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Table of ContentsChapter I: Introduction...........................................................................................................2
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Background.................................................................................................................................2
1.3 Justification.................................................................................................................................3
1.4 Research Objective......................................................................................................................3
1.5 Research Questions......................................................................................................................4
1.6 Research Limitations...................................................................................................................4
1.7 Methodology................................................................................................................................4
1.8 Summary.....................................................................................................................................5
Chapter II: The Impact of Food Advertising Leading to Childhood Obesity....................62.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................6
2.2 The growing rate of childhood obesity........................................................................................6
2.3 The Effects of Food Advertising..................................................................................................7
2.4 Summary.....................................................................................................................................9
Chapter III: The Ways Companies Engage in Food Marketing to Children...................103.1 Introduction:..............................................................................................................................10
3.2 Television Advertising...............................................................................................................10
3.3 Online Media and Social Networking Sites...............................................................................12
3.4 Summary...................................................................................................................................13
Chapter IV Schools and Unhealthy Food Marketing.........................................................144.1 Introduction:..............................................................................................................................14
4.2 How Schools Tie in with Big Food Companies to Promote Unhealthy Food in the School Environment....................................................................................................................................14
4.3 Fast Food Outlets and Their Close Proximity to Schools..........................................................15
4.4 Summary...................................................................................................................................17
Chapter V Development of Policy for Regulating Unhealthy Food Marketing...............185.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................18
5.2 Responsible Food Marketing to Children..................................................................................18
5.3 Countries with Regulations in Place for Food Marketing..........................................................19
5.4 Summary...................................................................................................................................20
Chapter IV Conclusion of the Literature Review...............................................................226.1 Research Implications of the Literature Review........................................................................22
6.2 Future Research Question..........................................................................................................23
Bibliography...........................................................................................................................24
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Chapter I: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Globally, children grow up surrounded by food marketing that promotes food products which
are high in fats and sugar. Food companies use an array of marketing strategies and tactics
that enable them to target children. Most companies use the traditional method of food
advertising by means of television adverts but due to the emergence of new technologies
many of these companies have focused their attention on online media and social networking
sites. The marketing of unhealthy foods has become a major cause of concern for researchers,
governments and public health. Companies are marketing their food products in ways that
children will be exposed to the advertisements on a daily basis which also includes appealing
packages and at affordable prices (Healthy Eating Research, 2015). Due to the worrying
figures of childhood obesity globally has led to many question asked to just why the youth of
the world are becoming so obese. This paper will look at the growing rates of childhood
obesity and what the factors that are causing it. Following this the effects of food advertising
has on children and whether it influences them to choose unhealthy food. The third chapter
will look at the ways in which food companies use to target children in their food campaigns
and how they use the medium of television and now online platforms to do so. The fourth
chapter will look at in school marketing and what role it plays in food choice and also the
proximity of fast food outlets to schools and whether there is a link between children’s
obesity in these areas. Finally, the last chapter will look at the need for food marketing
regulations and what some countries have done so far and if is working or not.
1.2 Background
Numerous studies have investigated what has been the cause of the growing rates in
childhood obesity globally. There has been an increase for concern on the level of food
marketing of unhealthy and sugary foods to children are exposed and what the food
companies are doing to target children in their marketing campaigns. In 2004 WHO urged
food companies to begin regulating their marketing campaigns of unhealthy food to children.
Linn and Novasat (2008) identified in their study that child targeted marketing has become so
ubiquitous and sophisticated that it has become such a concern to public health and
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researchers. Following on from this it has led to WHO (2010) to develop a set of
recommendations for member states to begin to implement these regulations within their
countries governments. The regulation of food marketing to children is still posing
difficulties as many food companies are slow to agree that it is their food products that are
leading to children consuming them and causing the issue of obesity.
1.3 Justification
There is an ever more increasing importance in the health and well-being of the global young
population and the effects food marketing is having on their dietary intake. This is an
emerging topic in the field of food business and development and therefore, the chosen topic
meets the criteria for a literature review. The covered topics in the literature review include
the growing rate of childhood obesity, the effects of food advertising, the main ways in which
companies engage in advertising to children through television and online media, schools role
in unhealthy food marketing, whereby in some cases tie in with big food companies and how
the proximity of fast food outlets are very close to schools and finally the ways in which food
marketing needs to be regulated. These areas give an overview of marketing unhealthy and
sugary foods to children as a research area.
1.4 Research Objective
The research objective of this literature review is too give a coherent overview about the key
aspects in marketing unhealthy and sugary foods to children as a research area. First of all, an
introduction chapter will look at the growing rates globally in childhood obesity and what are
the factors that are leading to this epidemic. The second chapter will take a look at the effects
that food advertising could be having on children’s food choice and how it could be leading
to them to consume more unhealthy foods. The third chapter will focus on television
adverting and the growing use of online media and social networking sites to promote and
target children with advertising. The fourth chapter will look at schools role in marketing and
finally the last chapter will look at regulating food marketing to children.
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1.5 Research Questions
The research questions lean closely against the research objectives and can be defined as
follows:
What are the main causes leading to the growing rates in childhood obesity
globally?
What effects does unhealthy food advertising have on children’s eating
behaviours?
What types of marketing techniques do companies use to target children through
television and online mediums?
What are the factors that are enabling schools to market unhealthy foods?
Are unhealthy food premises located near schools causing children to consume
unhealthy food more frequently?
What can governments do to ensure responsible food marketing to children?
1.6 Research Limitations
The literature review has the objective to give a coherent overview about marketing
unhealthy and sugary foods to children as a research area. Due to the size and amount of
literature available, the literature review will not be able to provide a holistic and conclusive
investigation in all the research areas. Further to this, the covered contents are on an
introductory basis and will not cover an extensive examination. Due to this, several aspects
may not be covered or reviewed at all.
1.7 Methodology
Scientific data bases and online data research were used to collect the data and to ensure a
diversified and consistent method of data acquisition. The search tools used to gather the
information for this literature review included google scholar and science direct the online
journal database. Books from the library were also used in this research. To ensure
consistency amongst the material, journals and well established sources were only used in the
literature. The search range included the years 2004 to 2016 to ensure a more up to date
review of the relevant material.
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1.8 Summary
The literature review investigated a coherent introduction into the different key aspects
involved in marketing unhealthy and sugary foods to children. In more detail, it looked at the
growing rates of childhood obesity and what were the main causes related to the issue. It also
looked the effects food advertising is having on children’s food choices and is it the cause for
unhealthy eating. Furthermore, the literature review went on to explore the two advertising
mediums food companies use to target children in marketing campaigns and how it is having
an effect on children’s food choice. It also looked at the growth of online media and how it is
difficult to study the effects of food marketing through this medium. In addition to this
schools were looked at and how their marketing campaigns are being used in the schools
environment and how they are tied in with big food companies and are gathering revenue
from it. The close proximity of fast food outlets to schools was investigated to see was there a
link between childhood obesity in the same areas. Finally, the literature review looked at the
need for further regulations in relation to food companies advertising tactics of unhealthy
foods. In conclusion, the literature review was able to give an overview of the key aspects of
unhealthy food marketing and the link to childhood obesity. The understanding of these key
aspects and what studies have found will be needed to develop stricter regulations for
advertising to young children in the future.
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Chapter II: The Impact of Food Advertising Leading to Childhood Obesity
2.1 Introduction
The growing rates of childhood obesity has led for much concern amongst public health
officials, governments and policy developers. However, there are quite a number of factors
that are essentially to blame for the continued rise. Some researchers believed that the growth
in the issue is because children have very poor eating habits and are spending long periods of
time using digital media that is leading them to participate less and less in physical exercise.
Another factor to consider in this issue is the effects that food advertising is having on the
dietary choices being made by children and the influence of media in their daily lives.
Boyland and Halford (2013) believe that children are too expose to digital media and it is
involved in their lives at such a young age. This chapter will introduce the growing rates in
childhood obesity and what are the main factors causing the rise in rates. Following this the
effects that food advertising is having on children’s food choices and how their exposure to
media is influencing these food choice decisions.
2.2 The growing rate of childhood obesity
The growing rates in childhood obesity has become of much concern in recent years, where it
has been found that the current trend in childhood obesity is reaching epidemic levels
worldwide. WHO (2014) figures showed the increase in obesity amongst children aged 0 to 5
had rapidly increased between 1990 at 32 million and 2013 at 42 million globally. The rates
of obesity amongst the world’s population has been doubled since the 1980’s.
Traditionally childhood obesity was associated with high income earning countries however,
the problem is now rising in lower and middle class populations (Khatri and Amatya, 2015).
There are a few main causes of childhood obesity which include poor eating habits, a low
level of physical exercise and spending long periods of time using digital media (Binkiewicz-
Glinska et al 2012). Nowadays, many families are leading hectic and stressful lives whereby
parents turn to quick and convenience foods to feed their children. Thus, the level of children
that snack on sugary foods between meals has risen significantly in the past two decades.
Other factors causing the increase level of childhood obesity are the environmental factors
children are exposed to.
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Other factors that could essentially be contributing the rise in obesity may include income
and mothers in full time employment. Income can be a very important factor in how people
choose to eat or in other terms what they are able to afford. Cawley (2010) believes that
people who have a higher income could prevent weight gain by consumers to substitute
healthier, more expensive food for cheaper energy dense food. Although, many could argue
that socio-economic reasons do not have anything to do with obesity. However, a study
carried out by Wang and Zhang (2006) aimed to discover whether this factor of low income
did in fact equate to obesity. The results from the study showed that the socio-economic
factors and obesity had lowered since the 1980’s, 1999 and 2002 for white children, but the
gap between ethnical groups had risen therefore, they discovered that it was in fact ethnical
groups who were more inclined to be obese because of their low income and belonging to an
ethnical group.
While the growing rate of obesity continues and is becoming a global concern, more and
more advertising and promotional efforts have been focused on encouraging the consumption
of unhealthy food (Clarke and Svanaes, 2014). Food manufacturers spend substantial
amounts of money on advertising to promote sales (Henderson and Kelly, 2004). Further to
this, the study carried out by Gantz et al (2007) to find out the types of food advertisements
shown to children mainly consists of candy and snacks 34%, breakfast cereals 28% and fast
food advertisements 10%. Children of all ages are subject to a substantial amount of food
advertising. Gantz et al (2007) discovered from their study that children in the age group 8-12
years were the most likely to be affected by food advertising due to the fact that they tend to
spend the most time watching television and because they are likely at this age to develop
their food habits due to spending more time away from their parents.
2.3 The Effects of Food Advertising
Cairns et al (2013) recognise that food advertising refers to any form of communication that
is designed to increase the recognition, appeal, and consumption of particular food products,
brands and services. Global food companies have a major influence on public health and the
way they use resources for marketing and branding unhealthy foods. These foods include
sugary foods which has begun to generate negative ways in which it is used to influence
children’s unhealthy habits. Many food companies are heavily investing large sums of money
into their marketing campaigns. There are many ways in which they are doing so for example
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food products which are often unhealthy are tied in with a popular cartoon character where by
a child can relate to this character and sees that the food is essentially good for them. The
FTC (2012) identified from the analysis carried out on promotional and advertising activities
just how the trend of cross-promotions were heavily prevalent and that the marketing
campaigns were typically integrated across the media.
Linn and Novasat (2008) identified that child targeted marketing has become so ubiquitous
and sophisticated that it presents a challenge to parental influence over children’s food
choices. Big companies are seen to have huge budgets and employ child psychologists to
exploit children’s developmental vulnerabilities. Often children decide on energy dense foods
because of their sweet taste and often by the advertising campaign viewed by them on
television or through online media. Taste, food marketing and brand recognition by children
have been related to their preference for energy dense and poor nutrition foods (Cairns et al,
2012).
Many studies have been carried out to find if there are any links of unhealthy food advertising
to the increase in consumption of unhealthy food intake. A study carried out by Halford et al
(2004) found that exposure to food advertising increased food intake in all the children who
participated in the study. Further to this study Halford et al (2008) carried out more research
and found that children who had exposure to food advertising produced a substantial and a
significant increase in the intake of calories from food high in fat and sugar and also that the
highest increase of intake was in obese children.
Boyland and Halford (2013) study showed that children are exposed to extensive marketing
activity through a variety of media platforms through the different stages of their
development. The impact of this type of marketing exposure is demonstrated by children’s
ability to actively recognise brands and shown by their eating behaviours. Halford et al
(2004) findings from their study showed that obese children recognised a greater number of
food adverts than normal weight children and this recognition was in line with the amount of
food that was subsequently consumed.
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2.4 Summary
In summary, many factors are seen to equate to the growing rate of childhood obesity
globally. Despite the worrying figures of the numbers of obese children globally marketing
campaigns promoting unhealthy foods are still dominant in children’s daily lives. Children of
all ages are subject to a substantial amount of advertising related to these unhealthy food
products. As mentioned in the literature global food companies are having a major influence
on public health and the way they use their resources to promote their products. To highlight
this Halford et al (2008) studies have just shown that food advertising does have an effect on
children’s consumption of these foods and how they can influence their parents into buying
these products whilst doing the weekly shop.
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Chapter III: The Ways Companies Engage in Food Marketing to Children
3.1 Introduction:
It is well known across all countries that the rates of childhood obesity has risen significantly
in the last 30 years. Many researchers’ studies have believed to have found the link between
the way food companies engage with children and the ways in which they promote their
unhealthy food products. Television had been the main source of advertising for many
companies for a long period of time. Since 2007 Ofcom the communications regulator in the
UK has restricted the advertising of unhealthy food too children at prime viewing times.
Since this restriction Clarke and Svaneas (2014) believe that this has given rise to the online
advertising of unhealthy foods and also due to the fact that children now have access to
smartphones and other handheld devices allowing food companies to have more opportunities
to advertise their food products. This chapter will look at two of the main sources of
advertising used by companies to target children which is both television and online media.
3.2 Television Advertising
Advertising unhealthy food on television has been the main source of advertising for big food
companies. Nash et al (2009) believe that television influences the attitudes, the behaviours
and values of the viewers in particular children. Children have become the primary focus of
food advertisers with many food companies spending billions of dollars every year on food
promotion to children. In 2012, the US Fast Food industry spent a total of $4.6 billion on
advertising which had increased 8% since 2009 (Fast Food Marketing, 2013).
However, it is believed that television advertising maybe less prevalent than it used to be due
to the growth of online platforms despite this television advertising still remains the main
source of advertising for food companies being able to target children (FTC, 2012).
Advertisers use particular techniques to appeal to children whereby they use animations or
cartoon characters to portray how interesting and fun the food product is (Committee on
Communications, 2006). Wicks et al (2009) found that children naturally focused their
attention on techniques such as animation and visual effects. Often on these advertisements
the cartoon character can be seen enjoying the food products in particular breakfast cereals
and for example Kellogg’s Coco pops with the monkey enjoying the bowl of cereal which in
a child’s mind is portraying how fun it is to eat a bowl of coco pops.
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Researchers have carried out many studies to find out whether or not food advertising on
television does in fact have an effect on the global childhood obesity growth. The study
carried out by Gantz et al (2007) aimed to find out the overall landscape of advertising on
television to children. The results of this study would enable policymakers and the food and
media industries to prepare for change in the years ahead. The results of their study found
that children aged 2 to 7 were exposed to 12 food advertisements per day, and children aged
8-12 years old were exposed to the most food advertisements at 21 per day. Their research
also found that half of the advertisements on television were for food.
Marketing to children appears to very successful for food companies. Data collected from the
Institute of Medicine (2006) suggests that children’s food preferences, consumption and
dietary intakes are in fact influenced majorly by television advertising. The number of hours
children are spending watching television is increasing leading broadcasting media playing
an increasingly role in the socialisation of young children (Dennison and Edmunds 2008).
Product placement on television programing also offers huge opportunities for food
companies to advertise at prime viewing slots. At present RTE offer a sponsorship for the Big
Big movie slot on a Saturday evening. This slot normally consists of a company who sells
unhealthy food which at present McDonalds hold this prime slot. RTE figures showed that in
2015 their sponsorship slot had an average viewing of 51,000 children whereby they saw the
advertisement at least four times in a two hour slot. This type of advertising is one of the
many contentious branding activities that is effective in ensuring that children are exposed to
brands in as many situations as possible (Boyland and Halford, 2013).
As mentioned already food companies spend billions every year on advertising campaigns
that appeal to children through television. However, with growing usage of online media food
companies are turning to the internet to persuade users to purchase their products (Gantz et al,
2007). There is away in which television and online advertising link and that is companies are
advertising their websites on their television adverts so that young consumers are able to be
exposed to both television and online forms of advertising.
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3.3 Online Media and Social Networking Sites
Since 2006, there has been a huge increase in the use of online platforms to promote foods
and beverages to children and youths. Thiachon and Quach (2016) believe that in this digital
age social media plays an important part in everyone’s lives and unfortunately children are no
exception to this. Interactive digital marketing describes a wide range of communication
platform and tools, including mobile phones, social media websites and product review sites
just too name a few. The use of social networking sites has been on the increase in the last
decade and has become an increasingly popular activity amongst children. These websites
such as Facebook allow for social interaction and create a sense of community through an
online medium. They act as an entertainment and communication portal which has gone from
strength to strength in the past number of years (Fernandez, 2011).
Food and beverage companies are playing an important role in the digital marketing
landscape, whereby they are developing interactive advertising campaigns which are aimed
and tailored towards youth (Montgomery and Chester, 2009). In 2006, the Institute of
Medicine acknowledged the increasingly important role that the internet and the role other
new marketing practices are playing in promoting food and beverage products to children.
The advertising industry has played an influential role in the growth and development of
digital media and its content (Chester, 2007). According to Harris et al (2013) big companies
such as McDonalds and Starbucks had a substantial presence on social media networking
sites and had millions of followers. These brands have the tendency to use celebrity
endorsements to promote the good image of their food products.
Furthermore, studies carried out by O’Keeffe and Clarke-Peatson (2011) have found that
children are increasingly bombarded with a large number of marketing messages on social
media networking sites which are in the form of banner ads or sponsored messages that
appear in their news feed. The result of these findings are quite alarming if so many young
children have an active presence on social media sites then food companies have and are
taking advantage of this to promote their unhealthy food. Food companies are using so many
tactics to engage with children online and on social media websites. The FTC (2012)
recognised that young consumers are often encouraged by the food companies to like and
share their company’s page on Facebook, which can often be in an exchange for discounts on
their food items.
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It has emerged that online marketing to children is far more sophisticated and complex
because it is often way harder to detect the borderlines between content and pure advertising
on the internet then it is on traditional media like television (Thiachon and Quach, 2016).
Digital technologies are making it easier and more possible for marketers to track every move
of consumers whether it be online or offline. It is now possible for marketers in these
companies to elaborate information on individuals from their profiles and being able to
aggregate the data across the different media consumers use (Chester and Montgomery,
2007).
The biggest issue with online media is that children are allowed unlimited access too many
internet sources and often seeing advertisements for product that they are not meant to see.
Clarke and Svaneas (2014) have argued that this is one of the biggest challenges for online
marketing regulators. This is why it is seen to be harder to regulate digital media as opposed
to television or print media sources.
3.4 Summary
In summary, television still is the dominant venue for uses of food marketing but marketers
have since discovered new ways in which to market children through the use of online media.
The growth in the use of handheld devices has meant that children are easier to target through
these marketing techniques. Whilst children are able to use the internet and explore their way
through websites specifically designed for them by big food companies, children are
essentially immersed into branded environment even without the knowledge that they are
actually being exposed to sophisticated marketing campaigns. The findings reveal that these
marketing techniques used in advertising do in fact influence children to a high degree and all
most defiantly on their eating preferences.
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Chapter IV Schools and Unhealthy Food Marketing
4.1 Introduction:
Schools present a highly desirable marketing environment for food and beverage companies.
But the problem with this is most of these companies are big brands who sell food that are
extremely high in fat and sugar. Unfortunately there is widespread commercialisation in
schools in the United States just as Story and French (2004) concluded from their research.
Food marketers are very interested in advertising their products to children because of their
spending power, their purchasing influence and because they will be future adult consumers.
Another issue being highlighted is the close proximity of fast food outlets to schools.
Multiple studies have shown that fast food outlets have been systematically concentrated
within a short distance of schools. This chapter will look at in school marketing and how they
use big food companies of unhealthy foods. The chapter will also look at studies that have
been carried out to find if there is a relation to the unhealthy eating behaviours and fast food
outlets being in reach of children coming and going to school.
4.2 How Schools Tie in with Big Food Companies to Promote Unhealthy Food in the
School Environment
In the USA and Australia it is common practice for schools to have unhealthy food marketed
throughout the school environment. Children spend long periods of time in school through
their development years leading schools to be attractive venues for food companies to
influence children’s dietary choices. Story and French (2004) documented from their research
how there was widespread commercialisation in schools across the United States.
Marketing in primary schools of foods high in fat and sugar and foods of minimal nutrient
value targeted towards young children is a public health concern because young children are
unable to recognize the persuasive intent of advertisements, making them susceptible to
influence (Wilcox et al, 2004). Marketing of foods high in fat and sugar and foods of minimal
nutrient value is specifically intended to persuade children to want to eat more of the food
that are unhealthy for them (Molner et al, 2006). If children are being taught in schools
through nutrition and health education to limit these types of food, but at the same time these
14
unhealthy foods are promoted in the schools canteen, causes for much confusion on what the
children should actually be eating (Molner et al, 2006).
From Story and French (2004) their study on food advertising to children was able to
highlight the types marketing practices that were being used in schools across the United
States. These marketing practices used included: product sales, direct advertising, indirect
advertising and market research with students. Terry-McElrath et al (2014) highlighted in
their research that top food companies spent approximately $186 million in 2006 on child
based marketing within US school environments. In response to this finding the FTC issued
self-regulation recommendations for nutrient related marketing to children. By 2009 in school
marketing initiatives had significantly dropped but the industry still spent $149 million on
advertising but mainly on carbonated and non-carbonated beverages (FTC, 2012).
Story et al (2002) focused on the issue that a variety of services providing unhealthy food was
present in schools these include a la carte menus, vending machines and convenience stores
all located within the schools environment. According to Datar and Nicosia (2012) sales of
these types of food have the potential to generate significant revenue for schools. Further to
this they noted that during the school year of 2005-2006 middle and high schools earned on
average of between $10,850 and $15,233 from a la carte menus alone.
The FTC (2008) has called for companies to voluntarily end in school promotions of
nutritionally poor foods. However, an evaluation carried out by Polacsek et al (2010)
indicated that marketing of these foods remained widespread in schools more than 2 years
after the ban was implemented in regards to the matter the authors of the research noted that
there was a need for stronger nutrition standards, improved communications with schools
administration, cooperation from industry and enforcement of the policy. It is interesting to
note from Shin (2007) that the efforts to improve school nutritional value of food and to
reduce student commercialisation exposure have left many school decision makers concerned
about the loss of revenue that could occur.
4.3 Fast Food Outlets and Their Close Proximity to Schools
The urban availability of fast food and convenience stores in the school and living
environment is thought to contribute to the unhealthy food choices of children (Buck et al,
2013). Over the past three decades, fast food retail sales in the United States have soared
900% (Austin et al, 2005). As we know already the food industry markets heavily to children,
15
because they make up for an important part of the food industries consumer base.
Consumer’s ease of access to convenient unhealthy food is a priority for the industry, as
business planners have long been aware of the potential to maximise sales by selecting
restaurant bases that ensure a close proximity to the consumer base (Melaniphy, 1992).
Despite the possibility that the proximity of fast food restaurants to schools could essentially
equate to the poor diet choices of children, however studies carried out have not yet yielded
the possibility to this consensus (Davis and Carpenter, 2009). These studies have found that
these types of restaurants are systematically placed within an area of short walking distance
of schools giving children a greater access to low quality food (Zenk and Powell, 2008). A
study carried out in Chicago by Austin et al (2005), found that 78% of all kindergarten,
primary and secondary schools had at least one fast food restaurant within 800 metres and
that areas within 1.5km of schools had 3 to 4 times as many fast food restaurants than would
be expected if evenly distributed across locations in the city. In a California based study the
findings showed that high schools that had a fast food outlet within walking distance of the
school saw a significantly higher rate of obesity amongst its student population in regards to
schools that did not have a fast food outlet nearby (Currie et al, 2010).
It is has never been as important for health workers, researchers and governments to take a
proactive approach to find the leading factors that are causing the young people of the world
to be obese. There is great potential to understand the potential relationships between fast
food locations near schools and young people increasing weight gain. Larson et al (2009)
mentioned that important contexts for children are the food environments location precisely
outside their school, where they found that many students are likely to consume half their
total daily food intake. A study carried by Davis and Carpenter (2009) of the middle and high
schools in California state reported that there was a 6% increase in the chance of students
attending the schools that are within an 800 metre area of a fast food restaurant. While this is
a worrying factor to consider that maybe the cause of obesity is because of the ease of access
to cheap food, many researchers believe that this may not even be the case. Laksa et al (2010)
results of their study in Minnesota found that the proximity of fast food restaurants to schools
had no effect on the rates of childhood obesity but instead found that the rates were
associated with the increase likelihood of consumption of sugar sweetened beverages.
Despite the findings in this study there is still significant evidence form Chicago and
California based studies that the close proximity of fast food outlets to schools have cause for
concern for obesity rates.
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4.4 Summary
This chapter looked at the marketing techniques used by schools to promote unhealthy foods
and the fact that school based commercialisation provides highly desired income for schools
that are struggling. The chapter highlighted the issues raised around the different types of
commercialisation that was involved in the school environment. However the FTC (2008)
called for schools to regulate the unhealthy food products in schools but these efforts have
seemed to fallen on deaf ears by schools and companies due to the fear that schools will lose
out the revenue gathered by these marketing techniques. The rise in fast food outlets has
raised concern in recent years, that their proximity to schools could be the reason why there is
a rise in childhood obesity in these areas. However studies in California and Chicago
highlighted that there was a link to childhood obesity levels higher in schools where fast food
outlets were in close proximity. But there is not enough evidence to link the two at present.
17
Chapter V Development of Policy for Regulating Unhealthy Food
Marketing
5.1 Introduction
The pressure to regulate food marketing of unhealthy and sugary foods has been mounting in
the concern about the rising worldwide levels of childhood obesity. In 2004 WHO
recommended that governments and industry should act to reduce the marketing of unhealthy
foods to children. Since this, changes have occurred in some countries but the problem still
remains in most countries. Despite the calls by the WHO to regulate food marketing major
loopholes still persists for industry self-regulation that still allows for companies to continue
marketing unhealthy foods and beverages to children. This chapter will look at why there is a
growing need for regulation in food marketing and will look at the UK’s regulation that has
been in place since 2007 and the voluntary initiative the EU pledge.
5.2 Responsible Food Marketing to Children
The promotion of unhealthy foods particularly those that are high in fat and sugar are now
widely recognised as a significant risk factor for childhood obesity. In 2006 the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) concluded from their research that food marketing is a risk factor for
unhealthy diets and contributes to obesity. Following on from this finding the IOM
recommended that the food, beverage, restaurant and entertainment industries would work
together with government, public health and consumer groups to achieve a set of standards
for the marketing of foods and beverages to children.
WHO (2010) has recommended to governments to play a leading role in reducing children’s
overall exposure to food marketing and setting rules on the persuasive techniques companies
can use, with a view to protect children from the adverse effects of food marketing.
Following on from this WHO issued a set of recommendations on the marketing of foods and
non-alcoholic beverages to children. The recommendations were developed to facilitate the
policy processes and mechanisms to reach the aim of reducing the impact of food marketing
to children of foods high in fat and sugar. WHO (2010) declares that this document supports
the Global Strategy’s recommendations to the Member States to develop policies within their
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Governments to deal with the issues that have raised the concern of food marketing to
children.
Galbraith-Emami and Lobstein (2013) reported that leading food and beverage companies
have responded to this issue by proposing a series of company led pledges to change their
marketing activities that are directed at children. This would also encourage a mix of
healthier foods marketed to children which would help to promote healthier lifestyle choices.
Despite all these attempt to regulate food marketing it still remains to be a problem in most
countries. According to Polmark (2009) marketing, food and beverage companies strongly
disagree to the suggestions that their products could be contributing to the rising rates of
childhood obesity and therefore are opposing to calls for governments to restrict or ban
advertising these products to children. The food companies believe that it is the children’s
parents who are to blame for their own child’s eating behaviour. However, there is evidence
to suggest that this is not the case and that food advertising does have an effect on children’s
eating behaviour. As Halford et al (2008) findings highlighted that children who did have
exposure to food marketing campaigns did have a substantial increase in their calorie intake
from foods high in fat and sugar.
The childhood obesity epidemic has called on numerous occasions for governments to act on
restrictions to regulate or even restrict food marketing to children over a certain age (Graff et
al, 2012). However, this would be met with a lot of criticisms especially from food
companies with their belief they are not the cause of childhood obesity. For government to
implement policy on this matter the regulation of food advertising would have to clearly
define the scope of the media and the types of products and the brands which would fall into
the regulation standards (Graff et al, 2012).
5.3 Countries with Regulations in Place for Food Marketing
Different countries across the world vary with their regulations on unhealthy food advertising
to children. In the UK in 2007 statutory legislation was introduced restricting the advertising
of foods high in fat and sugar in and around programming specifically made for or that would
appeal to children under 16 years of age (Ofcom, 2007). Regulations were also applied at
this time regarding the content of food advertising which included prohibiting the use of
licensed characters, celebrities, promotional offers and health claims for foods high in fat and
sugar targeted at young children (Boyland and Halford, 2013). Ofcom (2010) reported a 37%
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reduction in children’s exposure to foods that are high in fat and sugar between 2005 and
2009, with younger children benefiting the most due to their propensity to watch children’s
channels which have stricter criteria. However, Landon and Gritschneder (2011) mapped the
current marketing to children which included a detailed analysis of the gaps in the UK
regulations. From this they identified a rapidly changing media environment with
sophisticated, integrated marketing techniques that exceeded the reach of the current
regulations. Following this WHO (2013b) also reported that the UK regulations only stretch
to as far as advertising and to marketing communications which are directly connected with
the supply of goods and services such as sales promotions. The regulations do not cover the
restrictions of advertising on websites and mobile messaging.
In 2007 several of the world’s leading food and beverage companies signed a document
called the EU pledge to adopt a more responsible approach in their marketing of food
products to children. An example of the companies who have signed this document are as
follows Coca Cola, McDonalds Europe and Nestle just to name a few (EU Pledge, 2016). The
EU pledge is a voluntary initiative that was launched in 2007 as part of a commitment by the
European Union platform for action on diet, physical activity and Health. It consists of two
main commitments: no advertising for food and beverage products to children under the age
of twelve on television, print or digital and no communication related to products in primary
schools, except where specifically agreed with school administration for educational purposes
(EU Pledge, 2015).
Huizinga and Kruse (2016) carried out an investigation to find out whether the companies
who have signed the EU pledge are refraining from marketing foods high in fat and sugar to
children. Their findings from the investigation found that the marketing practices of these
companies were conflicting dramatically with the recommendation of WHO (2010). Huizinga
and Kruse (2016) came to the conclusion of their investigation that in a matter of fact the
voluntary commitments of the EU pledge programme are ineffective in preventing the
marketing of unhealthy foods to children. Huizinga and Kruse (2016) believe that in order to
effectively prevent the marketing of unhealthy foods to children, a legal binding set of
regulations is needed and that it will have to apply to all market participants.
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5.4 Summary
In summary the chapter highlighted why governments need to play a more proactive role in
the development of regulations in regards to the food marketing of unhealthy foods to
children. Galbraith-Emami and Lobstein (2013) highlighted that companies have taken a lead
on developing a set of regulations that will restrict their marketing campaigns and would
encourage a healthier mix of foods and promote a healthier lifestyle. Despite these attempts
Polmark (2009) highlighted that food companies were discouraged to the fact that they
believed that their food products were not the cause of childhood obesity that encouraged
children to eat their foods. Following on from this the UK set of regulations were looked at
and showed how they imposed a ban on marketing food marketing to children. But Landon
and Gritschneder (2011) found that many loopholes existed in these regulations as they only
applied to television and not to online or food packaging. The voluntary EU pledge was
looked at and showed how leading food companies had signed up to adopt a more responsible
marketing approach to children and some companies who had signed the pledge were
McDonalds. However, following their investigation Huizinga and Kruse (2016) found that
the voluntary commitments of the EU pledge are in fact ineffective in preventing the
marketing of unhealthy food to children. In conclusion, it is important to note that for
regulations on food marketing to be followed governments will need to step up and develop
legal binding restrictions that would in fact apply to all food companies.
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Chapter IV Conclusion of the Literature Review
The literature review investigated a coherent introduction into the different key aspects
involved in marketing unhealthy and sugary foods to children. In more detail, it looked at the
growing rates of childhood obesity and what were the main causes related to the issue. It also
looked at the effects food advertising is having on children’s food choices and is it the cause
for unhealthy eating.
Furthermore, the literature review went on to explore the two advertising mediums food
companies use to target children in marketing campaigns and how it is having an effect on
children’s food choice. It also looked at the growth of online media and how it is difficult to
study the effects of food marketing through this medium. From this it was gathered that food
advertising was having an effect on children’s food choices and where food companies used
attractive marketing campaigns to advertise their products. In addition to this schools were
looked at and how their marketing campaigns are being used in the schools environment and
how they are tied in with big food companies and are gathering revenue from it. The close
proximity of fast food outlets to schools was investigated to see was there a link between
childhood obesity in the same areas. Which found that there was inefficient evidence to
suggest that there was any link to obesity and convenience of fast food outlets
Finally, the literature review looked at the need for further regulations in relation to food
companies advertising tactics of unhealthy foods. Which highlighted that there is a need for
governments to develop policy related to food marketing regulations and the need then for all
food companies to adhere to. In conclusion, the literature review was able to give an
overview of the key aspects of unhealthy food marketing and the link to childhood obesity.
The understanding of these key aspects and what studies have found will be needed to
develop stricter regulations for advertising to young children in the future.
22
6.1 Research Implications of the Literature Review
The literature review showed how important the understanding of marketing unhealthy foods
to children is having an effect on obesity levels and unhealthy food choice. In fact the
literature revealed just how complex this area of research is. This is because public health
officials and researchers are discovering a link between obesity and unhealthy food marketing
and the food companies are denying the link and are blaming parents for their children’s
choice of unhealthy foods, whereby parents should in fact have more self-regulation in
regards to the matter. In conclusion to this there is still gaps in the literature suggesting both
matters and there is still a great deal more information to gather on the subject.
6.2 Future Research Question
The current research activity was mainly focused on the causes of obesity, the effects of food
advertising, the marketing techniques through television and online platforms to target
children, the schools role in marketing and regulating food marketing. A possible research
question for further study in the area would be how do food companies use their marketing
techniques to sell their food products. This in fact would show the different strategies in food
companies marketing campaigns and could possibly highlight further just how sophisticated
food companies are in marketing their food products.
23
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