Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-80 AD)

Map Link: Territorial Expansion of Rome:

<https://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd_1911/shepherd-c-034-035.jpg>

Problems in the Roman Empire

End of imperial expansion: loss of income,prestige, etc.

Increasing influence of non-Italians in society,government, the army

Increasing attacks on borders

Increasingly centralised government

Increased militarisation of state

235 Army murders SeverusAlexander (r. 222-235)

235-84 Period of crisis: civiland external wars,plague, economic crisis,raised taxes

259 Persians defeat Romanarmy and captureValerian (r. 253-60)

Diocletian (r. 284-305)

Constantine (r. 306-37)

Map Link: Map of the Tetrarchy:

<http://neobyzantium.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Roman-Empire-during-the-1st-Tetrarchy.jpg>

Diocletian’s Reforms

Multiple capitals: closer links between localgovernments and imperial government,so swifter responses

Reforms of army: imperial bodyguards, mobilearmy and border defence forces. Soldiersno longer in civil administration

Reforms of coinage, pricing, state buildingprojects, annona (universal land tax)

Diocletian’s Reforms

Improving loyalty bypresenting self asearthly manifestationof Jupiter. PersecutingChristians

Diocletian’s Reforms

Augusti: Diocletian Maximian

Caesars: Galerius Constantius

Diocletian’s Reforms

Retired 305: Diocletian Maximian

Augusti: Galerius Constantius

Caesars: Disputed

306 Constantine (son of Constantius)acclaimed by troops as emperor

312 Battle of Milvian Bridge. Constantinebecomes an augustus (co-emperor)

313 Constantine makes Christianity officialreligion of the empire, though otherstolerated

324 Constantine becomes sole emperor,establishes new capital at Byzantion(Constantinople): “Nova RomaConstantinopolitana” (New Rome,the City of Constantine)

According to Eusebius of Caesarea(c. 260-c. 339)…

332 Constantine repels (Tervingi) Goths

337 Death of Constantine. Sons fight oversuccession

337-61 Reign of Constantius II

353 Constantius II reunites empire

356 Constantius bans public paganism

361-63 Reign of Julian (the Apostate)

Divergence of Eastern and Western Empires

Foreign involvement:

Settlement of barbarians in east

Valentinian II (r. 375-92), Western RomanEmperor, plus successor Eugenius(r. 392-94), puppets of Arbogast

Brief reunification under Theodosius (r. 379-95)in 394 (Visigothic allies), but does not last

Problems of the Late 4th Century

End 4th c. Accession of young emperors. Powerheld by regents, mostly from military orfemale relatives of emperors. Barbariansbeing bribed to fight each other

476 Last Western Roman Emperor, RomulusAugustulus (r. 475-76), deposed by Odoacerthe Ostrogoth. End of Roman Empire inwest. Eastern Roman Empire remains,from now usually called Byzantine Empire

The End

313 Edict of Milan

379-95 Reign of Theodosius I (in east), whoforbids practices of pagan cults

4th c. Bishoprics becoming grouped togetherunder archbishops. Particular prestigeheld by Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria,Antioch, Constantinople

5th c. Accession of many aristocratic bishops

319 Arius (d. 336), a priest of Alexandria,excommunicated for claiming Christnot eternal, but separate entity begottenby God

Further teachings:

Christ created so that God might createuniverse through him

Christ sharing divine power but subjectto sin

325 Council of Nicea summoned by Constantine,produces Nicene creed

330-79 Arianism enjoys imperial favour

381 Council of Constantinople summoned byTheodosius I (r. 379-95), outlawsArianism

Born in Antioch, Syria. Of Greek descent,probably noble

Joined army in his twenties. Served until deathof Julian the Apostate, whom admired

Pagan, but not fervently anti-Christian

After retired, travelled, then settled in Romeafter 378

Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325-392 or 395)

Spent rest of life writing Res Gestae a FineCorneli Taciti (or Rerum Gestarum Libriqui Supersunt), history of Rome continuingwork of Tacitus (c. 55-117) and coveringyears 96-378 (ending with Battle ofAdrianople)

Uses mix of eyewitness experiences and writtensources

Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325-392 or 395)

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260-c. 339)

Baptised and ordained at Caesarea (Palestine)

Possibly imprisoned by Romans

Wrote immense number of works. Best knownfor Ecclesiastical History (revised312-324)

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260-c. 339)

Ecclesiastical History highly influential indevelopment of church history, but opento criticism

313 Becomes bishop of Caesarea

318 Becomes involved in Arian controversy

325 Exonerated at Council of Nicea

337 Death of Constantine. Eusebius starts Life ofConstantine (unfinished - this text)