*LML Ltd was incorporated as Lohia Machines Private Ltd in 1972, its principal activity being manufacture of industrial machinery for the synthetic fibre industry. It was the second largest scooter manufacturer in India with a market share of 28% and output of 3,25000 units per annum by 1998.The company launched two motor cycle models- Adreno and Energy- in the life cycle segment followed by Freedom in the 100-110 cc segment in July 2002. On account of steep downside due to circumstances beyond its control, the company had to undertake restructuring its finances and fund mobilization by 31st March 2005.

According to Directors report the companys performance was as follows- Period ended 2003 Period ended 2005

Production of two wheelers 317968 181935Sales 315354 190561Loss 38.68 96.31These figures clearly show that the performance of the company is far from satisfactory. The company attributes it to the decline in geared two wheelers and abnormal rise in gearless scooters. Mr Deepak Singhania, the managing director of LML has fought many battles in the market and managed to survive despite products bombing and the technology top drying up following rifts with partner Piaggio of Italy. He has hung around as scooters have lost the market to motorcycle.Now with just 5 percent market share and depletion of financial resources, is it possible for LML to take on the likes of Bajaj Auto, Hero Honda, and TVS.

Q- Do you think that marketing research can help LML to recover its lost ground? If yes how? If not, why not?

Types of Marketing Research

Qualitative marketing research- generally used for exploratory purposes small number of respondents not generalizable to the whole population statistical significance and confidence not calculated examples includefocus groups,in-depth interviews, andprojective techniques. Quantitative research is numerically oriented, requires significant attention to the measurement of market phenomena and often involves statistical analysis.Qualitative research provides an understanding of how or why things are as they are. For example, a Market Researcher may stop a consumer who has purchased a particular type of bread and ask him or her why that type of bread was chosen. Unlike quantitative research there are no fixed set of questions but, instead, a topic guide (or discussion guide) is used to explore various issues in-depth. The discussion between the interviewer (or moderator) and the respondent is largely determined by the respondents' own thoughts and feelings.

*

*

QuantitativeQualitative

ObjectiveSubjective

Research questions: How many? Strength ofResearch questions: What? Why?association?

"Hard" science"Soft" science

Literature review must be done early in studyLiterature review may be done as study progresses orafterwards

Test theoryDevelops theory

One reality: focus is concise and narrowMultiple realities: focus is complex and broad

Facts are value-free and unbiasedFacts are value-laden and biased

Reduction, control, precisionDiscovery, description, understanding, sharedinterpretation

MeasurableInterpretive

Mechanistic: parts equal the wholeOrganismic: whole is greater than the parts

Report statistical analysis.Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation. BasicBasic element of analysis is numberselement of analysis is words/ideas.

Researcher is separateResearcher is part of process

SubjectsParticipants

Context freeContext dependent

HypothesisResearch questions

Reasoning is logistic and deductiveReasoning is dialectic and inductive

Establishes relationships, causationDescribes meaning, discovery

Uses instrumentsUses communications and observation

Strives for generalizationStrives for uniquenessGeneralizations leading to prediction, explanation, andPatterns and theories developed for understandingunderstanding

Highly controlled setting: experimental setting (outcomeFlexible approach: natural setting (process oriented)oriented)

Sample size: nSample size is not a concern; seeks "informal rich"sample

"Counts the beans"Provides information as to "which beans are worth counting"

*TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNA research design is the basic plan that guides the data collection and analysis phases of the research project. It is the framework that specifies the type of information to be collected, the sources of data, and the data collection procedure. A good design will make sure that the information gathered is consistent with the study objectives and the data are collected by accurate and economical procedures.The objectives of the research project logically determines the characteristics desired in the research design.

Exploratory research is appropriate when the research objectives include (1)identifying problems or opportunities (2)developing a more precise formulation of vaguely identified problem (3) Gaining perspective regarding breadth of variables operating in a situation. (4) Establishing priorities regarding the potential significance of various problems (5) Gaining management and researcher perspective concerning the character of the problem situation.(6) Identifying and formulating alternative courses of action and (7) Gathering information on the problems associated with doing conclusive research.

Conclusive research is designed to provide information for the evaluation of alternative courses of action. It can be sub classified into Descriptive research and causal research. Descriptive research is used vastly. Most studies of this nature rely on interrogation of respondents and data available from secondary data sources.

*Descriptive research is appropriate when the research objectives include 1. Portraying the characteristics of marketing phenomena and determining the frequency of occurrence 2. Determining the degree to which marketing variables are associated and 3. Making predictions regarding the occurrence of marketing phenomena.

Consumer profile studies are conducted by firms like General motors and P & G to describe the characteristics of the users of a product. Descriptive studies determine buyer perceptions of product characteristics and audience profiles for media such as television and magazines.

Descriptive research often involves determining the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For example a company may study the degree of association between sales of a product and such buyer characteristics as age and income.

Descriptive research makes use of a cross sectional research design. The survey design is useful in describing the characteristics of consumers and determining the frequency of marketing phenomena. The evidence provided by descriptive research can be very useful when combined with the decision makers implicit model of how the marketing system functions to the specific area.

*Descriptive studies are undertaken in many circumstances. When the researcher is interested in knowing the characteristics of certain groups such as age, gender, educational level, income descriptive study may be necessary. Descriptive studies are well structured. This can be divided into two broad categories- cross sectional and longitudinal.

Cross-sectional studies are concerned with sample of elements from a given population. They are of two types- field studies and surveys. Field studies are done in life situations like communalities, schools, factories and institutions.Survey research ahs wide scope. Survey research needs a good deal of knowledge on a part of researcher.

Longitudinal studies are based on panel data and panel methods. A panel is a sample of respondents who are interviewed and then reinterviewed from time to time. Generally panel data relates to repeated measurements of same variables.

*Cross-sectional designsare sampled groups taken and examined from a continuum to determine if there is a difference between different sections of the continuum. This is unfortunately a little vague because different continuums can be used. For instance, if you made $100,000 a year and I made $10,000 a year, then there is likely to be differences between us.Usually, the continuum is age, but sometimes you may want to study other things that can be larger or smaller. This is aquasi-experiment, defined as not a true experiment, because it uses naturally formed groups rather than randomly assigned ones.Example 1How quickly do speech and verbal skills develop? For a researcher to study this, we would need to take a cross-sectional sample of a group of young kids. Specifically, we need to look at a large group of kids, their specific ages, and a series of tests dealing with speech and verbal skills.Why do we need a large group? We as researchers need to control for individual differences. Some children will speak at a very young age, while others are delayed. Having a large group helps us control for some of the variability.Why do we need specific ages? If we are dealing with any type of group, we need to clearly define them. We want each group to be exclusive, so that there isn't any overlap. In this experiment, we could differentiate age by months or even number of days. However, if we were to differentiate ages by something as broad as years, then we would have fewer groups. Remember, the focus of this experiment is on speech and verbal skill development, so we need to focus on talking as it develops instead of after it has reached a plateau.

*Conclusive Causal Research- The decision making process calls for assumptions regarding the cause and effect relationships present in the marketing system. And causal research is designed to gather evidence regarding these relationships. It requires a planned and structured design that will not only minimize systematic error and maximize reliability. This is appropriate to understand which variables are the cause of what is being predicted- here the focus on understanding the reasons things happen.

The main sources of data for causal research are 1. interrogating respondents through surveys 2. Conducting experiments.

Performance Monitoring Research- Provides information regarding the monitoring the marketing system. The purpose of this research is to signal the presence of potential problems or opportunities. The objectives of performance monitoring research are to monitor and report changes. The data sources appropriate for performance monitoring research include 1. interrogation of respondents 2. secondary data 3. observation

Continuous performance monitoring typically requires a longitudinal research design.

*Let us take an example of attitude towards a brand measured from buyer and non buyers of the brand, These two are independent samples and t test for independent samples can be used if the mean attitude is different among the users and non users and attitude is measured with an interval scale.

An example of dependent samples assume that a group of respondents is given a new product to try. Before and after trial their opinion about the product is measured using an interval scale. This is a set of dependent samples and paired difference t test will be used. If there had been three means to compare instead of two(for e.g. heavy users attitude, medium users attitude and non users attitude) we would use method ANOVA instead of t test.

If number of variables associated with or cause change in another variable are two or more we need multivariate technique. The multivariate technique assume that many variables simultaneously affect a given variable. We can measure the simultaneous effect of advertising, pricing and sales promotion on sales through multivariate technique called Multiple regression.

Chi squared test assumes the data are nominally scaled and techniques of factor analysis and cluster analysis assume the data to be interval scaled.

*Descriptive research, being quantitative in nature, is restrictive in terms of open ended questions, which can be better answered using exploratory research.

Flexibility of design is offered by exploratory research more than by descriptive research.

Descriptive research is used more to arrive at statistical tools such as mean, average, median and frequency. On the other hand, exploratory research allows the researcher to develop designs that are more qualitative in nature.

The amount of information known to the researcher at the start of the research plays an important role in deciding upon the type of research. With only vague ideas in the minds of the researcher, it is better to go for exploratory design. On the other hand, more information such as quantitative data allows a researcher to go for descriptive research that leads to unearthing causal relationships.

Exploratory research needs to be conducted first to have a platform that allows for collation of data required in descriptive research.

*Case

A marketing manager wishes to test the hypothesis that the reason for the decline in share of market for the firms aspirin-free analgesic product is due to the consumers misperception that the product contains aspirin. This hypothesis was developed from several exploratory group interviews with former users of the firms product. Descriptive research was conducted to test this hypothesis and an extensive survey of several hundred former and potential consumers supported it. The marketing manager combined this descriptive evidence with a personal causal model of how the analgesic market functions to reach a decision on a course of action. The decision was to develop an advertising campaign stressing the products absence of aspirin and the benefits associated with a non aspirin product. The strategy was to correct the market misperception about the presence of aspirin in the product and to reposition the product in the growing aspirin free segment of analgesic market. The result was a substantial increase in the product share of market.

*Primary Data CollectionPrimary research can be classified into two categories: qualitative and quantitative. The difference between qualitative and quantitative research parallels the difference between exploratory and conclusive research.Qualitative research is exploratory in nature and involves a small sample with aims to provide insights and understanding of the question being researched.Qualitative research is less structured than quantitative research. The data gathered using qualitative technique is subjective in nature. Qualitative technique uses depth interview and focus groups.

Quantitative research is conclusive in nature and uses mathematical measures and statistical techniques to determine relationships and differences among large samples of target population.

Quantitative research can be further classified into survey(descriptive) and experimental (causal)research.Experimental research is conducted when the researcher controls and manipulate elements of the research environment to measure the impact of each variable. For e.g a group of test subjects is shown a few television commercials and afterwards group members are queried about their intentions to purchase the product advertised. Experimental research is further divided into two groups: lab studies and field studies.

*Lab studies are performed in highly controlled environment and one variable of interest is manipulated to determine its behavior in a particular situation.Field studies are performed in the real world, usually by test marketing a product in select locations to determine whether consumers are willing to purchase the product.

Survey is the most important primary data collection method performed in normal course of business.

1. Focus Group- is a qualitative research technique in which a skilled moderator leads a small group of participants in an unstructured discussion about a topic. The leader of the focus group is moderator. The essentials for effective focus group- six to twelve participants, careful screening of participants, homogeneous participants, relaxed atmosphere, trained moderator and compensation for participation.

If McDonalds wants to conduct focus groups to better understand childrens perception of McDonalds dining room atmosphere, they need to use children who have recently visited their restaurants.Focus group generate information for questionnaire. P&G has used focus groups to launch a bilingual magazine.

*Advantages-

Generate Fresh ideasAble to observe respondentsFlexibleControllable

Limitations-

Lack scientific validitySubjective interpretationProne to bias

2. Depth Interviews-

Are typically unstructured one-on-one conversations between a highly skilled interviewer and a member of a target population. It is used in various contexts and for many purposes. The effective depth interview should have following points-Allow between a half hour and two hours of each sessionScreen each respondent carefullyMake sure the interviewer is capable.Provide rewards for participation

*3. Projective techniques-This theory assumes that people have thoughts and feelings that may be unaware of. This provides verbal or visual stimuli that encourage respondents to reveal unconscious feelings and attitudes.Marketing researchers routinely use projective techniques to tap the subconscious minds of consumers.A marketing study by Norma Larkin, director of consumer research for the Nabisco Biscuit Co. used projective techniques to help the company discover that consumers see something magical in the oreo cookie.

One of the limitation is the low reliability that arises from the subjectivity of scoring.

4. Observation- Companies such as Motorola, Gillette and Xerox have used observation research to identify opportunities for new products.It may direct and indirect, structured and unstructured, human and mechanical observation. HP uses observation to develop surgical instruments for medical surgeons.

Delve, a full service marketing research firm admonishes its potential clients to remember that face to face interaction is one of the best ways to learn about peoples experiences and impressions.

*Case- Suzuki searches for answersA decade ago, Suzuki Machinery was the admiration of the metal framing industry. It was clearly the market leader with 70% market share, offered quality products, and was growing by leaps and bounds.However after numerous takeovers by German, French, and most recently a Japanese firm Suzukis market share has dwindled to barely 10%. The company is obviously concerned and realizes something must be done to draw back its former customers as well as attract some new ones.Suzuki Machinery Ltd is located in Raleigh, North Carolina, but its headquarters is in Tokyo, Japan. The company currently has 100 employees who work long hours to manufacture only the highest quality metal framing machines. The company knows that quality must not be compromised especially since customers will spend up to $500000 for one machine. The key to the high quality of Suzuki products lies in the TQC activities performed by the entire company. Technology, manufacturing, sales and technical service sectors all integrate their efforts toward the creation of reliable product. Suzuki is presently experiencing problems that are common to former market leaders in a saturated market like metal framing industry. There are 3000 metal forming shops that are interested in purchasing expensive ones manufactured by Suzuki. However these companies are spread throughout North America and competition is intense. Although there are only five key competitors in the entire industry, their background and capabilities differ widely.

*They include Japanese owned Amada, which was roughly 50% share of the market. Management at Suzuki has decided that the key to recapturing market share leadership is to know their potential customers better. Therefore they have hired a marketing research firm to help them answer the following questions-

What is the customers perception of Suzuki Machinery Ltd?What is the customers perception of using direct selling versus agents?How important is the level of automation as a buying factor?Why dont potential customers buy from Suzuki Machinery Ltd?How important is price in customers buying decision?

*Types of Survey methodsPersonal interview

Telephone survey

Mail survey

Online survey

*Deltas Mileage Plan- Sky high or free fall in customer satisfactionThe US airline Industry is in a tailspin these days. Most major airlines are infact a financial turmoil. The industry has lost $ 30 billion since 2000 and fuel costs are soaring. While airline experts tout the importance of customer satisfaction and retention, it is their interiors and service improvements that have often been promoted to targeted consumers- even as they reduce wages and personnel.Atlanta based delta airlines is hoping its SkyMiles frequent flier programme will boost customer satisfaction without spending too much. The streamlining of the SkyMiles elite qualification process and the consolidation or reduction of travel service fees are part of Deltas commitment to improve the travel experience and also to produce significant savings through simpler more efficient ways of doing business, says Jeff Robertson, director of SkyMiles- a part of Deltas marketing department. SkyMiles, launched in 1981 as Frequent Flyer Program (the name was changed to SkyMiles in 1995) is one of the airline industrys revered frequent flyer programs. These early loyalty programs have been duplicated throughout the hospitality industry.Deltas SkyMiles program is part of an overall initiative the company started in September 2004 to restructure the airline and realize $5 billion in annual cash savings by 2006. The major carrier has made additional changes to improve their bottom line, including shifting its hub cities, simplifying and reducing airfares adding service to its discount carrier Song and eliminating 6000 to 7000 jobs.

*In December 2004 Delta made the process to qualify for its elite status in the program much easier. The number of tiered categories of membership were reduced to three- Platinum, Gold or silver medallion(or elite qualification) mile for discounted economy fares and one and a half medallion miles for full price economy, business class and first class fares. This is a 50% improvement over the past benefit levels and it helps members of its SkyMiles programs, Medallion status within reach of more customers. (United Airlines, Continental Airlines and American Airlines also offer 150% of miles for various price classes of tickets, although Continental and American for example also offer 50% awards on deeply discounted trips.Delta made another significant changes to boost its loyalty program. Frequent fliers may apply unused travel credits to flights purchased for friends or family members. Its previous policy did not permit the kind of generosity or travel credits could only be traded for tickets for the originally ticketed passengers.

Case Questions-With the intense competition from United, Continental and American Airlines do you believe Deltas changes in its mileage plan to boost sales are going to be successful. Why or Why Not?What research method would you recommend that Delta use to monitor the effects of its changes?

*Secondary Data CollectionSecondary data is data that has been previously collected for a purpose other than the current study. Secondary data support the majority of marketing research activities due to giant expansion in databases and other computerized informational sources that has occurred in recent years. Marketing managers often use secondary data because previously collected information can benefit marketing managers and researchers in a number of ways-AvailabilityTime SavingLow costAccessibilityCompliments Primary data

Sources of Secondary Data-

Internal Sources-

Accounting records, Marketing records, Production records, Information systems personnel, sales force personnel, other individuals within the organization

*External Sources-

Government agencies, libraries, trade associations and other non profit organizations, private companies Since a tremendous amount of work goes into creating new information to help decision makers plagiarism must be avoided and copyright laws upheld- regardless of where the violation occurs.

The market research reports are available in Reportlinker.com, euromonitor.com.

* Questionnaire DesignA questionnaire is a formal set of questions of statements designed to gather information from respondents that will accomplish the goals of research project.

Questionnaires measure peoples attitudes, behaviour and feelings toward just everything- products and services, new product features, new product concept.Questionnaire should be user friendly, it should be valid, it should be attractive in nature.

Questionnaire Construction phases-

Preconstruction Revisit research objectives, target respondent characteristics, determine resource constraints, decide on data collection method

Questionnaire construction- Decide on question format, determine number of choices per question, compose questionnaire wording, determine organization and layout of questionnaire, obtain client approval

Post construction- Pretest questionnaire, revise questionnaire based on pretest results, administer questionnaire and tabulate results.

*4. Which type of soft drink do you most prefer?DietSugar sweetenedI dont consumer soft drinksOther__________

5.Please indicate your preference Excellent Good Fair Poor Never TriedCheerwine Coca ColaDr PepperMountain DewPepsiRCColaSeven UpSpriteMr PibbOther__________

6. Please indicate the availability of each of the following soft drinks according to the following scale Extremely available Somewhat available Rarely available Never available Dont Knowa.b.

*7.Can you recall a soft drink advertisement in the past 3 months that you particularly liked ?Yes No8. Can you recall a soft drink advertisement in the past 3 months that you particularly disliked?Yes No

Question- Design a questionnaire for a pharmaceutical manufacturer who has launched a new hepatitis-B vaccine in the market six months ago. This survey is intended for doctors, is to be done nationally in India, and is required to test the doctors awareness of the brand X vaccine launched by this company. There are two other brands Y and Z in the market made by competitors. The company also wants to know doctors perception of the price, efficacy and side effects of the three vaccine brands. If possible the company wants to know the consumer s perception about the brand or company (through doctors)

*Measurement ScalesMeasurement is defined as the assignment of numbers to characteristics of objects or events according to rules.Nominal Scales- Uses names and numbers to label test topics or characteristics so they can be properly identified. Marketing researchers use nominal scales to identify characteristics of their test subjects their target consumers which could include gender, social class, traits and physical location. If P&G wants to examine whether laundry detergent purchasing habits differ by gender all males could be assigned the number 1 and all females could be assigned number 2.Widely used scale.

Ordinal Scales- Is a scale that orders or ranks the test characteristics. The numbers are arranged to indicate a greater than or less than position. Two college students who were asked to rank their activities at a shopping mall from favorite to least favorite (using an ordinal scale of 1 to 5). These are ranking scales.

Jack VictoriaWalking- 4 1Shopping-5 3Socializing-1 2Eating- 2 4

*Respondent ScoresJack 2Victoria 1Lawrence 4

Ratio Scales- Resemble interval scales except that they have meaningful zero points. Marketers use ratio scales to describe company sales, profits, market share, advertising costs and customers and so on.

Characteristics of Measurement ScalesUsed forNominalOrdinalIntervalRatioIdentityOrderEqual IncrementsComparing absolute magnitudesApplication exampleGender, social classPreferences, comparisonsAttitudes, knowledgeSales, market share, profitInterval Scales- Rank characteristics using equal increments between ranking points to show relative amounts. They are simply used in scale form 1-7 etc

*Types of Scaling TechniquesComparative Rating ScalesNon comparative rating scalesPaired comparison scalesRank order scalesConstant sum scalesQ-sort scalesGraphic Rating scales

Itemized rating scalesLikert scaleSemantic Differential ScaleStapel Scale

*Comparative rating scales-

In comparative rating scales respondents compare one characteristic or attribute against a specified standard according to some predetermined criterion.For example if the researchers want to know how Americans perceive the quality to that of the auto they currently drive.

Non comparative rating scales differ from comparative scales in that respondents do not judge a characteristic or attribute against a specified standard. Example- the researcher may ask a sample group of Americans to rate the quality of Mercedes Benz cars using a five point scale.(5= excellent quality, 1=lowest quality).Marketers often use non comparative rating scales because they are easy to create and administer.

*Paired Comparison scales- This technique is implemented by having respondents note their preference between items in paired sets. Respondents are asked to choose which item rates higher. Suppose we want to find out which brand of jeans from a choice of three brands. In a hypothetical set we set up six comparisons.

Number of required comparisons= n(n-1)/2 =n means number of items being compared. Levi Wrangler Calvin Klein

Levi - 30(0) 35(0) Wrangler 70(1) - 42(0) Calvin Klein 65(1) 58(1) - Levi is preferred over other brands by the respondents. Assign 1to more than 50% and 0 to 50% and less than this. Levi receive highest score.Rank Order- Rank-order scales are easy to implement and popular with marketing researchers. Respondents rank products according to some predetermined criterion such as quality, taste, style and attractiveness. For example we could ask 12 respondents to rank the four brands.Respondents ranking First Second Third FourthLevy 6 2 3 1Wrangler 4 4 3 1

*Levy= 6 *1 + 2*2+3*3 +1*4= 23

Wrangler=4*1+4*2+3*3+1*4=25

The lower the score, higher the ranking. Levi is preferred.

Constant Sum scales- In this respondents allocate a predetermined number of rating points(typically 100) among several items according to some criterion to indicate the relative preference or importance of each item compared to all others on the list. Rating points may be allocated a different ways. We want to determine the relative preference of college students for different fast food restaurants.Restaurant Points

Mc Donalds -Burger King -KFC -Total 100Q Sort Scales- This scale discriminates among a large group of items in a relatively short time. Respondents rank a group of items into sets according to some criterion such as preference, attitude, or behavioral intent. Cards are the most popular and simplest items to use in the sorting process. One limitation is the short amount of time it takes to complete.

*A hamburger fast food restaurant wants to adopt a new advertising jingle. A sample of individuals is asked to indicate their preferences from a list of 80 slogans printed on several cards. Each respondent is given the following instructions. We are interested in finding your preferences for 80 advertising slogans. Each card in the pile has a slogan. Please follow these steps.Step1- Using the 5 point Slogan Score Card, please choose the 10 slogans you most prefer and stack those cards under the most prefer category.Step 2-From the remaining 70 cards (80-10), please choose the 10 slogans you least prefer and stack those cards under the least prefer category.Step 3-From the remaining 60 cards(70-10), please choose the 15 slogans you most prefer and stack them under somewhat like category .Step 4-From the remaining 45 cards(60-15), please choose the 15 slogans you least prefer and stack them under the somewhat dislike category.Step 5-Please list the remaining30 cards(45-15) under the neutral category.

Non Comparative Rating Scales-Graphic Rating Scales-In this , respondents indicate their responses on a continuum . Between the continuums extreme points are responses that represent a gradual progression toward the extremes.Graphic rating scales are easy to apply, marketing researchers seldom use them because they are not very reliable.

*E.G - Excellent-------------------------------------------PoorItemized Rating Scales- Resemble graphic ratings except that respondents select from a finite number of choices rather than theoretically infinite number on a continuum.Likert Scale- Is an itemized rating in which respondents select from choices ranging from choices ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Semantic Differential Scale- Is a five or seven point itemized ordinal scale with dichotomous pairs of descriptive words.

Semantic Differential Scale for Pepsi-ColaSweet- - - - - - - - - - - SourTasty- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - TastelessSatisfying- - - - - - - - - - - - - -Unsatisfying

Stapel Scale- Mirrors the semantic differential scale with a few exceptions. Stapel scale for Pepsi-Cola+3 +3 +3 +3+2 +2 +2 +2+1 +1 +1 +1Sweet Tasty Satisfying Expensive-1 -1 -1 -1

*Criteria for a Good ScaleTest-retest reliability- This involves repeated measurement of the same respondent or group using the same scaling technique.

Alternative Forms reliability- Involves the same respondent being given a set of two forms

Split half reliability- Involves administering the measuring instrument only once to test the internal consistency. The item responses of the two groups are then correlated to estimate reliability.