,

Mass media in society; The need of research i

Unesco

Printed in 1970 in the Workshops o/ the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,

Place de Fontenoy. Pans 7e, France

COM/ 70.XVII. 59 A Printed in France 0 Unesco 1970

PREFACE

Recent and current advances in electronics and space technology suggest that society today faces the challenge of a "communication revolution" as a result of which the means of communication within and between countries could, before long, provide opportunities for human endeavour never before imagined, and at the same time lead to many and far reaching changes in both the structures and functions of society itself.

While the technology of communication is pro- gressing at an ever increasing pace, research into the consequences of this progress is not beingunder- taken on a commensurate scale. While many stu- dies have been made ofthe effectiveness ofthe new techniques little research has so far been directed to studying the effects .on society of the media in their newly developing forms.

The General Conference of Unesco, at its fif- teenth session (November 1968), authorized the Director-General, in co-operation with appropriate international and national organizations, governmen- tal and non- governmental, to undertake a long-term programme of research on technological progress in means of communication and to promote study on the rale and effects ofthe mediaofmass communi- cation in modern society.

In June 1969, with the assistance of the Canadian National Commission for Unesco, the Director- General convened a meeting of experts in Montreal to examine the actual and potential rale of mass communication in society and to advise the Secre- tariat on recent developments and probable trends in communication research as a guide to future ac- tion to be carried out or recommended by Unesco.

A working paper was prepared for this meeting by Mr. James Halloran, Director ofthe Centre for Communication Research of the University of Leicester, United Kingdom. An amended and ex- tended version of this paper constitutes the first part of the present publication. Mr. Halloran pre- sents a general view of the impact of Rhe means of mass communication on the modern world and of the present state and organization of communication research and the need for research in new fields. He also indicates fields for co-operative re- search activities at both national and international levels.

the Final Report adopted by the Montreal meeting of experts in which the discussions are summarized and suggestions and recommendations for future action are outlined.

The second part of this publication consists of

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C O N T E N T S

PART I . MASS C O M M U N I C A T I O N IN SOCIETY . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Section A . Introduction . Theimpact ofmass communication . . . . 7

Section B . The present state and organization of mass communication research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

What has mass communication research told us to date? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Research in the developing countries . . . . . . . . 12

Research into educational use of media . . . . . . 13 Organization of mass communication research . . . 13

Section C . The need for research into new fields . . . . . . . . . 15

The educational media . . . . . . . . . . . International communication and the satellite . The rale of the media in transitional societies

Violence and aggression . . . . . . . . . . Social contributions of the media

Research and the producer . . . . . . . . . Research and training . . . . . . . . . . . The approach to research . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . 15

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. . . 19

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Section D . The need for co-operative action at the national and international levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Promotion of research at the national level . . . . . Co-operation at the international level . . . . . . . 22

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The rale of Unesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

PART II . REPORT OF THE IVEETING OF E X P E R T S ON MASS COMMUNICATION A N D SOCIETY (Montreal. 21-30 June 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

ANNEX. LIST OFPARTICIPA N TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 5

PART I

MASS COMMUNICATION IN SOCIETY

SECTION A: INTRODUCTION - THE IMPACT OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Over the past two decades communication technology has progressed at ever-increasing speed, and there has been much speculation as to how the new instru- ments of communication - already with us, on the drawing board, or foreseeable - would affect Man and condition the society in which he lives. Both the intrinsic benefits and the inherent dangers have been pointed out; prophecies have been optimistic and pessimistic in turn.

In the more optimistic view, we are introduced to a communications world of the future which is characterized by miniaturization, flexibility, com- plete accessibility and personal control - one in which pocket-size personal computers, video tele- phones, television receivers and transmitters will be as common as transistor radios are today. W e hear of space communication satellite systems capable of transmitting simultaneously to every part of the world, capable also of linking every home and every office in the world by telegraph, telephone or facsimile. Computers will make the total sum of world knowledge freely available, freely available home-based education will have been adjusted to in- dividual needs and will have become a continuing process. The communication system willbe a pub- lic utility service with sufficient capacity to supply each subscriber not only with direct video telephone and telegraph service but also with electronic mail, magazine and newspaper delivery, and the subscriber will be able to transmit as well as receive informa- tion.

There will be freedom of choice across an un- precedented range, for the individual viewer in his multi-media home in the megalopolis and not the broadcaster will decide what is to be viewed, just as a reader decides today what books he will read and when. For most people satellites, for all their importance, will eventually become only a link in the complex communications network of the public utility information system.

The citizens of this world of super cities will

be highly intelligent, educated, mature, well read, well travelled, well-to-do, leisured, highly indi- vidualistic, multilingual and multicultural - in short - a discriminating, demanding mass élite.

W e need not discuss the probable accuracy of this forecast for the 2O6O1s, nor need we spend time ascertaining the exact number of steps that have been taken along the exciting technological road. W e know that we are in the age of communi- cation by space satellite and there has been much talk about the educational potential of this marvel- lous new instrument. In the last decade, in some of the developed countries, we have witnessed a tremendous growth not onlyin the use of television in education but also of new systems to collect, store and retrieve information. The advent of the computer and of facsimile, magnetic and optical storage devices permits us to handle more infor- mation in more forms more quickly. Moreover, the development of "information transfer networks" means that we are almost at a point where anything that is said, written or observed can be converted into an electrical pulse, carried anywhere, and created in the same or any other form we wish. In some countries educationists are already beginning to talk and write about entirely new learning en- vironments and completely changed educational structures and methods. At the technological level at least, we may be in sight of the "new society" envisaged by some of the optimists.

There are, however, levels other than the technological; development is certainly not the same as use. This appears to be a fact that the more optimistic commentators seem to leave to one side in their enthusiasm about the educational and social benefits which they assume will flow automatically from developments in communica- tion technology.

When space satellites were first launched, we thought in terms of the free exchange of ideas on a scale never before possible. It was claimed that the new development would broaden international understanding at an unheard of rate and would im- prove the prospects for peace. It was also to

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provide the means for a world-wide attack on illit- eracy and for the enlightenment of all mankind and would become one of the foremost weapons against ignorance.

Although the potential is probably there, there are no longer quite so many Utopian predictions. Even predictions concerning possible national deve- lopments have been tempered in the light of econo- mic and political realities. In fact it is now being argued that there is no major use for satellites by or for education unless we can think in new and dif- ferent dimensions. A commitment to use the satel- lite in ways that would bring about the desired ends requires that educators, governments and all con- cerned think of their national and international res- ponsibilities in entirely new terms. Education and aid must be given higher priorities in the interna- tional efforts of the developed countries if the situa- tion is to be remedied, Production of mass media materials, however, is highiy concentrated. The initiative usually lies with the major powers, with those who have the money and the know-how. But these powers are often reluctant to open doors un- less they can control the flow of information so that, not surprisingly, the flow is usually one-way. On the whole, the major powers have not shown them- selves ready or willing to face up to the consequences of the two-way system. W e are all willing to in- fluence others, but not many are willing to be in- fluenced by others. The open skies are not always matched by open minds.

W e are entitledto our Utopian dreams andit is of course important to look to the future, but our discussions will not be very fruitful unless we take into account the hard realities of the present. What is the situation now in which mass communication operates? What is it likely to be in the immediate and foreseeable future? The world is split, there are wars large and small, disputes civil and inter- national, and nations rich and poor. Nationstoo are split and again we find the haves and have-nots, the leaders and the followers, the participators and the alienated, the literate and the illiterate, and so on. Different countries have reached different stages in the development and use of the mass me- dia in the same way as individuals and groups within a given country. To put it simply, one of the main tasks of the researcher is to identify the group in terms of this different use, and many problems in this area remain to be studied - from the portrayal of violence to the development of taste and the re- duction of prejudice.

Mass communication research also inquires into the rôle of the communicator and the nature of his message. Such studies must investigate also the organization, structure, control and support of broadcasting and other media institutions. W e need to know about values, aims, objectives, policies, availabilities and limitations. These inquiries should be made at both national and international levels.

in dealing with the question of the influence of

the media on the developing countries, thinking and research have often been confined to specific in- formational campaigns and educational programmes. These are important, but the wider impact of commercially-oriented media at the socio-cultural level may be more important in terms of social change and development. Researchers tend to dwell on potential, optimum educational use, untold benefits, and overall improvement. They rarely mention exploitation, and appear reluctant to ac- cept that some people may react to educational ef- forts as though they were part of a commercial or a wider ideological offensive.

However, notwithstanding the fragmentation of our world, there can be little doubt that all of us, in some way or other, will have to contend with a changing situation in which the electronic media will play an increasinglydominant rôle. The deve- loped countries need to remember, also, that this change and impact may in some countries precede literacy. In this electronic age it is sometimes maintained that information, knowledge and educa- tion can be imparted without literacy. Is this, in fact, possible or desirable?

There are many speculations about the nature and extent of this rôle of the electronic media and about possible repercussions at many levels. It may interest us to follow these speculations and try to foresee what forms future developments may take, whether we shall have the global village, edu- cational Utopias or depersonalization to affective impoverishment. But first let us take our stand on firm ground, recognizing that the essential first step in moving towards an understanding of the fu- ture is to maximize our understanding of the past and present, in this case, of the working of mass communication systems in contemporary settings.

SECTION B: THE PRESENT STATE AND ORGANIZATION OF MASS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

What has mass communication research told us to date?

One need have no lengthy acquaintance with mass communication research to realize that this is a field where method seems to be wellin advance of theory and where certain areas (e. g. effects) have received considerable attention whilst others (e. g. the production process) have been comparatively neglected. These two factors are not unrelated and it is possible to regard one as stemming from the other. However, both are more easily under- stood against the background of the general histori- cal development of studies in this field. This deve- lopment naturally reflects developments in different disciplines within the wider field of social science and also shows the influence of different models of society and images of man. It likewise illustrates the responses to the then perceived problems of

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the time and the accompanying manifestations of concern or hope. Research is notfree from these considerations.

The early developments of research into the mass media and mass communication coincided with the emergence of animage of mass society ("a vast mass of segregated isolated individuals lacking unifying purpose") which was to influence research and thinking about the media for many years. When such an image of society is taken together with the main stream of psychological thinking of that time (instinct theory with emphasis on the non-rational and on a relatively uniform basic human nature) and is seen in relation to the constant need for an easily identifiable scapegoat and in the light of the manifest effectiveness of propaganda during World War II, it becomes easier to understand how the idea of the omnipotence of the media gained preva- lence at that time.

This early view of mass communication saw the masses at the mercy of the communicator who could more or less influence them at will. In its crude sense this view no longer obtains, but it still has implications for present thinking about mass communication - pessimistic as well as optimistic. W e still find that on the one hand the media are ac- cused of trivialization, lowering cultural standards, weakening the capacity for critical thinking, nullify- ing social gains and working against social partici- pation, whilst on the other hand we are told of the great benefits that could accrue to mankind by their "wise and proper use". It is worth noting that opti- mistic views about the potentialities of the mass media are often voiced by people from the developed countries with regard to the use of the media in the developing countries. People in the developing countries now seem to be tempering their own early optimism in the light of their experience of how the media have actually been used and perhaps also un- der the influence of the prognostications and specu- lations of the pessimists in the developed countries.

Models of society, concepts of human nature and images of man all change. Learning theory, work on motives and attitudes, the development of personality theory, the emphasis on selectivity in attention and perception, attention to individual dif- ferences, the formulation of psychodynamic models of persuasion, the use of social categories in sur- veys and empirical work generally, the rediscovery of the primary group, the acceptance of the influ- ence of informal group ties, the development of such concepts as reference group and stress on diffusion of information and social interaction have all played their part in producing more refined and elaborate approaches and more developed theories than the one referred to above.

Whether it is appropriate to refer to "theories" in this connexion, still more whether we are en- titled to speak of mass communication theories, are moot points. Obviously, the problem area with which we are concerned does not fit within a single science; it is a field rather than a discipline.

Mor e over, multi- face te d and inter disciplinar y ap - proaches do not easily lend themselves to compre- hensive theoretical developments. This question is not a new one, but it is possible that work in mass communication has been less effective than it might have been because the problem has never been squarely faced whether theoretical develop- ments in the several disciplines which contribute to the total field are sufficient, or whether a basic theory of mass communication is a sine qua non for satisfactory progress.

W e should be aware of the shortcomings and inadequacies of piecemeal studies and the dangers of over concentration on isolated elements of what should be considered as a social process in which communicator and recipient are parts of the larger social system. In general it seems reasonable to suggest that the communicators, the production and decision-making processes and the economic, social and political factors of support and control have not received the attention they deserve. This lack of attention may not be unconnected with the fact that where these important factors have been studied, the overall picture is not an altogether encouraging one for those who regard freedom of access to the media as a basic principle. Combina- tion, concentration and centralization, the reduc- tion in the number of outlets (e. g. with the press), the increasing predominance of so-called objective news reporting over opinion, and the development and influence of "news values" in the selection and presentation of news, are but a few of the trends which research in many of the developed countries has identified as needing further investigation.

It would be misleading to imply that there had been no studies or even only a few; the problem is rather that most of the studies that have been carried out have been confined to a relatively low level of mass media operations. The rale of the night wire editor and his equivalent may be well documented but the higher levels of economic plan- ning and policy formulation and decision-making remain practically uncharted. There have been few systematic attempts to study the mass com- municator as a professional reflecting the values of his profession, occupying a sensitive central position in a social network, rejecting and select- ing information in response to a variety of pres- sures all within a given social system. in brief, the communicator has not been systematically studied at the severallevels of his operation. W e have still to develop a theory which allows for the systematic analysis of communicator decision.

One but certainly not the only reason for this imbalance or backwardness is that the professionals have frequently resisted investigations into their conception of their editorial and production func- tions and their decision making. In many ways this is not surprising, particularly since some of the research carried out suggests that those who are responsible for providing our media fare are by no means completely familiar with the needs,

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reactions, potentialities, and developmental prob- lems of their audience. Some "creative" people see themselves and their work as beyond, ornot susceptible to, research. Others fear that research may question their basic assumptions, challenge vested interests or simply reveal the true nature of things which, for their own good reasons, they would prefer not to be revealed. Often these people defend themselves by attacking research for its ir- relevance, its lack of application, and for being too remote and theoretical. That these are frequently rationalizations does not mean that research is blameless in this respect. Greater mutual under- standing and sympathy between researcher and practitioner is something for which we must all be prepared to work. It is not likely to be brought about if we insist on sticking to our fixed positions. Practitioners will have to appreciate that their own definitions of the situation and diagnoses of the problems are not necessarily the only ones; re- searchers must realize, particularly if they want support or facilities for research, that practitioners are faced with problems which require everyday decisions. They want feedback and they cannot wait for eves. W e must recognize that some people or countries may not welcome or feel able to afford the "detached, remote, academic researcher". In many parts of the world mass communication re- search like mass communication systems will be seen, perhaps solely seen, in the context of national unity, nation building, and the individual develop- ment of emerging and hitherto underprivileged people.

Returning to the question of the imbalance or one-sidedness in mass communication research in the developed countries, this is not unconnected with the fact that the organizational structure of media research often precludes the asking of search- ing questions. Not surprisingly, media institutions, like other institutions, are not likely to support in- quiries which may question their basic assumptions and threaten their vested interests. Research re- sults (or the absence or inadequacy of them) have frequently been used by media practitioners as an argument against change, and to defend the status quo and occasionally to absolve the policy and de- cision makers from their responsibilities with re- gard to the effects of their products.

Of the several generalizations concerning the effects of mass media, one or two (those which tend to play down the influence of the mass media) seem to have received more prominence than the others. W e frequently hear that the media rarely work di- rectly on people, that they operate through many intermediary factors (past experiences, present interests and affiliations and future anticipations), that they are unlikely to have much influence in areas where attitudes and values are well formed, and that on the whole they act as contributory or reinforcing agents and not as a sole cause.

As tentative generalizations stemming from research which has been carried. out, mostly in the United States, these statements have a certain

validity. However, it is important that they should be evaluated not in themselves but in comparison with other generalizations and taking into account the nature of the research from which they stem. Effectiveness is not the same as effects whichcan, of course, be incidental or unintended. Yet much of the research referred to above has centred on the influence or impact of specific messages of in- tent. One is entitled to ask whether appropriate models of the communication process have been used.

It is particularly important to take into ac- count the research questions which have e been asked and the research which has @been carried out. Very little work has been done onthe rale of the mass media in the early stages of child develop- ment and there have been few long-term develop- mental studies. Moreover, it has not been possible to add to these generalizations much information about the influence of genre, context or mode of presentation, for such information is simply not available, and the wide range of interaction bet- ween the mass media and cultural values remains practically uncharted. It also needs emphasizing that the intervening factors which are often seen as filtering the message may or may not be opera- tive, and that when they are operative they need not always act as "filters" for they may be work- ing in the same direction as the media.

It is also worth noting that many of the studies in mass communication research apparently con- tinue to work on a basic assumption of the "atomistic" nature of the communication public, according to which the members of the audience are isolated in- dividuals with inadequate primary relationships. In recent years the movement away from this atom- istic conception appears to have been marked, but there are still those who argue that we have not gone far enough. For example, in practice the in- dividual is frequently the research and sampling unit. The atomistic model is still retained im- plicitly and although group influences are taken into account, the individual is studied more often than the group phenomenon. It is the individual's ver- bal response in an unusual face-to-face situation with an interviewer which is usually recorded and analysed. Sociological studies which set the me- dia activity within the wider social setting or which make use of such concepts as social structure, rale or reference group are very rare.

It is also possible that attitude and attitude change have been over-used as primary criteria of effectiveness. Behavioural change need not al- ways be preceded by attitude change; the process of communication impact may be more dependent upon the degree of involvement in the issue pre- sented by the media. Most ofthe studies on which the aforementioned generalizations are based are in high involvement areas, i. e., where the issue means a lot to the person.

Such studies seem to be based usually on a conflict situation (new message in conflict with old

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attitude) and on the assumption that attitude change normally precedes behavioural change. But with low involvement (and there are many important low-involvement issues) one might find gradual shifts and adjustments in attitudes. These could be aided by repetition, and might be activated by the person having to make a behavioural choice - the attitudinal adjustment following the choice. It is important not to confuse involvement with social importance. Many people m a y not be highly in- volved in socially important topics, but their atti- tudes m a y gradually be being shaped on them. Many of the research approaches used to date have probably been _&capable of capturing this important type of gradual and cumulative change.

Increasingly, the very concept of attitude, usually held to be basic to much of social psychology, is being questioned, especially with regard to its value as a dependent variable in mass communica- tion research. The usefulness of consistency or balance theories is also being challenged, as also is the related, hitherto widely held, principle that exposure to the mass media is selective in favour of material that supports the prior dispositions of the audience. It is now suggested that information seeking is related to the anticipated uses of infor- mation and that expected behaviour m a y be a more helpful predictor of media use than the exist- ing cognitive structure. It is considered by some that it would be more profitable to study the audience and directly observe their basic communication be- haviour rather than continue to concentrate on the "disembodied" concept of attitude,

In making these qualifications and asking these questions about the nature and direction of mass communication research it is not a matter of argu- ing whether or not the mass media have more influ- ence than research has led us to believe, although this could be animportant issue. From a research standpoint it is even more basic than this. Put quite simply it is - Are w e asking the right questions? Are we using the appropriate tools? Are w e using the appropriate models of the communication pro- cess? Are we confusing effects with effectiveness or influence with change? Are we making the neces- sary distinctions between the long and the short run? Are we assuming that no change in attitude (as measured by one of the conventional methods) means no change at all?

This is not the place to discuss the nature of causation in the social sciences but it seems reas- onable to conclude that in mass communication re- search we have probably spent too much time look- ing for what m a y be called direct cause and effect relationships and have arrived at "no significant difference'' conclusions when such relationship could not be established. There can be little doubt that the media can exert their influence in many ways, for example by presenting models, offering social definitions, encouraging stereotypes, conferring status on people and behaviour patterns, suggesting appropriate behaviours, indicating what is approved

and what disapproved, and in several other indirect ways in association with other agents in the sociali- zation process such as family, school and peer group. It is a knowledge of the workings of these complex interrelated sets of influences of which the media are one, that is essentialto our understand- ing of the rale of the media in influencing attitudes and behaviour. W e must resist the tendency to look at the work of researchers solely in terms of its ability to spell out what is directly caused bytele- vision.

If w e look briefly at one specific problem area where there has been considerable research, namely the media portrayal of violence and aggression, we see writ large some of the typical mass communi- cation problems (e. g. lack of theory, crude con- ceptualization, etc. ). Experimental research in this field has been severely criticized amongst other things for its artificiality and lack of appli- cability to reallife situations. Moreover, the re- sults are conflicting. Perhaps what the apparently conflicting and confusing results show more than anything else is the mistake of trying to cover an extremely varied and complex set of relationships by the use of a single concept. W e ought to ask both with regard to stimulus and response - what is violence? What is aggression? W e also need to know what is seen as real and what as fantasy, and how different forms of violence are perceived, evaluated and dealt with by different individuals, groups and societies.

No matter how sophisticated we become in the development of research techniques, our research can never be better than the questions we ask in the first place. In this particular area it is gradually being appreciated that, "Does violence produce violence?" is not the only relevant question. W e might ask whether violence produces anxiety or other forms of disturbance or distress, about the possible social or positive effects of the portrayal of violence and aggression (demonstrating the hor- rors of war, serving as a danger signal to society) or about possible long-term effects such as over familiarization, desensitizing, making violence legitimate, suggesting it as a solution or as inevi- table, or making violence, deviance or cruelty more acceptable or less objectionable. Media presentations m a y also lead to an exaggerated or distorted view of violence in society, and conse- quently to an inadequate definition of social prob- lems.

As usual w e have more problems than solu- tions but what needs emphasizingis that this situa- tion will never be remedied unless more research is carried out. It would certainly be unwise to ac- cept the implications in the argument reported to have been put before the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (U. S.A. ) that research in this field must await the develop- ment of some foolproof method. (This is another example of the use of inappropriate criteria, ) In any case the best way to improve methods is to

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carry out research. There is no doubt that if we ask the right questions and study the various pheno- mena, not in isolation but within the wider social context, then the methods are available which will enable us to.deepen and broaden our understanding of mass media as socialinstitutions and mass com- munication as a social process.

Research in the develoDinrr countries

Most of the research referred to in these pages has been carried out in the United States or some other developed country and the question immediately arises about the relevance of the findings to the situations inless developed countries. The dangers of transferring research findings from one culture to another, particularly in a field of study where theory is so impoverished, are too well known to require further elaboration here. However, the importance of broader, more fundamental ideologi- cal, institutional and organizational factors in this connexion are not so widely recognized. If we want to know what research from developed countries can tell us about the situation in developing coun- tries then there are questions which must be asked about the background, purpose and nature of the re- search in the developed countries. What problem areas have been identified? Who is asking what questions and why? What diagnoses have been made and solutions offered? What criteria have been used?

It has already been suggested that mass com- munication research is a field where theory has failed to keep pace with techniques. It could well be that this situation has developed chiefly because of the requirements of administrative, service and commercial research in the countries where most of the research has been carried out. In general terms a great deal of this administrative research has been descriptive rather than analytical, limited in its choice of variables, unsophisticated in its classifications and analyses and, on the whole, divorced from sociological or psychological theory.

There are also other lessons to be learned from these situations where this administrative, service, or commercial type of research has predominated in one form or another. The social conditionsof our time provide a set of definitions dictated pri- marily by considerations of efficiency and practi- cality. These considerations frequently determine the nature of the research effort, hence producing quantitative results (usually for commercial or ad- ministrative convenience) taking no account of the nature of the social phenomena under investigation. It is worthwhile recalling from time to time that re- search is not just a matter of measuring what is "out there" for, as Aaron Cicourol has reminded us, the course ofhistorical events and the ideologies of a given era can influence what is "out there" and how these objects are to be perceived, evaluated, described or measured. This and the other rele- vant ideological, organizational and institutional

factors need to be borne in mind in considering the research results and generalizations previously reported in this paper. It is particularly impor- tant to do this before attempting to draw lessons from such work with a view to applying them to the situation in other countries with different cultures and at different stages of development. Similarly, research techniques which may be acceptable in one society need not be so in another society where different norms and values prevail.

It is, of course, appreciated that research has been carried out in many developing countries and that there is no need to rely for information solely on research from developed countries. The rela- tionships and interaction between economic deve- lopment, social change and mass communication have been studied and special attention has been given to the different functions of mass communi- cation, the limitations of the mass media, the problems of transition, the possibilities of culture clash, tension and conflict and to such questions as innovation, opinion leadership, power élites, communication networks, the influence of group relationships, information flow and diffusion and so on. Quite a number of studies have been carried out, but lack of refinement in conceptualization and the paucity of theory must make us question whether enough is known about innovation, diffusion and adoption to enable theoretical specifications to be made with regard to these processes either for the individual or for society.

Again, however, in taking stock of the research in the developing countries, we must ask, What sort of research was it? Who carried out the re- search? Why was it carried out? What were the underlying assumptions? What was the ideological framework?

It is not proposed to answer these questions here (in fact, they might well be questions for fu- ture research) but it should be noted that much of the research in the developing countries has been concerned with educational, instructional or deve- lopmental problems. The influence of the media in the wider socio-cultural field has not been given the attention it deserves. Several projects have dealt with special programmes and campaigns where it has been possible to assess ''success'' in terms of specifically defined objectives or criteria usually connected with efficiency, progress, achieve- ment, etc. and often defined exclusively from a "western" or alien standpoint. It is sometimes claimed that we know how to use the media to achieve certain objectives in certain situations, but very little seems to be known about how the media are actually being used now in many of the developing countries or about the repercussions of this use at the wider socio-cultural level. W e may know about the potential of the media and have guidelines about its r6le in bringing about "desir- able" social change. Occasionally, it may even be recognized that this change can be accompanied by tension; but how does the work in this area

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help in studying the use and effects in the develop- ing countries of commercial media material which has probably been produced in the developed coun- tries?

In quite a few areas of the world technological development, social change, economic expansion, the development of the consumer society and the provision of commercial television supported by advertising go hand in hand. The commercial of- fensive is more in evidence in some areas than the educational offensive and, of course, it is possible in some cases to see both as parts of a wider ideo- logical offensive. Research from other fields sug- gests that the heavy emphasis on consumption and achievement, although possibly facilitating econo- mic expansion and development, will only do so at a certain social cost. The cost could be particu- larly high and painful if the increased aspirations and expectations are frustrated. Even now we are speaking of costs purely in a material sense, it is perhaps indicative of the whole debate that there is so little said about the non-material or cultural costs that might have to be paid by the developing societies in order that they may enjoy the benefits of commercial media.

Research into educational use of media

So far, we have scarcely touched on research into the more narrowly defined spheres of educational or instructional media. This research is obviously not entirely divorced from the type of research re- ferred to above but it has its own specific problems and its own organizational structures. Moreover, it provides an experience from which lessons can be learnt even though there is not space for more than a brief reference here. Generally, it is ac- cepted that those concerned with the educational use of media must give attention, inter alia, to exist- ing need and interests, group norms and affiliations, social support, social control and reinforcement through inter-personal relationships. Researchers have stressed that educational programmes on radio and television must be built on a knowledge of motivation, attitudes, ways of thinking, language patterns and past experience. Gradually, it is being realized that we cannot hope to understand how edu- cational television will be received unless its opera- tion is studied in the wider social context. This means that research on the use and effectiveness of the media in education must take into account such factors as the rôle society assigns to the school, educational aims and purposes, the curri- culum, the importance of the examination system, the availability of resources, the degree of centrali- zation in the education system, the rôle of teacher and producer, the structure of the broadcasting industry itself - its history and organization and its relationship with the national educational sys- tem. Moreover, any attempt to evaluate the edu- cational use of the media which does not take into account the degree of commitment on the part of

the learner to the norms and values of the educa- tional system is bound to be inadequate.

It seems to be widely agreed that a great deal of the research that has been carried out in the general field of educational and instructional tele- vision has, to put it mildly, been of less use than it might have been. It is suggested here that this is so quite simply because often the right questions were not asked. Even when we recognize in this research area the inadequacies in design, the im- precision of techniques and instruments, the com- plexity of the problem and the presence of so many uncontrolled variables, we are still forced to the conclusion that, even in the unlikely event of all these snags being ironed out, time, talent and money would stillbe wasted unless more attention were given to theoretical foundations, the wider social context, and to the nature of the questions asked. There can be little doubt that in the past a great deal has been expended on trivial matters. In this research area as in others, it is impossible to over-state the fact that much more time should be spent in deciding what to do and why we are doing it.

Organization of mass communication research

Reference has been made several times to the or- ganizational structure of mass communication re- search and its possible influence on the type of questions asked, the areas explored, the methods used, the presentation of results and so on. In emphasizing the importance of the ideological and/ or organizational setting in this manner, we do not wish to imply that there is any crude bias or lack of integrity in the research effort. W e would merely draw attention to the extremely important fact that the overall direction of the research ef- fort is bound to reflect a whole complex of value orientations, organizational pressures and social concerns.

from country to country, but a case history from one of the developed countries will serve to illus- trate the point made above, and also draw atten- tion to many other relevant organizational matters.

In the early 1960's in England, a government department called a conference in response to in- creasing manifestations of social concern about alleged relationships between the mass media and crime. As a result of this conference a committee was formed by the government for the purpose of initiating and co-ordinating research into the in- fluence of mass media on young people (wider terms of reference than the initial concern) and money was made available by Independent Televi- sion, without any strings attached, to support the research. The Committee included in its ranks academics from several disciplines, as well as non-academics, and was serviced by a sociologist who had recently published work in the field

It is appreciated that the situation differs

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(incidentally, one of the few social scientists in the country who had published work in mass communi- cation). In the course of its work, the Committee gave a clear interpretation of its terms of reference, outlined a research strategy, developed an inter- disciplinary approach, established a centre for mass communication research, supported research in departments of psychology, sociology and contem- porary cultural studies in various universities, and made recommendations to the government on the future of mass communication research.

The point in relating this here, is to show that in England, organization of mass communication research at the university level, at the present time, is very much influenced by the work of the Committee and that in turn this Committee was very much influenced by a whole complex of other fac- tors, including the absence of research of this na- ture in English universities, the fact of an overt definition of a problem (media-crime) that m a y or m a y not be a real one, the attitude at a particular time of a certain television authority, and so on. In another country the end product would probably have been quite different. In the U. S. A., for ex- ample, the same questions have been asked, and the same concern expressed time and time again, but the relevant historical, cultural and economic fac- tors are differentand haveled to a different struc- ture of media research and an entirely different result.

social scientists in England were working, or had published in mass communication research, it will be appreciated that a very narrow definition was being used. Perhaps it would have been more ac- curate to say that our reference was only to socio- logists and psychologists working in universities. Needless to say, in England as in many other coun- tries, media research of a service, commercial or administrative nature has been carried out for many years and the B. B. C. is wellknown for its compre- hensive audience research operation.

Whether media research in this sense is the same thing as social scientific research is a debat- able question. It has already been stated that on the whole, the predominance of commercially oriented research m a y have led to advanced methods, but hardly to sophisticated theory, or refined con- ceptualization.

The fact that in so many countries mass com- munication research has been heavily influenced by, or, in some cases, mainly consists of, media re- search which is commercially oriented, must be taken into account in studying organizational struc- tures and the nature and type of research.

It was seen earlier that mass communication research had been influenced from many sides, particularly, as one might have expected, by deve- lopments within sociology and psychology. Other disciplines have also made their contributions and these include language, art, music, drama, law, education and history. There is no homogeneous

When it was suggested earlier that very few

pattern. Even within the university world it is pos- sible to find what one might broadly callmass com- munication research being carried out in several different departments. This is often the case, even in the same university. The financial support fac- tor follows a similar pattern. Occasionally there are central national funding arrangements; more often the money comes from a variety of sources, ranging from charitable trusts and academic founda- tions, to government departments and media in- terests.

In several countries, universities have estab- lished departments of journalism and in these in- stitutions, research, the general study of the mass media, and the training of media professionals, are all part of the educational programme. The relationship between researcher and producer is obviously a vital one from the research standpoint, and it would be worthwhile attempting to assess the value of different sorts of institutional arrange- ments with this in mind. It m a y be that the School of Journalism approach has something to be said in its favour in this connexion. O n the other hand there m a y be accompanying disadvantages. W e need to find out, especially before recommending specific forms of institutional development for the developing countries.

T o complicate the picture still further, re- search into the use of the media in education tends to be carried out and financed under yet another rubric, usually in - or in association with - uni- versity departments or faculties of education, or colleges of education and teacher-training depart- ments. Departments or ministries of education are the general funding bodies and, on the whole, the work carried out seems to be more concerned with effectiveness studies than with effect studies. The recent and probable future development in edu- cational technology (e. g. closed circuit television, EVR etc. ) will no doubt lead to a proliferation of research in this area.

Even this picture of the diversity probably falls far short of a comprehensive coverage of all the different types of organizations and interests ac- tive in this wide field of research.

The story of the development of mass com- munication research and the description of the ex- isting state of affairs are interesting in themselves. But the two most important uses of this background knowledge are, first, in relation to the questions - W h o has done the research? W h y was it done? and, second, in providing the information of dif- ferent institutional Set-ups, funding arrangements and types of research. This information might then enable us to make some assessment of the kind of organization and funding most likely to pro- duce the independent, sustained, high-level and useful research which is so urgently required. Such an assessment could be of great use where new institutional developments are being contem- plated.

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SECTION C: THE NEED FOR RESEARCH INTO NEW FIELDS

There were ample indications in the last section of the need for an increased research effort, both generally and specifically, within the wide field of mass communications.

In surveying what is known it rapidly becomes clear how muchis notknown. Some ofthe gaps are there for all to see; others, though less obvious, may be equally or even more important. This sec- tion will contain some suggestions as to where fu- ture research efforts might profitably be applied. There is no attempt at comprehensiveness.

The educational media

As far as educational television is concerned it has been clearly shown that television can be used to teach effectively, but it is equally clear that we need to know much more about the optimum deploy- ment of resources. Where and when is television (and for that matter any other medium) best utilized? How is it best used to introduce new ideas, new ways ofteaching, new patterns of relationships? How can it be used to help us understand more about how people learn, think and communicate? It should fol- low from what was stated in the last section that it is essential in planning research in this area to take into account the wider frame of reference, in parti- cular ideological and sociological considerations and the functions that have been assigned to the me- dia and the education systems.

Admittedly, some people exaggerate the poten- tial of new technological developments but there can be little doubt that we are on the threshold of a pe- riod that may bring new and exciting educational changes. A great deal depends on how we face up to the new opportunities provided by technology. Are we going to be content to squeeze the new de- velopments into existing structures, or are we going to take the opportunity to take a deep, thorough look at our various educational systems and review them completely if this is found to be necessary? The new media could offer an unparalleled oppor- tunity for reconsidering conventional educational practices and structures. Modes of communication are altering and when they do, structures of society also change. To make the best use of the technology at our disposal some would argue that we may have to discard much ofthe old and start anew, building entirely new learning environments. Research must at least be prepared to examine these possibilities.

There are both pessimists and optimists among those who comment on the potential of educational technology. To the optimist the good and brave new world is there for the taking by all and sundry, given "a wise and provident approach". Unfortun- ately, the details of such an approach are rarely spelled out (this is particularly true for the deve- loping countries) and possible obstacles and restric- tions in terms of economic, political and other

rivalries, national and international, at a variety of levels, frequently seem to be ignored. Unfor- tunately, research and thinking in this area must accept the reality of a fragmented and divided world. There is little to be gained from working on the assumption of "other things being equal".

On the other hand, there are those who draw attention to the affective impoverishment, lack of enthusiasm, inhibition of somatic communicative skills and depersonalization that they feel will in- evitably flow from the new "teaching" situations which may be brought about by advances in tech- nology. They emphasize that experience is en- riched at the expense of thought ("television deals with appearances not explanations"), that television is essentially low in informational content, that it reduces in scope what it presents, and that - as the opportunities for feedback are so limited - the in- formational flow is practically all one way. It is, of course, possible to accept all this and still see television as being ideally suited to some forms of education. The alleged low information content, the increased scope for participation and the pro- duction of the "cool" response have led some people to regard it as being eminently suitable for educa- tional purposes.

A great deal is written in this and similar vein but unfortunately too often speculation prevails over fact. It must be admitted however that some of these speculations could indicate lines for future inquiry both in the developed and developing coun- tries. The basic concern is surely to find out the most effective ways of using the new media although, as emphasized earlier, the researcher who seeks answers to this question must not only have a clear idea of what is meant by effective, he must also take into account the various media, educational, economic and social systems, and the relationships between these systems within any given country.

There are still many basic questions that re- quire attention. For example, we need to know how people of different ages and from different cultural and educational backgrounds process, retain and internalize the information that is presented to them. As has been said before, the way in which educational television works will be influenced by a variety of factors including the r6le assigned by society to the school, as wellas the interrelation- ships between media systems and educational sys- tems. These rôles, purposes, functions, relation- ships and possible conflicts need to be studied in order to enable early recognition of problems and possibly their prediction and to facilitate their so- lution. Both the conditions and consequences of effective teaching and communication need spell- ing out. Research indicates that new ideas and methods produce the best results when there has been adequate preparation and when the system is not taken by surprise. Research should be carried out so that the problems that are bound to come in the wake of innovation can be anticipated and the appropriate action taken in ample time. incidentally,

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this applies to the developed as well as to the deve- loping countries. It is often the case that in the developing countries the skills of social scientists are more systematically and efficiently used than in some developed countries where research effort is dissipated on piecemeal or trivial work.

There is a clear need for rethinking the partner- ship between researchers, broadcasters and edu- cators. Research should be taken into account at the outset and research and development should go hand in hand as the institutions develop. It is surely in the interests of all concerned that those respon- sible for the development of new media should find an appropriate place for research in their plans. Infactresearch could and should pave the way. Is it already too late for a comprehensive, compara- tive research strategy to be applied to the produc- tion, development, diffusion and general use of an innovation such as EVR?

International communication and the satellite

As far as communication by satellite is concerned, it is obviously too late to start thinking about build- ing in research from the beginning. When one thinks about research on this specific topic several aspects spring to mind - rangingfrom available infrastruc- ture, cost benefits and new royalty problems, to exposure to alien cultures, freedom from formal national systems, and the possible development of new forms of control and censorship. Some of these, e. g. exposure to foreign cultures, are not new problems or specific to satellites - they have in fact been dealt with elsewhere in this paper. Others, say those relating to direct broadcasting, are so dependent on unknown social, political, eco- nomic and legal factors that, given the scarcity of resources, speculation at this stage may not be a wise investment.

Again, research thinking in this area should be as realistic as possible. W e should bear in mind full potential, optimum use and possible "in- credible changes in the social order"; neverthe- less, the determiningfactors of the split world and the power ofthe commercial interests must not be forgotten. Power, spheres of influence and tech- nology are not easily divorced.

Satellite potential will be a function amongst other things of the country's stage of development. Any research contemplated would have to recognize this. However, the main points to be recognized in this area at this stage are undoubtedly the poli- tical, legal and economic uncertainties. Research could be carried out into the nature of the barriers and obstacles to co-operation in this area - ideally with a view to removing them. The sources of power, launching capability, etc., are easy enough to detect, but it would be worthwhile attempting to follow the debate within the various countries con- cerned as to how they propose to use the power, or with regard to the benefits they foresee from the new developments. In fact, the whole question of

barriers to all forms of inter-cultural communi- cation merits study. What are the factors - social, economic, political, legal etc. - which determine the nature and degree of the import and distribu- tion of media material? Moreover, it is usually taken for granted that inter-cultural exchange and improved international understanding go hand in hand. What justification is there for this associa- tion? W e are not entitled to assume that the latter will automatically stem from the former.

The rale of the media in transitional societies

Obviously, innovation can introduce strain and conflict into any system and, needless to say, it is sometimes the most "effective" innovations, com- munications or teaching that cause the greatest tension. It is perhaps worth recalling here that, as with many problem areas, the first problem we must solve is that of defining what we mean by ef- fective. W e ought to be more precise, perhaps even more honest, in defining what we consider to be basic needs and primary objectives, and we must bear in mind the legitimate national aspira- tions of peoples and societies at different stages of development.

In considering the overall influence of mass media in developing countries, it is not enough to confine studies to specific campaigns, say in health, agriculture or education. (These types of pro- grammes also have indirect or unintended effects. ) W e must attempt to assess the wider and probably more pervasive influences of commercially- oriented mass media in terms of increased aspira- tions, possible sources of frustration and conflict, changing patterns of consumption and life styles; weakening of traditional bonds, changing authority patterns, stereotypes and images of other countries, and so on.

The hypothesis put forward by Daniel Lerner several years ago - that mass media provide the people from the developing countries with the ca- pacity to conceive of situations and ways of life quite different from those which they have expe- rienced - still offers scope for many more precise operational specifications. Changes from oral to print to electronic media (sometimes missing out the intermediate stage of print), the use of tradi- tional and electronic media side by side, the tak- ing over and transformation of cultural forms are but a few of many fascinating questions that could be examined.

W e might also ask whether or not a "package deal" is inevitable. Need the candyfloss world al- ways accompany the economic and technical aid? Not that the candyfloss world is the only thing that is portrayed by commercial mass media, for they can bring pictures and stories ofnews and current affairs from developed countries to those living in the developing countries. Demonstrations, riots, revolutions, poverty, squalor and alienation can be presented side by side with the attractive trappings

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of the consumption-dominated, affluent society. What impact has this on the young person in the African or South American village? What do we know about his ability to deal with this sort of in- formation? In this connexion it is also worth re- membering that the portrayal of violence may well have "positive" or "social" consequences (depending on values and definitions) by serving as a catalyst or danger signal. One of the major problems which has constantly troubled decision-makers in the de- veloping countries has been the advisability of allo- cating a percentage of limited resources for what has come to be known as "evaluation". This is often considered a luxury which they can ill afford. However, according to another school of thought in the same countries, however limited the resources better use can be made of them if only a certain part is used for "evaluation". This is a specific example of the practitioner/research problem pre- viously discussed. To what extent is "evaluation" in fact programme and action oriented "research" and to what extent is research merely an academic exercise - rarely useful to administrators who are expected to show "results"? Are social scientists any better than journalists when it comes to parti- cipating in national development? Can highly in- volved practitioners be relied on to provide an ade- quate definition of their problems? Or are both indulging in their own insulated fancies, feeding their egos and their "club members" while admini- strators grapple with real problems left to their own devices based on experience and common sense?

If researchers are to convince the decision- makers (planning commissions, for example), they may have to be able to provide answers to some fundamental and functional questions. The most important of these, of course, is cost-benefit. Is the science of communication in a state to do so? Or should it frankly admit that at this stage it is unable to provide any definite yardstick as regards inputs and outputs? Onthe other hand, if communi- cation specialists are convinced that the introduc- tion of television will assist in agricultural develop- ment or family planning, for example, are they merely voicing a prejudice or can they provide evidence? If so, how? And from what countries' experiences? Are they developing countries too, or were they already agriculturally advanced before the introduction of television? In the absence of "historical" data (for communication is a new sci- ence) how can these obvious and relevant questions be answered? Would more research necessarily solve the problem and if so, when?

On the other hand it may be argued that this is not the right way to tackle research in this or in any other field. Most people would agree that we are handicapped by lack of theory and many would claim that this is mainly because the research effort has too frequently been dominated by practical considera- tions. The obvious, the immediate and the overt are not necessarily basic or fundamental. It is argued that the tendency to concentrate on these as

defined by the practitioner not only makes for poor social science but also fails to meet the practical needs of the practitioner, even as he perceives them. If the situation is not adequately defined or diagnosed in the first place (it is implied that ade- quate definitions must of necessity stem from an appropriate theoretical position) then basic reme- dies are not likely to be found.

This is all very well, but given the present state of social science and the immediate problems faced by those who have to make operational deci- sions it is not an argument likely to find favour with practitioners and administrators who have to foot the research bill. Perhaps "goal research" which would investigate the existing and possible alterna- tive objectives of mass media systems, and in so doing contribute to both practical and theoretical developments, offers a way out of this difficulty. There is no reason why research cannot meet both objectives - and the basiclapplied controversy, not particularly helpful at its best, should not be al- lowed to impede development in this and other simi- lar directions.

Violence and aaaression

As we have already seen earlier in this paper there is no doubt that the question of the media portrayal of violence and aggression is a primary focus of social concern in many of the developed countries. If this complex problem is to be tackled adequately it will demand new thinking and imaginative ap- proaches.

It is not simply a matter of the emulation of violent acts, as many seem to think. In addition to possible positive or social consequences, long- term effects in terms of increased aggressive drive, the endorsement of deviant belief systems, the tolerance of deviance and violence, desensitizing, and the production of anxiety or other forms of dis- tress, should all be studied. Moreover, the report- ing o€ violence and deviance, its newsworthiness, the approval or disapproval of different forms of violent behaviour, different definitions and percep- tions, the presentation of the relevant problems and the nature of the concernitself also require investi- gation. The media-violence problem cannot be ade- quately studied in isolation, it must be seen within the total social context.

There is considerable public concern about the media portrayal of violence and aggression but what is known about the aetiology, extent and occurrence of delinquent behaviour in general, and of violent behaviour in particular, suggests that it would be a mistake if research were to confine itself to this particular value area to the exclusion of all others. It can be argued that any humane society relies on sustaining within its personal and community life certain values upon which it depends for its con- tinued existence. Such values include respect for individual personality, tolerance, consideration for others, integrity in action and in dealing with

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others, validity of information, and the encourage- ment of rational thought and constructive criticism. It is essential for researchers to ask whether the overall effect of mass media is to reinforce or to inhibit these central values.

Social contributions of the media

It is desirable to carry out further research into the positive as well as into the negative aspects of the media - to ask questions about the potential of the media, for example about how they could be used in broadening or developing taste, increasing social participation, improving international under- standing, or reducing prejudice.

It is possible that some of the laboratory ex- periments which have attempted to assess the ef- fects of filmed aggression and violence could be adapted to deal with positive qualities such as love and affection. Taste development studies offer another example of a research approach which might be useful in helping television to realize its full po- tential. A research proposal designed some years ago by Professor Himmelweit assumed that the pro- vision of "good" programmes on one channelis in- sufficient to change taste, because children turn to less demanding programmes on the other channel. The aim of the proposed study was to determine how children's viewing habits could be modified and extended by inducement (through planned activities by teachers, parents, etc., offering some sort of reward) to include more "better" programmes. The method proposed was a controlled field experi- ment with systematic variations in the strength and nature of the inducement and the results would be related to personality characteristics, social back- ground factors, etc. Clearly, the school occupies a central place in this experiment and it needs men- tioning in this respect that research into the rale of the school-teacher in relation to the mass media tastes of pupils as well as the relationships between popular culture and school culture are other lines that might be pursued with profit.

Some recently developed research in England is attempting to assess the impact of a new form of broadcasting (new, that is, in England), namely, "local radio in the public interest". The main con- cern is with some of the claims put forward by the proponents of local radio. In brief, these are that local radio can bring about a heightened sense of community awareness, an increase in local know- ledge, a higher degree of participation in local af- fairs, andthatit can provide a valuable service for minority groups and interests. This "new form" of broadcasting represents an interesting attempt to counter metropolitan and centralizing tenden- cies - with what success it remains to be seen. This is an obvious area for research in a developed country, perhaps making for an interesting com- parison with the use and purpose of radio and its impact on community relations and structures in a developing country. In general, inter-cultural or

comparative studies on different patterns of diffu- sion and information seeking in different cultures and structures should be encouraged.

Research and the oroducer

In its recent Second Progress Report, this Com- mittee also made the following recommendations: "Research should include studies of the production process. Our research has shownthatit is im- portant to know how media producers (the term is used in the widest sense) see their rôle, and to have information about their values, attitudes, aims, conventions, intentions, working condi- tions and general background. Patterns of re- cruitment should also be examined.

The products ofthe mass media, and therefore the effects, depend (at least in part) on the prevail- ing system of ownership, control and support. Research (on a wider, interdisciplinary plane covering economic, legal and political aspects) should investigate the relationships between pro- gramming and control. The planning of pro- gramme schedules and the allocation of time and money to different types of programme are but two aspects of this problem area which our own research has shown to require further and closer examination.

In studying the influence of the media on social at- titudes and values, researchers should not be deterred by the difficulties and complexities of the problem from carrying out investigations along a wider front than one normally finds in mass communication research. Questions should be asked about the influence of different forms of presentation of news, current affairs, and political issues. Media content should be ex- amined for values, omissions as well as com- missions should be studied, the question of trivialization and over-familiarization, and the possibility that the media are working against instead of in support of an active 'participatory' democracy, should not fall outside the scope of a comprehensive research policy. 'I Some of these points were echoed and ampli-

fied by a group of broadcasters and researchers at a recent meeting of the International Broadcast In- stitute in Bellagio, Italy. ti) They grouped the areas they considered to be suitable for further study under four headings, namely: (1) What is news? (2) What are the special technical prob- lems oftelevision? (3) Values and human consid- erations in reporting, and (4) Political/managerial/ editorial problems.

Under the first heading we might pay attention to the factors which play a part in the development

(1) The proposed research collaboration between IBI and the Centre for Mass Communication Research at University of Leicester (an off- shoot of the Television Research Committee) offers a good illuatration of co-operation in this area.

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and maintenance of whatis regarded as news. Ex- ternal pressures, conventions, selection processes, bias, distortion, lack of detail, and the influence of the sensational, could all be studied - compara- tively if possible - both with regard to different m e - dia and different countries.

The technology and organization of television production brings its own problems. What are these? What are the standard conventions of pro- duction, and what are their effects? What do w e know about the influence of different modes of pres- entation, the meaning of the "good television" w e hear so much about, or the impact of verbal and visual stimuli considered separately or in combina- tion?

What values and human considerations do pro- ducers (the term is used in its widest sense) have in mind? What are their reference points, their image of the audience, their concept and definition of their rale, aim and purpose? What do newsmen (again in different media and in different countries) mean by "freedom", "autonomy", "independence", "the right to know", "objectivity", "fact", "opinion", "privacy", and so on? On the wider plane the whole question of freedom, including free flow of informa- tion and freedom of access to the media, demands constant vigilance and systematic study.

Research and traininn

Under the fourth heading mentioned above, one of the areas suggested for further study includes the training of professional broadcasters. The Tele- vision Research Committee has the following to say about this matter: "Whilst recognizing the need to preserve the free- dom and autonomy of broadcasters and other me- dia practitioners, we wish to emphasize that this freedom carries with it heavy responsibilities. In the present circumstances, these responsi- bilities demand that more attention should be given to the professional training of mass com- municators and that this training should enable them to become familiar with what the social sciences have to say about mass media as social institutions, and mass communication as a social process; and that those responsible for media policies and products should take every possibIe step to keep themselves fully informed about de- velopments and results in mass communication research, particularly in relation to the portrayal of all forms of violence and aggression. It is essential that the codes, policies and operational rules governing such portrayals should be subject to continuing, systematic review in the light of relevant research results. 'I

The training of researchers is another problem that requires attention. What is the present state of affairs in both developed and developing countries? What is required? Does it make sense to think in American or even in European terms of training. university institutes and higher degrees when we

are considering the situation and needs in the de- veloping countries? countries contribute? What could be learned from their experience and mistakes? What are the dis- advantages of "exported" researchers and research ideologies? These and other matters, such as researcher-producer co-operation, make up another vital area of investigation.

What could the developed

The approach to research

One final point about the social scientific approach. It would not be appropriate in a background paper such as this either to proceed as though methodology did not matter, or to attempt to argue the pros and cons of different research approaches. Perhaps a few cautionary comments will suffice,

Approaches can be tyrannical for essentially they constitute a means of perceiving, organizing, defining, analysing and interpreting, often to the exclusion of all other ways. It is well to remem- ber that vital though the approach is, it offers but one method from amongst several for seeing and interpreting the world around us. A set of rules has been developed for dealing with situations and sometimes the interpretations of these situations m a y be little more than the outcome of the rules and procedures that w e have designed and imposed. Procedures, as w e have seen, are not necessarily free from ideological considerations and it would be well to remember this, particularly when con- sidering the mass media and mass communication research in the developing nations.

SECTION D: THE NEED FOR CO-OPERATIVE ACTION AT THE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL L E V E L S

Promotion of research at the national level

In dealing with possible courses of action it seems reasonable to make a distinction between the na- tional and international levels. A s a first step it is proposed to outline the methods adopted by two developed countries (Sweden and Britain) when faced over the past few years with policy and re- search problems in this field. It is appreciated that no two countries are alike and that what m a y be suitable for Sweden and Britain m a y not be suit- able for France or Italy, still less for Nigeria or Peru. Some questions relating to research devel- opments in the developing nations will be dealt with separately, albeit briefly, later on. In the mean- time, the two approaches outlined below could serve as examples for discussion.

In the terms of reference of the Swedish C o m - mittee on Broadcasting, 1960- 1965, the desira- bility of more research on the impact of radio and television was specifically mentioned. It was stressed that public authorities as well as those responsible for programme decisions within the

19

Swedish Broadcasting Corporation had io act on general assumptions, whereas a solid body of sci- entific facts was needed. The Committee was there- fore asked to study the problem and propose ways of promoting and supporting research in these areas.

The appropriate section in the report begins by stressing why it was found necessary to widen the scope of the inquiry in two directions. First, other mass media (e.g. the press, the film industry) should normally be studied in the same context as radio and television. Secondly, it is undesirable to limit research on broadcasting to the social sci- ences, as there are highlyimportant areas of poli- tical, literary, musical, artistic, linguistic and semantic interest that should be studied as well. For these reasons, the report deals with the study of broadcasting within a larger framework of mass media studies, and concludes with anumber of spe- cific proposals. It is pointed out that the Swedish Broadcasting Corporation should maintain, within its archives, a "research service" over and above what is needed for the corporation itself. The ar- chives should have facilities to preserve sound tapes, records, videotapes and films, even when these are not expected to be needed for future pro- gramme work. Staff should be provided to assist researchers, and an index of available material should be regularly compiled and distributed. Rooms should be made available, equipped for the playing of records and sound tapes, and also for the viewing of videotapes and films. For these pur- poses, the Swedish Broadcasting Corporation should receive a special allowance out of licence revenue.

The most important recommendations of the report concern the study and teaching of broadcast- ing at the universities. It is recognized that a gradual development is necessary, and that any present plans for a specialized university subject (to beincludedin B.A. or M.A. level courses) are premature.

Most available literature is still Anglo- American, while the basic teachings of such a sub- ject mustto alarge extent be based on the findings of research on conditions in Sweden. A three-stage plan of development is therefore suggested.

Duringthe first stage a number of positions as "forskardocenter", corresponding roughly to re- search fellows in Britain or assistant professors in the United States, should be created. This would make it possible for a number of Ph. DIS with an interest in broadcasting and other mass media to concentrate, within the general framework of such subjects as political science, sociology, psychology or literature, on projects concerningthe mass me- dia. Where necessary, they should be generously provided with such equipment (cf. above) as will be needed for effective investigations. These people should be expected to do some teaching within their respective departments, and their re- sults should be published in printed form whenever possible.

The second stage should entailthe creation of

one or more "mass media institutes" as indepen- dent units within the administrative framework of one or several universities. This should promote "cross-departmental" research and provide a well- equipped and stimulating environment for a certain number of scientists at the graduate and post- graduate levels. A professor from any of the re- lated disciplines should be appointed director. Those doing research at the institute should retain their ties with their respective departments, in which they should be expected or required to do some teaching. In addition, they should also teach at existing specialized schools in the mass media field or those that will be set up, including the In- stitutes of Journalism, the Film Institute, the School for Dramatic Education and a prospective Broadcasting Institute. It is believed that the posi- tive effects of cross-fertilization and favourable working conditions will compensate amply for any effects of isolation from the regular work of the university.

A s a third stage, the report foresees the crea- tion of a new university subject or department, "mass media studies". This development will have to await the publication of results of research on the mass media in Sweden substantial enough to provide a balanced reading list for elementary uni- versity courses. This may be possible within ten of fifteen years, provided the first two stages are allowed to develop with generous support. No de- tailed plans could or should be made for this final stage, but it is predicted that mass media studies m a y well compete with political science and socio- logy for popularity among young people wishing to enter various fields of education, public admini- stration, mass communications, private industry, etc. and, of course, the mass media themselves.

The terms of reference of the Television Re- search Committee (1963) in Great Britain were much narrower than those of the Swedish Commit- tee. The British Committee were merely asked to initiate and co-ordinate research into the in- fluence of television and the other media on the social attitudes and moral concepts of young people.

However, despite these differences in the terms of reference, the two Committees seem to have found much in common in their approaches to the problem. The British Committee also e m - phasized the desirability of studying all the media at all levels in the wider social context and stressed the need for institutional development, training and researcher-production co-operation. In 1966 a university Centre for Mass CommunicationRe- search was established by the Committee and re- search projects at other universities were given financial support. in 1967 the Committee also provided the money for the setting up of a Research Unit for Communication and Attitude Change at another university. Prior to these developments there had been no institutional base for mass com- munication research in Great Britain.

In considering the question of institutional

20

development the Committee took into account such matters as the training of research workers and their career prospects, the interdisciplinary nature of mass communication research, the desirability of co-operating with researchers in allied fields (sociology, psychology, etc. ) and perhaps above all else, the need for development of theory. The Com- mittee was not committed to one central institute; in fact it was suggested that there might be more than one mass communication research unit or de- partment.

The need for co-operating with the media was recognized from the start, but the Committee were also convinced that any research centre which might be set up should be free and independent from any form of control or influence by the media. This was why such a centre should be established in a uni- versity. This was clearly more important than at- tempting to obtain speedy answers to the sorts of questions implied in the Committee's terms of ref- erence by setting up a practical institution for the routine turning-out of one study of effects after another. It was felt that far too much work in this field had been marked by the collection of trivia.

An important factor in this decision was the feeling that research had suffered in the past through not being based on well developed theories and be- cause of the ad hoc, administrative nature of so many projects. It was hoped that the provision of a firm university base would help to remedy this shortcoming. Later (1969) recommendations from the Committee to the government included the fol- lowing:

(1) The government, preferably through the Social Science Research Council and the University Grants Committee, should provide long-term finan- cial support for the continuing development and ex- pansion of mass communication research.

(2) The BBC, ITA, the independent television companies, newspaper, publishing, cinema, ad- vertising and other media interests, should provide financial support in the shape of research grants, fellowships, scholarships, etc., to enable indepen- dent research to be carried out in universities and other institutes of higher education, along the lines indicated in the report.

bodies referred to above shóuld not be dissipated on numerous unrelated projects. They should be used to strengthen the existing institutional develop- ments and to maintain "centres of excellence" at places where the Committee has already undertaken considerable investment.

At the time of writing it is not known to what degree the Swedish recommendations have been put into effect but, in England, the Centre for Mass Communication Research at the University of Leicester now offers a post-graduate degree pro- gramme, the first of its kind in the country. This programme, however, is almost entirely a course for researchers or others who will probably stay on in the universities. Apart from research

(3) The resources made available by any ofthe

Co- operation, there is no formal connexion with the media in any direct professional training or vocational sense. There are no departments or schools of journalism as such in English univer- sities, although it has been recommended that "more attention should be given to the professional training of mass communicators and that this train- ing should enable them to become familiar with what the social sciences have to say about mass media as social institutions, and mass communi- cation as a social process".

The two situations just described both differ quite markedly from those in the United States of America and in several other European countries. There seems little point in producing or inviting an overall comparison. However, an examination of three or four different types of system, with reference to such factors as training, links with the media industries, planning and co-ordination of effort, source of support, type of research and application of results might be of help when we come to consider possible research and institutional de- velopments in the developing nations.

As far as the developing countries are con- cerned there can be little doubt that the ideal solu- tion in the long run is for these countries to train and support their own researchers. But what should be done in the meantime? This problem might be met by borrowing from more fortunate nations or by granting short-term support to media practitioners for administrative projects. As we have already seen, it would be wrong to be too critical of such short-term expedients.

In connexion with developments in research policy in educational television, we might consider the proposals put forward at a recent conference by Prof essor Himmelweit who recommended :

(i) That researchers within the television indus- try should attend and voice their opinions at plan- ning sessions as active participants and that they be attached to individual production teams and given a budget to enable them to experiment with diverse ways of producing and presenting pro- grammes.

advising and producing television programmes (producers or teachers) time be allotted to acquaint- ing them with the requirements of research, the need for research and the benefits to be derived.

(3) That the industry should become far more aware than it is at present of the need to view the television programme in the total teaching context, and that teacher contribution and collaboration both in production and research should be strongly en- cour aged.

close links with psychology, education and sociology departments in order to gain a knowledge of general principles of child development, learning, attitude change and rôle conflict. (5) That there should be appropriate career

structures for those engaged in this type of research.

(2) That in the training of those concerned with

(4) That researchers in the field should develop

21

The findings of the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television and the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967 are examples of broad national ap- proaches from the U. S. A. In studying situations in the United States the question immediately arises whether or not a trulynational educational research centre and programme are required. It has been suggested that such a centre or centres would turn out most major ETV research, much as the present communication research centres at Illinois, Stanford, Michigan State, Wisconsin, Boston, and other universities produce a quantity of valuable research that is far out of proportion to the number of researchers involved. There might be benefits in locating these new centres in larger cities to avoid continuing the practice of generalizing from experimentation conducted upon undergraduate stu- dents living in mass communication-poor isolated prairie communities. Additional centres for the study of communication and education would lead to less "in-breeding" in the selection of research personnel, and would act as a safeguard against the possible development of rigid "schools" such as those that plagued psychiatry. However, there are also possible drawbacks to this idea. If the recent Carter report to the American Council on Educa- tion is valid, the concentration of research into a few institutions will tend to limit the ability of all other institutions to provide outstanding teaching in that field.

Instead of upgrading a few select institutions, far greater social and professional benefit would come from upgrading the ability of all ETV spe- cialists to plan, conduct and evaluate research. Perhaps the best wayto upgrade the research abili- ties of the educational media specialist would be to revise college curricula so as to provide for man- datory enrolment by would-be ETV specialists in research-oriented courses in the social sciences. These courses would be offered outside the profes- sional schools. They would require the carrying out of researches involving a variety of methods (experimental, content analysis, etc. ), and subject matter (social psychology, political science, etc. ), meeting proper standards of validity and reliability. Also, as Adkins delicately puts it, since "the ability to develop a significant piece of research and the ability to write interesting articles are not always present to the same degree in one person", some practice in the lucid reporting and interpretation of research results should be required.

Mention of lucid reporting brings to mind another important problem, namely, the presenta- tion and dissemination of research results generally. Are present methods adequate? Do they facilitate or impede the application of findings? If they are not adequate how can they be improved? This in turn raises the much bigger question of documenta- tion, librarie s, arc hive s, public at ions, confer ence s, seminars, etc. What is needed here?

Co-operation at the international level

If the dissemination of research results and the co-ordination of research pose problems at the national level, how much more acute are they at the internationallevel. And how much more com- plex the interrelationship of the many regional and international organizations concerned in one way or another with mass communication research. Many of these, though not having research as their primary raison d'@tre, are nevertheless making considerable contributions by bringing researchers and producers together and fostering joint projects and comparative studies. Without attempting an exhaustive listing, mention may be made of the award-giving organizations such as the Italian Prize, the Japan Prize and the Prix Jeunesse International, the professional associations of journalists and the regional broadcastingunions, as well as the Interna- tional Film and Television Council and its affiliated organizations which represent many varied inter- ests. The newly formed International Broadcast Institute has recently declared that it sees one of its most important rôles as being a valuable and independent agency for promoting the dialogue between the varied interests in broadcasting (parti- cularly between researcher and producer) both within individual countries and internationally.

In addition to these media-oriented bodies, there are various international organizations whose main interest is in the broad field of the social sciences, and which consequently include communi- cation research within their purview. And the list does not end there; the International Music Council, for example, has sponsored seminars on the rale of the electronic media in the evolution of opera and ballet.

Given this multiplicity of interests and this plethora of international organizations, the need has long been felt for some sort of central body. in 1957 the International Association for Mass Com- munication Research was set up to promote ex- changes of information and the co-ordination of research; tions and individuals, served by voluntary officers

the IAMCR is an association of institu-

and financed by the subscriptions of its members. The question remains whether there is a raie for a central institution, suitably staffed and funded to operate machinery for international co-operation in the field of mass communication research. If so, what should be its terms of reference, its or- ganizational structure, and its relationship to the specialized bodies referred to above? Is it pos- sible to conceive of a world bank of information on mass communication research, and if so what resources would be required to make it operative? Would a network of regional clearing houses con- stitute a first step towards the realization of this "grand design"?

The rôle of Unesca

Assuming that a research strategy and system of research priorities to cover the next ten years is

22

worked out what can Unesco do to facilitate the exe- cution of this strategy and policy? This is the main question. More specifically, should Unesco under- take its own research, rely on external institutes or do both? How should it deal with the question of co-ordination and integration of the widely scattered research effort? How should it go about ensuring adequate facilities and financial support for mass communication research? How should it co-operate with organizations and institutes already carrying out research in mass communication? And how should it safeguard against unnecessary overlapping, duplication and waste?

One obvious possibility that has frequently been suggested consists in bringing together for discus- sion, exchange and collaboration, producers, writers, researchers and others who are interested or working in the mass media. Unesco's possible function in relation to documentation storage and

dissemination has also been mentioned, It could also act as a clearing house for ideas and could take the initiative in facilitating the development of comparative or inter-cultural research.

However, perhaps the greatest task before Unesco is to break down the barriers and obstacles which stand in the way of international communica- tion and the free flow of information. It is generally recognized now that the main obstacles are no longer technological but social, economic, political and organizational. In fact, the optimum use of tech- nology depends on these barriers being removed. Unfortunately, in the present international situation it would appear to be difficult to obtain a widespread agreement on what constitutes optimum use. Per- haps Unesco could remedy this situation and in doing so pave the way for a more genuine international research effort.

23

P A R T II

REPORT OF THE MEETING OF EXPERTS ON MASS COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY

Montreal, 21-30 June 1969

A meeting of experts on mass communication and society, organized by Unesco with the assistance of the Canadian Commission for Unesco, was held in Montreal from 21 to 30 June 1969.

The regular working sessions were preceded on Saturday 21 June, by a round-table discussion on "The Present and Future R61e of Mass Communi- cation in Society" which was held at McGill Univer- sity. The round table, which was open to the public, was presided over by the Hon. Eric W. Kierans, Minister of Communications, Gove rnment of Canada. The three key-note speakers were: Professor Jean Meynaud (France), Professor Ayo Ogunsheye (Nigeria) and Mr. Alfred E. Davidson (United States of America). A question-and-answer session followed the formal presentations of the speakers and Chairman.

The wide variety of subjects touchedupondur- ing the round-table discussion were taken up later in the working sessions and dealt with in greater detail. Among these topics were: the present status of the social sciences and their ability to deal with the study of human values and behavioural patterns; the interdisciplinary nature of mass communication research; the difficulties involved in comparative and cross-national research owing to the differing conditions obtaining in various societies and owing also to the fact that social research is often em- bedded in cultural values; the lack of co-ordinated effort in mass communication research; the need to study the impact of technology within a given social context; the special characteristics of com- munication in developing countries and the relative importance of human channels of communication in such societies, the problems of communication be- tween countries including economic and political barriers, the effects of mass media on youth and the presentation of violence, and the r61e of mass media in achieving international understanding.

While summing up the presentations, the Chair- man suggested that the vast strides being made in technological developments in mass media may be leading modern societyfrom the present eraof mass communication to one of individual communication

in which each person may be able to select media content of his own interest from a vast array of specialized topics. Such developments carry with them both advantages and disadvantages and the study of the social effects of such technological developments are urgently needed.

The working sessions of the meeting began on Monday 23 June after the election of the following office-bearers: J. Alphonse Ouimet (Canada) Chairman; Gloria

D. Feiiciano ( Philippines) Vice-chairman; Doudou Gueye ( Senegal) Vice-chairman; William Hachten (United States of America) Rapporteur. The following was the agenda for the discus-

1. The impact of mass communication on

2. The present state and organization of re-

3. The need for research into new fields. 4. The need for co-operative action at the

nafional and international levels. The discussions were guided by a working

paper prepared by Unesco and provided to partici- pants in advance of the meeting.

At ihe end of four days of discussions, the meeting broke up into three small groups to draw up in detail specific recommendations based onthe consensus of views expressed at the plenary ses- sions. The topics taken up by the three groups were the following:

1. The technological developments in the media and the need for research into new areas.

2. The specific needs of the developingcoun- tries in regard to the new technology and in regard to research and training.

3. The need for co-operative action at the national and international levels.

At the concluding plenary session on Monday 30 June, this report was adopted.

sions:

society.

search in mass communication.

25

INTRODUCTION NEED FOR RESEARCH INTO NEW FIELDS

The meeting considered that the relevance and im- portance of mass communication to society have not as yet been as widely recognized and appreci- ated as would seem to be necessary. While this may partly be due to the fact that the study of mass communication as a subject within the broad frame- work of the social sciences and humanitiesis rela- tively new, it could in large measure perhaps also be explained by the fact that it has not yet succeeded in building sufficiently developed theories of its own. Mass communication cuts across several disciplines and therefore relies on theoretical de- velopments within them.

In more practical terms, the field has suffered from lack of support for certain types of research and sometimes from the reluctance to allow the mass media to be studied at vital points inthe pro- duction and decision-making processes. On the other hand, it may also be said that, where re- search support was available, the concern of re- searchers and their sponsors was unevenly weighed in favour of applied or action-oriented research and techniques, thereby slowing the process of theory- building - although theoretical developments have often been by-products of what was essentially ap- plied or action-oriented research.

In view of the growing recognition and use of mass communication in vital areas of social and economic development, as well as the growing con- cern regarding the rale of the mass media in social problems, the base of support for mass communi- cation research is gradually widening. However, the need for more sustained support is great and urgent, especially because the rapid technological developments in the field and the speed at which social change is taking place nationally and inter- nationally, make it imperative that far greater effort goes into the study of the processes and effects of such vital social institutions as the mass media. While this would involve the development of firmer theoretical foundations, it would also continue to be necessary to pursue action and goal-oriented re- search with a view to providing guidelines for ad- ministrators and decision-makers on the use of mass communication for developmental activities, especially in the less-developed countries of the world.

The meeting stressed the need for drawing the attention of international organizations, national governments, foundations, university authorities, etc., to the rôle that they can play in promoting the use of mass communication for social betterment by recognizing the importance of the study of the subject by competent specialists and by providing the moral and material support for such research and for the training of such researchers.

The meeting was of the opinion that, although there has been considerable research in the field of mass communication, especially in the industrialized countries, and to a lesser extent in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, the rapid development of technology, the changes in the societies, as well as the recognition on the part of scholars of existing gaps in the body of knowledge, make it necessary for mass communication re- searchers to pioneer into new areas. This effort would necessarily extend in breadth as well as in depth. Such research should include studies of the impact of technological development on societies and on mass communication; the use of media in education; the r61e of the media in transitional societies; national and international communication in the development and resolution of world conflict; the impact of mass communication on youth; the relationship of mass communication to violence and aggression, etc.

The participants were generally agreed onthe need for quantitative as well as qualitative research, including research of an interdisciplinary nature, on a number of topics singled out for particular attention by the experts.

(a) It was felt that education - viewed in the widest sociai context and taking into account not only the place of media in education but also the implications of education for mass communication - is a topic of central concern for communication research. The flow of information which young people now receive from the media outside their formal schooling calls into question the whole con- tent of school programmes. On the other hand, the meeting was of the opinion that schools should help students develop critical attitudes towards the media so that they will demand and receive better media content. Such teaching is at present con- fined largely to schools of journalism and com- munication. Researchers should study the educa- tional implications of mass media content for furthering the goals of society. Research could also usefully help explain the gaps whichnow exist between students and teachers by studying their respective media habits. The study of the rele of mass communication should not be confined to in- school education but should also encompass the broader educational rôle of mass media in relation to adults.

(b) In the case of new media, researchshould pave the way for easy assimilation and should be initiated preferably before such media or practices are adopted. This is especially pertinent to de- veloping nations. Not ali countries are as yet ready to adopt modern media. Therefore, when new techniques are introduced into certain cultures, there is need for clear guidelines as to their effec- tive use within that culture.

One of the priority areas for research is the study of the r61e of mass media in conveying

(c)

26

information and in helping to form attitudes about other people and other countries. While the media have the potential for improving and extending inter- national understanding, intercultural communica- tion does not necessarily or automatically lead to better international understanding. On the contrary, the opinion was expressed that what has come to be known as the "free flow of information" at the present time is often in fact a "one-way" flow rather than a true exchange of information. In these circum- stances the need for "cultural privacy" tends to be asserted, and it is considered necessary to protect the cultural integrity of a nation against erosive influences from outside. However, the meeting recognized the dangers inherent inblocking any free flow of communication, and felt the whole subject was worthy of deeper inquiry.

Appropriate to such concerns is the study of the value system of journalists and other communi- cators and their perceptions of their rôle in society. The meeting recognized the need for extensive in- vestigation into the social, economic, political, legal and organizational factors determining the nature and degree of the flow of media messages across national boundaries and the implications thereof. It was also felt that research was needed on the rôle of mass communication in creating national stereo- types. Such inquiry would include not only the in- formational media but also popular cultural outlets such as comics, films and popular fiction. Assess- ments of media content might be made to arrive at "cultural indicators" in each of the countries as a way of gaining a better comprehension of each culture and thus improving the potential for communication.

(e) News transmission as such - both at the national and the international levels - deserves particular attention. The coverage not only of events but also of issues should be carefully studied in order to discover possible biases and their sources, over-emphasis on sensationalism, neglect of back- ground and context. The news values of media practitioners should also be studied. Methodological approaches to these problems need to be worked out.

It is important to study the rôle of the mass media with regard to social problems. In this connexion it was noted that there is more to social problems than sex, violence and the so-called generation gap, that there are values and norms other than deviant values and norms, and that the media may have positive as well as negative influ- ences. For example, the portrayal of incidents with a negative emotive meaning, under certain circumstances, may serve a positive social function by serving as danger signals.

(g) In studying the influence of the mass media onnorms andvalues - and thereby indirectly on be- haviour - it is not enough to study short-term effects. Long-term studies are needed in such fields as the rôle of the media in the early stages of the develop- ment of young children and in the process of social

(d)

(f)

adaptations; their r81e in changing norms, con- ferring status, giving approval to certain forms of behaviour and attitudes and disapproval to others.

(h) In studying problems such as those indi- cated above, there is much to be said for the adoption of interdisciplinary approaches. Signifi- cant contributions to such studies have come not only from the social and behavioural sciences but from the humanities and natural sciences as well. Nevertheless the mass communication researcher must retain his own identity and not forget thathis main focus is on mass communication.

(i) More comprehensive, system-oriented research into mass communication is needed at all levels and in all areas. This includes the analysis of media organization, ownership and financial support, the decision-making processes in media production, the codes of professional ethics, the actualvalue systems of communicators, and their perception of their rôle in society. The ways in which such factors impinge upon the creative process involved in media production are of par- ticular interest. It may also be useful to inquire into whether it would be advisable to bring about change, where indicated, in production and infor- mation structures to allow for a wider participation into management and decision-making processes on the part of the professional working elements of media units. The special contexts of the develop- ing countries deserve special attention.

(j) In addition to the actual process of mass communication, there is need for research into the goals of mass communication systems and their possible future goals. Such "goal research" might help to clarify policies and objectives in relation to any given society, suggest to policy-makers and practitioners new bases for mass media perfor- mance, and stimulate more comprehensive theories with regard to mass communication in general.

(k) Finally, the application of the findings from mass communication research should be studied. Are they applied at all? What are the conditions associated with their acceptance or rejection? What kinds of relationships between researchers and practitioners favour fruitful exchanges of ideas and the application of research findings? The meeting felt that communication research should be far more closely tied to communications practices.

After having stressed the need for new re- search endeavours in the various areas of mass communication, the meeting felt that one of the more urgent tasks of communication research is to collect, collate and compare studies already done with a view to arriving at internationalunder- standing among researchers on common denomina- tors of methodology, terminology, theory, etc. It was felt that such efforts could lead to great co- operation and co-ordination in mass communica- tion research.

27

SPECIFIC NEEDS OF THE DEVELOPING NATIONS

While the meeting recognized that most of the prob- lems relating to the present state of mass communi- cation research and training were universal in nature, there remained, however, some specific problems which are in some ways unique to the developing countries. This is not only due to the fact that research in mass communication has not developed to any considerable extent but also be- cause the rôle of the media and the functions of mass communication in su,ch countries differ sig- nificantly from those of the industrially advanced nations.

The mass media are an integral part of national development; indeed they have a leadership rôle to play in this field. Therefore, the primary concern of the researcher for some time to come willbe to relate communication to nation-building. Subjects to be taken up for continuing study willinclude: the promotion of national unity; the rôle of communi- cation in developmental campaigns relating to agri- culture, health, education, family planning, adult literacy, etc.

In view of the scarcity of resources in trained manpower as well as lack of funds, it would be necessary for research not only to focus itself on the internal and external factors impeding the effec- tive use of mass communication for development, but also on subjects which would essentially be action-oriented and applied. Studies of the effec- tiveness of the media in relation to their cost will, for example, be crucial in guiding governments in the allocation of scarce resources to the expansion of their communication services. Research is also essential to broaden the motivational base necessary for wider public participation in nation-building.

One of the factors which severely limits educa- tional progress in the developing countries is the poor quality of teachers, both in terms of general education and professional preparation. It is there- fore essential that mass media specialists co- operate with educationists in carrying out research into the educational uses of mass media in develop- ing countries.

While recognizing the need for increased re- search inputs into development-oriented activities, this is not to say that basic research is to be ignored. Studies also need to be done on such topics as media consumption patterns, attitudes toward communica- tion channels, and especially on the place of inter- personal communication as part of the totalnetwork of communication infrastructure. For all such studies, there is a need in developing nations for the systematic collection and collation of basic data pertaining to social, economic and demographic factors.

Another major problem confronting the develop- ing nations in the field of mass communication is that, while many of them are making.conscious efforts to use the media for development and are producing

special programmes for this purpose, the total communication environment of these countries re- mains dominated by foreign-produced media content which is introducing values which are alien to their traditional cultures,

The fact that the production of mass communi- cation materials is largely concentrated in the hands of the major developed countries also affects the rôle of the media in promoting international under- standing. Communication at the moment is a “one- way street” and the problems of the developing nations are seen with the eyes of journalists and producers from the developed regions; moreover, the materials they produce are aimed primarily at audiences of those regions. As a result, not only is the image of the developing nations often a false and distorted one, but that very image is reflected back to the developing countries themselves.

The meeting felt that the international exchange of mass media content and other popular cultural artifacts in general, and particularly those which affect the developing nations, involves not only the possible displacement or modification of certain cultural values, but also the problem of mutual comprehensibility. Therefore, mass communi- cation research is needed into the perceptual patterns peculiar to cultural and ethnic groups, which should be taken into account if international exchange of materials is not to give rise to mis- under st andings .

The question was raised whether developing countries can effectivelyuse techniques of research developed in industrialized nations or whether they should attempt to evolve techniques more suitable to their own needs and conditions, based on and adapted from the broader methodology already available to the trained researcher. Caution was expressed with regard to the dangers inherent in using imported techniques uncritically.

The dearth of trained researchers was also recognized and it was felt that efforts wereneeded to increase the facilities for training, both nationally and regionally. It was suggested that fellowships should be made available for junior researchers and professionals to go abroad for specialized training. It was felt that most of these fellowships should be tenable within developing nations be- cause of the greater value accruing from study in regions with comparable problems and character- istics. Senior fellowships, however, could be offered for study in the more advanced countries of the world. On a reciprocal basis, junior re- searchers from the developed nations should be encouraged to go to institutes in the developing nations for the purpose of learning about problems of communications and of communication research in those nations.

The meeting recommended that Unesco should, through whatever aid it can provide, encourage institutes engaged in mass communications re- search and training to convene annual meetings at the national level of social scientists and experts

28

in the national culture interested in action research both at the universities and other organizations to discuss, for example: mass communications effects; research techniques suitable to the region; plans for communication evaluation studies and research, and other relevant problems. As things now stand there are no national mass communication com- missions in the developing nations to discuss these problems.

The meeting noted that because of the high cost of some types of equipment, such as television, in the developing countries, the potentialities of the mass media fall far short of realization. It was agreed that there is urgent need for research into cost-reducing innovations which would bring the mass media within the reach of the populations concerned.

The dearth of communication equipment in the developing nations led the meeting to suggest that Unesco and its Member States should encourage the General Assembly of the United Nations to create a fund from which these nations could draw loans on a long- and medium-term basis at low (or zero) interest rates for the purpose of acquiring and in- vesting in the production of communication media equipment.

CO-OPERATION A T THE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS

The meeting, having discussed the rapid world-wide growth of technological improvements in the trans- mission of mass communication in both the developed and developing nations, noted with concern the lack of comprehensive knowledge of the social conse- quences that have accompanied such innovations. It was felt that the research which has so far been directed at the impact of mass communicationupon society has been varied but highly fragmented and that it has not been directed purposefully at problems facing mass communication in society. A better understanding of the many social pressures that are in motion and the rôle of mass communication in those changing patterns could do much to help socie- ties cope with the problems that such changes entail.

It was considered that the appropriate govern- ment departments, independent foundations, and media interests should be urged to ensure long-term financial support to mass communication research in their respective countries. To what extent such support will become available would depend on the ability of the researchers to demonstrate to poten- tial sponsors their own merits and the importance of research as a guide to media planning and development.

However, it was also agreed that, while close working relationships with media personnel are essential, the researcher should ensure that he re- mains free from undue pressures in the conduct of his investigations.

The meeting recognized that research needs to be conducted within the framework of specific institutions as well as without. There is need for research within administrative units, media or governmental, since such research can be action- oriented and can be fed back immediately to decision makers. Such demonstration of research effectiveness will have the cumulative effect of achieving research-consciousness among admini- strators and other decision makers.

While such administrative or "service" re- search will continue to be necessary, basic social scientific research into mass media as social in- stitutions and mass communication as a social pro- cess should increasingly be conducted by univer- sities. There is at present a serious unbalance between the funds being invested in service or commercial research and those devoted to pure research into the r61e and effects of mass media.

Side by side with academic research it is necessary for schools of journalism and/or com- munication also to provide professional training in this field. This suggestion is based on three grounds: firstly, that it would expose future practitioners to the need for and the usefulness of research;secondly, that it would provide media units and other func- tional organizations with staff members capable of doing applied research themselves, and thirdly, that it would make media practitioners aware of their ethical and social responsibilities, through an understanding of the scientific method. To the extent that the concern of mass communication researchers is essentially the effective functioning of the media, it is their responsibility to ensure that the professionals become theoretically oriented and research conscious.

Conversely, the meeting felt that university departments training communication re se archers should see to it that graduates are given profes- sional experience with one or more of the media, so that future researchers are more aware of and familiar with practical problems of production.

The meeting discussed at some length the gap that continues to exist between the researcher and the practitioner. It expressed concern that such a gap should exist so generally even after more than three decades of communication research. There- fore, one of the most urgent tasks on the part of communication researchers is to achieve rapport with practitioners so that mutual learning and respect is established. The meeting underlined the necessity for intense efforts at feeding back research findings to media professionals. It was suggested that an important problem which could fruitfully be studied was the ways in which the results of presently available research are conveyed - or not conveyed - to practitioners.

A practicable and effective way of better study- ing and comprehending the rôle of mass communi- cation on a world-wide basis is urgently required - one which would be sensitive to cultural differences but which at the same time would be capable of

29

responding to a variety of problems in an efficient manner. After reviewing a number of alternative proposals, it was cogsidered that, while both a country-by-country approach and a global approach can serve some purposes, an important additional contribution will result from examining the social consequences of mass communication in a regional context. Many common cultural patterns and prob- lems should be susceptible to effective analysis in this way.

The meeting therefore recommended that regional centres be established (or, where existing, be expanded) to promote and co-ordinate research, ensure the dissemination of research findings and help in providing intensified programmes of train- ing. These regional centres, it was suggested, should organize training courses and seminars to encourage the exchange of views and experiences among communication researchers and practi- tioners. They should also maintain a careful and selective surveillFce over major trends and de- velopments in corhmunication research.

In addition to acting as vital links in the exchange of research and training activities at the national levels, the regional centres should also become the basis for wider international integration of know- ledge about mass communication. This can be facilitated by the exchange of research trainees and senior staff from other regions, thereby lead- ing to a cross-fertilization of ideas and a multi- faceted process of learning. Considering the in- creasingly important rôle of computers in social research and the need to facilitate the speedy analysis of data, it was recommended that these regional centres should have all modern facilities needed to gather, store and analyse data. Tech- nical assistance for such undertakings, at least in the initial stages, needs to be made available by international assistance agencies.

The meeting strongly recommended that Unesco consider a major international study of the present and future effect of communication on the relations between changing societies and social groups and on the individuals comprising them. Such a re- search programme should be designed to identify the ways in which the mass media can best serve the needs of present and future societies. Contem- porary communication is not limited by national boundaries, and foreseeable technological changes will increase the international character of com- munication still further. A research programme organized under international auspices is the most effective way to understand the implications of these changes.

Experience in organizing research in other fields, especially the natural sciences, clearly demonstrates the very substantial advances which can result from a major international co-operative

programme. With appropriate modifications, recent Unesco experience with activities such as, for example, the International Hydrological Decade offer models in concept, planning and administra- tion for the type of activity here recommended.

The experts stressed the importance of full participation at all stages of planning and imple- mentation of research by people working in the mass media, including policy makers, creative artists and technical specialists. This participation is essential to provide relevance to the research and to encourage application of results to mass media practices and content.

A very wide research topic is suggested be- cause it is clear that the effects of themassmedia and of other social institutions are interrelated on a world scale and that important aspects of these relationships should not be excluded by an arbitrary definition. On the other hand, it is taken for granted that in the elaboration of the project particular attention will be paid to a number of more specialized subjects of research concern. Some such subjects have been suggested in the section of this report devoted to the need for research in new fields. Others mentioned here as examples include: relationships between communication and the rest-

lessness of young people in many regions of the world;

the social implications of the importation and use of media content prepared for audiences with different cultural characteristics;

the effects on international understanding of ways in which other cultures are presented by the media;

the effects on attitudes of the treatment of various forms of conflict that are present in societies;

the rôle of mass communication in relation to edu- cational institutions. The rBle of Unesco is viewed as one of

leadership, encouragement and liaison. Member States or groups of Member States would be invited to undertake research projects of interest to them. The research could be done by official agencies, by universities, by professional organizations, or by the media themselves. Under the aegis of Unesco, arrangements would be made for co-operation through bilateral programmes, committees of specialists, research specialists, and the media. Organizations in the United Nations family, regional broadcasting unions, and other international organi- zations would be associated with planning and implementation.

It would be premature to suggest detailed administrative and fiscal arrangements. It is pro- posed only that Unesco include the project in its programme for the biennium 1971-1972 and look forward to implementing the project over a period of ten years.

30

ANNEX/ANNEXE

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS/LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS

I. PARTIC€PANTS

Switzerland/Suisse

Professeur Jacques BOURQUIN Université de Lausanne

Ecuador/Equateur

Mr. Gonzalo CORDOVA G. Director- General Centro Internacional de Estudios Superiores

Ciudad Universitaria Apartado 584 - Quito de Periodismo para América Latina

USSR/ m s s M. Valentin F. DVLNINE Directeur des programmes du Comité de radio-télévision du Conseil des ministres de l'URSS

ltUniversité d'Etat de Moscou Professeur à la Faculté de journalisme de

United States of AmericaIEtats-Unis d'Amérique

Professor Alex EDELSTEIN School of Communications University of Washington Seattle - 98105 Philippines

Dr. Gloria FELICIANO Director Institute of Mass Communication University of the Philippines Quezon City

Japan/ Japon

Mr. Kazuhiko GOT0 Assistant Chief of NHK Theoretical Research

Radio and Television Culture Research Institute 1-10 Shiba Atago-Cho Tokyo 105

Centre

Senegal

M. Doudou GUEYE Directeur des études Centre dWudes des sciences et techniques de

Facuite des lettres et sciences humaines Dakar - Farm l'information

United States of AmericaJEtats-Unis d'Amérique

Professor William HACHTEN School of Journalism University of Wisconsin Madison - 53706 United Kingdom/Royaume Uni

Mr. James D. H A L L O R A N Director Centre for Mass Communication Research University of Leicester i04 Regent Road Leicester

SwededSuède

Professor Ulf H I M M E L S T R A N D Department of Sociology University of UppsaIa Drottninggatan 1 Uppsala

Lebanon/ Liban

Mr. Bassem EL-JISR Institute of Mass Communication University of the Lebanon Beirut

France

M. Jacques LEAUTE Directeur Centre international d 'études supérieure s du

Strasbourg journalisme

Germany (Fed. Rep. )/Allemagne (Rép. Fed.

Mr. Gehrard MALETZKE German Development Institute Messedamm 22 1 Berlin

Finland/Finlande

Mr . JSaarle N O R D E N S T R E N G Head of Research The Finnish Broadcasting Corporation Oy Yleisradio A B Kesxkotu 2 - Helsinki

31

Canada

Mr. J. Alphonse OUIMET 333 Roger Road Ottawa

III. OBSERVERS/OBSERVATEURS

Peru/ Perou

Mr. Andrew RUSZKOWSKI Director Institute for Social Communications Saint Paul University 223 Main Street - Ottawa 1

India/Inde

Mr. A. V. SHANMUGAM Professor of Research Indian Institute of Mass Communication 2 Ring Road, New Delhi 14

Canada

Mr. Dallas W. SMYTHE Chairman Department of Social Studies University of Saskatchewan Regina Campus - Regina

II. ROUND-TABLE KEY-NOTE SBEAJSERS/ CONFERENCIERSALATABLERONDE

Chairman/ Président

The Hon. Eric W. KIERANS Minister of Communications Canada

Speakers/Conférenciers

Mr. Alfred E. DAVIDSON Paris, France

* M. Jean MEYNAUD Professeur de sciences politiques Université de Montréal Montréal, Canada

Mr. Ayo O G U N S H E Y E * - Professor Director, Institute of African Adult Education University of Jbadan kigeria

* Also participated in the working sessions/ Participèrent également aux séances de travail

(a) United Nations/Nations Unies

Professor Alexander SZALAI Deputy Director of Research, UNITAR 801 United Nations Plaza N e w York City - U. S. A.

(b) Non-governmental Organizations/ Organisations non gouvernementales

Asian Broadcasting Union/Union asiatique de radiodiffusion

Mr. Spencer MOORE International Liaison Officer Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 1500 Bronson Avenue, Ottawa (Ontario)

Catholic International Association for Radio and Television/Association catholique inter- nationale pour la radiodiffusion et la télévision

Abbé Lucien LABELLE Directeur national de l'Office des M C S

4635 rue de Lorimier Montréal 34, P. Q.

du Canada

European Broadcasting Union/Union europ6enne de radiodiffusion

Mr. Spencer MOORE International Liaison Officer Overseas and Foreign Relations CBC Ottawa, Ontario

Inter- American Association of Broadcasters/ Association interaméricaine de radiodiffusion

M. Jacques FILTEAU Association canadienne des radiodiffuseurs, Montréal, P. Q.

International Broadcast Institute

Mr. Arthur D. M O R S E Executive Director, 525 via del Corso R o m e 00186

international Press InstituteJInstitut international de la presse

M. André BUREAU Vice- Président exécutif La Presse 7 ouest, rue St. -Jacques. Montréal 12 6e, Canada

32

M. Jacques G. FRANCOEUR Président et éditeur Dimanche -Matin 5701 av. Christophe-Colomb Montréal 326e, Canada

M. Aurèle GRATTON Vice-président exécutif et Directeur général

Le Droit 375 rue Rideau, Ottawa Ze, Canada

Mr. DerekA. PRICE President, the Montreal Star 245 ouest, rue St. -Jacques Montréal 126e, Canada

M . Claude RYAN Directeur Le Devoir 424 est, rue Notre-Dame Montréal 127e, Canada

International Writers' Guild

Mr. Victor KNIGHT 53 C8te Ste.-Catherine Montre al

Union of National Radio and Television Or- ganizations of Africa/Union des radiodiffusions et télévisions nationales d'Afrique (URTNA)

World Association for Christian Communication/ Association mondiale pour la radio-télévision chrétienne

Rev. Philip A. JOHNSON 63 Church Lane Scarsdale New York 10583, U. S. A.

IV. SECRETARIAT OF THE MEETING/ SECRETARIAT DE LA REUNION

M. Pierre NAVAUX Directeur Division du d6veloppement des moyens

Unesco d 'information

M. Y.V.L. RA0 Division du développement des moyens d'information

Unesco

Liaison Officer for the Canadian Government/ Chargé de liaison du Gouvernement canadien

Mr. David W. BARTLETT Secretary-General Canadian Commission for Unesco 140 Wellington Street Ottawa 4, Canada

Mr. Mohamed EL-BASSIOUNI Secretary-General of URTNA 101 rue Carnot, B. P. 3237, Dakar, Sénégal

33

UNESCO PUBLICATIONS: NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS

Afghanistan Albania Algeria

Argentina Australia

Austria Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil Bulgaria Burma

Cambodia Cameroon

Canada Ceylon Chile

China Colombia

Congo (Dem. Rep. of)

Costa Rica

Cuba Cyprus

Czechoslovakia D e n m rk

Dominican Republic Ecuador

Ei Salvador Ethiopia Finland France

French West Indies Germany (Fed. Rep.)

Ghana Greece

Guatemala Haiti

Hong Kong Hungary

Iceland India

Indonesia Iran Iraq

Ireland Israel

Italy

Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya Korea

Kuwait

Panuzai. Press Department, Royal Afghan Ministry of Education. KABUL. N. Sh. Botimeve Naim Frasheri. TIRANA. Institut pédagogique national. I I, rue Ali-Haddad (ex-rue Zaâtcha), ALGER; Société nationale d’édition et de diffusion (SNED). 3. boulevard Zinout Youcef. ALGER. Editorial Sudamericana S.A., Humbert0 I n.o 545. T.E. 30. 7518, BUENOS Aim. Publications: Educational Supplies Pty. Ltd., Box 33, Post Office, Brookvale 2100, N.S.W. Periodicals: Dominie Pty. Ltd.. Box 33, Post Office, Brookvale 2100, N.S.W. Sub-agent: United Nations Associa- tion of Australia, Victorian Division, 4th Floor. Askew House, 364 Lonsdale St.. MELBOL~XNE (Victoria) 3000. Verlag Georg Fromme & Co A11 publicaiions: Editions ‘LBbor’, 342, rue] Royale, BRUXELLES 3 ; N.V. Standaard Wetenschappelijke Uitgeverij. Belgiëlei 147. ANTWERPEN I ; Presses universitaires de Bruxelles. 42. avenue Paul-Héger BRUXELLES 5. For ‘The Courier‘ and slides only: Jean D e Lannoy, 112. rue du Trbne, BRUXELLES 5. Comisión Nacional Boliviana de la Unesco, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, casilla de correo na 4107. LA PAZ; Libreria Universitaria, Universidad San Francisco Xavier, apartado 212, SUCRE. Fundaçáo Getúlio Vargas, caixa postai 4081-ZC-05, RIO DE JANEIRO (GUANABARA). Razno.ïznos, I Tzar Assen, SOFIJA. Trade Corporation n.O (9). 550-552 Merchant Street, RANGOON. Librairie Albert Portail. 14, avenue Boulloche, PHNOM-PENH. Papeterie moderne, Mailer et Cie, B.P. 495. YAOUNDB. The Queen’s Printer, OTTAWA (Ont.). Lake House Bookshop, Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawata, P.O. Box 244, COLOMBO a. All publicationr: Editorial Universitaria S.A., casilla IOZZO, SANTIAGO. For ‘The Courier’: Comisión Nacional de la Unesco, Mac-Iver 764, dpto. 63, SANTIAGO. The World Book Co. Ltd.. 99 Chungking South Road, section I, TAIPEH (Taiwan/Formosa). Libreria Buchholz Galeria, avenida Jiménez de Quesada 8-40, apartado aéreo 49-56, BOGOTA; Edicionea Tercer Mundo, apartado aéreo 48-17, BOGOTA; Distrilibros Ltda, Pío Alfonso García, carrera 4:, n.o’ 36-1 19 y 36-125, CARTAGENA; J. Germán Rodriguez N., oficina ZOI, Edificio Banco de Bogotá, apartado nacional83. Girardot, CUNDINAMARCA; Libreria Universitaria, Universidad Pedagógica de Colombia, TUNJA. La Libreirie, Institut politique congolais, B.P. 2307, KINSHASA; Commission nationale de la République dkmocratique du Congo pour l’Unesco, Ministère de l’éducation nationale, KINSHASA. Librería Trejos. S.A., apartado 1313, SAN Jock Teléfonos 2285 y 3200. For ‘The Courier’: Carlos Valerín Sáenz & Co. Ltda.. ‘El Palacio de la Revistas’, apartado 1924. SAN JOSd. !nstituto del Libro, Departamento Económico. Ermita y San Pedro, Cerro, LA HABANA. M A M ’ , Archbishop Makarios 3rd Avenue, P.O. Box 1722, NICOSIA. S N T L , Spalena SI,PRAHA I (Permanenidisplay) ; Zahranicni literatura, II Soukenicka,PmHA I. Ejnar Munksgaard Ltd.. 6 Nuirregade. 1165 KOBENHAVN K. Librería Dominicana, Mercedes 49. apartado de correos 656. SANTO DOMINGO. Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Núcleo del Guayas, Pedro Moncayo y 9 de Octubre, casilla de correo 3542 GUAYAQUIL. Librería Cultural Salvadorena, S.A., Edificio San Martin, 6: calle Oriente n.O 118. SAN SALVADOR. National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Box 2996, ADDIS ABABA. Akateeminen Kirjakauppa 2 Keskuskatu. HELSINKI. Librairie de l’Unesco place de Fontenoy, 75 P ~ s - 7 ~ . CCP 12598-48. Librairie J. Bocage, rue Lavoir B.P. 208. FORT-DE-FRANCE (Martinique). R. Oldenbourg Verlag. Unesco-Vertrieb für Deutschland, Rosenheimerstrasse 145. MÜNCHEN 8. Methodist Book Depot Ltd., Atlantic House. Commercial Street, P.O. Box IOO. CAPE COAST. Librairie H. Kauffmann. 28, rue du Stade, ATHENAI; Librairie Eleftheroudakis. Nikkis 4. ATHENAI. Comisión Nacional de la Unesco. 6: Calle 9.27, zona I. GUATEMALA. Librairie ‘A la Caravelle‘, 36, rue Roux, B.P. III, PORT-AU-~INCE. Swindon Book Co., 13-15 Lock Road, KOWLOON. Akadémiai Könyvesbolt Váciu 22, BUDAPEST V. A.K.V. Konyvtavosok Boltja, Népköztávsaság utja 16, BUDAPEST vi. Snaebjörn Jonsson & Co. H. F., Hafnarstracti g. REYKJAVIK. Orient Longmans Ltd., Nicol Road, Ballard Estate, BOMBAY I; 17 Chittaranjan Avenue, CALCUTTA 13 36a Mount Road, MADM 2; 315 Asaf Ali Road, N m DELHI I. Sub-depots:,Oxford Book & Stationery Co., I7 Park Street, CALCUTTA 16; and Scindia House, NEW DELHI. Indian National Commission for Unesco, att.: The Librarian, Ministry of Education, ‘C’ Wing, Room No. 214, Shastri Bhawan, N m DELHI I. Indira P.T.. Dji. Dr. Sam Ratulangic 37, DJAKARTA. Commission nationale iranienne pour l’Unesco, 11154, avenue Roosevelt, B.P. 1533, TEHBRAN. McKenzie’s Bookshop, Ai-Rashid Street, BAGHDAD; University Bookstore, University of Baghdad, P.O.

Spengergasse-39, WIEN 5.

BOX 75. BAGHDAD. The National Press, a Wellington Road, Ballsbridge, DUBLIN 4. Emanuel Brown formerly Blumstein’s Bookstores: 35 Allenby Road and 48 Nahlat Benjamin Street. TEL Avrv. Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni S.p.A.. via Lamarmora 45, casella postale 552, 5 0 1 ~ 1 FIRENZE; Libreria Internazionale Rizz?li, Galeria Colonna, Largo Chigi, ROMA; Libreria Zanichelli, Piazza Galvani I ih, BOLOGNA: Hoepli, via Ulrico Hoe+ 5, MILANO; Librairie française, piazza CasteUo 9, TORINO; Diffusione Edizioni Anglo-Americane, via Lima 28, 00198, ROMA. Centre d’édition et de diffusion africaines, boite postale 4541, ABIDJAN PLATEAU. Sangster’s Book Stores Ltd., P.O. Box 366, IOI Water Lane, KINGSTON. Maruzen Co. Ltd., P.O. Box 5050. Tokyo International. TOKYO. Joseph I. Bahous & Co., Dar-ul-Kutub, Sait Road, P.O. Box 66, AMMAN. ESA Bookshop, P.O. Box 30167. NAIROBI. Korean National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Box Central 64, SEOUL. The Kuwait Bookshop Co. Ltd.. P.O. Box 2942, KUWAIT.

Lebanon Liberia Libya

Liechtenstein Luxembourg Madagascar

Malaysia Mali

Malta Mauritius

Mexico Monaco Morocco

Mozambique Netherlands

Netherlands Antilles N e w Caledonia N e w Zealand

Nicaragua Norway

Pakistan

Paraguay Peru

Philippines Poland

Portugal Puerto Rico

Southern Rhodesia Romania Senegal

Singapore South Africa

Spain

Sudan Sweden

Switzerland Syrja

Tanzania Thailand Turkey Uganda U.S.S.R.

United Arab Republic

United Kingdom

U.S.A. Uruguay

Venezuela

Republic of Viet-Nam YUgOSlavis

Librairies Antoine, A. Naufal et Frères, B.P. 656, BEYROUTH, Cole & Yancy Bookshops Ltd., P.O. Box 286. MONROVIA. Agency for Development of Publication and Distribution, P.O. Box 261. TRIPOLI. Eurocan Trust Reg., P.O.B. 5. SCHAAN. Librairie Paul Bruck, 22 Grande-Rue, LUXEMBOURG. All publications: Commission nationale de la République malgache, Ministère del 'Education nationale. TANANARIVE. For 'The Courier': Service des œuvres post et péri-scolaires, Ministère de I'Education nationale, TANANARIVE. Federal Publications Sdn. Bhd.. Balai Berita, 31 Jalan Riong. KUALA LUMPUR. Librairie populaire du Mali, B.P. 28. BAMAKO. Sapienza's Library, 26 Kingsway. VALLETTA. Nalanda Co. Ltd.. 30 Bourbon Street, PORT-LOUIS. Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal 41. Mtxico D.F. British Library, 30, boulevard des Moulins, Mom-CARLO All publications: Librairie 'Aux belles images'. 281 avenue Mohammed V, RABAT (CCP 68.74). For 'The Courier' (for teachers): Commission nationale marocaine pour l'Unesco, 20, Zenkat Mourabitine, RABAT (CCP 307-63). Salema & Carvalho Ltda., caixa postal 192, BEIRA. N.V. Martinus Nijhoff. Lange Voorhout. 9 '8-GRAVENHAGE. G. C. T. Van Dorp & Co. (Ned. Ant.) N.V., WILLEMSTAD (Curaçao, N.A.). Reprex, avenue de la Victoire, ImmeublePainbouc, NO UM^. Government Printing Office, Government Bookshops: Rutland Street, P.O. Box 5344, AUCKLAND; 130 Oxford Terrace, P.O. Box 1721, CHRISTCHURCH; A h a Street, P.O. Box 857, ILT TON; Princes Street, P.O. Box 1104, DUNEDIN; Mulgrave Street, Private Bag, WELLINGTON. Librería Cultural Nicaragüense, calle 15 de Septiembre y avenida Bolivar, apartado n.O 807. MANAGUA. All publications: A. S. Bokhjörnet. Akersgt. 41. OSLO I. For 'The Courier': A. S. Narvesens Litteraturjeneste, Box 6125. OSLO 6. The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd.. Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374, G.P.O., LAHORE. Showrooms: Urdu Bazaar, LAHORE. and 57-58 Muree Highway, G/6-1. ISLAMABAD, Pakistan Publicatioim Bookshop: Sarwar Road, RAWALPINDI; Paribagh. DACCA. Melchor García, Eligio Ayala 1650. ASUNCI~N. Distribuidora I N C A S.A., Emilio Althaus 470. Lince, apartado 3115, LIMA. The M o d e m Book Co., 928 Rizal Avenue, P.O. Box 632, MANILA. Osrodek Rozpowzechniania Wydawnictw Naukowych PAN, Palac Kultury I Nauki, Warszawa. Dias & Andrade Ltda.. Libraria Portugal, rua do Carmo 70, LISBOA. Spanish English Publications, Eleanor Roosevelt 115, apartado 1912, HATO REY. Textbook Sales (PVT) Ltd.. 67 Union Avenue, SALISBURY. Carthex, P.O. Box 134-135. i26 calea Vietorici. BUCURFSTI. (Telex: 226.) La Maison du Livre, 13, avenue Roume, B.P. 20-60, DAKAR. Federal Publications Sdn Bhd., Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE 9. Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty.) Ltd., Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 724. PRETORIA. All publications: Librería Científica Medinaceli. Duque de Medinaceli 4, MADRID 14. For 'The Courier': Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A., calle de Onate 15, MADRID; Ediciones Liber, apartado de correos 17. ONDARROA (Vizcaya). AI Bashir Bookshop, P.O. Box 1118, KHARTOUM. All publications: A/B. C. E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel. Fredsgatan 2. Box 16356, 103 27 STOCKHOLM 16. For 'The Courier': Svenska FN-Förbundet. Vasagatan 15. IV. IOI 23 STOCKHOLM I. Postgiro IS 46 92. Europa Verlag, Rämistrasse 5, ZURICH; LibrairiePayot, 6, rue Gienus, 1211 GEN~VE II, Librairie Sayegh, Immeuble Diab. rue du Parlement, B.P. 704. DAMAS. Dar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. Box 9030. DAR ES SALAAM. Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue, BANGKOK. Librairie Hachette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi. Beyoglu. ISTANBUL, Uganda Bookshop, P.O. Box 145, KAMPALA. Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga. MOSKVA, G-zoo. Librairie Kasr EI Nil, 38, rue Kasr El Nil. LE CAIRE. Sub-depot: La Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Sh. Adly Pasha CAIRO (Egypt). H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569. LONDON S.E.1; Goverinent bookshops: London, Belfast Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester. Unesco Publications Center, P.O. Box 433, N e w York, N.Y. 10016. Editorial Losada Uruguaya. S.A../Libreria Losada, Maldonado ropz/Colonia 1340. MONTEVIDEO. Librería Historia, Monjas a Padre Sierra, Edificio Oeste 2. n.O 6 (frente al Capitolio), apartado de correos

Librairie-Papeterie Xu-Thu, 185-193 rue Tu-Do. B.P. 283. SAIGON. Jugoslovenaka Knjiga, Terazije 27. BEOGRAD. Dnavna Zaluzba Slovenije Mestni Trg. 26 LJUBLJANA.

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7320. cAU4cnS.