Marine Engg bt2021

8/12/2019 Marine Engg bt2021

1/95

VEL TECH VEL TECH MULTI TECH VEL TECH HIGH TECH

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO MARINE ENVIRONMENT

PART-A (2 MARKS)

1.Name the five oceans of the world.

Pacific Ocean, which separatesAsiaandAustraliafrom theAmericas

Atlantic Ocean, which separates the Americas fromEurasiaandAfrica

Indian Ocean, which washes upon southernAsiaand separates Africa and Australia

Southern Ocean(proposed) or Antarctic Ocean, sometimes considered an extension of

Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans,[6]which covers the waters that surroundAntarctica.

Arctic Ocean, sometimes considered aseaof the Atlantic, which covers much of theArctic

and washes upon northernNorth Americaand Eurasia.

2.Name the seven seas of the world.

TheMediterranean Sea, including itsmarginal seas, notably theAegean Sea.

TheAdriatic Sea

TheBlack Sea

TheRed Sea, including the closedDead Seaand theSea of Galilee

TheArabian Sea(which is part of theIndian Ocean)

ThePersian Gulf

TheCaspian Sea

3.Define Ocean current.

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement ofocean watergenerated by the

forces acting upon thismean flow,such asbreaking waves,wind,Coriolis force,temperatureand

salinitydifferences andtidescaused by the gravitational pull of theMoonand theSun.Depth

contours,shorelineconfigurations and interaction with other currents influence a current's

direction and strength.

4.What are the physical properties of sea water?

Temperature


1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean#cite_note-IHO-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Marginal_seas_of_the_Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galileehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean#cite_note-IHO-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Marginal_seas_of_the_Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galileehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean


2/95


Pressure

Salinity

Density Viscosity

Compressibility

5.Define biotic factor.

Biotic components are the living things that shape anecosystem. A biotic factor is any

living component that affects anotherorganism, includinganimalsthat consume the organism in

question, and the livingfoodthat the organism consumes. Biotic factors include human influence.

Biotic components usually include:

Producers, i.e.autotrophs: e.g. plants; they convert the energy (from the sun, or other

sources such ashydrothermal vents) into food.

Consumers, i.e.heterotrophs: e.g. animals; they depend upon producers for food.

Decomposers, i.e.detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria; they break down chemicals from

producers and consumers into simpler form which can be reused

6.Define abiotic factor.

Abiotic components are non-livingchemicalandphysicalfactors in theenvironment.

Abiotic environmental factors of aquatic ecosystems include temperature, salinity, and flow.

7.Define Pelagic Zone.

Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore is in the pelagic zone. The

wordpelagiccomes from theGreek, which means "open sea."

Pelagic zone can be further divided into

Photic zone

Epipelagic

Aphotic zone

mesopelagic

bathyalpelagic

abyssopelagic

hadalpelagic


2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_venthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_venthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_venthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detritivorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_propertyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language


3/95


8.Write a note on Benthic Zone.

The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of abody of watersuch as anoceanor alake,including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this

zone are calledbenthos. They generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom; many

such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the

given body of water, thebenthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it

influences greatly the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers

includesandbottoms, rock outcrops,coral, andbay mud.

9.Write a note on demersal zone.

The demersal zone is the part of theseaorocean(or deeplake) comprising thewater columnthat

is near to (and is significantly affected by) theseabedand thebenthos. The demersal zone is just

above thebenthic zoneand forms a layer of the largerprofundalzone.

10.Define food chain.

Food chains and food webs are representations of thepredator-preyrelationships between

specieswithin anecosystemorhabitat.

Agroupoforganisms interrelated by the fact that each member of thegroupfeeds upon on

the one below it and is in turn eaten by theorganismabove it in the chain.

11.Define food web.

Networksoffood chainsor feedingrelationshipsby whichenergyandnutrientsare passed on

from onespecieof living organisms to another.

PART-B (16 MARKS)

1.Explain about the oceans of the world.

An ocean (fromGreek, " okeanos"Oceanus[1]) is a major body ofsaline water, and a

principal component of thehydrosphere. Approximately 70.9% of theEarth'ssurface(~3.61 x 108

km 2) is covered by ocean, acontinuous body of waterthat is customarily divided into several

principal oceans and smallerseas.

More than half of this area is over 3,000metres(9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanicsalinityis


3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_boundary_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_mudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profundalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profundalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=1264http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=1264http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=2006http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=1264http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=2006http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/network.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/food-chain.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/energy.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/nutrient.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/specie.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_boundary_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_mudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_columnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profundalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitathttp://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=1264http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=2006http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=1264http://www.everythingbio.com/glos/definition.php?ID=2006http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/network.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/food-chain.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/energy.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/nutrient.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/specie.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity


4/95


around 35parts per thousand(ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30

to 38 ppt. Scientists estimate that 230,000 marine life forms of all types are currently known, but

the total could be up to 10 times that number.

The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by thecontinents,variousarchipelagos,and

other criteria. These divisions are (in descending order of size):

Pacific Ocean, which separatesAsiaandAustraliafrom theAmericas

Atlantic Ocean, which separates the Americas fromEurasiaandAfrica

Indian Ocean, which washes upon southernAsiaand separates Africa and Australia

Southern Ocean(proposed) or Antarctic Ocean, sometimes considered an extension of

Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, which covers the waters that surroundAntarctica. Arctic Ocean,sometimes considered aseaof the Atlantic, which covers much of theArctic

and washes upon northernNorth Americaand Eurasia.

The Pacific and Atlantic may be further subdivided by theequatorinto northern and southern

portions. Smaller regions of the oceans are calledseas,gulfs,bays,straitsand other names.

Pacific ocean:

The world's largest geographic feature, the Pacific Ocean covers more than 166 million

square kilometers (more than 64 million square miles)about one-third of the earth's surface. Thearea of the Pacific is greater than that of all of the continents combined, and it makes up nearly

half of the area covered by the earth's oceans.

Some of the current issues include

Endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil

pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea.

Atlantic Ocean:

The Atlantic Ocean is considered a passive margin ocean with most of its geological activity

centered along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Most of its coastal regions are low and geologically quiet.

The Atlantics major marginal seas include the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea,

Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. The Atlantic covers an area of 82 million

square kilometers (32 million square miles). It has an average depth of 3,600 meters (11,812 feet).

Its greatest depth is in the Puerto Rico Trench at 8,605 meters (28,231 feet).


Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; driftnet


4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_per_thousandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_per_thousandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlands_and_bayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parts_per_thousandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelagohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarcticahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlands_and_bayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait


5/95


fishing is exacerbating declining fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal

sludge pollution off eastern U.S., southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in

Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrialwaste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.

Indian Ocean:

The smallest of the three major oceans, the Indian Ocean covers an area of about 73 million

square kilometers (about 28 million square miles) - about 20 percent of the total area covered by

the world's oceans. The average depth of the Indian Ocean is 3,890 meters (12,762 feet). Its deepest

point is the Java trench, at 7,725 m.


Endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the

Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea .

Antartic Ocean:

The Southern Ocean, designated as such in 2000, is a body of water that lies between 60 degrees

south latitude and the Antarctica coastline. It's coordinates nominally are 65 00 S, 0 00 E, but the

Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totallyencircling the continent of Antarctica. This ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude

and the coast of Antarctica, and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude. The Southern Ocean is

now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and

Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean).


Impacts of global warming, ocean currents, environment and climate change research, fisheries.

Arctic Ocean:

A smooth, pale-blue layer of polar pack ice edged by jagged chunks of floating ice covers

much of the frigid waters of the Arctic Ocean, the earths northernmost cap. With an area of 12

million square kilometers (5 million square miles), the Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean - more

than five times smaller than the Indian and Atlantic oceans.

Some of the current issues include -

Endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and

slow to recover from disruptions or damage.


5


6/95


1.Explain about the seas of the world.

The major seas of the world are TheMediterranean Sea, including itsmarginal seas, notably theAegean Sea.

TheAdriatic Sea

TheBlack Sea

TheRed Sea, including the closedDead Seaand theSea of Galilee

TheArabian Sea(which is part of theIndian Ocean)

ThePersian Gulf

TheCaspian Sea

Mediterranean sea:

The termMediterraneanderives from theLatinwordmediterraneus, meaning "in the

middle of earth" or "between lands" (medius, "middle, between" +terra, "land, earth"). This is on

account of the sea's intermediary position between the continents of Africa and Europe The

Mediterranean Sea is aseaconnected to theAtlantic Oceansurrounded by theMediterranean

regionand almost completely enclosed by land: on the north byAnatoliaandEurope, on the south

byNorth Africa, and on the east bythe Levant.The sea is technically a part of the Atlantic Ocean,

although it is usually identified as a completely separate body of water.

The name Mediterranean is derived from theLatinmediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in

the middle of the earth" (frommedius, "middle" andterra, "earth"). It covers an approximate area of

2.5 millionkm(965,000sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (theStrait of Gibraltar) is only

14 km (8.7 mi) wide. Inoceanography, it is sometimes called theEurafrican Mediterranean Seaor the

European Mediterranean Seato distinguish it frommediterranean seaselsewhere.

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded

point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in theCalypso Deepin the Ionian Sea.

It was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade

and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region theMesopotamian,Egyptian,

Phoenician,Carthaginian,Iberian,Greek,Macedonian,Illyrian,Thracian,Levantine,Gallic,

Roman,Albanian,Armenian,Arabic,Berber,Jewish,SlavicandTurkishcultures. Thehistory of

the Mediterranean regionis crucial to understanding the origins and development of many

modern societies. "For the three quarters of the globe, the Mediterranean Sea is similarly the

uniting element and the centre ofWorld History.

The Mediterranean Sea is connected to theAtlantic Oceanby theStrait of Gibraltaron the


6
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Marginal_seas_of_the_Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galileehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_kilometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_sea_(oceanography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_Deephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoeniciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Marginal_seas_of_the_Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galileehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Levanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_kilometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_sea_(oceanography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calypso_Deephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoeniciahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levantinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar


7/95


west and to theSea of Marmaraand theBlack Sea, by theDardanellesand theBosporus

respectively, on the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea,

whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km (101 mi) long man-madeSuez Canalin thesoutheast connects the Mediterranean Sea to theRed Sea.

Largeislandsin the Mediterranean includeCyprus,Crete,Euboea,Rhodes,Lesbos,Chios

etc. The climate is a typicalMediterranean climatewith hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Crops of the region includeolives,grapes,oranges,tangerines, andcork.

Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. TheUnited Nations

Environment Programmehas estimated that 650,000,000t(720,000,000short tons) ofsewage,

129,000 t (142,000 short tons) ofmineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the

Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Conventionaims to 'reduce pollution in the

Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby

contributing to its sustainable development. Many marine species have been almost wiped out

because of the sea's pollution. One of them is theMediterranean Monk Sealwhich is considered to

be among the world's mostendangeredmarine mammals.

The Mediterranean is also plagued bymarine debris. A 1994 study of theseabedusing

trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high meanconcentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of

which 94% was plastic bags.

TheAlboran Seais a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of

Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population ofBottlenose

Dolphinsin the western Mediterranean, is home to the last population ofharbour porpoisesin the

Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds forLoggerhead Sea Turtlesin Europe.

The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, includingsardinesandswordfish. In

2003, theWorld Wildlife Fundraised concerns about the widespreaddrift netfishing endangering

populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals.

Adriatic Sea:

The Adriatic Sea (pronounced/edri tk/ ) is a body of water separating theItalian

Peninsulafrom theBalkan peninsula, and the system of theApennine Mountainsfrom that of the

Dinaric Alpsand adjacent ranges. The Adriatic Sea is a northwest-to-southeast arm of the

Mediterranean Sea.The western coast isItalian, while the eastern coast runs alongSlovenia

(47 km),Croatia(5,835 km) ,Bosnia and Herzegovina(26 km),Montenegro(294 km), andAlbania.


7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbos_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chioshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Monk_Sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboran_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboran_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottlenose_Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottlenose_Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbour_porpoisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggerhead_Sea_Turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaric_Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaric_Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloveniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euboeahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbos_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chioshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(fruit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Monk_Sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboran_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottlenose_Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottlenose_Dolphinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbour_porpoisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggerhead_Sea_Turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apennine_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaric_Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloveniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania


8/95


Major rivers joining the Adriatic are theReno,Po,Adige/Etsch,Brenta,Piave,Soa/Isonzo,

Zrmanja,Krka,Cetina,Neretva, andDrin(Drini).

The Adriatic extends northwest from40to 4545' North, with an extreme length of about

770 km (415nm,480 mi). It has an average width of about 160 km (85nm, 100 mi), although the

Strait of Otranto,through which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45-55nautical

mileswide (85100 km).[3]

The depths of the Adriatic near its shores share a close relationship to the physiography of

the nearby coastlines. Wherever the coasts are high and mountainous, the nearby sea depths are

considerable. For instance, in the case of the Istrian and Dalmatian areas of Slovenia and Croatia.,

the shores are low and sandy, and the nearby sea is shallow, as in the vicinity of Venice or, farthersouth, near the delta of the Italian Po River. Generally speaking, the waters are shallow all along

the Italian coast. The site of maximum depth of the Adriatic Sea is situated south of the central

area, and the average depth is 1,457 feet (444 m) and maximum depth is 3,300 feet (1,000 m).

Black Sea:

The Black Sea is aninland seabounded byEurope,Anatoliaand theCaucasusand is

ultimately connected to theAtlantic Oceanvia the Mediterranean andAegean Seasand various

straits. TheBosphorusstrait connects it to theSea of Marmara, and the strait of theDardanellesconnects it to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate eastern Europe

and westernAsia. The Black Sea also connects to theSea of Azovby theStrait of Kerch.

The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2(168,500 sq mi) (not including theSea of Azov), a

maximum depth of 2,206 m (7,238 ft), and a volume of 547,000 km3(131,200 cu mi). The Black Sea

forms in an east-west trending elliptical depression which lies betweenBulgaria,Georgia,

Romania,Russia,Turkey, andUkraine. It is constrained by thePontic Mountainsto the south, the

Caucasus Mountainsto the east and features a wide shelf to the north-west. The longest east-west

extent is about 1,175 km.

The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species

suited to thebrackish, nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Black Sea

features a range oftrophicgroups, withautotrophicalgae, includingdiatomsanddinoflagellates,

acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce

large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but distribution of these

nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by

seasonal physiographic development. During winter, strong wind promotes convective

overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in a marked


8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adigehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenta_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piave_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piave_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%8Dahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%8Dahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zrmanjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zrmanjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krka_(Croatia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neretvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drin_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_parallel_northhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_parallel_northhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Otrantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Otrantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea#cite_note-library.eb.com-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Kerchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reno_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adigehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenta_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piave_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%C4%8Dahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zrmanjahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krka_(Croatia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neretvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drin_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40th_parallel_northhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Otrantohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_milehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_Sea#cite_note-library.eb.com-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inland_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dardanelleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Kerchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brackishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotrophichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellates


9/95


vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer. Day length andinsolationintensity also

controls the extent of thephotic zone. Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as

the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate, in the form of ammonia. Thebenthiczone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and

anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to the photic zone,

enhancing productivity.

Red Sea:

TheRed Sea(alternatively "Arabian Gulf") is aseawaterinletof theIndian Ocean, lying

betweenAfricaandAsia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through theBab el Mandeb

strait and theGulf of Aden. In the north, there is theSinai Peninsula, theGulf of Aqaba,and the

Gulf of Suez(leading to theSuez Canal). The Red Sea is aGlobal 200ecoregion.

Occupying a part of theGreat Rift Valley,the Red Sea has a surface area of roughly

438,000 km (169,100 square miles ). It is about 2250 km (1398 miles) long and, at its widest point,

is 355 km (220.6 miles) wide. It has a maximum depth of 2211 metres (7254 feet) in the central

median trench, and an average depth of 490 metres (1,608 feet). However, there are also extensive

shallow shelves, noted for their marine life andcorals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000

invertebratespecies, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the world's northernmosttropicalsea.

The Red Sea is one of the most saline bodies of water in the world, due to high evaporation.Salinityranges from between ~36 in the southern part due to the effect of theGulf of Aden

water and reaches 41 in the northern part, due mainly to theGulf of Suezwater and the high

evaporation. The average salinity is 40 . (Average salinity for the world'sseawateris ~35 .)

The Red Sea is a rich and diverseecosystem. More than1200 species of fish. have been

recorded in the Red Sea, and around 10% of these are found nowhere else. This also includes 42

species ofdeepwater fish.The rich diversity is in part due to the 2,000 km (1,240 mi) ofcoral reef

extending along itscoastline; thesefringing reefsare 50007000 years old and are largely formed

of stonyacroporaandporitescorals. The reefs form platforms and sometimeslagoonsalong the

coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as theBlue Hole (Red Sea)atDahab).

These coastal reefs are also visited bypelagicspecies of red sea fish, including some of the44

species of shark.

The Red Sea also contains many offshore reefs including several true atolls. Many of the

unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes,

and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

The specialbiodiversityof the area is recognized by theEgyptiangovernment, who set up


9
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_el_Mandebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rift_Valleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rift_Valleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_of_the_Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deep_water_fish_of_the_Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acroporahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poriteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Hole_(Red_Sea)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_sea_sharkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_sea_sharkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insolationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inlethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_el_Mandebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Aqabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_200http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Rift_Valleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_of_the_Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deep_water_fish_of_the_Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fringing_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acroporahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poriteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Hole_(Red_Sea)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_sea_sharkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_sea_sharkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt


10/95


theRas Mohammed National Parkin 1983. The rules and regulations governing this area protect

local marine life, which has become a major draw fordivingenthusiasts.

Diversandsnorkellersshould be aware that although most Red Sea species are innocuous,

a few are hazardous to humans: seeRed Sea species hazardous to humans.Other marine habitats

includesea grassbeds,salt pans,mangrovesandsalt marshes.

In terms of mineral resources the major constituents of the Red Sea sediments are as follows:

Biogenic constituents:

Nanofossils,foraminifera,pteropods, siliceous fossils

Volcanogenic constituents:

Tuffites,volcanic ash,montmorillonite,cristobalite,zeolites Terrigenous constituents:

Quartz,feldspars, rock fragments,mica, heavy minerals,clay minerals

Authigenic minerals:

Sulfide minerals,aragonite,Mg-calcite, protodolomite,dolomite, quartz,chalcedony.

Evaporite minerals:

Magnesite,gypsum,anhydrite,halite,polyhalite

Brine precipitate:

Fe-montmorillonite,goethite,hematite,siderite,rhodochrosite,pyrite,sphalerite,anhydrite.

Arabian Sea:

The Arabian Sea is a region of theIndian Oceanbounded on the east byIndia, on the

north byPakistanandIran, on the west by theArabian Peninsula,on the south, approximately, by

a line betweenCape Guardafuiin the northeasternSomaliaandKanyakumariinIndia. Some of

the ancient names of this body of water includeSindhu Sagar(Sea of Sindh) andErythraean Sea.

The Arabian Sea's surface area is about 3,862,000 km2(1,491,130 sq mi).[1]The maximum

width of the Arabian Sea is approximately 2,400 km (1,490 mi), and its maximum depth is

4,652 metres (15,262 ft), in the Arabian Basin approximately at the same latitude as the

southernmost tip ofIndia. The largest river flowing into the Arabian Sea is theIndus River; others

include theNetravathi,Sharavathi,Narmada,Tapti,Mahi, and the numerousrivers of Kerala. The

Arabian Sea coast of central India is known as theKonkan Coast, and that of southern India is

known as theMalabar Coast.The prince of India Imran Chowdhury own this peace of land.

The Arabian Sea has two important branches theGulf of Adenin the southwest, connecting

with theRed Seathrough the strait ofBab-el-Mandeb; and theGulf of Omanto the northwest,

connecting with thePersian Gulf. There are also the gulfs ofCambayandKutchon the Indian


10
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_Mohammedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_divinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_divinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_divinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snorkellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraminiferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteropodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteropodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmorillonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmorillonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristobalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristobalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldsparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrositehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrositehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaleritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaleritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Guardafuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanyakumari_(town)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythraean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netravathihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharavathihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapti_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_in_Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkan_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab-el-Mandebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Cambayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Kutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_Mohammedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_divinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuba_divinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snorkellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea_species_hazardous_to_humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_grasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraminiferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteropodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmorillonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristobalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldsparhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_mineralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfide_mineralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolomitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhalitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goethitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodochrositehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphaleritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Guardafuihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanyakumari_(town)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythraean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Sea#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netravathihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharavathihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapti_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_in_Keralahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkan_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabar_Coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab-el-Mandebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Cambayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Kutch


11/95


coast. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea areSocotra(off theHorn of Africa) andMasirah(off

the Omani coast) as well as theLakshadweeparchipelago off the Indian coast.

The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea areSomalia,Djibouti,Yemen,Oman,Iran,Pakistan,Indiaand theMaldives. There are several large cities on the Arabian Sea coast including

Aden,Muscat,Karachi,Surat,Mumbai,Mangalore,Kozhikode,KochiandThiruvananthapuram.


11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socotrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_of_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masirahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djiboutihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscat,_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangalorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozhikodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozhikodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kochi,_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvananthapuramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socotrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_of_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masirahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djiboutihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscat,_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangalorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozhikodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kochi,_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram


12/95


The Persian Gulf:

ThePersian Gulf, inSouthwest Asia, is an extension of theIndian Oceanlocated betweenIran(formerly called Persia) and theArabian Peninsula.

T he Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980-1988Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked

the other'soil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the

"Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" whenIraqinvaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed

back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.

This inland sea of some 251,000 km is connected to theGulf of Omanin the east by the

Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the majorriver deltaof theShatt al-Arab,which carries the waters of theEuphratesand theTigris. Its length is 989 kilometres, withIran

covering most of the northern coast andSaudi Arabiamost of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf

is about 56 kilometres wide at its narrowest, in theStrait of Hormuz. The waters are overall very

shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres and an average depth of 50 metres.

The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil and

related industries dominate the region.Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshoreoilfield, is

located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made with Qatar and Iran sharing a

giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field inthe Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantialliquified natural gas(LNG) and

petrochemical industry.

The oil-rich countries (excludingIraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred

to as thePersian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the gulf is narrow and easily blockaded consisting of

the marshy river delta of theShatt al-Arab,which carries the waters of the uphrates and the Tigris

Rivers, where the East bank is held by Iran.

Wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique due to the gulf's geographic

distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrowStrait of

Hormuz.Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of

which are near extinction or at serious environmental risk. From corals, todugongs, Persian Gulf

is a diverse craddle for many species many of which depend on each other for survival.

One of the most unique marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf isDugong dugon, commonly

referred to as thedugong,or the "sea cow." Called "sea cows" for their grazing habits, their mild

manner and resemblance of the livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of

humans and can reach lengths of up to 3 meters. These are gentle mammals that feed on the sea


12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Iraq_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_tankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_deltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaniya_Oil_Fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquified_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran-Iraq_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_tankerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_deltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaniya_Oil_Fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilfieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquified_natural_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatt_al-Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugonghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dugong


13/95


grass, and genetically resemble the land mammals more than thedolphinsand thewhales.

Coral is another important inhabitant of the Persian Gulf waters. Corals are vital ecosystems

that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the gulf.Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the gulf, partially owing to

global warmingbut majorly due to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like UAE and Bahrain.

Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the

Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates

"traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.

The end result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number

of species that rely on the corals for their survival.

Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in

color, size, and type of the bird species that call the gulf home. One bird in particular, the

kalbaensis, a sub-species of thekingfishersis at the brink of extinction due to real state

development by cities such a Dubai and countries such as Oman.

Caspian Sea:

The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosedbody of wateronEarthby area, variously classed

as theworld's largest lakeor a full-fledgedsea. The sea has a surface area of 371,000 km2(143,200sq mi) and a volume of 78,200 km3(18,800 cu mi). It is in anendorheic basin(it has no outflows)

and is bounded by northernIran, southernRussia,westernKazakhstanandTurkmenistan,and

easternAzerbaijan.

The ancient inhabitants of itslittoralperceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably

because of its saltiness and seeming boundlessness. It has asalinityof approximately 1.2%, about a

third the salinity of mostseawater. The Caspian Sea has been calledGilanon ancient maps. In

Iran, it is sometimes referred to asDary-ye Mazandaran, meaning "the Sea ofMazandaran" in

Persian.

The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world and accounts for 40 to 44

percent of the totallacustrinewaters of the world. The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by

Azerbaijan,Iran,Kazakhstan,Russia,andTurkmenistan. The Caspian is divided into three distinct

physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian. The North-Middle boundary is the

Mangyshlak Threshold,which runs throughChechen IslandandCape Tiub-Karagan.The Middle-

South boundary is theApsheron Threshold, a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian

continent and an oceanic remnant, that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli.The

Garabogazklbay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at


13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingfisherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_by_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_by_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littoralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mangyshlak_Threshold&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mangyshlak_Threshold&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Tiub-Karagan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Tiub-Karagan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Tiub-Karagan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsheron_Thresholdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garabogazk%C3%B6lhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingfisherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lakes_by_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littoralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mangyshlak_Threshold&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Tiub-Karagan&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsheron_Thresholdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garabogazk%C3%B6l


14/95


times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus which cuts it off from the Caspian.

Divisions between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes theCaspian shelf,and is very shallow; it accounts for less than one percent of the total water volume

with an average depth of only 56 metres (1620 ft). The sea noticeably drops off towards the

Middle Caspian, where the average depth is 190 metres (620 ft). The Southern Caspian is the

deepest, with oceanic depths of over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The Middle and Southern Caspian

account for 33 percent and 66 percent of the total water volume, respectively. The northern portion

of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter, and in the coldest winters, ice will form in the

south.

The Caspian Sea holds great numbers ofsturgeon, which yieldeggsthat are processed intocaviar. Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries including the economic

exhaustion of the tuna fishery.In recent years overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population

to the point thatenvironmentalistsadvocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the

population recovers. However, the high price of sturgeon caviar allows fisherman to afford bribes

to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective.

Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females. The

Caspian Sea along with theBlack Seais also home to the nativeZebra mussel, which has been

accidentally introduced and become aninvasive speciesin many countries. The native range of the

Common Carpextends to the Caspian Sea as well asThe Black SeaandAral Sea. Like the Zebramussel it also has become an invasive species where it has been introduced.

TheCaspian seal, which isendemicto the Caspian Sea, is one of very fewseal speciesthat

live in inland waters. The area has given its name to several species of birds, including theCaspian

gulland theCaspian tern. There are several species and subspecies of fish endemic to the Caspian

Sea, including thekutum,Caspian Marine Shad, Caspianroach, Caspianbream, and a Caspian

"salmon" .The "Caspian salmon" iscritically endangered.

1. Describe about the ecological divisions of sea/ocean.

Oceans are divided into numerous regions depending on the physical and biological

conditions of these areas.


14
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caspian_shelf&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caspian_shelf&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caviarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_musselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Carphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinnipedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_gullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_gullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_ternhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Marine_Shadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutilushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carp_Breamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caspian_shelf&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturgeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caviarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_musselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Carphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinnipedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_gullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_gullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_ternhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutum_(fish)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Marine_Shadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutilushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carp_Breamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critically_endangered


15/95


Thepelagic zoneincludes all open ocean regions, and can be subdivided into further

regions categorized by depth and light abundance.

The photic zone covers the oceans from surface level to 200 meters down. This is the region

where the photosynthesis most commonly occurs and therefore contains the largest biodiversity in

the ocean. Since plants can only survive with photosynthesis any life found lower than this musteither rely on material floating down from above (marine snow) or find another primary source;

this often comes in the form of hydrothermal vents in what is known as the aphotic zone (all

depths exceeding 200m).

The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as theepipelagic. The pelagic part of the

aphotic zone can be further divided into regions that succeed each other vertically.

The mesopelagic is the uppermost region, with its lowermost boundary at a thermocline of

12C, which, in the tropics generally lies between 700 and 1,000 m.


15
http://schools-wikipedia.org/wp/p/Pelagic_zone.htmhttp://schools-wikipedia.org/wp/p/Pelagic_zone.htmhttp://schools-wikipedia.org/wp/p/Pelagic_zone.htmhttp://schools-wikipedia.org/wp/p/Pelagic_zone.htm


16/95


After that is the bathypelagic lying between 10C and 4C, or between 700 or 1,000 m and

2,000 or 4,000 m. Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssalpelagic, whose lowerboundary lies at about 6,000 m. The final zone falls into the oceanic trenches, and is known as the

hadalpelagic. This lies between 6,000 m and 10,000 m and is the deepest oceanic zone.

Along with pelagic aphotics zones there are also benthic aphotic zones, these correspond to

the three deepest zones. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope and the rise down to about

4,000 m. The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal

zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone which is found in the oceanic trenches. The pelagic

zone can also be split into two subregions, the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic

encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves, while the oceanic zoneincludes all the completely open water.

In contrast, the littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the

transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone

because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region.

1.Write a detailed note on ocean current.

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement ofocean watergenerated by the forcesacting upon thismean flow, such asbreaking waves,wind,Coriolis force,temperatureandsalinity

differences andtidescaused by the gravitational pull of theMoonand theSun.Depth contours,

shorelineconfigurations and interaction with other currents influence a current's direction and

strength.

Ocean currents can flow for great distances, and together they create the great flow of the

global conveyor belt which plays a dominant part in determining theclimateof many of the

Earths regions. Perhaps the most striking example is theGulf Stream,which makes northwest

Europemuch more temperate than any other region at the same latitude. Another example is the

Hawaiian Islands, where the climate is cooler (sub-tropical) than the tropical latitudes in which

they are located, due to the effect of theCalifornia Current.

The Types and Causes of Ocean Currents

In addition to their varying size and strength, ocean currents differ in type. They can be

either surface or deep water.

Surface currents are those found in the upper 400 meters (1,300 feet) of the ocean and make


16
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_contourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Current


17/95


up about 10% of all the water in the ocean. Surface currents are mostly caused by thewind

because it creates friction as it moves over the water. This friction then forces the water to move in

a spiral pattern, creating gyres. In the northern hemisphere, gyres move clockwise and in thesouthern they spin counterclockwise. The speed of surface currents is greatest closer to the oceans

surface and decreases at about 100 meters (328 ft) below the surface.

Because surface currents travel over long distances, theCoriolis forcealso plays a role in

their movement and deflects them, further aiding in the creation of their circular pattern. Finally,

gravity plays a role in the movement of surface currents because the top of the ocean is uneven.

Mounds in the water form in areas where the water meets land, where water is warmer, or where

two currents converge. Gravity then pushes this water down slope on the mounds and creates

currents.

Deep water currents, also called thermohaline circulation, are found below 400 meters and

make up about 90% of the ocean. Like surface currents, gravity plays a role in the creation of deep

water currents but these are mainly caused by density differences in the water.

Density differences are a function of temperature and salinity. Warm water holds less salt

than cold water so it is less dense and rises toward the surface while cold, salt laden water sinks.

As the warm water rises though, the cold water is forced to rise through upwelling and fill the

void left by the warm. By contrast, when cold water rises, it too leaves a void and the rising warmwater is then forced, through downwelling, to descend and fill this empty space, creating

thermohaline circulation.

Thermohaline circulation is known as the Global Conveyor Belt because its circulation of

warm and cold water acts as a submarine river and moves water throughout the ocean.

Finally, seafloor topography and the shape of the oceans basins impact both surface and

deep water currents as they restrict areas where water can move and "funnel" it into another.

The Importance of Ocean Currents

Because ocean currents circulate water worldwide, they have a significant impact on the

movement of energy and moisture between the oceans and the atmosphere. As a result, they are

important to the worlds weather. The Gulf Stream for example is a warm current that originates in

the Gulf of Mexico and moves north toward Europe. Since it is full of warm water, the sea surface

temperatures are warm, which keeps places like Europe warmer than other areas at similar

latitudes.


17
http://geography.about.com/od/climate/a/windpressure.htmhttp://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/coriolis.htmhttp://geography.about.com/od/climate/a/windpressure.htmhttp://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/coriolis.htm


18/95


The Humboldt Current is another example of a current that affects weather. When this cold

current is normally present off the coast of Chile and Peru, it creates extremely productive waters

and keeps the coast cool and northern Chile arid. However, when it becomes disrupted, Chilesclimate is altered and it is believed thatEl Nioplays a role in its disturbance.

Like the movement of energy and moisture, debris can also get trapped and moved around

the world via currents. This can be man-made which is significant to the formation oftrash islands

or natural such as icebergs. The Labrador Current, which flows south out of theArctic Ocean

along the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, is famous for moving icebergs into shipping

lanes in the North Atlantic.

Currents plan an important role in navigation as well. In addition to being able to avoidtrash and icebergs, knowledge of currents is essential to the reduction of shipping costs and fuel

consumption. Today, shipping companies and even sailing races often use currents to reduce time

spent at sea.

Finally, ocean currents are important to the distribution of the worlds sea life. Many species

rely on currents to move them from one location to another whether it is for breeding or just

simple movement over large areas.

5.Explain about the physical and chemical properties of sea water.

Physical Properties Of Sea Water:

Temperature, pressure, and salinity are the three most important properties of seawater,

and they determine the other physical properties associated with seawater. This differs from pure

water, where only pressure and temperature determine the physical properties. Some of the lesser

known properties include specific heat, compressibility, osmotic pressure, eddy viscosity, electrical

conductivity, radioactivity, and surface tension. Many of the lesser known properties can only be

determined using complex mathematical calculation and formulation that incorporates data onone or more of the common physical properties, especially temperature, pressure, and/or salinity.

Temperature

The ocean, like the atmosphere, is heated by the Sun

Documents

Marine Engg bt2021