8
ODYSSEY 2011 44 Specialists who have been prepared to work with infants and toddlers who are deaf or hard of hearing and their families are hard to find. As a result of the effectiveness of Newborn Hearing Screening Programs, there has been a rapid growth in the number of young children needing early intervention services (White, 2006). The number of infants identified as deaf or hard of hearing has doubled in the last decade, accounting for two to three infants for every 1,000 births or between 8,000-12,000 infants annually (http://infanthearing.org/ resources/fact.pdf). Many programs struggle to find adequately prepared professionals (Marge & Marge, 2005; White, 2006). A shortage of well-prepared professionals imposes limits on access to comprehensive and effective early intervention services to deaf and hard of hearing children (JCIH, 2007). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) expects states to ensure that professionals working with infants and toddlers have relevant skills (Winton, McCollum, & Catlett, 2008), however, there are very few university programs that provide specialized preparation for working with children who are deaf or hard of hearing (Jones & Ewing, 2002; Rice & Lenihan, 2005; Sass-Lehrer et al., 2010). Many professionals begin their work with limited experiences with this population and depend upon workshops and conferences to acquire the information they need (Sass- Lehrer et al., 2010). Unfortunately, this approach to learning is not ideal and often results in significant gaps and misunderstandings. Gallaudet University developed an innovative approach to address the need for more well-prepared professionals to work with young children and their families. In the summer of 2007, the Burstein Leadership Institute, under the College of Professional Studies and Outreach at Gallaudet University, launched the Early Education Professional Leadership Certificate Program with a cohort of 12 students. This initial on-line certification program included a series of four courses that were offered for PST credit (professional development credit). Students received a certificate from the Marilyn Sass- Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree in deaf education from New York University and her doctorate from the University of Maryland in early childhood education and curriculum and instruction. Sass-Lehrer has worked as a teacher and early intervention specialist in a variety of educational settings. She is a co-author of Parents and Their Deaf Children: The Early Years, and co-editor of The Young Deaf or Hard of Hearing Child: A Family-Centered Approach to Early Education. Beth S. Benedict, PhD, a professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Gallaudet University, has focused on family involvement in schools with deaf and hard of hearing children, early childhood education, advocacy, early communication, and partnerships between deaf and hearing professionals and early intervention programs and services. Her work has been shared in numerous publications, and she has presented both nationally and internationally. Photos by John T. Consoli preparing professionals to work with infants, toddlers, and their families: A HYBRID APPROACH TO LEARNING By Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, Beth S. Benedict, and Nicole Hutchinson

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Page 1: Marilyn Sass- Lehrer preparing professionals · Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree

ODYSSEY 201144

Specialists who have been prepared to work with infants and toddlerswho are deaf or hard of hearing and their families are hard to find. As aresult of the effectiveness of Newborn Hearing Screening Programs,there has been a rapid growth in the number of young children needingearly intervention services (White, 2006). The number of infantsidentified as deaf or hard of hearing has doubled in the last decade,accounting for two to three infants for every 1,000 births or between8,000-12,000 infants annually (http://infanthearing.org/ resources/fact.pdf).Many programs struggle to find adequately prepared professionals(Marge & Marge, 2005; White, 2006).

A shortage of well-prepared professionals imposes limits on access to comprehensiveand effective early intervention services to deaf and hard of hearing children (JCIH,2007). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) expects states to ensurethat professionals working with infants and toddlers have relevant skills (Winton,McCollum, & Catlett, 2008), however, there are very few university programs thatprovide specialized preparation for working with children who are deaf or hard ofhearing (Jones & Ewing, 2002; Rice & Lenihan, 2005; Sass-Lehrer et al., 2010). Manyprofessionals begin their work with limited experiences with this population anddepend upon workshops and conferences to acquire the information they need (Sass-Lehrer et al., 2010). Unfortunately, this approach to learning is not ideal and oftenresults in significant gaps and misunderstandings.

Gallaudet University developed an innovative approach to address the need for morewell-prepared professionals to work with young children and their families. In thesummer of 2007, the Burstein Leadership Institute, under the College of ProfessionalStudies and Outreach at Gallaudet University, launched the Early EducationProfessional Leadership Certificate Program with a cohort of 12 students. This initialon-line certification program included a series of four courses that were offered for PSTcredit (professional development credit). Students received a certificate from the

Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is aprofessor of education atGallaudet University inWashington, D.C. Shereceived her master’sdegree in deaf educationfrom New YorkUniversity and herdoctorate fromthe University ofMaryland inearly childhoodeducation andcurriculum andinstruction. Sass-Lehrer hasworked as a teacher andearly intervention specialistin a variety of educationalsettings. She is a co-authorof Parents and Their DeafChildren: The Early Years,and co-editor of The YoungDeaf or Hard of HearingChild: A Family-CenteredApproach to Early Education.

Beth S. Benedict,PhD, a professor in theDepartment ofCommunication Studies atGallaudet University, hasfocused on familyinvolvement in schoolswith deaf and hardof hearingchildren, earlychildhoodeducation,advocacy, earlycommunication,and partnershipsbetween deaf and hearingprofessionals and earlyintervention programs andservices. Her work has beenshared in numerouspublications, and she haspresented both nationallyand internationally.

Photos by John T. Consoli

preparingprofessionalsto work with infants,

toddlers, and their families:A HYBRID APPROACH TO LEARNING

By Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, Beth S. Benedict, and Nicole Hutchinson

Page 2: Marilyn Sass- Lehrer preparing professionals · Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree

2011 ODYSSEY

College of Professional Studies and Outreachafter successful completion of the four-coursesequence of studies.

Beginning in the summer of 2011, anexpanded version of the program will be offeredas a graduate certificate program. This newlyrevised program will be known as the Deaf andHard of Hearing Infants, Toddlers and Families:Collaboration and Leadership InterdisciplinaryGraduate Certificate Program. Participants inthe initial program evaluated their experiencespositively and said that they were able to applywhat they had learned to their daily work.However, some students indicated that theywould like more, and in the years after thedevelopment of the certificate program theprogram directors decided to review and revisethe initial program. The newly revised programincludes an emphasis on how to work as amember of an interdisciplinary team.

The certificate program addresses thefollowing areas of need: • The shortage of knowledgeable professionals

with expertise in working with infants,toddlers, and their families

• The lack of professionals who are themselvesdeaf or hard of hearing

• The need for professionals who haveknowledge and skills in a range ofdisciplinary areas

• The barriers to training that early educationservice personnel may experience, such asdistances from learning centers

Increasing the Number of Deaf ProfessionalsParents and caregivers whose babies are deaf orhard of hearing interact with many specialistsover the course of the first months and years oftheir child’s life. These specialists include healthcare professionals, audiologists, servicecoordinators from the state early interventionsystems, and early intervention specialists.Many families also work with speech-languagepathologists, social workers, mental healthcounselors, and psychologists. The vast majorityof these professionals lack experiences with deafand hard of hearing people, and are thereforeunable to help parents understand what itmeans to be deaf. Professionals who are deaf andhard of hearing are essential to the interdisci-plinary team of service providers (Benedict &Sass-Lehrer, 2007; Benedict et al., 2011).

45

Nicole Hutchinsonreceived her bachelor’sdegree from the Universityof California, San Diego inlinguistics (American SignLanguage). She is agraduate student atGallaudet University andwill graduate in May 2011with a master’s degree indeaf education with aspecialization in family-centered early education.Hutchinson has beenactively involved in thedevelopment of the newon-line certificateprogram.

The authors welcomequestions and commentsabout this article [email protected],[email protected], and [email protected],respectively.

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Page 3: Marilyn Sass- Lehrer preparing professionals · Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree

The guidance that the family receivesfrom professionals can have a dramaticimpact on families’ responses and thedecisions they make (Beazley & Moore,1995; Eleweke & Rodda, 2000; Young& Tattersall, 2007). For example, ifprofessionals communicate to parentsand caregivers that being deaf or hard ofhearing is a tragedy, they are likely tofeel sad or grieve. On the other hand,parents who are provided withopportunities to get to know deaf peopletend to be more optimistic about theirchild’s future and have a betterunderstanding of both the joys andchallenges that lie ahead (Hintermair,2000, 2006; Watkins, Pittman, &Walden, 1998).

Despite the evidence that outcomesare better when infants, toddlers, andtheir families have meaningfulinteractions with deaf or hard of hearingadults, there are very few trainedspecialists who are deaf or hard ofhearing. One parent describes the powerof working closely with deaf people thisway:

My son was the first deaf person I ever met.As a family we embraced Deaf culture,American Sign Language, deaf rolemodels, and deaf families early in his life.

He grew to become a confident, highlyeducated, tolerant, and patient adult. I amgrateful and proud as I reflect on howenriched our lives have become. (Benedictet al., 2011)

Since the inception of the certificateprogram, the participants have includedprofessionals from differentbackgrounds, parents of deaf children,and people who are deaf or who haveroots in the Deaf community. Theprogram has also attracted professionalswho are newcomers to the field withlimited experiences with deaf people.Participants include professionals whoare deaf educators, linguists, specialeducators, counselors and others fromhealth care fields, as well as those whoare involved in administration andpolicy work. Having participants fromsuch diverse backgrounds and varieddegrees of hearing loss has resulted inpositive outcomes. The deaf and hard ofhearing professionals trained throughthis program become role models for thefamilies they subsequently meet. Theparticipants who are hearing develop anappreciation for the importance ofincluding deaf or hard of hearingprofessionals on the interdisciplinaryteam, and develop a network of Deaf

community resources through theirparticipation in the program.

Interdisciplinary PreparationRecent developments in research andtechnology have resulted in newdemands on professionals withknowledge and skills from a range ofdisciplinary areas. The role ofprofessionals working with infants,toddlers, and their families has becomeincreasingly complex. Early interventionspecialists are consultants, collaborators,family educators, and developmental andlanguage specialists. Families withyoung children who have developmentalchallenges underscore the importance ofhaving a team of experts whounderstand how to work together toprovide for their child’s and family’sneeds (Meadow-Orlans, Mertens, & Sass-Lehrer, 2003). It is unrealistic to expecta professional prepared in one discipline(e.g., education, speech-languagepathology) to be an expert in all areas.Instead, professionals must be preparedto work in collaboration with otherprofessionals who have expertise in otherdisciplinary areas. Interdisciplinarytraining prepares graduates with theknowledge and skills to work in

ODYSSEY 201146

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collaboration with others on aninterdisciplinary team. Professionalswho take part in interdisciplinaryexperiences as part of their training arelikely to provide interdisciplinarycollaborative services to children andtheir families (Mellon & Winton, 2003).

Interdisciplinary personnelpreparation involves collaboration andthe inclusion of two or more disciplinessuch as counseling, deaf education, earlychildhood special education, speech-language pathology, social work, andpsychology. Developing aninterdisciplinary program of studies ischallenging in a university that has atraditional departmental or divisionstructure (Kilgo & Bruder, 1997).Professional preparation programs areoften limited by requirements from theirrespective accreditation bodies withlittle flexibility to allow for additionalcoursework and experiences. Courses aretypically offered through onedepartment and are rarely co-taught.University policies and accountabilityinadvertently often lead to competitionamong programs rather thancollaboration.

Although the initial programincluded elements of an interdisciplinaryapproach, the program directorsrecognized the need to extend andexpand interdisciplinary experiences. Todo this, an advisory council of experts onand off campus was established to guidethe conceptualization of programdevelopment work. The advisorycouncil included parents of deafchildren, a pediatrician withexpertise in working with deafchildren, a developmentalspecialist who has developedon-line programming in earlyintervention for children withdevelopmental disabilities anddelays, and others. The programdirectors also established anInterdisciplinary Work Group ofprofessionals from the Universitycommunity, including experts andpractitioners from the Laurent ClercNational Deaf Education Center as well

as faculty from the following programareas: American Sign Language (ASL)and Deaf Studies; CommunicationStudies; Counseling; Education;Hearing, Speech, and Language Sciences;Linguistics; Psychology; and SocialWork. The Interdisciplinary WorkGroup met biweekly (and later weekly)to develop the new Deaf and Hard ofHearing Infants, Toddlers and FamiliesCertificate Program that included theperspectives from the above disciplinesas they apply to working with infants,toddlers, and their families.

This work group experience was vitalto the strengthening of theinterdisciplinary nature of the program.Faculty involved in the development ofthis new interdisciplinary programfound the work both enriching andchallenging. Discussions stretched theirunderstanding of new concepts andperspectives. They discovered thatprofessional jargon specific to oneprofessional discipline was not alwaysunderstood in the same way by thosefrom other specialty areas, and agreedupon common language that helped topromote communication acrossdisciplines (Weston, 2005). Theydiscussed theoretical perspectives toarrive at a shared understanding of theprinciplesthat

would frame the revised programdevelopment efforts. They also sharedtheir respective knowledge with othersin the group.

One example of this type of debate is aseries of discussions the work group hadon the concepts of diversity andmulticulturalism. Each individualbrought his or her own understanding ofthese concepts to the table. One of themembers of the work group hadextensive expertise in this area andprovided the guidance needed to developa program of studies that embraced theprinciples of diversity.

In another example, one of themembers of the interdisciplinary workgroup preferred to use family-firstlanguage in the program documentswhile others proposed child-firstlanguage. This difference popped up onseveral occasions during discussionsabout the philosophy and learningoutcomes of the program as well asrelated to the name of the program (e.g.,Should “Families with Deaf and Hard ofHearing Infants and Toddlers” be usedor “Deaf and Hard of Hearing Infants,Toddlers, and Their Families”?). Groupdiscussions revealed that the emphasison families was needed in someprofessional disciplines (e.g., speech-language pathology) that havetraditionally focused on the child andminimized the role of parents/caregivers,while others believed it was necessary to

communicate that the family’s role isto support the needs of their child

and, therefore, the focus needs tobe on the child. This discussiongave work group members abetter understanding of theirown, as well as other,disciplines and perspectives.

Discipline-specific expertisewas also an important topic ofdiscussion. For example,

members of the InterdisciplinaryWork Group discussed limitations

on their respective areas ofexpertise. Some were concerned about

the extent to which it was appropriatefor one professional to assume

2011ODYSSEY

47

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ODYSSEY 2011

responsibilities traditionally restricted toa professional licensed in another areasuch as social work, counseling, orspeech-language pathology withoutexceeding professional boundaries. Toaddress this potential problem, a unit ofinstruction on both the roles andexpertise of various professionals andprofessional standards, scope of practice,and ethical behaviors was added.

As a result of the multipleperspectives and the areas of expertisereflected during the program revisionprocess, the new program is trulyinterdisciplinary in its scope andapproach as well as in its emphasis oncollaboration with other professionals.

On-line LearningTraditionally, a significant barrier to thepreparation of professionals for thisspecialized area has been access tolearning. The vast majority of potentiallearners are currently employed, andtherefore unable to relocate or take offsignificant time to attend a program ofstudies that is on a university campus.Until recently, many learners facedsignificant technological barriers inpursuit of on-line learning.

Developments in on-line teaching andlearning strategies, as well asimprovements in technology, have madeon-line learning a more interactive anddynamic learning process than everbefore. Access to high-speed Internetand visual technologies have alsoprovided more opportunities for bothinstructors and learners to use face-to-face communication so that instructioncan be delivered through both ASL and

English print. Learners—hearing, deaf,or hard of hearing—are not dependentupon classroom interpreters to ensurethat everyone has access to the contentand course activities, and they canparticipate fully in class discussions.

As a result of these technologicaladvances, the program has beendesigned to be conducted through on-line learning, including two short on-campus seminars. This has greatlyincreased the number and diversity ofpotential participants, while alsoaffording them the opportunity tointeract face to face during the brief on-campus seminars.

Expansion of Course ContentDuring the review process, manystrengths of the content covered in theinitial program were identified. Areasthat needed to be addressed in moredepth included:• Stronger training for professionals to

fully support the development ofyoung children’s early language andcommunication skills

• Additional attention to the areas oflistening and spoken languagedevelopment and the assistivelistening technologies that arewidely used

• Opportunities for learners in theprogram to apply the knowledgeacquired in their coursework to theirwork with infants, toddlers, andfamilies (if they did not already havethis experience)

In response to these gaps, the revisedprogram has expanded coursework inlanguage and communication and theopportunity for a capstone experiencethat might include a field experience ormentoring project to help learnersimplement strategies they are acquiringthrough their coursework.

Deaf and Hard of HearingInfants, Toddlers andFamilies: Collaboration andLeadership InterdisciplinaryGraduate Certificate ProgramThe reworked and renamed programbeginning in May 2011 is aninterdisciplinary program designed forprofessionals from different disciplinaryfields. These professionals will learn howto apply their unique professional area ofexpertise to early intervention as well ashow to implement an interdisciplinaryteam approach. The teaching andlearning strategies include both ASL andEnglish for optimal access for learnerswho are deaf, hard of hearing, or hearing.The critical role and contributions of

48

Burstein Leadership InstituteThe Burstein Leadership Institute (formerly the Gallaudet Leadership Institute)provided support to establish an on-line certificate program. The Burstein LeadershipInstitute “…is a comprehensive unit of the College of Professional Studies andOutreach dedicated to improving the quality of the personal and professional lives ofdeaf and hard of hearing individuals, by developing the leadership abilities of theseindividuals, their families, and other individuals in their immediate and extendedpersonal and professional communities, and (2) developing and enhancing theprofessional and leadership abilities of individuals who administer programs andservices in deaf-centric and for-profit agencies and corporations.” (Burstein LeadershipInstitute, 2010)

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2011 ODYSSEY 49

Deaf and Hard of Hearing Infants, Toddlers

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Page 7: Marilyn Sass- Lehrer preparing professionals · Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree

ODYSSEY 201150

deaf and hard of hearing people on theinterdisciplinary team are a central focusof this program.

The newly revised program, providedthrough on-line learning, including twoshort on-campus seminars, includes sixcourses that address the knowledge andskills that all professionals working withthis population should possess. (See page49 for program sequence of study.) Theprogram focuses on the acquisition ofknowledge and skills in four broadcontent areas:

1. Professional and ethical practices 2. Communication and language3. Families, cultures, and communities4. Developmental assessment and

programming

Units of instruction are developed andtaught by professionals with expertise inworking with infants, toddlers, andtheir families from a wide array ofdisciplinary backgrounds. Bilingual ASLand English principles and philosophicalperspectives influence the curriculumcontent and delivery of coursework andexperiences. An emphasis on ASL andEnglish is infused in the on-lineinstruction, and courses provideinformation and resources professionalsneed to support families and youngchildren as they acquire both ASL andEnglish in the early years. Each course isoffered for graduate or professionalstudies credits.

ConclusionGallaudet University recognizes theneed to support interdisciplinaryprogramming and currently offersprograms that provide elements ofinterdisciplinary teaching and learning.The University is undergoing aninvestigation of how interdisciplinaryprogramming can be enhanced to meetcurrent and future needs. The Deaf andHard of Hearing Infants, Toddlers andFamilies: Collaboration and LeadershipInterdisciplinary Graduate CertificateProgram is designed to fill critical gapsin training. Professionals working withthis population rarely have specializedpreparation that covers the early

developmental needs of youngchildren while providingfamilies with the informationand support they need toensure that their youngchildren have a healthy startand the foundations forlater learning. A recentsurvey of professionals (Sass-Lehrer et al., 2010) askedabout the professionaltraining needs in their state.One responded:

My best guess is that 50 percent ofthe 0-3 population is served [in mystate] by individuals…who have neverseen or talked to a deaf or hard of hearingperson beyond the age of 6….

In another context, one mother sharedher experiences with early interventionservices and the lack of deafprofessionals:

When we found out our daughter wasdeaf, we began early intervention services.There was no mention of the Deafcommunity, ASL, or deaf schools and theresources they provided. The only deafperson we knew was our child. It wasthrough our own search that we stumbledupon these valuable resources. After wemade these connections, our family’s livesbecame much easier and our daughter’slanguage began to flourish. Deafprofessionals employed in every level ofEHDI services and the resources that deafschools provide are a critical missing linkin today’s early intervention programs.Parents deserve to have all the resources,

information, and tools necessary to raisetheir deaf children. (Benedict, 2011).

The Gallaudet certificate programhopes to change this situation byproviding an accessible preparationprogram through on-line learning. Theprogram aims to attract professionalswho are already providing services andwant to improve, expand, or updatetheir knowledge and skills as well asthose who are pursuing professionaldegrees and are interested in workingwith infants, toddlers, and theirfamilies. The program expects toincrease the number of deaf and hard ofhearing professionals so that families andyoung children have more opportunitiesto learn what it means to be deaf andwhat families can do to ensure that theirbabies are off to a good start.

Resources

Crais, E. R., Boone, H.A., Harrison, M., Freund, P., Downing, K., & West, T.(2004). Interdisciplinary personnel preparation: Graduates’ use of targetedpractice. Infants and Young Children, 17(1), 82-92.

Joint Committee on Infant Hearing. (2007). Year 2007 position statement:Principles and guidelines for early hearing detection and interventionprograms. Pediatrics, 120(4), 898-921.

Stredler Brown, A., Moeller, M. P., & Sass-Lehrer, M. (2009). Competencies forearly interventionists: Finding consensus. Presentation at Early Hearing Detectionand Intervention Conference, Dallas, TX.

Page 8: Marilyn Sass- Lehrer preparing professionals · Marilyn Sass-Lehrer, PhD, is a professor of education at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C. She received her master’s degree

2011 ODYSSEY 51

References

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Benedict, B., Crace, J., Hossler, T., Oliva, G., Raimondo,B., Richmond, M. A., et al. (2011). Deaf communitysupport for families: The best of partnerships (Ch. 11).National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management e-book:A resource guide for early hearing detection and intervention(EHDI). Logan, UT: National Center for HearingAssessment and Management, Utah State University.

Benedict, B. S., & Sass-Lehrer, M. (2007). The ASL andEnglish bilingual approach: A professional perspective. InS. Schwartz (Ed.), Choices in deafness (3rd ed., pp. 185-221).Bethesda, MD: Woodbine Press.

Burstein Leadership Institute. (2010). Assessment report onstudent learning outcomes: Burstein Leadership Institute.Washington, DC: College of Professional Studies andOutreach, Gallaudet University.

Eleweke, C. J., & Rodda, M. (2000). Factors contributingto parents’ selection of a communication mode to use withtheir deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 375-383.

Hintermair, M. (2000). Hearing impairment, socialnetworks, and coping: The need for families with hearingimpaired children to relate to other parents and hearing-impaired adults. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 41-51.

Hintermair, M. (2006). Parental resources, parental stress,and socioemotional development of deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,11(4), 493-513.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2004).Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.http://idea.ed.gov

Jones, T., & Ewing, K. (2002). An analysis of teacherpreparation in deaf education programs approved by theCouncil on Education of the Deaf. American Annals of theDeaf, 148(3), 267-271.

Kilgo, J. L., & Bruder, M. B. (1997). Creating new visionsin institutions of higher education: Interdisciplinaryapproaches to personnel preparation in early intervention.In P. Winton, J. McCollum, & C. Catlett (Eds.), Reformingpersonnel preparation in early intervention: Issues, models andpractical strategies (pp. 81-101). Baltimore: Paul Brookes.

Marge, D. K., & Marge, M. (2005). Beyond newborn hearingscreening: Meeting the educational and health care needs of infantsand young children with hearing loss in America (Report of theNational Consensus Conference on Effective Educationaland Health Care Interventions for Infants and YoungChildren with Hearing Loss, September 10-12, 2004).Syracuse, NY: Department of Physical Medicine andRehabilitation, SUNY Upstate Medical University.

Meadow-Orlans, K., Mertens, D., & Sass-Lehrer, M.(2003). Parents and their deaf children: The early years.Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.

Mellon, A., & Winton, P. (2003). A study ofinterdisciplinary collaboration among higher educationearly intervention faculty members. Journal of EarlyIntervention, 25(3), 173-188.

Rice, G., & Lenihan, S. (2005). Early intervention inauditory/oral deaf education: Parent and professionalperspectives. Volta Review, 105(1), 73-96.

Sass-Lehrer, M., Stredler Brown, A., Hutchinson, N.,Tarasenko, K., Moeller, M. P., & Clark, K. (2010).Knowledge and skills of early interventionists: Where are thegaps? Presentation at Early Hearing Detection andIntervention Conference, Chicago, IL.

Watkins, S., Pittman, P., & Walden, B. (1998). The deafmentor project for young children who are deaf and theirfamilies. American Annals of the Deaf, 143(1), 29-34.

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