March 1st, 2012

Problematic.

Contemporary historians (i.e. Tacitus, Suetonius) writing about earlier reigns.

Later historians (i.e. Cassius Dio – 163-229, Aurelius Victor – ca. 360, Eutropius – late 4th century, Festus – 4th century, Jordanes – ca. 550, Orosius – ca. 375-418) are late, fragmentary, or epitomes; Christian sources are often hostile.

Other contemporary sources (i.e. The Younger Pliny, Letters) are useful, but do not always reference the emperors themselves.

Epigraphy and Numismatics.

Picture influenced by Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1788); Nerva and Trajan are the first two of Five Good Emperors.

Gibbon’s view shaped by the political and cultural environment in which he wrote; heavily influenced by the senatorial perspective.

“Now at last our spirit is returning. And yet, though at the dawn of a most happy age Nerva Caesar blended things once irreconcilable, sovereignty and freedom; though Nerva Trajan is now daily augmenting the prosperity of the time, and though the public safety has not only our hopes and good wishes, but has also the certain pledge of their fulfillment: still, from the necessary condition of human frailty, the remedy works less quickly than the disease. As our bodies grow but slowly, perish in a moment, so it is easier to crush than to revive genius and its pursuits. Besides, the charm of indolence steals over us, and the idleness which at first we loathed we afterwards love. What if during those fifteen years, a large portion of human life, many were cut off by ordinary casualties, and the ablest fell victim to the Emperor’s rage, if a few of us survive, though there have been taken from the midst of life those many years which brought the young in dumb silence to old age, and the old almost to the very verge and end of existence! Yet we shall not regret that we have told, though in language unskilful and unadorned, the story of past servitude, and borne our testimony to present happiness. Meanwhile this book, intended to do honour to Agricola, my father-in-law, will, as an expression of filial regard, be commended, or at least excused.” (Tacitus, Agricola 3. Trans. A.J. Church and W.J. Broadribb, 1877).

http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/tacitus/agricola_e.html

“During a happy period of more than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the design of this and of the two succeeding chapters to describe the prosperous condition of their empire, and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most important circumstances of its decline and fall, a revolution which will ever be remembered and is still felt by the nations of the earth.”

(E. Gibbon (1788) The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 1)

http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/nerva.jpg

Rome: Museo Massimo (from Tivoli). Credits: Ann Raia, 1999

B. Marcus Cocceius Nerva Nov. 8, 30 CE.

Distinguished ancestry (i.e. Great-grandfather, M. Cocceius Nerva consul in 36 BCE; Maternal aunt, Rubellia Bassa, great-granddaughter of Tiberius).

Undistinguished career down to 96 CE; No military career; no career in the law courts; praetor designate in 65; held several priesthoods.

Triumphal decorations and a statue for revealing the plot of Piso against Nero (65 CE).

Career really launched under Vespasian; consul withVespasian (71).

Consul with Domitian (90); revealed the plot of Saturninus.

Named emperor immediately upon the assassination of Domitian (Sept. 96).

Good family and client connections.

Not tainted by any scandal.

Good negotiator.

Elderly and childless.

Clearly tied to the Flavian regime.

Esp. close to Domitian.

No military experience.

Extremely old (ca. 66).

Disadvantages

Immediate attempt to distance himself from Domitian.

Renamed Domitian’s palace, The House of the People; moved into Horti Sallustiani (residence of Vespasian).

Recalled those exiled under Domitian.

Promised to never execute a senator.

Wasn’t in the senate’s pocket either: rarely convened as a group; worked through a consilium of amici (generally of the senatorial aristocracy); Delatores still active.

Poor legislation: Allotments of land; 5% land tax to support needy children.

Foreign policy: Reign too brief to meaningful; est. African colonies.

“After Domitian, the Romans appointed Nerva Cocceius emperor. Because of the hatred felt for Domitian, his images, many of which were of silver and many of gold, were melted down; and from this source large amounts of money were obtained. The arches, too, of which a very great number were being erected to this one man, were torn down. 2 Nerva also released all who were on trial for maiestas and restored the exiles; moreover, he put to death all the slaves and the freedmen who had conspired against their masters and allowed that class of persons to lodge no complaint anybody of maiestas or of adopting the Jewish mode of life…. In the senate he took oath that he would not slay any of the senators, and he kept his pledge in spite of plots against himself. Moreover, he did nothing without the advice of the foremost men.” (Cassius Dio, 68.1.1-2 and 68.2.3. Trans. E. Cary, 1925)

“Many of those who had been informed were condemned to death, among others Seras, the philosopher. When, now, no little commotion was occasioned by the fact that everybody was accusing everybody else, Fronto, the consul, is said to have remarked that it was bad to have an emperor under whom nobody was permitted to do anything, but worse to have one under whom everybody was permitted to do everything; and Nerva, on hearing this, ordered that this condition of affairs should cease for the future.”

(Cassius Dio, 68.1.2-3. Trans. E. Cary, 1925)

“To the very poor Romans he granted allotments of land worth 60,000,000 sesterces, putting some senators in charge of their purchase and distribution. 2 When he ran short of funds, he sold much wearing apparel and many vessels of silver and gold, besides furniture, both his own and that which belonged to the imperial residence, and many estates and houses — in fact, everything except what was indispensable. He did not, however, haggle over the price, but in this very matter benefitted many persons.”

(Cassius Dio, 68.2.1-2. Trans. E. Cary, 1925)

Army angry at Domitian’s assassination; wanted perpetrators punished.

Did not approve of Nerva as a princeps (no military background).

Praetorian Prefect, Casperius Aelianus threatens Nerva: “Punish Domitian’s murderers or else!”.

Nerva forced to acquiesce.

Forestalls further revolts by naming Trajan as heir.

“Casperius Aelianus, who had become commander of the Praetorians under him as he had been under Domitian, incited the soldiers to mutiny against him, after having induced them to demand certain persons for execution. Nerva resisted them stoutly, even to the point of baring his collar-bone and presenting to them his throat; but he accomplished nothing, and those whom Aelianus wished were put out of the way.  Nerva, therefore, finding himself held in such contempt by reason of his old age, ascended the Capitol and said in a loud voice: "May good success attend the Roman senate and people and myself. I hereby adopt Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajan." Afterwards in the senate he appointed him Caesar and sent a message to him written with his own hand (Trajan was governor of Germany): "May the Danaans by thy shafts requite my tears." Thus Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, although there were relatives of Nerva living.”

(Cassius Dio, 68.3.3 – 68.4.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1925)

Unspectacular.

Suffered a stroke in January of 98.

Died at home several weeks later.

Smooth transition of power from Nerva to Trajan.

http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/trajan_cuirass.jpg

Paris, Louvre Museum. Credits: Barbara McManus, 1999

B. in Italica (Spain) as M. Ulpius Traianus, Sept. 18, 53 CE to M. Ulpius Traianus and Marcia.

Ca. 75 CE served as a military officer in Syria under his father; married Pompeia Plotina.

78 – Quaestor; 84 – Praetor.

86 – Appointed guardian of the future emperor, Hadrian; appointed commander of the legion VII Gemina in Hispania Tarraconensis.

86-91 – On the Rhine fighting Germanic tribes.

91 – Consul.

92-97 – Governor first of Moesia, then of Upper Germany.

Oct 97 – Adopted by Nerva as heir and successor; Late January, 98 – Power passes seamlessly to Trajan.

Good relations with the senate.Rarely in Rome; most of Trajan’s reign spent in the

field; away for 9 of 19 years.Only 6 consulships between 98-117; Rome left in the

hands of (trusted) senators; high military office left in hands of (trusted) senators.

Equestrians replace freedmen in imperial bureaucracy.

Expanded the alimentary system to include Italian orphans (ca. 100 CE).

Improved the grain supply in Rome, as well as the harbors and markets in Ostia.

Continued the monumentalization of Rome and Italy (i.e. Basilica Ulpia, Libraries, Markets, Trajan’s Baths, Trajan’s Column.).

“Trajan was most conspicuous for his justice, for his bravery, and for the simplicity of his habits. 3 He was strong in body, being in his forty-second year when he began to rule, so that in every enterprise he toiled almost as much as the others; and his mental powers were at their highest, so that he had neither the recklessness of youth nor the sluggishness of old age. 4 He didn't envy nor slay any one, but honoured and exalted all good men without exception, and hence he neither feared nor hated any one of them. To slanders he paid very little heed and he was no slave of anger. He refrained equally from the money of others and from unjust murders. 7 He expended vast sums on wars and vast sums on works of peace; and while making very many urgently needed repairs to roads and harbours and public buildings, he drained no one's blood for any of these undertakings. 2 He was so high-minded and generous that, after enlarging and embellishing the Circus, which had crumbled away in places, he merely inscribed on it a statement that he had made it adequate for the Roman people. 3 For these deeds, now, he took more pleasure in being loved than in being honoured. His association with the people was marked by affability and his intercourse with the senate by dignity, so that he was loved by all and dreaded by none save the enemy. He joined others in the chase and in banquets, as well as in their labours and plans and jests. Often he would take three others into his carriage, and he would enter the houses of citizens, sometimes even without a guard, and enjoy himself there. 4 Education in the strict sense he lacked, when it came to speaking, but its substance he both knew and applied; and there was no quality which he did not possess in a high degree. p373I know, of course, that he was devoted to boys and to wine, but if he had ever committed or endured any base or wicked deed as the result of this, he would have incurred censure; as it was, however, he drank all the wine he wanted, yet remained sober, and in his relation with boys he harmed no one. 5 And even if he did delight in war, nevertheless he was satisfied when success had been achieved, a most bitter foe overthrown and his countrymen exalted. Nor did the result which usually occurs in such circumstances — conceit and arrogance on the part of the soldiers — ever manifest itself during his reign; with such a firm hand did he rule them.” (Cassius Dio, 68.6.2-5 – 68.4.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1925)

Characterized by military activity and conquest.

Hands-on commander; personally present for most actions.

98-100 – Trajan shoring up Rhine and Danube defenses.

101-102 – First campaigns against the Dacians; capture of Sarmizegethusa.

104-106 – Second campaign against the Dacians; death of Decabulus (106); Dacia annexed as a province.

105-106 – Annexation of Nabataea (i.e. Arabia).

113-117 – Parthian campaigns; annexation of Armenia and Mesopatamia.

http://ca.search.yahoo.com/search/images/view?back=http%3A%2F%2Fca.search.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%2Fimages%3Fp%3DThe%2BRoman%2BEmpire%2Bunder%2BTrajan%26ei%3DUTF-8%26fr%3Drogersfp-imp%26x%3Dwrt&w=600&h=391&imgurl=www.galenfrysinger.com%2Fimages%2Frome1.gif&rurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galenfrysinger.com%2Froman_cities.htm&size=21.4kB&name=rome1.gif&p=The+Roman+Empire+under+Trajan&type=gif&no=9&tt=19&oid=ce96139aa4ea74a4&ei=UTF-8

Troubles with Dacians started in the reign of Domitian (86); raids across the Danube; peace made in exchange for cash payments (89); Dacian raids continue across the Danube.

“After spending some time in Rome he made a campaign against the Dacians; for he took into account their past deeds and was grieved at the amount of money they were receiving annually, and he also observed that their power and their pride were increasing. 2 Decebalus, learning of his advance, became frightened, since he well knew that on the former occasion it was not the Romans that he had conquered, but Domitian, whereas now he would be fighting against both Romans and Trajan, the emperor.” (Cassius Dio, 68.6.1-2 – 68.4.1. Trans. E. Cary, 1925).

Dacians pacified; Decabulus reduced to client king (102); continues depredations after Trajan leaves.

104 – 106 - Trajan returns; crosses the Danube and destroys the Dacians; Decabulus commits suicide; massive treasure plundered and returned to Rome; Population extirpated; Dacia annexed as a province and resettled by Roman colonistis.

http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/trajancol.jpg

http://www.vroma.org/images/raia_images/trajcol1.jpg

“Trajan was the first to capture it (i.e. Scythia = Dacia) along with Decabulus, the leader of the Dacians, and he brought to the Romans [500,000] pounds of gold and [1,000,000] pounds of silver, not counting drinking goblets and various objects that go beyond value, herds of horses, weapons, and fighting men beyond [50,000] along with their weapons, as Kriton confidently affirmed, and he was present in the war.”

“By authority of Imperator Caesar, the deified Nerva’s son, Traianus Augustus the Dacian Colony was founded through Decimus Terentilus Scaurianus, his legate with pro praetorian power.”

Parthians were the major power/rival in the East.Ongoing tension over the disposition of Armenia.Trajan eager for further military

accomplishments.113 – Attacked Parthians in Armenia; Parthians

eager for a peaceful settlement.114-115 – Captures Mesopotamia.116 – Captures Babylon and Mesopotamia; Jewish

revolts halt his advance.117 – Eastern gains faltering; Trajan dies.

“Next he made a campaign against the Armenians and Parthians on the pretext that the Armenian king had obtained his diadem, not at his hands, but from the Parthian king, though his real reason was a desire to win renown. When Trajan had set out against the Parthians and got as far as Athens, an embassy from Osroes met him, asking for peace and proffering gifts. For upon learning of his advance the king had become terrified, because Trajan was wont to make good his threats by his deeds. Accordingly, he humbled his pride and sent to implore him not to make war upon him, and at the same time he asked that Armenia be given to Parthamasiris, who was likewise a son of Pacorus, and requested that the diadem be sent to him; for he had deposed Exedares, he said, inasmuch as he had been satisfactory neither to the Romans nor to the Parthians. The emperor neither accepted the gifts nor returned any answer, either oral or written, save the statement that friendship is determined by deeds and not by words, and that accordingly when he should reach Syria he would do all that was proper. And being of this mind, he proceeded through Asia, Lycia and the adjoining provinces to Seleucia. Upon his arrival in Antioch, Abgarus of Osroene sent gifts and a message of friendship, though he did not appear in person; for, as he dreaded both Trajan and the Parthians alike, he was trying to be neutral and for that reason would not come to confer with him.” (Cassius Dio, 68.17. Trans. E. Cary, 1925).

The first appearance of Christianity as a legal problem occurs under Trajan.

Pliny the Younger sent as governor of Bithynia (110).

Charges brought by provincials against certain persons accused of being Christians.

Sacrificing and eating babies; orgies; drunkenness etc.

Pliny writes to Trajan for advice.Adherence to Christianity probably not illegal.Sacrifice to the emperor’s genius required as a test

of loyalty.No concerted effort to round up Christians.

“YOU have adopted the right course, my dearest Secundus, in investigating the charges against the Christians who were brought before you. It is not possible to lay down any general rule for all such cases. Do not go out of your way to look for them. If indeed they should be brought before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished; with the restriction, however, that where the party denies he is a Christian, and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let him (notwithstanding any former suspicion) be pardoned upon his repentance. Anonymous informations ought not to be received in any sort of prosecution. It is introducing a very dangerous precedent, and is quite foreign to the spirit of our age.” (Pliny, Letters 98. http://www.bartleby.com/9/4/2098.html)

“Trajan was preparing to make a fresh expedition into Mesopotamia, but, as his malady began to afflict him sorely, he set out, intending to sail to Italy, leaving Publius Aelius Hadrian with the army in Syria. Thus it came about that the Romans in conquering Armenia, most of Mesopotamia, and the Parthians had undergone their hardships and dangers all for naught, 2 for even the Parthians rejected Parthamaspates and began to be ruled once more in their own fashion. Trajan himself suspected that his sickness was due to poison that had been administered to him; but some state that it was because the blood, which descends every year into the lower parts of the body, was in his case checked in its flow. 3 He had also suffered a stroke, so that a portion of his body was paralyzed, and he was dropsical all over. On coming to Selinus in Cilicia, which we also call Traianopolis, he suddenly expired, after reigning nineteen years, six months and fifteen days.” (Cassius Dio, 68.33. Trans. E. Cary, 1925).

What is the significance of Nerva’s tendency to work through a council of friends rather than through plenary sessions of senate? What does this say about his character?

What was significant about Nerva’s choice of Trajan as his successor?

What were the main reasons for the success of Trajan’s reign?

How would you describe Trajan’s personal character?

How does the emperors who were fondly remembered reflect the values of our ancient and modern sources? Why must a historian be aware of such things?