An essential aspect of
collecting evidence is to properly obtain control samples taken from a known source against
which the examiner can compare samples taken from the crime scene. The negative control
is not exposed to the experimental test directly8. It is done parallel to the experiment as a
control experiment. The negative control is used to confirm that there is no response to the
reagent or the microorganism used in the test. To get a good result from the negative control,
one should ensure that there is no net response to the test. Hence, negative controls help
identify outside influences on the experiment.
Discussion
The review seeks to analyse recently published forensic papers to establish whether
appropriate research methods were followed while undertaking the research. The review
focuses on several papers from various fields of forensic science. The best practices of
research, as discussed in the introduction, focuses on whether the forensic articles included
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the proper research question, formulation of hypotheses, experimental design, variables
used, sampling, data analysis, and controls. Examples are discussed.
Fingerprints
Carlos Magno & Alves Girelli48 conducted a study to investigate the identification of
documents on the web using fingerprints. Their paper has a clearly defined research problem.
The study begins with a piece of clear and detailed background information on the topic. The
study, however, lacks a hypothesis. Hypothesis helps a researcher to predict a possible
outcome of the study4. The study has also been restricted to fingerprints only available on the
internet, and this means that the sample size was limited. Even though a majority of the
suspects in the syndicate in the study used the website to source the fake fingerprints, the
other per cent will still be hard to trace and will be at large a problem to the law enforcers.
The variables in the study by these researchers have not been explained adequately. The
dependent variable is subject to technology manipulation and forgery of identification
documents. The methods of how to conduct the study have, however, been mentioned very
clearly. The results from the survey, as per the study, were sufficient. The results indicate that
most forged documents are often sourced from the web as 31% out of 100 samples were
positive for forgery cases48. These results indicate that the research questions and objectives
were identified and that the study was successful. However, the study would have been
improved if the hypothesis had been formulated before the beginning of the study
The application of technology in the study also proved that for good forensics intelligence,
the use of the right technology is useful in assisting in solving the problems. This shows that
the research design, as well as the data analysis, was well chosen. The representations of the
results in tables and figures also add to the ease of understanding of the results and the clarity
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of the research is clearly shown. The study adopts both qualitative and quantitative analysis.
These methods enhance results. However, the research study was conducted using a limited
number of samples, and this makes the study quite challenging in finding the right amount of
information to aid in the investigation.
Paul Kirkbride et al23 researched detecting fluid biological evidence on fingerprints. Their
paper begins with an explanation that gives the reader the expectations and the outright
purpose of the article is a very brief and articulate manner23. However, the study’s hypothesis
is not clear as it combines aspects of fingerprints and biological fluid. The study’s significance
is excellent, though the elements of two identification methods do conflict and lower the
significance and purpose of the study. The researchers in the study have emphasised on the
importance of fingerprints during criminal activities. These may include homicide, sexual
assault, assault, and various other crimes that are violent and targets human beings. The
variables in the study have been well expounded, both the independent and the dependent
variables.
The research by Venkatachalaiah et al.21 has an excellent scientific foundation employed. The
researchers employ aspects of DNA profiling from the samples used in the study obtained in
the bodily fluid’s marks generated by fingerprints. The materials and chemicals used in the
study also has a deep foundation of science and helps give cognitive results, and measures
that help provides the research with a solid foundation. The study emphasises detection of
body fluids like blood and even genital fluids to aid in narrowing down on suspects in criminal
activity like rape and even murder by using forensic intelligence mechanisms. The study helps
in adding more alternatives to fingerprints and even DNA profiling of the suspects in obtaining
vital evidence for a case.
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The study by Bond JW et al. .17 has a sound research methodology and experimental design.
The research employs a qualitative research approach in the study. Statistical analysis is also
used to assist in coming up with findings of the research6. The study also employs the use of
graphs, images from devices like microscopes to aid in the explanation of the samples, and
results and this assists a lot in the flow of the study and a real understanding of the data
analysis. The objectives, research course, and methods applied in the study have been well
summarised at the end of the study. It also explains the aspects of the findings and future
projections of the study and even more suggestions for improvement.
Another study by Palash and Mohammad Kabir39 on a unique and reliable method of
identification has focused on fingerprints because of the uniqueness of each person’s
fingerprints. The research problem is researchable, and a piece of background information
was provided on the need for the study. The paper also gives a perfect historical background
of dactylography. It provides a biological background onto an understanding as to why each
person fingerprints is unique and makes the study very reliable and worth studying in a bid to
understand it.
The research has employed good use of variables. The dependent and independent variables
are well explained in the research. For the study to have been more sufficient, the authors
should have used graphs, charts, tables, and figures in the research study as a means of
analysing data. The researchers in the study have also failed to illustrate the research
methodology design and flow clearly. The researcher also fails to explain whether the review
uses qualitative or quantitative methods and tools of research in the study.
The validity and reliability of the instruments were not verified in the study, and this would
have been done through a pilot study. This helps to ensure that the instruments work as they
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should and improve on the credibility of the research findings6. The researchers did not also
set up a control for the study, an aspect that is very important in scientific research2.
Chuanjun Yuan et al. 49 experimented on novel dusting powders on developing latent
fingerprints. Their study is well introduced with a good abstract that gives one the impression
of what to expect in the study. The authors have expounded well about human fingers and
the three levels of the main characteristics that human fingers possess. This explanation helps
to build up the hypothesis of the study. The hypothesis seeks to explain the use of dusting
powders to develop latent fingerprints.
The start of the research lacks a thesis statement to enable a proper flow and understanding
of the study. The study uses various samples of chemical powders to explain how latent
fingerprints can be clearly developed in a crime scene. This helps the hypothesis and solidifies
the research study’s quest. The samples in the study are also explained very well, including
how they are prepared.
The methodology and design of the study by the authors are also well placed. The study
entails a collection of fingerprints from one donor. Different conditions of the fingerprints
were applied and collected. To enable the study, have clear fingerprints and fingerprints
applied the low-pressure condition. These methodologies help develop the variables. With
the fingerprints being the independent variable and the chemical samples used to establish
the fingerprints being the dependent variables.
Various scientific and physical measures and controls were applied to ensure that the data
captured is tested. This included subjecting the chemicals, cationic dye absorption to the
diatomite. The factors and conditions involved were pH value, environment temperature,
absorption time, and concentration of the samples.
23
The researchers used images captured during the study to help during the analysis and
illustrations of the findings. Graphs are also used very well to display the adsorption property
of cationic dyes onto diatomite when exposed to various conditions. Chemical formulas and
equations are used for better illustrations. The conclusion of the research is well put and
summarizes all the critical aspects of the study as well as giving better recommendations.
A research paper on analysing fingerprints samples by Lana Ostojic and Elisa Wurmbach15
begins with an extended and technical abstract explaining the purpose of the study. The
purpose of the study is correctly stated. It tells the aspects of DNA identification in a forensic
intelligence perspective, especially on STR profiling. The variables used in the study are well
expounded at the early stage of the study. The Independent variables in the study are the STR
profiles with variables being fingerprints and DNA from the various samples; additional old
samples are also used as a dependable variable time/duration stored and the mixture of three
people’s fingerprints.
The study clearly applies scientific foundations to the research. The use of DNA strides and
extraction of DNA from fingerprints in the research study has to use very elaborative and
robust scientific foundations so as to acquire the right information to be used in the analysis
of the study. The use of AmpF/STR and PCR Amplification offers a sound scientific foundation
in the study.
The methodology and design of the research study are also well elaborated. Data sample
(fingerprints) in the research was collected from various individuals. The volunteers who gave
out their fingerprints to be used in the study were 6 in number. This number, however, could
be small for the study. A qualitative method of research was undertaken and a statistical
24
analysis of the data employed. The use of graphs was also employed well to assist in results
explanation.
The hypothesis in the research is also well defined, and the study clearly helps explain and
expound on it by using various scientific methods. However, the scientific methods are
marred with challenges in interpreting the samples because the DNA amounts are low. This
poses a problem for the study.
The discussion of the study elaborates what transpired during the study. The number of
samples is also mentioned here, 700 fingerprints and 200 mixed samples from 33 bottles. It
clearly shows how rigorous the research was. It also explains the scientific methods used in
the study. The conclusion is very definitive and conclusive. It gives a good implication and a
good resonance for the study.
The research by Dr Prateek Rastogi and Ms Keerthi R Pillai50 focuses on the relationship
between gender and blood group to, fingerprints. The paper begins with a clear summary that
gives a review of the study to the readers. The research area of focus is also very well stated
by the authors in the paper. The variables in the research are also well mentioned and present
in the study. The independent variable in the research study is the fingerprints of human
beings. The dependable variables in the study are the various blood groups of human beings
and the gender of humans, either male or women.
The significance of the research is also well mentioned in the research study. The research
study seeks to study and understand these parameters in a bid to solidify the use of
fingerprints as a means of identifying the gender of individuals and also their blood group and
vice versa. These aspects will help in a big way in solidifying the originality of the fingerprints
of suspects in a crime scene and those of criminals.
25
The generality of the research study hypothesis, as mentioned by the research authors while
introducing the research and also in the abstract, indicates that the research topic is general
and broad and thus rich for study. It answers the research questions very well. The
methodology of the study is not mentioned, but the qualitative method was applied. The
administration of the research and the way of carrying out is well explained, and therefore,
the validity of data collection and analysis is clear and without doubt, useful and accurate.
The research sample used is quite enough to bring about a final report — 200 subjects of 100
male and 100 females. The research design used is very good. The use of tables also helps a
lot to showcase the findings and analysis. Proper analysis of data was applied as well. The
research authors in the paper combined the study’s discussion and conclusion. This distorts
the flow of the research paper.
The paper by George Christofidis et al51. Aimed at investigating the detection of Finger-marks-
Applicability to Metallic Surfaces. The study begins with an abstract that is comprehensive
and gives a reader a gist of what to expect in the research paper. The introduction of the
research is not indicated after the mentioning of the keywords. This arrangement of the
content of the study makes it ambiguous as it affects the flow of content, especially for the
reader. The hypothesis in the study is not well articulated, and a reader finds it hard to
understand.
The researchers in the paper mention the variable of the research study. Both the
independent and dependent variables are mentioned. While introducing the paper, the
researcher mentions the significance of the paper, especially the use of finger marks in many
cases. This, however, downplay the frequent use of fingerprints with the development and
26
use of DNA to determine and identify individuals in crime scenes. These contradictions
downplay the essence of the study.
The research questions in the paper have been mentioned in length. However, detailed, they
may be the simplicity and ease of understanding have been marred. The research design and
the research methodology of the paper have been appropriately articulated. The use of a
qualitative and quantitative method has been applied well. Graphs and images have also been
utilized.
The scientific background in the paper is also good. The methods and the chemicals used to
assist in detecting fingerprints in metallic surfaces borrows a lot from scientific sources and
applications as well as devices and formulas. There are challenges; however, with some as the
techniques are very complex, and some lack of relevant literature that is available to aid the
study. These have been observed mainly in simple optical mechanisms in regards to detecting
fingerprints on metallic surfaces.
A journal Gardner SJ, Cordingley et al. 16 focuses on investigating effective methodologies for
latent fingerprint enhancement. The study begins with an abstract that explains clearly, the
details and purpose of the research pursued by the authors. The abstract is generally good as
it briefly explains to anyone the expectation of the paper. The hypothesis of the research
study is mentioned. The research questions also in the paper have well answered the
challenges of the questions in certain situations, however, for instance in fingerprints on glass
and ceramic objects failing to be observed when exposed to certain direct temperatures
usually above 350 degree Celsius and flow of air16.
The study lacks enough solid scientific foundation that helps to solidify its explanation and
research process in the study. This will, therefore, reduce a scientific deduction of findings
27
and finally minimizing supporting data for robust analysis. The research design and the
research methodology in the study are not well articulated. The study has a few data
collections aspects. The number of donors who are four is not enough to give concrete
research that can help in giving reliable directions and conclusion. The use of the graphs,
however, is a plus in the study. These illustrations give a good display of the findings despite
the limitations mentioned. Moreover, there are no implications and solutions being offered
as per the findings of the study. The study could have been further improved by giving way
forward for the future study as well as the significance of the study.
DNA
The research study by Chantal Fregeau et al. 29 is focused on uncovering new incompatibilities
using the Promega DNA IQ chemistry. In the study, the abstract begins by mentioning how
DNA IQ TM system has been proven to be a very effective mechanism and technology that
produces pure DNA. The system, however, according to the researchers is limited and
affected by certain few chemicals which might be present in specific exhibits presented to the
laboratory.
The research study has an excellent scientific foundation. The study is centred on scientific
methods of data collection, testing, and even analysis. The scientific methods of data
extraction, however, has its own fair share of challenges. Conflicting results in the
experiments were obtained. This is due to some untreated controls while in some cases there
were no DNA recovered29. These challenges affect the research design and the research
methodology applied in the study. This is because difficulties encountered during data
collection and extraction through the scientific process will replicate negatively to the final
28
results of the study if not well mitigated and controlled early in the research study by the
researchers.
The research conclusion by Chantal Fregeau et al. is good, and it basically gives the studies
implication and significance, especially on how viable the study is primarily with the
development of incompatibilities and development of other techniques. The references used,
however, in the study, are old and not recommended to be used in a research study given the
new dynamics that are probably in the various fields studied in the research.
A study by Annalisa Durdle, et al. 48 seeks to investigate the comparison of two DNA recovery
methods. The paper has a well-explained introduction giving a detailed background to the
research. The paper is missing a hypothesis, which is a vital aspect of a research paper. This
would have significantly improved the findings of the study. The two experiments were
carried out without a control experiment. Having the control would have improved the results
obtained by providing a baseline for the experiment5.
The study utilized samples from various cells which were earlier prepared. The cells
underwent a cell culture procedure to be ready for the experiment. However, it is discovered
that this sample was not representative of the population. As a result of this, there could have
been errors, and the findings cannot be said to represent the whole population under study.
The research design chosen for the experiment would have been made better if the validity
and reliability of the instruments were tested through a pilot test. The results were presented
in forms of a graph and figures that were clear for the reader. The paper was well researched,
but still, there was room to improve it further.
An experiment by Gafny et al.33 is a study that purposes to improve and enhance the use of
DNA in forensic investigations and case works. The abstract of the study is brief and explains
29
the purpose of the study well. It also, however, mentions the challenges that the researchers
are expected to encounter in the study as well.
The study’s hypothesis in the study is evident in the research study’s title. The hypothesis can
be testable scientifically. However, the study may be limited by lack of flexible biological
references. The inadequate resources limit the richness of the hypothesis and pose a
challenge to the research study. This is because the hypothesis is subject to testing and
reliable references to back it in the study. The researchers in the study have not also
mentioned the research questions in the paper. Lack of clear research questions in the study
limits the significance of the study and the direction of the paper9. Research questions are
very paramount in a good research study5.
The research study has a good scientific foundation, nevertheless. The scientific foundation is
well applied to obtain experimental data, the analysis, and reference in the study. The
research methodology and research design in the study, however, have challenges in the
study. The human cell type composition items are too heterogeneous. Some significant
number of cells in the research study is free of DNA. These limitations in the study make data
collection and analysis difficult, thus affecting the results of the study.
The conclusion is very brief and fails to give a substantial implication of the study in the future
and how significant the study is. But instead concludes that the study opens a new avenue to
“robust experiments and validation studies.”
An experiment conducted by Jarunya Samsuwan et al.24 seeks to analyse the brain tissue
identification. The introduction provides an elaborate guide as to why there was a need for
conducting the experiment. The study also looks into the variation that can be brought
about by brain tissues from different sexes. The research has excellent variables. The
30
dependent variables are well explained in the research the independent variable as well.
The weakness of the study is the failure to use graphs, charts, tables, and figures in the
research study.
The researchers in the study have also failed to illustrate the research methodology design
and flow clearly. The researcher also fails to explain whether the study uses qualitative or
quantitative methods and tools of research in the study.
The sample chosen for the study was not representative of the study. Additionally, the study
could have been further improved by the introduction of the control experiments. Also, the
validity and reliability would have been conducted through piloting the test. In conclusion,
the paper was well researched but could have been improved through the introduction of
best practices of research.
An investigation by Ilan Feine et al. begins with an elaborated introduction on the need for
conducting the research. The paper has no hypothesis, and this makes the study lack some
sort of credibility of proper research.
The research question stated at the beginning of the experiment was researchable, and data
can easily be obtained through the experiment. The research questions provided the aim
through which the research was being conducted. It also provided a basis through which
hypothesis can be formulated. However, it is noted that the research question could have
been improved by making it more specific. This would help in narrowing down the research
to make it more focused.
The hypothesis in the study was properly formulated. It was able to show the anticipated
outcome of the study. This makes it possible to disapprove or reject it at the end of the
experiment. It was, however, noted that the hypothesis of the article could have been
31
improved further through the integration of knowledge on the field under study. The
researchers ought to acquire more knowledge in the field of study through the review of other
papers written on the subject. The variables of the study assist in linking and coming up with
a relationship among the components under study. In conclusion, the paper was well
researched but lacked the control experiment to base the findings on.
The research study on phantoms in the mortuary is a unique one. It focuses on the transfer
of DNA contaminations during autopsies in the mortuary. The study by Nick Laan et al. .55
sought to investigate the prevalence of DNA contamination in autopsy facilities with the
Institute of Legal Medicine in Essen and Kiel Germany.
The research hypothesis of the study is not well defined and may seem ambiguous. The
research questions that guide the research are also not well defined and also lack clear control
as it is extensive, and may get out of line from the core focus in the research. With the lack of
proper research questions, the research study’s is not worth and hence, the significance of
the course and purpose of the research study.
The study has a strong scientific foundation and is, therefore, a good move by the researchers
to employ a scientific aspect in the study. This is essential in assisting the research
methodology and research design in the study. However, the variables in the study are many,
especially on the various contaminations, DNA that may be transferred during autopsies. This
may affect the research design during data tabulation, collection, and analysis. Such
uncontrolled factors in research need to be noted and catered for.
The research study Utilizing AFIS searching tools to reduce errors in fingerprint casework.
Forensic Science International by Langenburg G, et al 20 significance is very high nevertheless,
and the researchers are doing a good thing pursuing their course of study. The conclusion of
32
the study gives a very satisfying future implication of the study. The research also has proper
citations and up to date references. Such should be applied for a research study to be robust.
The study by Lev Voskoboinik et al.57 aims at investigating the possibility of secondary and
tertiary DNA transfer during laundry. The paper has a well-expounded background of the
study. The topic under study is researchable. However, the researchers did not properly
formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis formulation would have improved on the findings of the
study.
The method of experimentation included the testing of worn and unworn garments in a
household. The study revealed that in the mixed (worn and unworn garments washed
together) laundry experiment, 22% of samples from new, unworn socks with no traceable
DNA prior to experiment produced DNA profiles post-laundry.
The sample used was, however, not a representative of the population, and hence, the
findings could not be said to cover the whole population. As a result of this, the findings of
the study cannot be generalized. In a DNA experiment, there are factors that can affect the
experiment. These are the dependent variables. The study by these researchers did not
consider clearly distinguishing the variables of the study to show interdependence. This would
have improved the analysis and ultimately give better results.
Lastly, the experiment did not have control to guide the process. This made the results that
were presented to be slightly biased. The study would have been improved if the positive and
negative controls had been put in place. The findings of the study were discussed in the
context of forensic DNA casework analysis. In conclusion, the topic under study by the authors
33
was an interesting one and would have been made much better through the best practices of
forensic research.
Entomology
The journal on DNA Barcoding in Forensic Entomology by Caroline Chimeno et al.58 was
brought about by the importance of DNA barcoding throughout the years. This is mainly
because of its reliability and fast species determination. As a result of this, the study was
conducted to try and establish the reason behind this.
These researchers have provided a well-elaborated background giving the need for their
study. This provides the reader with knowledge on the subject matter2. The abstract also has
captured all the details regarding the sample and methodology of the study. However, one
weakness of the study is that the objectives stated were not very specific. Any scientific
research requires that the objectives of the study be specific and measurable. When the
objectives are correctly formulated, the correctness of the results of the study is also
improved.
The study used a sample of DNA from specific arthropods to determine barcoding
applications. This meant that the findings realized would represent the whole forensic
entomology. While this could be true, it cannot be proven. The sample size is too small for
the population under study. In order to improve this, there was a need to increase the sample
under study. A larger sample would give more generalized findings.
Lastly, the study failed to conduct a pilot study which would have helped in testing the
reliability and validity of the measuring instruments. It is essential to try out a pilot test in
order to be sure that the testing instruments are good enough to give the correct results7.
34
The study conducted by K. Mcleisha et al.59 aimed at determining whether reportable human
DNA profiles could be recovered from traps, poisoned baits, and bird of prey carcasses found
in a crime scene. The study began with an elaborate reason behind the study. The research
question is researchable, and the aim was clearly outlined. The study missed formulating a
hypothesis at the beginning that would later be accepted or rejected at the end of the study.
Therefore, there was no clearly predicted the outcome of the investigation. Hypothesis
formulation is a crucial phase in scientific research as it provides a baseline through which a
study is conducted.
Experiments depositing human touch DNA on duplicate substrates set for 0, 1, 2, 4, 7 and 10
days outside were carried out, with DNA recovery and profiling following standard operating
procedures for Scottish Police Authority Forensic Services. This method was appropriate.
However, there is no indication as to how reliability and validity were tested. This would have
been achieved through a pilot study.
The sampling was well done, and the sample chosen was a representative of the population
under the study. Nonetheless, the study would have been further improved if the variables
of the study were clearly defined. The relationship between the independent and dependent
variables is very critical to the achievement of correct results.
The research study by Elkins and Kadnunc45 has an excellent scientific foundation that is very
vital in the research study. The scientific aspect of the study is very effective during data
collection for the study and also during the analysis. However, the scientific aspect has very
serious challenges that if not well factored in may affect the research study. These challenges
are the intercalating agents that are dangerous and should be handled with much care. The
study should be conducted with gloves, closed-toes shoes, and long pants and should be worn
35
all the time during the laboratory times. In the study also, the digital camera must be set to
UV-vis all the time and that the gel pictures recorded with an illuminator door, and the door
should be closed. These requirements are mandatory to ensure the research is successful.
The research questions in the study are evident. However, they are not well controlled, and
the researchers in the study might digress from the hypothesis and lose the significance of
the study. The research design and methodology in the research study is quantitative, and
the scientific methods of data collection and analysis are good. However, the limitations in
the laboratory, especially with the digital camera being set to UV-vis all the time during the
laboratory session needs to be watched and observed keenly to avoid wrong data being
recorded.
The paper by Rebecca Campbell, et al.32 is based on methods of testing sexual assault kits due
to many kits that were untested in the police property facilities. This has come up after
concerns that the Sexual assault kits were not of sufficient use in the justice system as most
of them were not handed over for forensic DNA testing to help bring justice to sexual violence
victims. The experiments for Sexual Assault Kits came from a sample of untested kits in
Detroit, Michigan.
The abstract is clear and comprehensive as it gives a view of the content in the study, the
purpose of the research, results, and the conclusions in the study. The introduction is well
articulated and lays out facts in a scientific foundation in accordance with good practices of
forensic research to enable the reader to get a better understanding of the study in Sexual
Assault Kits. The method used in the research as shown, which was a sampling of the kits was
a reliable method which would aid the answering of the research question through the
sampling design.
36
Data analysis, which is an essential element in research is carried out in a comprehensive way
to facilitate the realization of reliable results and conclusions for the study by the use of
continuation-ratio models for the quantification and comparison of the outcomes from the
forensic analysis. The results were relayed in a useful method due to the analysis, which was
up to the recommended standards of good research practices. The results which were
illustrated through diagrams and tables facilitated an accurate representation of the study
analysis. The conclusion relayed the research question and came up with a study important
for forensic testing methods that could provide efficient results in DNA extraction.
The paper by Sharon Lim et al.28 aims at studying the use of various DNA profiling methods,
especially those recovering from sweats, extracted DNA and finger-marks by enhancing them
with cyanoacrylate fuming (CAN fuming) and wet powder suspensions (WPS). The research
study focuses on touch DNA as a means of profiling individuals in casework and forensic
investigations.
The research study has a good scientific foundation that helps the researchers in the study to
be able to achieve their research undertakings in a better way. The scientific foundation is
also critical in enhancing the research design and the research methodology in the study. The
researchers have significantly employed scientific aspects and experiments to assist them in
the data extraction for the fingerprints and the laboratory experiments in the analysis of the
samples. These scientific processes have given the research study a sound and concrete basis
and significance in their work. However, the scientific research foundation has some
challenges that emanate from the lack of previous studies that have been studied to assess
the deposition, recovery, and profiling of touch DNA within cable sheaths. This is especially
37
after the treatment of the cases samples with CAN and also WPS. This is because the use of
these powders is not destructive to the DNA.
The study’s conclusion by Daniel and Francione et al. has a brief conclusion. It also gives some
tips on the future implication of the study in assisting crime related to touch DNA, especially
in cables. The research study has been cited well; however, some of the references used in
the study are old and not advisable to be used in a study.
The study by N.Kabaliuk et al.27 emphasises on the use of DNA signature prep kit and also
assesses and evaluates the use of Beta version ForenSeq TM for genetic profiling. The
significance of the study by the researchers is the ability of the two methods to sequence a
more significant number of markers and multiple types of markers at a go hence giving it an
edge in the DNA typing fields.
The research design and the methodology applied in the study is appropriate for the study. It
employs a good aspect of scientific research methods. These methods have been applied to
a large extent in the study, especially in data extraction or the collection and also in the
analysis of the study. The study applies a quantitative methodology and design in the study
appropriately. It applies the use of charts and graphs very well. The research has an excellent
scientific foundation that is essential in any good research study.
The conclusion in the research study explains the advantages and the challenges of the Beta
Versions Forenseq TM and the DNA signature Prep Kit. However, the researchers do not give
a clear implication of the use of these two methods of genetic profiling in the future.
Especially how it will impact the forensic analysis filed. The study research has been cited well,
and the references utilised are up to date.
38
The paper the by Sebastian Ganschow et al. .34 is based on the novel multiplex PCR assay,
monSTR, which is supportive of simultaneous amplification of21 forensic markers and later
on targeted sequencing on the illumine MiSeq. The abstract is concise and outlines the
purpose of the research, the objective, design methods, and the findings to be outlined in the
study which gives the reader a clear perspective on the contents of the research. The abstract
could have different better though if more explanations would be made on the objective of
the research to give a better guideline on the expectations of the study3.
The introduction is concise and gives a clear depiction and scientific background on the
forensic identity panel and the root of the research while containing the research questions
that would be answered by the study and that facilitate for the research design, methods, and
analysis techniques to be used. The design was well-articulated to facilitate reliable results in
the study and hence the use for adequate scientific experimental techniques in the design to
facilitate reliable results for analysis. The analysis carried out was efficiently aided by the use
of MiSeq on-board software Real-Time Analysis and MiSeq Reporter, which aided in ensuring
the analysis conducted was reliable and efficient for the study to produce dependable results.
The results were well laid out, comprehensively expounded, aided with illustrations in terms
of graphs and tables to give a better understanding of the critical aspects of the research
conducted. The conclusion summarises the objective of the research and affirms the success
in answering the research question but was brief and could have been made better by
highlighting more on the future and current implications of the study and the limitations
encountered carrying out the survey.
The paper by Jordan O. Cox, et al. .32 is based on the development of a new microdevice for
forensic DNA processing of reference swabs. These new technologies are being implemented
39
to improve from time-consuming, large and expensive instruments being used which have
contributed to a backlog and ineffectiveness of DNAs in crime laboratories. The research
expounds on the new technologies which include DNA preparation that is enzyme-based,
infrared-mediated fast PCR(IRPCR), and forensic micro-device platforms.
The introduction to the study by Lin S, et al. .22 is well defined and gives an insight of what the
paper entails in a comprehensive and scientific background, and also outlines the reasons for
carrying out the study and the main objective of the research concerning its importance to
the forensic world in crime investigation. This concise introduction is in line with good
research practices and lays a good foundation for the answering of the research questions
present in the introduction. The materials and methods used in the study were well chosen
and appropriate in facilitating data for analysis. The analysis is carried out by quantification
and calculation of the DNA to get the results for the experiments which were illustrated in
graphs and tables to relay the data quantified and analysed.
The conclusion is comprehensive and gives a summary of the whole study and reflects on the
research questions which have been adequately answered by the study. It expounds on the
micro-device and its importance in new methods of DNA processing. The conclusion is,
however, short and could have been made better by the inclusion of the limitations of the
study and the future implications of the research to forensic science in general.
Toxicology
The study by Erica I. T. da Silva et al.53 was conducted as a review of forensic entomotoxicology
with the view of professional standardisation of the designs of study. The introduction is
concise and well-articulated with the definitions of significant terms on a scientific
foundation. It expounds based on the research study that gives a better outline of how the
40
research will be carried out. The abstract is though very brief and could have been expounded
more to give out a better outline of the study.
The research question is well defined and gives a foundation for the research to be conducted.
The scope is included in the research to outline the expectation and the field of concentration
in the context of toxicology. The scope covers the hypothesis by the formulation of the
statement to be researched on which seeks to examine the entomotoxicological questions.
The method of analysis was a quantitative analysis, which used illustration in the form of
tables in the analysis of data, statistical analysis, and literature review.
The conclusion is well articulated and apart from outlining the results of the literature review
in the research, has also outlined implications for the future of entomotoxicological studies.
The research should have, however, been made more comprehensive with the inclusion of a
discussion before the conclusion to give a summary of the research and its findings before
laying out the results. The research should also have factored in more analytical techniques,
an example being the use of graphs to show the various trends associated with study designs
in recent years for comparison.
The paper by Meiru Pana et al. .47 is based on the screening analysis for essential 288 drugs
and poisons present in human blood through analysis by a novel high-throughput screening
method using Orbitrap technology with gas chromatography-high resolution mass
spectrometry (GC-HRMS). The study is outlined by the bibliography, which gives an overview
of the topic of study in chromatography and explains what is to be expected from the study
and the impetus of the research.
The paper is written and describes the introductory elements in forensic research with a
scientific background and the research question included to guide the reader on what the
41
study will seek to answer in the later stages of the study2. The hypothesis in the study is,
however, not well defined in the study and cannot be traced to help in the analysis and the
research on chromatography47. The methodology used for the study is essential as it
facilitates a scientific approach for reliable analysis and results. This methodology is the same
as the study conducted by Amin MO et al.18 in which the methodology entailed the use of
experimental methods which are vital as data needed to be analysed through experimental
techniques for this study considering practical tests had to be done on the human blood.
The results and discussion in the study by Gornale SS19 are concise and well-articulated and
follows up on the analysis of the data provided to aid in the extraction of facts to aid in coming
up with the results for the research. The results and studies are illustrated with graphs and
tables representing the data that was relayed to give a better understanding of the data
articulated. The conclusion expounds on the impact the data has had on the overall study and
their implications to the field of chromatography.
The paper by Stefan W. Toennes et al.44 focuses on drug analysis procedures, with the main
topic being cannabis traces from users, which is a common drug found in many forensic
samples. This study is crucial as it gives a broader perspective of fast drug analysis procedures.
The study is vital in the field of toxicology as it seeks to improve ways of cannabinoid analysis.
The study is concise and contains the research question, which is an essential component of
proper scientific research, which also lays out a theoretical scientific background forming the
basis of study 8.
The research design is essential because it is designed in a way that enables it to answer the
research questions and is available in the form of observations and experimental trials. Data
analysis for the study is made possible by the data available from the methods used for data
42
designed. The samples provided for analysis were correctly drawn for the sample that
underwent research. The study involved the use of formulae and many other components in
the research.
The conclusion is well articulated and answers the questions asked in the introduction to
provide a quality study that would be beneficial to the field of Forensic science and in
determining if the study has satisfied the practices of a good study in forensic science. On the
downside, there should be a more extended conclusion to be more detailed and to give out
sufficient information and more solutions to the question which will be beneficial to the field
of forensic science and toxicology in specific. The good practices while preparing a study are
essential and vital for the overall topic of study in focus.
The research article by Verena Angerer et al.45 is centred on the new trend of electronic
smoking by use of e-liquids as opposed to the traditional ways of smoking tobacco, and its
relation to the new trend of the e-liquids containing synthetic cannabinoids that are very
harmful to the health of the consumers by using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
The research contains a detailed introduction complete with adequate definitions and terms
in relation with their scientific foundation which were well elaborated and research
questions that would facilitate the study to the conclusions, which is according to the
standards of good practices in forensic research.
The methodology in the toxicology research carried out is also resourceful as it experiments
to analyse the data and used the various essential techniques to ensure the methods led to a
reliable conclusion that would be of benefit to the study6. Mass chromatography-mass
spectrometry was the method used in the toxicological analysis of the specimens to get the
desirable results. The study design, which is a vital component of the research, was
43
formulated in a resourceful manner to facilitate the study to ensure the availability of
accurate and reliable results.
The results and discussions were well articulated and up to the research standards. They
included detailed descriptions, comprehensive analysis, and illustrations in the form of tables,
graphs, and diagrams to give a detailed and concise explanation for the results that were
obtained. They explored the issue of e-smoking and came up with factual discussions on the
presence of synthetic cannabinoids. The conclusion was of high quality and addressed the
research question to effect and laid out the facts associated with the synthetic cannabinoid
extensively according to the research objective.
The research by Andre ́Gotta et al. 43 seeks to explore, and the measurement of heroin and
the metabolite concentrations in blood after heroin injection, where the specimen to be used
in the study was a pig which would undergo anaesthesia during the study. The study was also
critical because it is vital in the determinations of deaths caused by heroin. The study is
detailed and gives the reader insight into the topic of study by giving the intention of the study
and a theoretical background backed by a scientific basis of facts. It is concise and easy to
understand. The research question to be answered by the research is comprehensible and
practical in bringing out reliable results.
For the methodology used, they were well chosen to suit the study as there was used of
relevant material for study. In this case, the use of chemical reagents, animals and conditions,
and In vivo experiment were important activities that would lead to the main result and
conclusions that would be accurate and beneficial for the field of study. The hypothesis for
the study is not well defined in this research, which can because of confusion in getting to the
conclusion of the research.
44
The research design is in such a way that it answers the research questions articulately, which
is majorly the use of laboratory experiments, which is a vital design for this type of research.
The samples used are reliable and ensure that the results will be accurate. For the results,
there was the use of graphical illustrations and tables to illustrate the results and discussions
on the results and whether they answer the research question. The research can, therefore,
be considered an ideal study with the correct framework but more could be done on the
formulation of the hypothesis.
The research by Erkut Uzun et al.42 seeks to study the significance of molecular imprinting
application into forensic science. In the abstract, the researchers have mentioned the
purpose of the study and the main objective. The study hypothesis can be well obtained in
the title of the study and also strengthened in the introduction segment in the study. The
significance of MIPs is far-reaching and can be used in various fields.
The study by the authors does not mention the research questions in the study well and also
a lack of control and guidance of the research questions in the study is evident, and this is
because MIPs are being used in various industries. Proper control is set to place by the
researchers in the study. The research, however, has an excellent scientific foundation and is
very significant in the research study as it will be able to aid significantly in data collections
and the analysis of the data collected. The abundance of scientific measurements and analysis
in the study is very vital.
The researchers well structure research methodology and design. The study employs a
quantitative analysis design, given the various scientific; chemical and biological recordings
that are being employed in the study. The research study finally concludes by explaining the
challenges of the project, especially the complexity of the analytes in the study and the low
45
concentration of the analytes. However, the researchers of the study have been able to
explain the future implication of the study positively.
The paper by Kozie and Rice41 has a brief abstract; however, the researchers in the study failed
to pass the message regarding the key objective and purpose of the study. The introduction
section of the study clearly states the problem of the study and therefore helps in giving the
study a significance in trying to solve the problem. The study, however, is faced with the
challenge of classification as previous attempts to distinguish marijuana using gas-
chromatography was not successful.
The research questions of the study are not well put in the research study and is, therefore,
difficult for a reader to deduce it from the study. The research design and the research
methodology are also subjected to certain hurdles that may impact the study. The challenges
in the study are having enough resolution between aromatic compounds and co-elution of
compounds actually finding two or above. These challenges in the odour activity value may
affect the research design.
The study has a good scientific foundation; however, that may aid the research methodology
in finding and analysing data in the research. The conclusion of the study is also sound and
good as it gives the solutions and the future implication of the study and this aids in giving the
study significance.
The study by John Lombardi et al. 40 on SERS validation is well introduced as well as the
objective of the study. The abstract, however, points out the challenge with the study before
it begins. In the abstract, a problem of the influence of the substrate is noted. However, the
challenge is noted to be negligible in the research study.
46
The study’s hypothesis is clear in the research study. The hypothesis of the study, however,
depends a lot on the data and recordings, especially the repeatability of RSD and multivariate
techniques (PCA)40. The hypothesis validity is also prone to significant variance and random
fluctuations in intensity in the variables.
The research questions in the research study do not have proper guidance, especially with
variable controls. The ability to identify the weakness in the recording of significant variance
and random fluctuations is useful for the researchers in the study as they may be able to
mitigate the research problems.
The methodology and the research design in the study are also subject to challenges with
measurements, especially with the quantitative research design and research methodology.
The study, however, finds it qualitative research design to be easy and successful. The study’s
conclusion also fails to give the future implication of the study and how relevant it can be in
the future. This lowers the significance of the study.
The research paper study the citations are well put in the research study. Some references,
however, in the research paper, are old with some being as old as 1992. Such old citations are
not suitable for a research study.
The research by Elisabeth M. P et al.54 seeks to explore, the blood drop release from swinging
objects in the creation of Cast-off Bloodstain Patterns. The introduction is detailed and gives
the reader insight into the topic of study by giving the intention of the study and a theoretical
background backed by a scientific basis of facts. It is concise and easy to understand. The
research question to be answered by the research is comprehensible and practical in bringing
out reliable results.
47
For the methodology used, they were well chosen to suit the study as there was used of
relevant material for study. In this case, the use of chemical reagents, animals and conditions,
and In vivo experiment were important activities that would lead to the main result and
conclusions that would be accurate and beneficial for the field of study. The hypothesis for
the study is not well defined in this research, which can because of confusion in getting to the
conclusion of the research.
The research design is in such a way that it answers the research questions articulately, which
is majorly the use of laboratory experiments, which is a vital design for this type of research.
The samples used are reliable and ensure that the results will be accurate. For the results,
there is the use of graphical illustrations and tables to illustrate the results and discussions on
the results and whether they answer the research question. The research can, therefore, be
considered an ideal study with the correct framework but more could be done on the
formulation of the hypothesis.
The study by Ewa Tomczak et al. 39 is a new one, and none has ever been published before.
The researchers are, therefore seeking to explore a new field that has not been researched
before. The study being new, the research methodology and design in the study faces many
challenges in data collection and accessing the literature to assist in the study. According to
the research, there is only two scientific literature that describes the procedure that can help
the researchers in understanding how 4-CMC by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
This problem in the study is one that the researchers will have to go an extra mile in seeking
proper data for the study, especially with recorded periodicals.
The research study has a sound scientific foundation that may aid in the analysis. The lack of
scientific literature, however, may again pose to be a challenge here. The research objectives
48
in the research have been mentioned and the variables as well. A little bit of control, however,
is necessary for the variables to ensure that the research is pursued well.
The research study has been faced with the challenge of failing to identify the toxification
cases of NPS, given their traits of unpredictability, hence hard to recognise. The conclusion of
the study also clearly ascertains this fact. The conclusion of the study urges for a need for
more development of new and better methods of determining the NPS in various biological
methods.
The research paper by Hamnett and Jack37 is a study on how cognitive know-how can be
used to heighten the forensic field further. The hypothesis of the study centres on the use of
contextual information in forensic toxicology. The hypothesis is subject to specific
weaknesses that may occur during a forensic investigation such as contextual bias8. In such
an event, the forensic investigation may be skewed.
In the study, the research questions and objectives are not mentioned. The researcher
Hamnet and Jack in the study fails to critically mention the research objectives and even the
research questions that are set to guide the study.
The research design and the methodology used in the research is susceptible to bias. The
researchers in the study used questionnaires to survey in the study. A survey, especially in
regards to the use of questionnaires, is open to bias from the respondents and the objectivity
in the whole process may be lost.
The study also lacks a sound scientific background to support it, therefore, makes the study
lack concrete and a robust scientific support mechanism for analysis. The study is also limited
by the small number of the sample size. These will, therefore, force the final results of the
49
study to be generalised. Generalisations of research findings are always dangerous as it
weakens the results and the output of the study. The study, however, is well-cited and well-
referenced as well. The references are up to date and suitable for a research study.
The abstract of the study by Oberacher and Arnhard36 is not straight to the point to a
researcher who is scheming for certain relevant items he or she wants. The introduction of
the study, the researchers, fail to mention the hypothesis of the research study, and this
makes the research paper very ambiguous. The research questions are mentioned in the
study; however, without a clear guiding hypothesis, the study fails to become relevant. The
research questions are also very straight forward and not general. This aspect limits the
research study richness, therefore not making it fertile for a research study. This, in the end,
lessens the significance of the study9.
The study has an excellent scientific background which gives a good foundation for analysis
and soundness. Another challenge of the study is the handling of the samples. The samples in
the study are subject to many processes that if not handled well, may seriously affect the
outcome of the study. The process of sample collection, transporting them, its storage, and
the process is quite hectic and challenging. The process is also very delicate, and a slight
mistake may rake in havoc to the study.
The research design and methodology in the research study are, however, well outlined and
very illustrative. The methods of data collection and analysis have been well elaborated. The
only challenge in the study is also the availability of comprehensive libraries.
The abstract of the study by Marieke De Boeck et al.38 is well put as it introduces the topic
very well and briefly explained. The research study has a reasonable hypothesis but lacks
proper research questions and objectives to make the study more articulate and all around.
50
The research methodology and the research design of the study are sophisticated and this is
due to the methods of analysis of the data and the samples in the study. The complexity of
the data, especially during the observation and data recording stage causes an increased
chance of risks and mistakes during the study. Such scenarios are very dangerous in research
as a small mistake may jeopardize the whole research study by giving the wrong results.
The research has an excellent scientific foundation, and its results and data observed can be
analysed and proven scientifically. This aspect gives the study an upper hand and soundness.
However, the samples if not well handled well may cause a significant deviation. The
complexity of the biological matrices in the samples is a big challenge to the scientific
foundation and if not well catered for and controlled the variables in the study may
completely change the course and give wrong answers. The research study, therefore, needs
proper control measures to be enacted to ensure proper data recordings for analysis. The
paper also fails to give future implications for the study. This, therefore, minimise the
significance of the study.
The study by F. Be´valot et al.35 is very detailed and serves the purpose of the research paper
well. The introduction of the study is quite good as it lays out the variables expected in the
paper and the research design as well. The hypothesis in the study is extensive, and the
authors of the study have not put in place mechanisms to control it. This, therefore, makes
the study susceptible to misinterpretation.
The research methodology and design in the study employs both qualitative and quantitative
methodologies and research design. These two research designs are often perfect and reliable
for generating concrete and sound results for analysis but can as well be very hectic especially
in this research which has about six variables to be used in the study. The wideness of the
51
study makes it hard to deduce finding as the variables are subject and exposed to various
factors such as dose intervals, body position, duration taken before the intake of the drugs
and death and even temperature. This factors if not well put in place, which is often hard,
usually makes it very hard to interpret and even generalise the interpretations.
The research study’s conclusion fails to give future use and implication of the study. This
waters down the significance of the study. The citations and the references used in the study
are also old, using references as old as 1977 is not prudent for a research paper and study.
The paper by Morrissey et al.26 is about the detection of Fingermarks and its application to
metallic surfaces. This study is crucial as it gives a broader perspective of the application of
fingerprints to surfaces which have a metallic nature. The study is vital in the field of
fingerprints analysis as it seeks to improve ways of cannabinoid analysis. The introduction is
concise and contains the research question, which is an essential component of proper
scientific research, which also lays out a theoretical scientific background forming the basis
of the study.
The experimental design of the study by Erica Brunelle et al. 25 is essential because it is
designed in a way that enables it to answer the research questions and is available in the form
of observations and experimental trials 6. Data analysis for the study is made possible by the
data available from the methods used for data designed. The samples provided for analysis
were correctly drawn for the sample that underwent research. The study involved the use of
formulae and many other components in the research.
The conclusion is well articulated and answers the questions asked in the introduction to
provide a quality study that would be beneficial to the field of Forensic science and in
determining if the study has satisfied the practices of a good study in forensic science. On the
52
downside, there should be a longer conclusion to be more detailed and to give out sufficient
information and more solutions to the question which will be beneficial to the field of forensic
science and toxicology in specific. The good practices while preparing a study are essential
and essential for the overall topic of study in focus.
The paper by Maiko Kusanoa et al. 46 focuses on gaining more information about the
behaviour of cadaver colonisation. The study was influenced by the scarcity of information in
the area. As a result, there was a need to conduct two experiments in order to gain more
knowledge on them. The research background has been well explained, giving the history of
the necrophagous beetle.
The research question stated at the beginning of the experiment was researchable, and data
can easily be obtained through the experiment. The research questions provided the aim
through which the research was being conducted. It also provided a basis through which
hypothesis can be formulated. However, it is noted that the research question could have
been improved by making it more specific, and this would help in narrowing down the
research to make it more focused. The hypothesis in the study was formulated correctly. It
was able to show the anticipated outcome of the study, and this makes it possible to
disapprove or reject it at the end of the experiment.
The variables of the study assist in linking and coming up with a relationship among the
components under study. The independent variable for the study was the carcass
decomposition, while the dependent variables included the various factors that influenced
the decomposition process of the carcasses. These factors investigated were the change in
seasons that is the rainy and dry seasons.
The study focused on a total of 362 adult specimen of Oxelytrum discicolle which were
53
Collected throughout this experiment. The sample was a representative of the whole
population under study, and it was, therefore, easy to generalise the results as affecting the
whole population. Sample choice needed to be improved further by ensuring that all the
features of the entire population are represented in the sample. It is also quite essential to
describe how samples were selected.
The method of data analysis also needs to be free of errors as it would affect the credibility
of the findings. Finally, the experiment should have a control experiment that aids in focusing
the research and controlling the variables that are not of interest to the study.
The study by Guang-Hui Zhu1 & Zheng-Jun Jia31 was published in order to investigate how the
weathering varies among species. The article has provided a piece of substantial background
information regarding the issue under investigation. This helps the reader of the paper to get
an insight into the issue under investigation.
The question under study is researchable and well outlined in the paper, an indication that
the objective of the study will be met through the experiment. The identification of a research
question is a vital component of the research process. However, the paper could have been
improved further by having the research questions divided into more specific objectives that
will consequently lead to more precise methods and definition of essential terms. Also, to
further improve the research process, the goals should be measurable, specific, time-framed,
realistic, and achievable. Through this, the research would have narrowed down the scope of
the research analysis.
The formulation of the hypothesis helps the research to be testable. In this paper, the specific
question to be answered in the experiment has been stated. This is what is referred to the
hypothesis; however, in order to further develop the research findings of the paper, the
54
hypothesis needed to be stated conclusively. It would help in making the research more
focused.
The research design adopted for this paper was experimental. The researchers undertook the
experiment and analysed the data through the calculation of the mass of each peak. This kind
of research design offers a more reliable result. Additionally, to stabilise the variance, the
transformation was performed for further data analysis. Despite this, an improvement of the
results could be achieved if the analysis was first piloted. Piloting helps in ensuring that the
measuring instruments are reliable and valid. Scientific research involving the use of
experiments need to ensure that the measuring kits are reliable and valid. Validity and
reliability are tested by conducting a pilot test before the commencement of real research. It
is not clear that the same results can be achieved if the study was repeated by different
research, and this, therefore, means that the results cannot be ascertained.
In the paper under review, the dependent and independent variables were identified. The
researcher was aiming to establish the relationship between the weathering among the
various species. The independent variable of the study is the weathering process. This is
because it does not change and can only be influenced by the dependent variables. The
dependent variable under study were environments conditions such as temperature, the time
and intensity of sunlight. The right selection of the variables have a more significant influence
on the credibility of the results of an experiment
The sample used in the experiment involved a total of 560 pupae from the 14 cohorts. This
sample size chosen was not representative of the whole population under study. Some
considerations on how the sample could have been improved involve the balancing of gender.
The choice of the sample also needs not to be biased. It would have been better if the sample
55
included all the characteristics of the entire population under study. If this were done, the
results would be more generalised.
Data were computed through the use of statistics. While the method is suitable, the
instruments used to play a vital role. It is vital to ensure that the instruments can be relied
upon. Many errors could occur while analysing data if the instruments used are prone to
errors. The use of control was not identified in the experiment. Controls are very useful in
minimising the effect of variables that are not the interest of the study. Controls are an
essential aspect of research as they help the scientists to ensure that there are no deviations
in the experiment. If there were the use of control, the results of the research would have
been significantly improved.
The research paper by R. C. Corre et al.52 is centred on Diel activity and effect of Carcass
Decomposition on the attractiveness to the forensically Important Species Oxelytrum
Discicolle (Coleoptera: Silphidae). It is based on the study of a type of carrion beetle and
expounding information on cadaver colonization. The study is detailed and gives a scientific
explanation of the beetles and how they are related to the decomposition phases. It is also
comprehensive as it gives illustrations in the form of images when describing the subject of
the study and objectives of the study are also laid out clearly.
The methods of research were well articulated to ensure that study question would be fully
explored to come up with desirable data for analysis. The exploration of experimental designs
was not undertaken, which would have added to the accuracy and completeness of the data
to be studied and should be recommended in future researches. There is no formulated
hypothesis for the research which may hinder the results of the study, but there are research
questions to guide the study on the areas to be studied.
56
Results of the study are scientifically based and well outlined clearly and elaborately which is
supported by the use of graphical presentations and mathematical formulas for quantitative
results to furnish the readers with the appropriate information to answer the research
questions. The results, therefore, correspond with the questions of the study. The discussion
is extensive and covers all the results in the study and expounds on the outcomes from the
research in the study. This discussion answers the research questions at the beginning and
gives significant input and information on the effect of carcass decomposition after
undergoing the analysis.
Blood Pattern Analysis
Bloodstain evidence is very crucial in crime investigation in an assault, and this has influenced
the study by Chris Flighta et al.30 to determine the distance which blood can travel. The
authors of the article provided a well-explained background to the study. The research
problem is researchable and well explained through the review of past experiments within
the field of study.
The main objectives of the study have not been elaborated well. Proper scientific research
should ensure that the objectives have been well formulated at the beginning of the study.
The proper formulation of objectives aids the study. Another weakness identified is the
missing hypothesis which is very necessary for every scientific research and would have
improved the research process.
A pilot study was conducted before the commencement of real research which helped the
researchers to have the idea about how the study could be carried out. It also helped in
ensuring that the instruments used in the study are reliable and valid. The research design
involved observation and measurement of the distance travelled by blood. This method of
57
choice was prone to errors of omission. To improve the credibility of the findings, a very
accurate research design should be chosen.
The independent variable is the distance while the dependent variables include factors such
as; kinetic energy and height. These variables helped to show the relationship between the
components of the study. To improve the study even further, the variable selected should
have been more specific as the choice affected the outcome. Finally, the research experiment
did not have a control experiment while it is crucial in minimising the effects of variables not
of interest to the study.
This study by Sungu Kim et al.60 was conducted as there is a need for further research regarding
other types of bloodstains and surfaces. The research question under the study is
researchable. The authors of the article presented a transparent background relating to the
field of study which provides a good ground for the research. However, the paper did not
state any hypotheses which would form the basis of the study. A hypothesis is fundamental
in scientific research as it helps to direct a study.
The samples used for the experiment was not representative of the whole population. It is
essential to ensure that the sample chosen for any study has all the characteristics of the
entire population. The variables used in this study by the researcher were chosen well. It was
noted that the data was not adequately analysed through the statistical methods chosen. It
is essential to ensure that the method of data analysis is free of errors that may impact on the
research findings. The control experiment would have made the research process more valid
and improved on the findings. As a conclusion, the study is very significant and can be
enhanced by employing better practices of a research process.
58
The paper by Seth C. Taylora et al.56 research’s question is researchable, and the authors have
presented the need as to why the study was necessary. However, no hypothesis was
formulated at the beginning of the experiment, lowering the credibility of the findings. It is
essential to have a hypothesis being formulated at the beginning of scientific research as it
helps to guide the research process.
The research design involved video analysis, a method whose reliability is very crucial. The
instruments used to take the video were not piloted before the study to be sure about the
reliability. Therefore it makes it hard to ascertain that the findings were correct. The variables
of the study reveal a clear relationship between the components being studied. The
independent and the dependent variables were chosen wisely and represented the
relationship among them.
The method of data analysis was not found to be suitable for the study. It would have been
more reliable to analyse the data using statistical instruments and was mainly because the
data collected was quantitative. The statistics applied in the research should correspond to
the research question, easy to understand, and able to produce results. This is significant in
forensic science research because the data obtained for the analysis can be easily analysed,
and a conclusion can be made from the results.
In conclusion, the study could yield more reliable results if proper methods were employed.
Both negative and positive controls would have also been introduced in order to minimise the
effects of the variables that were not of interest to the study.
Conclusion
In summary, the review of the forensic papers has revealed that many papers were not
correctly handled. The proper practices of scientific research were seen to be missing from a
large number of the papers reviewed. Most of the papers missed hypothesis formulation that
59
is an essential aspect of research. Additionally, there was the use of smaller sample sizes
during experiments which meant that most of the results would not be representative of the
whole population under study.
The results of the review also revealed that most of the published papers failed to have a
control experiment that would have assisted in guiding the research process. Others had
employed the use of an experimental design that was not very appropriate for the study and
this indicates the problems that most published forensic research papers have as pointed out
by PCAST and NAS reports that resulted to the study61,62.
In summary, most of the published forensic papers have not employed the best practice of
research and therefore, there is a need to develop a framework that can improve this field.
Through this research, recommendations will be provided that will point out the areas that
can be improved. Also, a framework would be developed to outline further the best
practices of research and how they can be incorporated into forensic science research.
The following table represents the tabulated data as relates to the findings from the papers
that were reviewed;
60
PAPERS FIELD No
of papers reviewed
No of papers with Hypothesis properly formulated
No of papers with a Representative sample
No of papers with Proper experimental design
No of papers with Presence of control
No of papers with Variables
No of papers Good experiments design
Fingerprints 15 7 5 6 4 7 4
DNA 15 5 6 5 5 8 6 Toxicology 15 6 4 3 4 6 5
Blood Pattern
8 2 3 4 3 5 3
Entomology 8 3 2 3 4 5 4
Table 1Analysis of findings
Figure 2: Graph analysis of the findings
Recommendations
The following are some of the recommendations to improve forensic science research:
i. There is a need for the researchers to begin the study by formulating a hypothesis.
Having a hypothesis helps to maximise the reliability of research findings and
contributes to the reproducibility of results.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Hypothesisproperly
formulated
Representativesample
Properexperimental
design
Presence ofcontrol
Variables Good experimentsdesign
Forensic Papers Reviewed
Fingerprints DNA Toxicology Blood Pattern Entomology
61
ii. It would be necessary for the researchers to conduct a pilot study on the instruments
before undertaking the actual experiment, which would reduce the cases where the
instruments are faulty and lead to wrong results being obtained. The pilot study helps
to verify the credibility as well as the validity of the instruments of research.
iii. The researchers should ensure that, the variables are well defined in the study. Both
the independent and dependent variables should be identified in order to show the
relationship between the components under study. Variables also help to determine
how to analyse data and answer questions. In an analytic design, the researcher
studies the associations between variables for outcome prediction and drawing
inference concerning cause and effect.
iv. It is also recommended that the sample chosen for a study should be representative
of the population under study. When a smaller sample size is used, the results of the
experiment will not be accurate for the general population. Therefore, while selecting
a sample, the researchers should ensure that it has all the characteristics of the
population.
v. The experimental design selected for the data analysis ought to be able to address the
research questions, and this would allow the researchers to gather suitable data to
support or reject the hypothesis. Through this practice, it becomes possible for the
researcher to answer the question of what precisely the test is trying to explain.
62
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41. Kozie Rice, Jacek A. Characterizing the Smell of Marijuana by Odor Impact of Volatile Compounds: An Application of Simultaneous Chemical and Sensory Analysis
42. Erkut Yılmaz, Bora Garipcan, Hirak K. Patra,and Lokman Uzun- Molecular Imprinting Applications in Forensic Science
43. Andre ́ Gotta ̊s 1,2 • Marianne Arnestad1 • Per Steinar Halvorsen3 • Liliana C. Bachs1 • Gudrun Høiseth1,4- Pharmacokinetics of heroin and its metabolites in vitreous humor and blood in a living pig model
44. Stefan W. Toennes, Stephanie Hanisch, Werner Pogoda, Cora Wunder, Alexander Paulke- Pitfall in cannabinoid analysis-detection of a previously unrecognized interfering compound in human serum
65
45. Verena Angerer · Florian Franz · Bjoern Moosmann· Philippe Bisel· Volker Auwärter- 5F‐Cumyl‐PINACA in ‘e‐liquids’ for electronic cigarettes: comprehensive characterization of a new type of synthetic cannabinoid in a trendy product including investigations on the in vitro and in vivo phase I metabolism of 5F‐Cumyl‐PINACAand its non‐fluorinated analog Cumyl‐PINACA
46. Maiko Kusanoa, Yuki Sakamotob, Yujin Natoria, Haruhiko Miyagawab,Hitoshi Tsuchihashia, Akira Ishiia, Kei Zaitsua- Development of “Quick-DB forensic”: A total workflow from QuEChERS-dSPE method to GC–MS/MS quantification of forensically relevant drugs and pesticides in whole blood
47. Meiru Pana,b, Ping Xiang b, Zhiguo Yua, Yunli Zhaoa, Hui Yanb,- Development of a high-throughput screening analysis for 288 drugs and poisons in human blood using Orbitrap technology with gas chromatography-high resolution accurate mass spectrometry
48. Carlos Magno & Alves Girelli- The use of fingerprints available on the web in false identity documents: Analysis from a forensic intelligence perspective.
49. Chuanjun Yuan et al-Cationic dye-diatomite composites: Novel dusting powders for developing latent fingerprints.
50. Dr. Prateek Rastogi and Ms. Keerthi R Pillai- A study of fingerprints in relation to gender and blood group
51. George Christofidis et al. -Detection of Fingermarks-Applicability to Metallic Surfaces.
52. R. C. Corre et al. Diel activity and effect of Carcass Decomposition on the attractiveness to the forensically Important Species
53. Erica I. T. da Silva1 & Brendan Wilhelmi2 & Martin H. Villet 1-Forensic entomotoxicology
revisited—towards professional standardisation of study designs
54. Elisabeth M. P. Williams, Ph.D.; Emma S. Graham, M.Sc.; Mark C. Jermy-The Dynamics of
Blood Drop Release from Swinging Objects in the Creation of Cast-off Bloodstain
Patterns
55.Nick Laan, Karla G. de Bruin, Denise Slenter, Julie Wilhelm, Mark Jermy & Daniel Bonn-Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: implementation of a fluid dynamic model for position
determination of victims
56. Seth C. Taylora, Elena F. Kraniotia,b, Cranial trauma in handgun executions: Experimental data using polyurethane proxies
66
57.Lev Voskoboinik- Laundry in a washing machine as a mediator of secondary and tertiary
DNA transfer
58. Caroline Chimeno -DNA Barcoding in Forensic Entomology – Establishing a DNA
Reference Library of Potentially Forensic Relevant Arthropod Species.
59. K. Mcleisha- Profiling in wildlife crime: Recovery of human DNA deposited outside.
60. Sungu Kim, Yuan Ma, Prashant Agrawal, Daniel Attinger- How important is it to consider
target properties and hematocrit in bloodstain pattern analysis?
61. Kathi E. Hanna, et al., Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path
Forward: The National Academies Press. 2009
62. Tania Simoncelli et al., Report to the president forensic Science in Criminal Courts:
Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature-Comparison Methods. The President’s Council
of Advisors on Science and Technology. 2016
67
Part Two
Manuscript
Development of a Good Practice Framework in Forensic Science Research Manuscripts
68
Abstract
The application of proper research methodology is a very crucial component in scientific
studies. However, this has not been the case in the field of forensic science. The area has in
the recent past faced many challenges. Most of these challenges are related to the potential
of forensic publications lacking adequate scientific foundations leading to the inaccuracy of
the findings or conclusions made. A good research process incorporates several components.
These were identified and tested across several published forensic science papers. The main
aim of the study was to develop the components of best practice based on published
recommendations from other scientific disciplines and by applying these to forensic science
research. A pilot study of fifty published papers from 5 fields of forensic science, namely; DNA,
Toxicology, Blood Pattern Analysis, Fingerprints and Entomology were reviewed and scored
based on the developed best practices of research. The papers sampled were published
between the years 2011 to 2019. The main components analysed and scored according to
research question, hypothesis, experimental design, sample size, variables, data analysis,
controls, standards, and whether the summary addressed the research question. The
components were ranked from 0 to 5, and the lowest was 0 and not applicable used if it was
not a requirement for the paper. Upon scoring, the data was plotted into graphs to show the
analysis and trends. The findings from the study revealed the papers that met the criteria for
a good research paper. These were the papers that scored at least 4 in every component. The
results obtained have identified imperfect research process as being one of the reasons for
inaccurate findings in forensic science. This study uncovered the impact of the imperfect
research process on the quality of published forensic science papers.
69
Keywords Forensic science
Hypothesis
Variables
Samples
Controls
Data analysis
Standards
Research
70
Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 7
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 9
Research Questions ............................................................................................................................. 9
Hypothesis .........................................................................................................................................11
Null hypothesis ..............................................................................................................................13
Alternate hypothesis......................................................................................................................13
Experimental design ..........................................................................................................................13
Variables ............................................................................................................................................14
Dependent variable .......................................................................................................................15
Independent variable.....................................................................................................................15
Controlled variable ........................................................................................................................15
Samples ..............................................................................................................................................16
Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................17
Controls ..............................................................................................................................................17
Discussion ..............................................................................................................................................18
Fingerprints ........................................................................................................................................19
DNA ....................................................................................................................................................27
Entomology ........................................................................................................................................33
Toxicology ..........................................................................................................................................39
Blood Pattern Analysis .......................................................................................................................56
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................58
Recommendations ................................................................................................................................60
Keywords ...............................................................................................................................................69
Table of Figures ......................................................................................................................................72
List of Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................73
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................74
Method ..................................................................................................................................................75
Results and Discussion ...........................................................................................................................81
Research question .............................................................................................................................82
Hypothesis .........................................................................................................................................83
Experimental design ..........................................................................................................................85
71
Variables ............................................................................................................................................86
Samples ..............................................................................................................................................87
Data analysis ......................................................................................................................................88
Controls ..............................................................................................................................................89
Standards ...........................................................................................................................................90
Summary addressing the research question .....................................................................................91
Additional findings .............................................................................................................................93
Statistical ANOVA Analysis .................................................................................................................95
Group 1: Disciplines .......................................................................................................................95
Group 2: Journals ...........................................................................................................................97
Group 3: Years of Publication ........................................................................................................99
ANOVA Results in Discussion .......................................................................................................100
The limitations of the study. ............................................................................................................101
Future directions..............................................................................................................................101
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................102
References ...........................................................................................................................................103
72
Table of Figures Figure 1 Graph Showing Scores Based on Research Question .............................................................. 82
Figure 2 Graph Showing Scores Based on Hypothesis.......................................................................... 84
Figure 3 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Experimental Design ..................................................... 85
Figure 4 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Variables ...................................................................... 86
Figure 5 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Sample Size ................................................................... 87
Figure 6 Graph Showing Scores Based on Data Analysis ....................................................................... 88
Figure 7 Graph Showing Scores Based on Controls ............................................................................... 89
Figure 8 Graph Showing Scores Based on Standards ............................................................................ 90
Figure 9 Scores Based on Summary Addressing the Research Question ............................................. 91
Figure 10 Graph Showing Summary of all the Components ................................................................. 92
Figure 11 Graph Showing Average Percentage Per Year ..................................................................... 93
Figure 12 Graph Showing Average Percentage Score Per Journal ..................................................... 94
Figure 13 Graph Showing Average Percentage Score per Discipline ................................................... 94
Figure 14 Graph Showing Highest/Lowest Scoring Papers .................................................................. 95
73
List of Abbreviations DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DP - Dyes and Pigments
FSI - Forensic Science International
FT - Forensic Toxicology
IJLM - International Journal of Legal Medicine
JFS - Journal of Forensic Science
S&A - Sensors and Actuators
SAC - Spectrochimica Acta
SJ - Science and Justice
NAS: National Academy of Sciences
PCAST: President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology
BPA-Blood Pattern Analysis
ANOVA – Analysis of Variance
74
Introduction The 2009 National Academy of Sciences report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United
States: A Path Forward pointing out the unscientific state of various forensic subfields has a
clear indication of a knowledge gap regarding the reliability of the methods used in the
research process1. The President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology2 report in
2016, reviewed the matter and made recommendations for further progress in the
investigation of the challenges facing forensic science. The idea that most of the forensic
publications lack adequate scientific foundation is a critical issue that needs to be addressed
to improve the validity and reliability.
The scientific community has acknowledged that the scientific foundation of some of the
present forensic methods such as DNA and Fingerprints requires strengthening1.
Improvement is achievable through continuous research programs designed to advance the
reliability and validity of the available techniques and improve the development and usage of
current and better methods. It is important to note that deficient forensic techniques may
arise because of poor techniques, and unsupported assumptions are the result of the initial
poor research techniques. Several robust scientific components, if incorporated into forensic
research, would improve it significantly2.
The best practices of scientific research include a well-stated research question, hypothesis,
experimental design, variables, data analysis, controls, standards and a summary addressing
the research question.
These best practices of research ensure that the scientists follow through the process step by
step. Every component investigated in this paper is a requirement in a research paper for
publishing consideration. One of the components that analysed in the documents was the
research question. A research question is the aim of the study and the experimental
75
uncertainty requiring a solution3. In scientific research, there has to be an underlying reason
as to why a particular analysis is necessary. A published paper needs to have the research
question easily identifiable to the reader. In most cases, the research question emerges from
the title, results or findings and observed problems from the previous studies.
The second element was the hypothesis, which states the assumption made in the study. A
scientific paper should have a clearly defined hypothesis that author would test later. The
final results of the investigation will either lead to the acceptance or the rejection of the
theory. The research also investigated the variables in every paper. Each research should have
both the dependent and independent variables which bring out the relationship. The
variables help to align the study. In a published article, the variables should be easily
identifiable by the reader.
The sample size is also essential in each study. The sample represents the component tested
during the study. The sample size needs to be representative of the whole population that is
under the survey. Proper research should use a sample size that is not too small; otherwise,
the results may not represent the accurate findings of the population4.
The other element that was considered control. Controls in a scientific study are used to
minimise the effect of variables that are not the interest of the study7. Through controls,
scientists can ensure that there are no deviations in the experiment. Data analysis was also
investigated in the study to identify the use of proper methods. Data obtained should undergo
suitable statistical tests. The statistics that mainly clarify a research question first depend on
the problem and secondly on the data.
Method Fifty published papers from 5 fields of forensic science, namely; DNA, Toxicology, Blood
Pattern Analysis, Fingerprints and Entomology were reviewed and scored based on the
76
developed best practices of research derived from medical/biomedical and biosciences
disciplines.
A scoring model was designed to apply an independent score to the components of each of
the papers randomly selected. The scoring model defined a range from 0 to 5, where 0
means that the component was missing and five means that it was addressed adequately.
The journals assessed include FSI, JFS, FT, IJLM, SJ, SAC, DP, and S&A.
In some papers, the selected component did not apply, that is, was not required, and scored
as Not Applicable (NA).
After the scoring model was applied, data analysis was performed to discover trends in the
papers, and these are presented in the results section.
The tables below show the criteria used to score the different components of the papers.
RESEARCH QUESTION
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There is no research question.
1 There is a research question, but not clear.
2 It is a bit clear, does not cover the scope of the study and not detailed.
3 It is clear, covers a small scope of the study and a bit detailed.
4 It is clear, covers a vast scope of the study and detailed.
5 It is excellent, clear, covers the entire scope of the study and very detailed.
NA Not Applicable
77
HYPOTHESIS
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There is no hypothesis
1 There is a hypothesis but not explained.
2 There is a hypothesis, explained but not clear nor realistic.
3 It is clear, explained, a bit clear/realistic
4 The hypothesis is reasonable, clear, explained better
5 The hypothesis is excellent, has both alternate null hypotheses, well explained, very clear/realistic and can be tested.
NA Not Applicable
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 Poor experimental design
1 Good experimental design, but does not address the research question, materials and methods used are not outlined, and it is biased.
2 The design addresses the research question, but the material, methods and results are not outlined and its biased.
3 The design addresses the research question, the materials, methods and results are outlined and but a bit biased.
4 The design is good, it addresses the research question outlines methods, materials and results, and it is not biased.
5 The experimental design is outstanding, addresses the research question, materials, methods and results are correctly outlined, and it is not biased.
NA Not applicable
78
VARIABLES
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There are no variables.
1 There are variables but wrong selection, not adequately explained and no comparisons.
2 Variables are right but not explained adequately with no comparisons.
3 Right variables, adequately explained but no comparisons.
4 Right variables, correctly explained and with comparisons.
5 Excellent variables, very well explained with useful comparisons.
NA Not Applicable
SAMPLES
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There are no samples.
1 There are samples but not relevant, adequate, nor representative.
2 The samples are relevant but not adequate nor representative
3 The samples are relevant, adequate but with small representation.
4 The samples are relevant, adequate and with more representation.
5 Excellent samples used, enough and with comprehensive representation.
NA Not Applicable
79
DATA ANALYSIS
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There is no data.
1 There is data but no analysis.
2 The data is analysed, but no statistics to support the analysis.
3 Proper analysis of data is done but the statistics used are not suitable.
4 The data is analysed correctly, with suitable statistics
5 Excellent analysis of data, very suitable statistics used, and excellent results produced.
NA Not Applicable
CONTROLS
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 No positive and negative controls/Suitable controls.
1 With positive control but no negative control and vice-versa or with controls but not explained.
2 Controls are not clearly explained, and results cannot be obtained from them.
3 The controls are clearly explained but do not correspond to the research process.
4 The controls are explained and correspond to the research process.
5 The controls are explained very clearly and verify that the test works, and results can be obtained from it.
NA Not Applicable
80
STANDARDS
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There are no standards
1 There are standards but not explained
2 The standards are explained but not clear/correct.
3 The standards are correct but unable to give results.
4 The standards are explained, clear, correct and able to give results.
5 The standards used are excellent, very clear and able to give results.
NA
SUMMARY ADDRESSING RESEARCH QUESTION
SCORE DESCRIPTION
0 There is no summary
1 A summary exists but does not address the research question.
2 A summary exists and attempts to address the research question but is not clear.
3 A summary exists and justly addresses the research question by presenting findings.
4 A summary exists and addresses the research question well and presents findings.
5 A summary exists and addresses the research question in an excellent, concise manner and presents findings of the research very clearly.
NA Not Applicable
81
Results and Discussion The field of forensic science is facing significant challenges in terms of the credibility and
validity of its findings. Currently, most of the published forensic science papers have been
criticized for not adhering to the best practices of proper research, thereby questioning the
credibility of the entire field2. Reviewing published forensic science papers across most of the
areas was, therefore, a necessity in order to determine the adherence to the best practice of
research in forensic sciences.
In this study, the research included the review of 50 published papers from the various fields
of forensic science, which included DNA, fingerprints, entomology, toxicology, and BPA. The
review was conducted based on the significant best practices of sound scientific research3.
The presence of the research question, hypothesis, variables, correct sample size, controls,
standards and summary addressing the research question are some of the essential
components that a good research paper should have. Previous studies have demonstrated
how incorporating best practices of research improves the findings of the study6. Based on
the study, it is worth mentioning in detail the importance of having each of these components
in an experimental study.
The study tabulated the research component findings with a score in a range of 0-5 and a
weighted calculation of their percentages undertaken. According to the analysis, papers
deemed as scientifically sound had a score of 4 or 5 across all the components in each of the
disciplines. The performance of different journals from 2011 to 2019 was also done, to show
the improvement after the criticisms of the forensic research by NAS and PCAST reports. The
details of the analysis were done based on each of the components discussed in the paper
below.
82
Data Source
The Excel sheet with the data analysis can be found at:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/3tcs078e2lrt7id/Scoring%20FSJ%20-
Data%20Analysis.xlsx?dl=0
Research question
The research question is the aim of the study and the uncertainty that the researcher wants
to resolve. To determine whether the papers had a well identifiable research question; the
papers were reviewed and scored. The results showed that out of the 50 papers, 47 of them
had a well-defined research question which represents 94% indicating that a more significant
percentage of the papers had clearly stated research questions and covered the complete
scope of the study.
Table 1.0 shows the results:
Figure 3 Graph Showing Scores Based on Research Question
Most of the research papers had a research question representing 97%, as indicated in the
results. Development of a research question supported by a hypothesis and objectives is an
essential step towards producing relevant results. The first step towards the development of
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Research Question
Count
83
a research question involves familiarity with the subject. These questions arise from the
perceived knowledge within the area of study. It is important to note where the boundary
between the current knowledge and ignorance lies. Therefore, the need to know and
understand best practice in research methodology is crucial, and this will aid the researcher
in developing the appropriate research question and determine the uncertainties to be
studied8.
For proper scientific research the researcher should keep in mind that within the scope of one
study, the presence of several research questions will affect and potentially increase the
complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the
actual feasibility of answering every question5. Therefore, it would be prudent to establish a
single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. Several published
legal papers have failed because of the presence of many research questions. When this
happens, the study becomes very complicated, and this increases the chances of
encountering errors. The research question should be specific and clearly stated. A good
research question should determine the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific
community and potentially to the public, have relevance and further current knowledge in
the field5.
Hypothesis
To determine whether the papers had a well identifiable hypothesis; the papers were
reviewed and scored. The results showed that, despite the hypothesis being one of the core
components that research should have, the number of papers with no hypothesis was
relatively high, representing 24%. While 27 of them had a well-defined hypothesis
representing 54% and is displayed in Table 1.1 as follows:
84
Figure 4 Graph Showing Scores Based on Hypothesis
54% of the papers analysed had a well stated and clear hypothesis while some of the papers
lacked hypothesis, and this is crucial because it is essential to have hypothesis-driven research
as it communicates what needs to be proved or disproved through a study7. The hypothesis
ought to be transparent because unclearly stated hypotheses may lead to misinterpretation
of results6.
Majority of the research studies in forensic science are suffering from problems such as
inadequate hypotheses, using data that does not represent casework conditions and tests on
the same data as explained in the PCAST report 2016. Ideally, any research process should
begin with a testable hypothesis that may be proved or disapproved at the end of the
experiment8. A poorly defined hypothesis is a recipe for wrong results. Additionally, the
hypothesis should be realistic and needs to put into consideration the methods and
technology available and to improve the process of suitable hypothesis formulation; forensic
scientists should look out for the simplest possible explanation for a natural occurrence or
phenomena since it is the central underlying principle and tool for establishing recognised
proof4.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Hypothesis
Count
85
Experimental design
In order to determine whether the innovative design used was a proper one, the papers were
reviewed and scored. The results indicated that 31 out of the 50 articles had a well structured
experimental design which represents 62%, as shown in Table 1.3 below:
Figure 5 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Experimental Design
An experimental design is also one of the components of research. 62 % of the papers had
well designed controlled experimental research addressing the research question, having
well-outlined materials methods and results. The plans must be detailed and accurate so that
another researcher can repeat the experiment and expect to get similar results. It is also
necessary to list the methods used because it may be useful to go back to them after the test
to explain some of the results that occurred10. Researchers have noted the lack of
experimental design noted in scientific research and attributed it to the lack of proper
research in this field.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Experimental Design
Count
86
Variables
To determine whether the papers had well-chosen variables; the papers were reviewed and
scored. The results showed that out of the 50 papers, 32 of them had variables representing
64% and is displayed in Table 1.4, as shown:
Variables
in scientific research help to determine how to analyse data and answer questions; in the
study, papers with variables represented 64%. Some of the papers lacked variables hence a
critical factor to the research process because the credibility of research depends on having
the right selection of variables as it can influence the research finding4In an experimental
design, the researcher studies the associations between variables for outcome prediction and
drawing an inference concerning cause and effect.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Scores based on the variables
Count
Figure 6 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Variables
87
Samples
To determine whether the papers implemented a correct number of samples; the papers
were reviewed and scored. 36 out of 50 papers used the correct sample size that represented
72% of the reviewed papers.
The results are as shown in Table 1.4 below:
Figure 7 Graph Showing Scores Based on the Sample Size
In the study, most of the papers had adequate and representative samples, represented by
72%. Research investigation commences from a straightforward sampling of data and should
be adequate and representative to have a trustworthy conclusion2. The samples contained in
the research should reflect the relevant conditions and populations specific to the case
adequately. Errors were occurring in the interpretation of research data, partly resulting from
the use of minimal data samples to make comparisons and consequently leading to poor
results4.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Sample Size
Count
88
Data analysis
The papers were reviewed to identify the use of proper data analysis and the results were as
follows: 60% of 50 articles used an appropriate method of data analysis.
Figure 8 Graph Showing Scores Based on Data Analysis
60% of the papers had proper data analysis. It included suitable statistics to support the
analysis. The statistics applied in the research should correspond to the research question,
easy to understand, and able to produce results and this is significant in forensic science
research for data analysis, and a conclusion arrived at from the results5. Biased samples have
been a source of errors in research. These are samples are those in which the method used
to create the sample results in samples that are systematically different from the population8.
An incorrectly drawn sample can bias the conclusions from the start5. Overgeneralization
could also occur when the findings from one population might not apply to another
population. All these errors result from incorrect data analysis. It is, therefore, essential that
a scientist uses a wide range of analytical tools.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Data Analysis
Count
89
Controls
An analysis of the papers under review was done to determine whether the papers had
controls in their experiments. The results showed that 24 out of the 32 papers that required
controls, used suitable controls, were well explained, verified that the test was working and
corresponded to the research process and this represented 75% of the requirement. The use
of controls did not apply to 18 of the sampled papers, as shown in Table 1.7 below:
Figure 9 Graph Showing Scores Based on Controls
Amongst the papers analysed, 75% of the papers had controls. However, 36% of the papers
did not require controls, and they were majorly from BPA and entomology disciplines.
Controls are used to minimise the effect of variables that are not the interest of the study9.
Forensic researchers should ensure they have controls in their experiments to guide the
research process.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Controls
Count
90
Standards
The papers were reviewed to determine whether there were standards in the experiment.
The results showed that 12 papers satisfied the criteria, which represented 66.7%, as shown
in Figure 1.8 below:
The standards are components that are crucial to some disciplines such as DNA and
Toxicology as they are meant to guide in verifying that the test works. In the study, 57% of
the papers had standards, while 33% lacked standards, and this is also critical to the disciplines
that have standard as the primary component of research. It is, therefore, essential to have
standards in all the experiments requiring it.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Count
Standards
Count
Figure 10 Graph Showing Scores Based on Standards
91
Summary addressing the research question
An analysis of each of the papers to determine whether the outline of the papers addressed
the research question. The results indicated that 32 out of the 50 papers had a summary that
addressed the research question in a concise and detailed manner, and this represented 64%,
in table 1.9, as shown below:
Figure 11 Scores Based on Summary Addressing the Research Question
Lastly, in the study, papers with a summary addressing the research question were analysed.
Most papers met this criterion, and it had a score of 64% and this meant that the researcher
summarised in a clear, concise and detailed manner, and it covered all the entire scope of the
experiment.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
Co
un
t
Scores
Research Question
Count
92
The graph below shows a summary of the components scores in all the sampled
manuscripts as discussed above.
Figure 12 Graph Showing Summary of all the Components
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Co
un
t
Scoring Components
COUNTS PER COMPONENT
0 1 2 3 4 5 NA
93
Additional findings
Other findings illustrated that the trend in the quality of the papers has slightly improved
since the year 2011 to 2019. However, the quality of the papers sampled in this study varies
over the years, as is demonstrated in the graph, as shown:
Figure 13 Graph Showing Average Percentage Per Year
Another observation from the findings showed that papers from JFS (81.8%), FSI (75.7%) DP -
Dyes and Pigments(75.6%), Science and Justice (82.4%), Spectrochimica Acta (75%), IJLM
(54.8%), and FT (81.8), SAC (66.7%).
The reason for the low performing journals is that they had a larger sample size, i.e. most of
the papers analysed came from these journals; hence, the probability of sampling poor papers
was high.
62.0
64.0
66.0
68.0
70.0
72.0
74.0
76.0
78.0
80.0
82.0
84.0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Average Percentage Per Year
AVERAGE PERCENTAGE
94
Figure 14 Graph Showing Average Percentage Score Per Journal
Figure 15 Graph Showing Average Percentage Score per Discipline
As shown above, the performance of various disciplines reviewed was relatively good, but
there is a need for improvement in the standards of forensic scientific papers across the
different fields. Per discipline, BPA, Toxicology and Entomology scored relatively high
compared to DNA and Fingerprints
0.0
50.0
100.0
D&P FSI FT IJLM JFS S&J SA SAC
Percentage Score Per Journal
AVERAGE PERCENTAGES
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
BPA DNA Entomology Fingerprints Toxicology
Average Percentage Per Discipline
AVERAGE PERCENTAGE
95
Figure 16 Graph Showing Highest/Lowest Scoring Papers
The analysis of the lowest and highest scoring papers shows that there is an average distribution of
the scores across the disciplines. The lowest score is 26.7%, while the highest is 95.7%.
Statistical ANOVA Analysis
The data was analysed using single-factor ANOVA to explore the significant differences between the
various groups as discussed below.
Group 1: Disciplines
BPA DNA Entomology Fingerprints Toxicology
80.0 91.4 57.8 60.0 82.9
80.0 64.4 95.6 75.0 57.8
85.0 57.1 60.0 66.7 91.1
84.4 85.0 68.6 75.6 85.0
65.0 77.8 71.4 80.0 80.0
66.7 91.1 91.4 48.9 85.0
72.5 60.0 65.0 77.8 70.0
68.6 80.0 68.6 85.7 77.8
92.5 44.4 26.7 94.3 74.3
95.0 91.1 77.8 94.3 80.0
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
1 2 3 4 5
Highest / Lowest Scoring Papers
Lowest 5 Scores Highest Scores
96
Anova: Single Factor
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
BPA 10 780 78 103.4920635
DNA 10 670.4761905 67.04761905 327.6683184
Entomology 10 796.0714286 79.60714286 191.055839
Fingerprints 10 737.8571429 73.78571429 277.1689622
Toxicology 10 772.5 77.25 122.3328189
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 999.0776644 4 249.7694161 1.222301142 0.31475 2.578739184
Within Groups 9195.462018 45 204.3436004
Total 10194.53968 49
𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐 = 𝝁𝟏 = 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟑 = 𝝁𝟒 = 𝝁𝟓
𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐; 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝝁 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝛂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝝆 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟓
Therefore:
𝛒 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 > 𝛂
There is no enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
97
Group 2: Journals
D&P FSI FT IJLM JFS S&J SA SAC
80.0 80.0 68.6 77.8 66.7 80.0 74.3 80.0
85.0 26.7 60.0 75.6 85.0
84.4 75.0 80.0 70.0
65.0 48.9 77.8
66.7 77.8
72.5 85.7
68.6 94.3
92.5 94.3
95.0 82.9
91.4 57.8
64.4 91.1
57.1 85.0
85.0
77.8
91.1
60.0
80.0
44.4
91.1
57.8
95.6
60.0
68.6
71.4
91.4
65.0
98
Anova: Single Factor
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
D&P 1 75.55555556 75.55555556 #DIV/0!
FSI 26 1967.97619 75.69139194 151.4706693
FT 2 163.6111111 81.80555556 173.1867284
IJLMN 3 164.4444444 54.81481481 673.2510288
JFS 12 914.2063492 76.18386243 217.8525142
S&J 4 329.4444444 82.36111111 287.3199588
SA 1 75 75 #DIV/0!
SAC 1 66.66666667 66.66666667 #DIV/0!
ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 1629.746631 7 232.8209473 1.141706487 0.356273 2.237070295
Within Groups 8564.793052 42 203.9236441
Total 10194.53968 49
𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐 = 𝝁𝟏 = 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟑 = 𝝁𝟒 = 𝝁𝟓 = 𝝁𝟔 = 𝝁𝟔 = 𝝁𝟕 = 𝝁𝟖
𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐; 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝝁 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝛂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝝆 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟕𝟑
Therefore:
𝛒 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 > 𝛂
There is no enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
99
Group 3: Years of Publication
YEAR
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
80.0 65.0 91.1 72.5 68.6 91.4 60.0 75.6 80.0
80.0 92.5 64.4 68.6 80.0 85.0
85.0 95.0 57.1 71.4 48.9 70.0
84.4 85.0 91.4 77.8 77.8
77.8 65.0 85.7 74.3
91.1 68.6 94.3 80.0
60.0 26.7 94.3
80.0 77.8 82.9
44.4 60.0 57.8
91.1 75.0 91.1
57.8 66.7 85.0
95.6
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
2011 4 329.4444444 82.36111111 7.484567901
2012 1 65 65 #DIV/0!
2013 1 91.11111111 91.11111111 #DIV/0!
2014 1 72.5 72.5 #DIV/0!
2015 3 256.0714286 85.35714286 212.8826531
2016 12 895.7936508 74.6494709 293.4864041
2017 11 731.1111111 66.46464646 252.7202868
2018 11 873.2539683 79.38672439 207.9718958
2019 6 467.0634921 77.84391534 26.93982531
ANOVA Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 1947.770792 8 243.471349 1.185804172 0.331022 2.173989475
Within Groups 8418.190407 41 205.3217173
Total 10365.9612 49
𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐 = 𝝁𝟏 = 𝝁𝟐 = 𝝁𝟑 = 𝝁𝟒 = 𝝁𝟓 = 𝝁𝟔 = 𝝁𝟔 = 𝝁𝟕 = 𝝁𝟖 = 𝝁𝟗
𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒐; 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝝁 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝜶 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝝆 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐
Therefore:
100
𝝆 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 > 𝜶
There is no enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
ANOVA Results in Discussion The results of the data analysis of the forensic science papers grouped into three categories namely:
Disciplines, Journals and Year of Publication indicated that there is no enough evidence to reject the
null hypothesis or accept the alternate hypothesis.
101
The limitations of the study.
The sample of the study was 50 published papers from selected fields of forensic science from
8 journals published between 2011 to 2019. This sample size may not have been
representative of the entire sector of forensic science. Therefore the conclusion of the study
may have been affected. Being a pilot study and a first-ever to be conducted, we recommend
that the sample size be increased in future studies to come up with a conclusive result.
The scoring model used in this study is subjective in nature; that is, the research developed a
scoring mechanism and applied it to get the results. However, this can be a basis for the
development of standard models for forensic science research.
Future directions.
Future studies should be conducted with broader fields of forensic science. More papers also
need to be reviewed. There is also the need to investigate other elements that make up
proper research other than what was studied in this study. To limit subjective bias, more
researchers should collaborate in developing a good practice frameworks in forensic science
research.
102
Conclusion
Published forensic science papers are required to meet the best practices of research. The
results of this study are significant in establishing whether the published documents meet
these standards. The results indicated that the papers either lacked some of the stated
components, had a low score or scored highly. It is important to note that, these components
form an essential part of any study and lack of it is detrimental to the research process and in
any case, papers lacking or scoring low in these core components should not be published.
Despite the criticisms as published by NAS and PCAST reports that noted the low quality of
forensic science papers, most papers evaluated scored highly in most components. The
analysis of the data shows that there has been a slight improvement since the reports were
published. Despite the improvements, there is still a need for a standard model that can be
applied by all forensic scientists conducting research. With the results obtained in the survey,
the field of forensic science is likely to improve in terms of the quality of the published
journals, and this will undoubtedly move the area forward.
103
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