Mar/Apr 2013 - International Aquafeed magazine

Transforming aquaculture production using

oxygenation systems

Nutritional benefits of processed animal proteins

– in European aquafeeds

Towards aquafeeds with increased food security

Bioenergetics – application in aquaculture nutrition

Volume 16 I s sue 2 2 013 - mARCH | APR I l

INCORPORAT ING f I sh fARm ING TeChNOlOGy

Volume 16 / Issue 2 / March-April 2013 / © Copyright Perendale Publishers Ltd 2013 / All rights reserved

An internAtionAl mAgAzine for the AquAculture feed

industry - incorPorAting fish fArming technologyCONTENTS

AQUAI n t e r n a t I o n a l

FEED

Volume 16 / Issue 2 / March-April 2013 / © Copyright Perendale Publishers Ltd 2013 / All rights reserved

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2013 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

Aqua News

4 Alltechfeedsurveyfindssignificantgrowthinaquaculture5 Newglobalpartnershiptopromoteaquacultureinfightinghunger6 AQUACULTUREUPDATES7 IFFOintroducesnewlogo8 FriendoftheSeacertificationforCloudyBayClams9 Activesalmonfarmmapshowssmallfootprint9 Alltechconductstrialsintoalgaeapplications

Features

14 NutritionalbenefitsofusingProcessedAnimalProteins(PAPs)inEuropeanaquafeeds

18 Bioenergetics-applicationinaquaculturenutrition

22 Towardsaquafeedswithincreasedfoodsecurity

26 Escapesprimarilycausedbyequipmentfailure

28 Theroleofbioremediationinwaterqualitymanagement

34 Themultifunctionaldietarypropertiesofspirulinaanditsuseinaquaculture

38 Effectofdietaryinclusionofseaweedsonintestinalproteolyticactivityofjuvenileseabream,Sparus aurata

42 Challengesfacingtheaquaculturefeedindustry

45 Aquafeedproduction worldwide

Regular items

5 THEAQUACULTURISTS32 PHOTOSHOOT50 EXPERTTOPIC-COBIA56 INDUSTRYEVENTS

VIVRussia WorldAquaculture2014 Aquaculture201360 CLASSIFIEDADVERTS62 THEAQUAFEEDINTERVIEW64 INDUSTRYFACES

www.perendale.co.uk

EditorProfessorSimonDaviesEmail: [email protected]

Associate EditorsAliceNealEmail: [email protected]

ProfessorKrishenRanaEmail: [email protected]

DrYuYuEmail: [email protected]

Editorial Advisory Panel

•Abdel-FattahM.El-Sayed(Egypt)

•ProfessorAntónioGouveia(Portugal)

•ProfessorCharlesBai(Korea)

•ColinMair(UK)

•DrDanielMerrifield(UK)

•DrDominiqueBureau(Canada)

•DrElizabethSweetman(Greece)

•DrKimJauncey(UK)

•EricDeMuylder(Belgium)

•DrPedroEncarnação(Singapore)

•DrMohammadRHasan(Italy)

Circulation & Events ManagerTutiTanEmail: [email protected]

Design & Page LayoutJamesTaylor

Email: [email protected]

International Marketing Team (UK Office) DarrenParrisEmail: [email protected]

LeeBastinEmail: [email protected]

TomBlackerEmail: [email protected]

Latin American Office IvànMarquettiEmail: [email protected]

PabloPorceldePeraltaEmail: [email protected]

India Office RajKapoorEmail: [email protected]

China Office NancyYungEmail: [email protected]

More information: International Aquafeed 7 St George's Terrace, St James' Square Cheltenham, GL50 3PT, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1242 267706 Website: www.aquafeed.co.uk

2013 has started with several meetings and workshops and a busy schedule for me as both editor and academic. I have just returned for Brussels where I spoke at the Nutra-ingredients meeting that largely focused on human gastro-intestinal health but attracted a large gathering of scientists from major European companies and government

agencies concerned with probiotics, prebiotics and legislation of feed additives and supplements. My contribution on fish and the role of probiotics was well received by the medical fraternity as we were able to learn so much from each other in terms of research directions and the functionality of novel dietary ingredients in humans and animal systems.

MyfollowingvisittoScotlandenabledmetovisitBioMar’simpressivefeedplantfacilities inGrangemouthwheremylatestPhDstudent,DanielLeemingisnowstartinginanewpositioninR&D.Thedrinkswereonhimofcourse!

InthisissuethatIdedicatetoDrJohnEHalverwhopassedawaylastyear,Iincludeanarticleintributetothisgreatscientistwhowassodistinguishedinthesubjectoffishnutritionforover50years.

Inthisissuewefeaturecobiaasourguestfishspecies.Anamazingfishwithuniqueattributesandacapacityforproductionthatshouldintheoryrevolutionisemarinefishfarming.Itspotentialhasnotbeenfullyrealisedtodate,butactiveresearchtowardsproducinghealthyhatcheryraisedjuvenilesforon-growingwillallowitsexpansion.Itsversatilityshouldseethisfishbeingsuccessfullyfarmedinmanyregionsinthenearfuture.IfirstencounteredcobiadirectlyonaBritishtradevisittoSalvador,Brazilin2008andwasfascinatedbyitsrapidgrowthcharacteristicsandexcellenttastequalities.

WereportontheuseofoxygenanditsvitalroleinintensivefishproductionusingthelatesttechnologyanddeliveryandcontrolsystemsbytheLindeGases.

WearealwaysinterestedinthescopeforrawmaterialinclusioninfeedsandwehavebeenheavilyinvolvedinPlymouthwithstrategicresearchtooptimizetheuseofanimalby-productsfromcategory3sourcesforuseinaquafeeds.Onthistheme,EricDeMuylderexaminesthepotentialofprocessedanimalproteins(PAPs)fromaEuropeanperspectivepriortotheirre-introductioninaquafeedsinEuropeinJuly.

Fish bioenergetics is fundamental to efficient feed formulations since energy is a core requirement inmaintenanceandgrowthoffishanditsmodeofintake,lossesdrivetheneedforprotein,aminoacidsandothernutrients.The‘plane’ofnutritionandfeedintakeallrelatetoenergydensityinfeeds.IngridLupatschdescribes the applicationof bioenergeticswith examples taken fromher elaborate researchworkonmarinefishsuchasseabream.

Wealsolookatthemultifunctionaldietarypropertiesofspirulina,theroleofbioremediationinwaterqualitymanagementbyGoncaloASantosofBiominandthehealthbenefitsofoliveoilandolivepomaceinfishfeeds.

Togetherwithallourmainnewsandregularfeatures,wehavequiteaspectrumoftopicscovered.Enjoy!

Professor Simon Davies

CROESO - Welcome

March-April 2013 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | 3

New team member joins IAFInternationalAquafeedispleasedtoannounceanewadditiontotheteam.DrYuYujoinsusasanassociateeditorandwillworkonourChineseeditions.

DrYuYubeganhisacademiccareerattheNationalChung-HsingUniversity,Taichung,TaiwanwherehegainedhisundergraduatedegreeinAnimalHusbandryin1968.HemovedtoMichigan,USAforhispostgraduatestudies,completingaPhDinDairySciencein1974.

Aftergraduation,heworkedattheUniversityofGuelph,CanadaasaresearchassociateandthenasdirectorofresearchanddevelopmentattheUnitedCo-operativesofOntario.

In1992,DrYuYumovedtoKongKongtotakeuptheroleofAsiaregionaldirector,technicalservices,atRalstonPurinaInternationalbeforemovingtotheNationalRenderersAssociationin1996.

AtpresentheisthedirectorofEastBrightConsultinginHongKongandtheUSA.WearelooingforwardtoDrYuYulendinghisexpertiseinanimalnutritionandfeedformula-tiontothemagazine.


Itwaswithmuch sadness thatIlearnedofthepassingbeforeChristmas 2012 of Dr John

Halver, the recognised‘father offish nutrition’ at the great ageof 90 years. He was a won-derful friend and colleague whohad given me invaluable adviceand suppor t over many yearsas I embarked on my career atPlymouth.Hewasatrulyremark-ablepersonandhighlyacclaimedworld-classscientist.

Ifirstmethimin1985atafishnutrition workshop in Brighton,England. He walked over to meonto the famous Brighton pierandaskedmeifIhadunderstoodthe morning talks, giving me hischaracteristicmischievousglintofthe eye as he quizzed my bio-chemistry knowledge. I seemedto pass his test and my secondPhD examination was thank-fully approved on the spot!Thiswas Halver, the true professorand mentor who I was privi-legedtomeetandhavefrequentexchangeswithoverthenext30years.

Itwasin1989attheToba,JapanfishNutritionSymposiumthathecalled me into his hotel roomwhere I had supper with Johnand his wife Jane that I saw hiskindness and love for science atfirsthand.Ireallygottoknowhimwellafterthatvisit.Hewasaman

of supremeintellect andendless wita n d h a da c a p a c i t yfo r know l -edge acrossso many dis-c ipl ines bute s p e c i a l l yn u t r i t i o n a lbiochemistr yand his spe-c i a l i s t a reaof fish nutri-tion.

I n d e e dhaving servedw i t h d i s -t i n c t i on i nthe SecondWor ld War(receiving twobronzemedalsand a purple

heart) he was asked by the USgovernmenttoembarkondevel-opingfeedsandsettingnutritionalstandards for farmed fish leadingto research on mycotoxins andthe famous Halver test diet todeterminevitaminandaminoacidrequirementsof fish. JohnHalverspentmuchofthe1980sand90sworking on vitamin C and anti-oxidants such as vitamin E andselenium and was instrumentalinprovidingaplatformforfuturescientists to investigate themanyareas of fish nutrition. His firstand second editions of Halvers’FishNutritionisaclassictextforall time and an excellent refer-ence work in this subject foundinsomanyuniversitylibrariesandinstitutions involved in aquacul-ture science.Mypersonal signedcopy will never leave my studywherethegreatmanwrote‘Bestwishes,JohnHalver-havefun!!’ThiswastypicallyHalver,sciencemustbefunaswellashardwork.

Johnwasneveramissatall themajor prestigious conferencesandsymposiaworldwide.Hewasfamousforhisquestioningofpre-senters and the detailed cross-examinationoftheirtalkstohelpstimulate their fur ther under-standing of the complexities offish metabolism. It was alwaysdonewith finesseandpoliteness.IwouldmeethimalloverEurope,

Asia,USAandhispaceandsharp-ness of mind was incredible towitness.

In Brazil, it was Halver whofound that perfect little restau-rantservingthelocalfishandhischemistry skillsweremostappli-cable in serving the wine at itsbest. Indeed one of his hobbieswas to make his own Merlot athis ranch home inWashingtonState. He enjoyed life to thefull and loved the company ofyounger scientists and studentswhosharedhispassion.

Itwas on September 10, 2001thatIhostedJohnandJaneHalveratmyhomeinPlymouthandwedinedthateveningatalocalres-taurant.Thatdaywehadtakenatour by boat of the Royal Navybase and some guest US Navywarshipswereinport.Iwillneverforget the pride in him seeinghis nation’s military representa-tion and we discussed in depthour alliances and long history ofUS-UK friendship.We walkedon the sea front, the iconic hoeand I acted as the tour guideshowingthefamouslandmarksofPlymouth,andtherichhistoryofthismaritimecity and the legacyofSirFrancisDrake.Hewasfas-cinated by it all, absorbing everydetail.

Tragically the next day onSeptember 11 news of theWorldTrade Center and otherattacks were announced as theHalvers’ arrived in Ireland as astopover for their journey backtotheUnitedStates. Theworldchanged forever, and travellingthecornersoftheglobebecameeven more of a challenge afterthosefatefulevents.

Inearly2009,attheAquacultureAmerica venue in Seattle, JohnHalverwas in his element as hegreetedmeandmyPhDstudentstohisowncitybytheocean.Hemetusattheairportfullofenergyanddroveusalltoourhotels.Mycolleague Dr Daniel Merrifieldand I were dinner guests at theHalvers’ home in Seattle andwe enjoyed his endless storiesand reminisce of his long distin-guished academic career as wetucked into the wild salmon hehad caughtwithhis homemadewine. As Emeritus Professor

at the School of Fisheries inthe University ofWashington,we toured his laboratories andmodestoffice.Hewasstillamanofbooksandpapers.

Knowingmyinterestinaircraft,he drove us to Puget Soundand theBoeingplantwherewehad a marvellous day togetherseeing the wonders of tech-nology. It was during this venuethatHalverwasasbusyasusualpar ticipating in the NationalResearch Council meetings toupdate the nutritional require-ments of fish for the finalNRC;2011document.

I last met John in Por to,Po r t u g a l a t t h e 2 0 1 0Aquaculture Europe meetingwhereweenjoyedthesunshineand hospitality of this fine cityand its gathering of exper ts inaquaculture. John Halver hadmany new ideas and was par-ticularlyinterestedinthenutri-tional biochemistr y of ageingin humans.When I asked himwhyhesaidcharmingly,“Simon,when you reach my age it’snatural to want to know howand why we age and what wecandoaboutit?”

His attention was focusedon lipid membrane functionand the role of long chain fattyacids and the implication of fishoil. He was actively engaged inseveral patents for cancer treat-ment and working closely withinstitutions in Hungary wherehe was also a member of theHungarian NationalAcademy ofSciences.

John died peacefully at homein Seattle on October 24, 2012andhehadbeenworkingtotheend on manuscripts and scien-tific reports. I am so thankful tohave knownhimas a friend andspeak for hundreds who havebenefittedfromhiscompanyandguidanceinallwalksoflife.

We will ser ve him well torememberhisplaceinthehistoryofthescienceoffishnutritionandfeedingandcontinueinourquestforknowledgebasedonrigorousresearch underpinned by goodsenseandhumour.

As the one and only, John Halver would say, “work hard, but have fun!”

Atributetothe'fatheroffishnutrition'ProfessorJohnEHalver

AstudybyMarineInstituteandNUIGGalway,Irelandhas concluded that sea

licedonotplaya significant roleinsalmonmortality.Theresearch,whichhasbeenpublished in theJournal of Fish Diseases, involvedmore than350,000 fish, releasedinto eight different rivers in 28separateexperimentsoveranineyearperiod.

In this long-term study, onegroup of salmon smolts were

treatedwitha commercial agentwhich protects them against sealice infestation for eight weeksaftergoingtosea.Thereturnratesofcontrolorunprotectedmirrorgroups of fish were comparedwith the‘protected’ fish to see ifthey suffered any additional sealice induced mortality followingreleaseintothesea.

The research has beenwelcomed by the Irish Farmers’A s s o c i a t i o n A q u a c u l t u r e

Executive,RichieFlynn.Flynnsaid,“Thefactthatthepaperconfirmsthatsealice“isaminorandirreg-ular component of marine mor-tality inthestocksstudiedand isunlikely to be a significant factorinfluencingconservationstatusofsalmon stocks” is hugely impor-tant in focusing attentionon therealthreatstowildfish.”

F lynn a r gues tha t moreresearch should be done intojuvenile wild salmon deaths.

“Energy and t ime must bespent on trying to understandand, if possible, do somethingabout lessening the factor swhich cause 95-96 percentof wild juvenile salmon to diewhentheytraveltoseatofeed.Revisiting all the impacts ofwild salmon deaths (includingangling) on the 4-5 percent ofthoseluckyenoughtoreturntoourriverseachyearshouldbeafactorinthis,”hesaid.

Theworldisproducing959million tons of feed andhas increased its produc-

tionby at least 4percent in thelast year, according to the 2013Global Feed Tonnage SurveyreleasedbyAlltech.Thecompanyassessed the compound feedproduction of 134 countries inDecember. 2012 through infor-mation obtained in partnershipwith local feed associations andAlltech’s sales team, who visitmore than 26,000 feed millsannually.

“The 2013 publ i -cation of the annualyear-end assessment byAlltechisbeingreleasedas an industry outlookresource for the newcalendar year and willhopefully allow gov-ernments, non-govern-mental organisationsand the greater publicto appreciate the valuethat the feed industryis generating globally,”said Aidan Connolly,vicepresidentofAlltechanddirectorofAlltech’sannual Global FeedTonnageSurvey.

Amongthe134coun-tries assessed inAlltech’s survey,Chinawasreaffirmedasthechiefproducer of feed at 191 milliontons and an estimated 10,000feed mills. Consistent with late2011 assessments, the UnitedStates and Brazil followed with179 million tons produced by5,251 feed mills and 66 milliontonsproducedby1,237feedmills

respectively.Overall, a 26millionton increase was observed inBRIC countries (Brazil, Russia,IndiaandChina)yeartodate.

Asiacontinuestobetheworld’snumberoneproducingregionat350milliontons.However,AfricaexceededAsiainpercentgrowthover 2011 results, increasing itstonnage nearly 15 percent from47 million in 2011 to 54 millionin2012.

Globally, the survey identified26,240 feed mills, with Nor thAmerica and Europe serving as

hometomorethanhalfofthem.TheMiddleEastwasestimatedtohavethelargestfeedmills,withanaverageofmorethan63,000tonsproduced per mill. Sixty percentof feed produced globally ispelleted,withpercentagespartic-ularlyhighinEurope.

Whenanalysedbyspecies:• Poultrycontinuestodominate

witha43percentshareofthefeed market at 411 milliontons, likely due to religiousand tastepreferencesaswellas cost. It grew by approxi-mately 8 percentover 2011estimates. Sixtypercentof allpoultry feed tonnage isdedi-catedtobroilers,withtherestfedtoegglayers,turkeys,duckandotherfowl.

• Thepigfeedsectormatchedpoultry’s 8 percent growth,moving to 218 million tonsglobally.

• The ruminant feed market,comprising dairy, beef andsmall ruminants, grew morethan 13 percent betweenlate 2011 and December2012,andnowrequires254milliontons.

• Equ ine feed tonnageincreasedalmost17percentto10.8milliontons.

• Aquaculture is the fastestgrowing species sector bytonnagewithgrowthgreaterthan55percentsince2011.

• Pet food represents 20.5million tons, 40 percent ofwhich are produced in theUnitedStates,butBrazilcon-tinues tomakeconsiderableadvancesinthissector.

“Aswelooktothedemandsofthe future, chiefly the feeding of9 billion people by 2050, thesesurveyresultsshouldstiroptimismand resolve within our feed and

food industries,” said DrPearseLyons,presidentofAlltech.“Our global feedindustry is rising to thechallenge,andwe’reseeinggrowth across the board.Moreover, we’re seeing itin some par ticularly keyareas– BRIC, Africa andaquaculture.”

Globalfeedproductionhastraditionallybeendifficult toquantifybecausemanycoun-tries lack a national feedassociation. For this reason,Alltechbeganinlate2011toleverage its globalpresencetoobtaina finerestimateoftheworld’sfeedtonnage.Theresultsoftheannualyear-end

assessmentareannouncedinJanuaryasan industryoutlookresource forthenewcalendaryear.

Connolly presented the 2012Alltech Global FeedTonnageSurveyfindingsatajointmeetingoftheInternationalFeedIndustryFederation and the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO)inOctober2012.

Alltechfeedsurveyfindssignificantgrowthinaquaculture

Research:Sealicedonotaffectsalmonmortality

4 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | March-April 2013

Aqua News

Newglobalpartnershiptopromoteaquacultureinfightinghunger

Amajor international initiative has been launched to betterunderstandtheroleofaquacultureinfoodsecurityinpoorcountries.

Bringing together a global allianceofdevelopment agencies, gov-ernmentsanduniversities, the initiativewillhelp low-income food-deficit countries inAfrica,Asia and LatinAmerica to develop sus-tainable policies for improving the livelihoods of millions of poorpeople.

TheEuropeanUnion(EU) is funding the three-yearprojectwithonemillioneuros,which ismanagedbyFAOinpartnershipwithaglobal alliance of 20 development agencies, governments and uni-versities.

Pivotal roleFishistheprimarysourceofproteinfor17percentoftheworld's

population-nearly25percentinlow-incomefood-deficitcountries.Fish is also a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fattyacidsbenefittheheartandbraindevelopmentofhealthypeople,andthoseathighriskof-orwhohave-car-diovasculardisease.Nearly50percentofthefishthatweeatnowcomesfromaquaculture.

Although aquaculture is widely regarded toplay a pivotal role in fighting hunger, little isknownaboutitsexactimpactonfoodandnutri-tionsecurityandpovertyalleviationindevelopingcountries.

Given population growth projections, increasingdemands for fish products with stable production of capture fish-eries,aquaculturewillneedtoexpandtomeetthefuturedemandforfish.

Impact on food securityThenewpartnershiprepresentstheworld'sregionswhereaqua-

cultureplaysamajorroleandsupportsthelivelihoodsofmillionsofsmall-scalefishfarmers.Italsoincludeskeyinstitutionswithastrongexpertiseinresearch,developmentprojectimplementationanddis-semination.

Theproject,AquacultureforFoodSecurity,PovertyAlleviationandNutrition(AFSPAN)willdevelopnewwaystoquantifythecontri-bution of aquaculture with better tools and more systematic andquantitative assessments. Moreover, it will elaborate strategies forimprovingtheimpactofaquacultureonfoodandnutritionsecurityandpovertyalleviation.

"Theprojectwillworkcloselywith fish farmingcommunitiesandwill focusonfieldresearch inmanymajoraquaculturecountries inthe developing world. It will develop tools and methodologies tohelp key partners to develop policies geared to improving aqua-culture's contribution to food and nutrition security," said RohanaSubasinghe, seniorFAOexpertonaquacultureandcoordinatoroftheproject.


Aqua News

Thebreeding cycleof the European eels has puzzledaquaculturistsforyears.NooneknowshowthespeciesmakesitsepicjourneyfromplacesasdiverseasNorthernAfricaandIcelandtotheSargassoSeatospawn.Todate,nobabyeelshavebeenbredincaptivity.

However, the mystery of eel mating habits may berevealed thanks to satellite technology.An EU-fundedresearch project called Eeliad, used satellite tagging tokeeptrackof600eelsastheymigrate.Researcherscouldtrack the satellite tags as far away as theAzores.ThissuggeststhattheeelsaresavingenergybyhitchingarideontheAzoresCurrent.

bit.ly/12wb6PZ

Howmuchwould you pay for a bluefin tuna?A fishfanaticinJapanhassplashedout$1.76milliononasinglespecimen.The first auctionof theyearatTokyo'sTsukijifishmarket,sawthe222kgtunasellfor155.4millionyen,threetimesthepreviousrecordsetlastyear.

The winning bidder, Kiyoshi Kimura, president ofKiyomuraCo.,whichoperates theSushi-Zanmai restau-rantchain,said,"thepricewasabithigh,"buthewantedto"encourageJapan,"accordingtoKyodoNewsagency.

bit.ly/XqBLGs

Here’s aquestion: howdoyou stopbananas ripeningtooquickly?

Theanswer:wraptheminshrimpshellsResearchers inChinahavecomeupwithasecondary

bananacoatmadefromdiscardedshrimpshells.A hydrogel coating made of chitosan, derived from

crustacean shells, canprevent abanana frombecomingoverripe for about twoweeks, according toXihong Li,leadauthorofanewbananastudy reported thisweekattheAmericanChemicalSociety'sannualmeeting.

http://bit.ly/X934Zx

The Aquaculturist

Aregularlookinsidetheaquacultureindustry

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We like to celebrate the wonderful, funny and just plain weird world of aquaculture. Here

are some of the off the wall stories that caught our attention recently.

www.theaquaculturists.blogspot.com

FEATURESEveryissueofInternationalAquafeed

isavailabletoviewonlineinourArchivesection.Bothfullonlineedi-tionsandindividualfeaturescanbe

viewed,anditiscompletelyfree.

www.aquafeed.co.uk/archive.php


viewAQUACULTURE

by Dominique P Bureau, member of the IAF Editorial Panel

On the usefulness of bioenergetics and the need for more rational approaches

Bioenergetics,thestudyofenergytransactionsinbiologicalsystems,hasfoundwideapplicationinanimalnutrition,includingthatofaquaculturespecies.Acenturyago,EgeandKrogh(1914)firstappliedtheprinciplesofbioenergeticstofishes.Today,weformulatefeedstoacertaindigestibleenergy(DE)basisandensurethatthefeedshaveaproperdigestibleprotein(DP)toDEratio(DP:DE).Itisalsoincreasinglycommonforfeedmanufacturerstoaltertheessentialnutrientconcentrationsofthediet,andaquaculturiststoadjusttherationtobedeliveredtothefish,onthebasisoftheDEofthefeedused.Bioenergetics-drivenmodels,suchasthoseproposedbymymentor,DrCYoungCho,haveprovenveryusefulandpracticalforestimationoffeedrequirementandwasteoutputsoffishpopulationsheldincaptivity.ThesuitabilityofcomparingfeedsonthebasisoftheirDEcontenthasbeendemonstratedonanumberofoccasionsinthescientificliterature.

Despiteitsincreasingacceptanceandpopularityinaquaculturenutrition,it

mustneverbeforgottenthatbioenergeticsisa‘system’aimedatsimplifyinginterpretationofhighlycomplexofbiochemicalprocesses.Hundredsofwidelydifferentcompoundscontainenergy(Gibb'sfreeenergy).Animalsdonotsimplymetabolizethisenergyperse,instead,theymetabolizespecificnutrients,eachwiththeirspecificrolesandmetabolicfates.Consequently,thewidelyheldbeliefthat‘animalseattomeettheirenergyrequirement’isoverlysimplistic.

Whileitistruethatanimalsneedtoconsumenutrientsthatwillbecatabolizedtoharnesstheirchemicalenergy,whichwillthenbeusedinlifesustainingprocesses,itmustberecognisedthataverylargeproportion(wellover50%undermostconditions)ofthefeedintakeofananimalistoacquirenutrientsthatareprecursorsforthebiosynthesisofmoleculesthatarestructuralorcatalyticcomponents(structuralproteins,enzymes,phospholipids),storageforms(triglycerides,glycogen)orbiologicallyactivemolecules(hormones,cytokines,lipidmediators,etc.).Theamountof‘energy’thatneedstobeconsumedis,thus,largelydrivenby1)whattheanimalseekstoachieve(itsgrowthpotential,desiredbodycomposition,etc.),2)thenutritionalcompositionofthefeed,and3)thespecificmetabolicrulesthatgoverntheutilizationoftheindividualnutrientsconsumed.Inthiscontext,toboildownsuchcomplexprocessestoasingletermorfactor,i.e.the‘energy’contentofthedietorrequirementoftheanimal,isnotsensible.

Evidencesuggeststhatsignificantdifferencesexistbetweendifferentaquaculturespeciesintermsoftheefficiencyofdifferentenergy-yieldingnutrients(aminoacids,lipids,digestiblestarch)tosupportproteindepositionandgrowth.Arguablythemostsignificantlimitationofbioenergeticsmodelsisthattheyarebasedon‘hierarchyofenergyallocation’,aconceptaccordingtowhich‘growthisthesurplusofenergyafterallothercomponentsofthe

energybudgethavebeencoveredorsatisfied’(Kitchelletal.,1977).Thisconcepthasproventobearelativelyflawedsinceyoungfishfedamaintenanceration(rationsupportingzerobodyenergydeposition)canstilldepositproteinandgrow.

Toquantitativelylookattherequirementandutilizationofalldietarycomponentsinadetailedandintegrativefashionishighlydesirablebutitisalsoextremelycomplex.Consequently,bioenergeticsofferstodayarelativelysimpleandpracticalwayoflookingattheglobalnutrientneedsoftheanimalandthepartitioningofthesenutrientsbetweencatabolismasfuelsandanabolismasstorageintissues.However,weshouldbeunsatisfiedwiththissituationandshouldstrivetodevelopmorerationalapproachesandmodelsbasedonmoreorlessexplicitrepresentationofbiochemicalreactionsandmetabolicrolesandfatesofnutrients.

Anumberofthistypeofmodelshasbeendevelopedbyvariousresearchgroupsforvariousfishspecies.Giventhecomplexityofthetask,allthese‘mechanistic’modelshavebeendevelopedwithsomedegreeofsimplificationofmetabolicpathways,includednumerousassumptions,andbeengenerallydrivenbymoreorlesstransparentandrationalpartitioningrules.Thesehighlydetailedmodelscanworkwellwithinthenarrowrangeofconditionsforwhichtheyaredeveloped.However,theygenerallyfailtoaccuratelydescribenutrientutilizationbyfishunderawiderangeofconditions(differencesinfeedcomposition,environmentalconditions,husbandrypractices,lifestages,geneticbackgroundofanimals,etc.)encounteredinfishculture.

AmajorbottleneckhasbeenthelackofcriticalmassintermsofR&Deffortinvestedonthistopic.Effortsinthepasthavelargelybeenidiosyncratic,piece-meal,andshort-termin

nature.Thereisaneedformoreconcerted,long-termsystematicR&Defforts.Morecomprehensiveandrationalapproachesandmodelsallowingmoreaccuratedescriptionandpredictionoftheconversionofdietaryinputsintobiomasswouldmakepossibletheelaborationofeffectivestrategiesaimedatimprovingtheeconomicalandenvironmentalsustainabilityofaquacultureoperationsworldwide.

Wanttoknowmore?Disagree?Havefeedbackandsuggestions?Contactmeat:[email protected]

AQUACULTUREUPDATES

S p a r s h o l t C o l l e g e i nHampshire,UKhasunveileditsnew aquaculture building andlaunched an apprenticeshipin aquaculture.The £500,000Salmonid Rearing andTrialsCentre was officially openedon January 31, 2013 and willbehometostudentsstudyingFish Husbandry and FisheryManagement.

Vietnameseseafoodproducersare planning to contest a USDepar tment of Commerceanti-subsidy investigation tosee whether the country andsix others have been engagedin unfair trade practices.TheVietnamese Associationof Seafood Expor ters andProducers (VASEP) says thattheshrimpindustry inVietnamis not subsidised by thegovernment.

Researchers in the Japaneseprefecture of Nagasaki havestartedaproject to feedkelpgrouper at an onshore facility.The experimental study aimsto shorten the raising periodto two years instead of fouryears it currently takes inoffshorecages.

Net pen aquaculture inWashington State, USA maycome to anend if aproposedbill is passed by the StateHouse. Rep. Kevin Van DeWege, a Sequim Democrat,filed theone-pageproposal toallow counties tobannet penaquaculture.Unsurprisingly, fishfarmers in theareahavecomeoutinoppositiontothebill.

IFFO ( the I n te r na t iona lFishmeal and Fish Oil organi-sation) logohas undergone a

makeover.The organisation wasformed in 2001, but has a col-lective history of over 50 years,encompassing the activities ofits predecessors, namely theFishmealExporters’Organisation(FEO), InternationalAssociationof Fish Meal Manufacturer s

( IAFMM) and Internat ionalFishmeal and Oil Manufacturers’Association(IFOMA).Theorgan-

i sat ion cont inues tomovewiththetimesand

is introducing a new look for2013.

While the fishmeal and fish oil

industries are still at the core oftheorganisation,recentyearshaveseen members from the humannutraceutical sector,marinecrus-tacean processing, algae cultiva-tion and even retailing join theorganisationastheimportanceofrenewable, responsibly managedmarine ingredients has grown.To reflect this broader member-ship, the IFFO board agreed amodernised logo and strapline,whileretainingthenameIFFOtomaintainalinktothelonghistoryoftheorganisation.

IFFOintroducesnewlogo

The re-introduction ofprocessedanimalproteins(PAPs) der ived from

category 3 materials deemed fitfor human consumption fromnon-ruminant sources is due

within the EU member statesfrom June, 2013 under revisedlegislation.The use of PAPs inall farmed animal diets, includingthose of fish, was banned inthe EU in 2001 (part of animalhealth protection measuresagainstTransmissible SpongiformEncephalopathies(TSEs).

Consequently, the EU aquac-ulture sector was disadvantagedwithin the global aquaculturemarket and alternative sourcesof protein (principally plant by-products such as soybean meal,various pulses and grain proteinconcentrates) were the maincommodities used in combina-tion with fishmeal. Animal by-productsarehoweveravaluable

protein resource that have beenavoided for over a decade andthis has constrained the poten-tialtoreduceourdependenceonmarine sources of both proteinandfatforaquafeeds.

Strategic research conductedby the Plymouth University FishNutrition andAquacultureHealthgroupfrom2005to2011commis-sionedbyStephenWoodgate(pre-viouslytechnicalDirectorofEFPRA;European Fat Processors andRenderersAssociation) resulted inseveral peer-reviewedpublications(Daviesetal2009;Laporte,2007).These investigations validated thesafety and efficacy of poultry by-productmeatmeals,feathermealsand porcine blood proteins foruseindietsfortrout,seabass,seabream,turbot,tilapiaandcarp.

This work, carried out underProfessor Simon Davies, hasclearly demonstrated the feasi-bility of replacing fishmeal with

these products at high inclusionlevelsresultinginexcellentgrowth,feed efficiency and added healthbenefitsforthesespecies.

Whilst having excellent digest-ibility characteristics, poultry by-

products were showntoincreasebonedensity,suppor t the immuneresponseoffishandpro-viding effective replace-

ment of fish meal at up to 50percent without compromisinggrowth and development of fish.These investigations were high-lighted in documentation for-warded by EFPRA to the EUEuropean Food Safety Agency(EFSA) as supporting evidenceto reconsider their introduc-tion in aqua-feeds produced inEurope.

Processedanimalproteins(PAPs)inaquafeedformulationsinEurope

The European FeedM a n u f a c t u r e r s ’Federation (FEFAC)

President Patr ick VandenAvenne we l comed theEuropeanCommissiondecisiontoadopt andpublish thenewregulation on the reauthori-sation of non-ruminant proc-essed animal proteins exclu-sively for use for fish feeding.He stated that“this measurepaves the way for our EUaquacultureproducers tostepup their efforts to encouragethesustainabledevelopmentofEU aquaculture by creating alevelplayingfieldwithseafoodimpor ts from third coun-tries”.

“EFSA has provided clearscientific evidence that non-ruminant PAPs produced inaccordance with the high EUprocessing standards are safe.Theycanhelp in reducing theEU dependency on fishmealimports thus contributing tothe Common Fisheries Policy

reformgoalsofpairingsustain-ablewildfisherieswiththesus-tainabledevelopmentofaqua-culture”.

He highlighted that "theEuropean feed industr y isfully committed to suppor tthecompetitivenessandsus-tainabilityofaquaculturepro-ductionintheEU,assetoutin the Commission proposalon the Common Fisher iesPolicy and suppor tedby theEP Committee on Fisheriesin their December 2012vote on the CFP repor t ofMEP Mrs Ulr ike Rodust”.The new measure contrib-utes to global food security,by reducing theEUdepend-ency on seafood impor tswhichaccountformorethan70 percent of the currentEU consumption". He notedthat PAPs are widely usedby aquaculture producers inAsia andNorth- and South-America, who are expor tingfarmedfishtotheEU.

FEFACwelcomesreturnofPAPsintheEU


Aqua News


Aqua News


Ice is the no-brainer way tokeep fish fresh during trans-portation. However, scientists

at Nofima, Norway believe thatice and insulatedboxes create afalsesenseofsecurityandrestrictinnovationinthesector.Accordingto the feed research institute, in2010Norwayexported922,000

tonnes of salmon – the vastmajority of this packed fresh inpolystyrene fish boxes with 5–6kg of ice per 22 kg of fish.Thisisequivalent to7,500articulatedlorries full of ice (around 230millionlitresofwater).

Nofima has been working onalternative methods for trans-

portationof fish including 'superchilling'.

This method involves reducingthe temperature down to theequalisation temperature of thefish, typically -1 to -2 °C. Superchilling is the easiest way ofincreasing the primary qualityperiod of the fish and may be

combined with packaging ina protected environment ofcarbon dioxide and nitrogen,during both distribution and inconsumerpackaging.Thisenableshighqualitytobemaintainedforseveral weeks in a cooling chainthatisinaccordancewiththereg-ulations(0to+2°C).

Cloudy Bay Clams, NewZealand has successfullyundergone both fishery

andchainofcustodyauditanditssurf clams can now carry Friendof theSea international sustaina-bilitysealofapproval.

Theauditedfishingvesselsforstormclam(Mactramurchisoni),diamond(Spisulaaequilatera)andmoonshell(Dosiniaanus)andTuaTua(Paphiesdonacinia),were foundtobecom-pliant with all Friend of the Seacriteriaforsustainablefishery.

The target stocks in the threeidentified fishing areas (withinFMA7andFMA3onthenorth-east coast of the South Islandof New Zealand) are not over-exploited and overfishing is notoccurring.

TheTotal Allowed Catch isset and monitored by both thecompany and the Ministr y ofPrimaryIndustry(MPI).Basedonstockassessmentsandtheresultsof fisheriesmonitoringquotaareallocated for each FMA everyyear.

Theclamsareharvestedfromasandy substrate along the coast-line.The fishingmethod is basedon a hydraulic winnowing clamrake, designed and developedby the company itself.The ClamRake mesh is 10 mm diametreandnonetsareused.

Theuseofwaterjetsisdesignedtomaximizecatch,minimizemor-tality of clams and minimise theeffects of dragging the dredgethrough the sand. The only

by-catch istheoccasionalpaddlecrabwhichrepresentslessthan1percentof the catch. If alive andunharmed, they are returned tosea.

Fishing is not allowed in pro-tectedareas.GPSrecordsof theareaharvestedwereavailableforevery single vessel. Marine GPStracking and navigation systemsare fitted to all vessels sup-plying Cloudy Bay Clams, thusmaking all fishing trips traceable.Fishing areas are harvested in‘paddocks’ within the designatedfishing (QMA) areas.The down-loadingofthisdata isautomatedandhenceunequivocalandnon-forgeable.

According to NZ legislationall of the catch is recorded on

the Catch Landing Effort Return(CLER) as well as any discardson the vessel (e.g. return ofundersized live clams to sea)and brought onshore.Accuratedata and information on everycatch repor ting fishing area,time, and quantity are available.Reporting activity is subject toMPIauditing.

Wasteandenergymanagementsystems are in place and imple-mented.

“Friend of the Sea cer tifica-tion confirms our effor ts andcontinuous commitment to sus-tainability" explains Mike Ponder,general manager Cloudy BayClams “and it represents animportant added value for ourproduct”.

Superchilledstorage

FriendoftheSeacertificationforCloudyBayClams

Theargumentthathundredsof salmon farms create agauntlet forwildmigrating

fishhasbeenchallengedbyamapshowingactivefarmsduring2012’soutmigrationseason.

“Salmon farmsareverywell sitedand chosen based on the condi-tionsoftheareaandwhat’sbestforallfish–wildandfarmed,”saidMaryEllenWalling, Executive Director,BritishColumbia Salmon Farmer'sAssociation (BCSFA).“Thesemapsputintoperspectivewhatlittlespaceour farms actually take up whilecontributing toBCasan importantfarmingsectorintheprovince,particu-larlyinourcoastalcommunities.”

This is the third year that theBCSFAhasproactivelyproducedthis reference for the public,with the maps now completebackto2007.Farmershavesup-ported continuing this informa-tionreleaseaspartoftheircom-mitment to sharing news andfacts about their farms with thepublic.

“Our farmers work hard eachdaytogrowhealthyfood,soedu-catingthepublicaboutthatcom-mitmentisakeyresponsibilityforus,”saidWalling.

The spring is a par ticular lyimpor tant time for salmonfarmers, who employ numerous

managementpracticestoprotectthe health of both farmed andwildfishyearround.FromMarchto July, the frequency of countsfor naturally-occurring sea liceand fish health monitoring onfarms increases to give specialconsiderationtowildfishspeciesmigrating from freshwater outto their feeding grounds in theNorthPacific.

These maps are par ticular lyhelpful followingthereleaseofthe final repor t of the CohenCommission of Inquir y intothe Decline of Fraser RiverSockeye, where Justice BruceCohen recommended fur ther

research in the Discover yIslandsarea.

“We’ve seen lots of estimatesabouthowmanyfarmsareinthatarea,butthisisasolidrecordforthe public that they can use toinform themselves directly,” saidWalling.

The BCSFA represents salmonfarm companies and those whosupply services and supplies tothe industr y. Salmon farmingprovides for 6,000 direct andindirect jobs while contributing$800-million to the provincialeconomyeachyear.

Themapcanbeviewedonlineatwww.salmonfarmers.org

Activesalmonfarmmapshowssmallfootprint

8 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | March-April 2013 March-April 2013 | InternAtIonAl AquAFeed | 9

Aqua News

The U.S Food and DrugAdministration has part-nered with the Joint

Institute for Food Safety andApplied Nutrition (JIFSAN) atthe University of Maryland toofferatrainingmoduleforaqua-culture producers to help them

complywithFDAregulations forimportingseafood.JIFSANhousestheonlinetrainingonitswebsiteandprovidescertificatesofcom-pletiontothosewhotakeit.

TheUnitedStatesimportsapprox-imately 90percentof its seafood.Thetrainingcourse isdesigned for

foreignproducerswhoexporttheirproducts to theUS, andmayalsobeusefulforforeignregulators.FDAreceives numerous inquiries eachyearfromimportersandproducersof seafood, particularly about thechemicalsordrugstheyareusingorwouldliketouse.Thenewmodule

isdesignedtoclarifyhowFDAreg-ulates drugs for aquaculture, andprovidesinformationtohelpidentifywhatdrugsmaybeusedandhowthey should be used to preventunacceptable residues.The coursealso includesasectiononthe judi-cioususeofantimicrobials.

With theworld’spop-ulation set to break9 billion by 2050,

sourcing sustainable high qualityproteinandnutrientsisbecomingincreasingly impor tant.This isespeciallyvitalconsideringcurrentfoodsystemscannotsustainsuchaprominentinflux.

Though according to BeckyTimmons, directorof applicationsresearch andquality assurance at

AlltechUSA,thisisagreatoppor-tunity for the agriculture industryto sustainably provide the nec-essary nutrients for the ever-increasingpopulation.

WithashortfallintheavailabilityofOmega-3 fatty acids, vegetablesources are increasingly beingsubstituted in the production offarmedfish.Thissubstitutionleadsto lower levels ofOmega-3 fattyacids in the meat.Although fish

consumption has doubled since2005, though the nutritionalbenefitsstillremainthesame.

Recently,atAlltech’sGlobal500,Timmons spoke about thepossi-bilitiesforalternative,value-addedenrichedproducts.Althoughtheseproducts are already available intoday’s markets, they are usuallyfortifiedwith fishoralgaloilafterproduction.Timmonssuggeststhatfeedingtheanimalstheoildirectlywould result in noticeable algalbenefitsinthemeatitself.

Discussingthebenefitsofvalue-addedsolutions,Timmonsexplains,“Considerwhat your opportuni-ties are and do not be afraid ofscienceand forward thinking, staycurious! Look forward and say ifthere is a challenge then there isalsoanopportunity.Thereisawayforustodifferentiateourselvesinthosetimesofchallenge.”

Followingtrials,Alltechhasseena significant uptake of Omega-3fatty acids in meat in variousspecies.

Wa t e r a n dE n v i r o n m e n t a lA f f a i r s M in i s te r,

Edna Molewa has publishedthe Env i ronmenta l ImpactAssessment (EIA) Guideline forAquaculture in SouthAfrica forpubliccomment.

Published under section 24Jof the National EnvironmentalManagement Act, 1998 (ActNo. 107 of 1998), the guideline

seeks to align the EIA processandenvironmentalauthorisationsto the specific nature of aquac-ulture.

It also seeks to identify andpromoteawarenessofthepoten-tialpositiveandnegative impactsassociated with aquaculture andpresent measures of mitigationtothepotentialimpactsofaqua-culture.

“Aquaculture does not take

place inavacuumandtheguide-line emphasises this andprovidesparticulars around the authorisa-tion requirements in aquacultureunderpinned by various environ-mentallegalframeworks,includingtheBiodiversityAct,theProtectedAreasActandtheWasteAct,”saysthedepartment.

Theguidelinealsohighlightsthescale of the potential impacts ofaquaculture and the risks posed

to the environment if aquacul-ture is not implemented alongtheprinciplesofsustainability.

Molewasaysthattheguidelinewillassistwiththecreationofanenviron-mentally responsibleandmoresus-tainableaquacultureindustry.

“It is envisaged that the princi-plesoutlinedinthisguidelinewillresultinthedevelopmentofenvi-ronmentally sustainable projectsandultimatelyanenvironmentallyresponsibleaquaculturesectorforSouthAfrica,”Molewasays.

EnvironmentalimpactguidelineforaquacultureinSouthAfrica

Alltechconductstrialsintoalgaeapplications

FDAandJIFSANannounceonlinetrainingforaquacultureproducersandimporters

Withdemand forworld foodsupply intensifying year onyear, forecasters predictthat in the not-too-distant

future,theaveragefamilyislikelytofindfishonthedinnerplatefarmorefrequentlythanproteinfromlandrearedanimals.Theworldpopulation needs large supplies of proteinanditcostssignificantlylesstocultivatefish,thantoraiselandanimalssuchascows,pigsandpoultryforslaughter.

This scenario is expected to drive theworld food business into the direction ofaquaculture with increasing momentum inthe years to come. Contemporary trendssupport thisprediction. In thepast50years,globaldemandforfishproductshasdoubledand today nearly halfof the world’s sea-foodcomesnotfromwildcatches,butfromland-based and off-shorefishfarms.

Aquaculture ispoised to intensifyacross theworld,notonly in established fish-producing countrieslikeNorwayandScotland,butalso inChina,Vietnam,India,BrazilandcountriesaroundtheMediterraneanSea.Chile’saquaculturesector,whichwas greatly impacted a fewyears agoby infectious salmon anaemia (ISA), a viraldiseaseaffectingAtlanticsalmon,isalsomak-ingarobustcomeback.

According to projections offered by theFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO)oftheUnitedNations, it isestimatedthattomaintain the current level of per capita fishconsumption, global aquaculture productionwillneedtoreach80milliontonnesby2050.

LindeGases,adivisionofTheLindeGroupandagloballeaderinaquaculturetechnology,has been closely tracking these trends andcontinues to investheavily indeveloping thekindoftechnologyrequiredbothnowandinthefuturetosupporttheexpectedexpansioninworldaquaculture.Lindeanticipatesgrowthintheworldaquacultureindustrybetweensixto eight percent in 2013 alone. This meansfishfarmswillneedtogearuptheiroperationsto be equal to the challengesofmaintainingoptimal fish production conditions, such asappropriatenutrition,diseasepreventionandmostimportantly,maintainingahealthywaterenvironment.

Controlling the concentration of oxygendissolvedinwateriscrucialtothesuccessof

aquaculture.Generallyspeaking,theclosertheoxygenconcentrationistoairsaturation,thebetterwillbetheenvironmentforhealthyandreliablefishgrowth.Maintainingtherightlevelsofoxygen improves feedutilisation, shortensthe growth period, reduces fish mortalityand mitigates the need for vaccination andantibiotics.

From land to seaDepending on the fish species, the most

common approach in today’s aquaculturesector is to grow these fish on land in acontrolled freshwater environment until the

fish grow to weigh about 100 grams, as isthe case with the salmon industry, which isthemostdynamicareaoftheindustryatthemoment.Oncethefishreach100grams,theyare transferred to sea cageswhere they canbegrowntoapproximately4-5kilogramsdur-ingaperiodof14-24months.

The latest advance is amove to growingthe young salmon up to 200 gramson landand the larger fish farming companies agreethat this practice is likely to progress to apointwherethefishareeventuallygrowntofull slaughter size on land. Before this hap-pens, however, themost likely developmentis expected to be an intermediate stagebetweencultivatingthefishonlandandtrans-ferringthemtoseacages,thatinvolvesclosed

systemswhichfloatinthesea.

For technol-ogy partners likeLinde, regardlessofwhetherthefishare being rearedin closed systemson land or in thesea, their task isto ensure that the

oxygenation systems they supply keep pacewiththedynamicsofthechangestheindustryisexperiencing.

This trend towards thinking beyond thetraditional 16 to20metrediameter fresh andsalt water tanks is taking hold in the leadingaquaculture regions and it is likely that tanksasbigas40metresindiameterandbiggerwillbecomea reality.Tosupport this trend,Lindeis focusing on developing technology that willgetthehydrodynamicsrightandensureoxygenisfullydistributedthroughouttheselargetanks.

Aninterestingpotentialbenefitofincreas-ingland-basedaquacultureisthatwhenintro-

Transforming aquaculture production using oxygenation systems by Linde Gases Division, Germany


FEATURE


duced on a large scale it could bring fishproduction to the place where the fish isactuallyconsumed.

The Marine Harvest Group, the world'slargestprivate fishproducer, isbuildingever-largertanks.AtKårstø,Norway,thecompanyhas plans to produce 6,000 tons of salmonper year, onshore, to an average size of 1kilogram, in fish tanks40metres indiameterand10metreshigh,withvolumesofwaterashighas12,000cubicmetres.MarineHarvestalso intends to explore the possibility ofbuildinga landbasedfish farminaquarryatMjølkevikvarden, in Askøy, Norway, wherethe company believes there is potential tobuild a plant big enough to produce 50,000tonsperyearof1kilogramsalmon.

This is equal to 5 percent of the totalbiomass production of salmon and troutin Norway today — currently about 1 mil-lion tons per year. Theoretically, if 20 oftheseplantswhere inoperation today,allofNorway’ssalmonproductiontofullslaughtersize could be accomplished on land. Keyparameters associated with this installationare20,000cubicmetrefishtanks,35metresindiameter.

Pioneering technologyOneof themostpioneering technologies

to be introduced to the industry has beenLinde’s SOLVOX® OxyStream system. The

uniquenessof thetechnology isbasedon itsability to perform three critical functions inonesystem-dissolvingoxygen in thewater,producingthecorrectmarinehydrodynamicsandstrippingoutpotentiallyharmfulnitrogen- and all this via a very low energy require-ment.Thesystemiseasilyinstalled,asanewset-up or as a retrofit to existing fish farmtanks, and is maintenance-free because it isnot associated with any ancillary equipmenttomanagewaterpressure.

SOLVOX® OxyStream significantlyincreases fish production volume, optimisesfish meat quality and considerably improvesoperationsfromanenvironmentalstandpoint.Itisacombinedoxygenationandflowsystemthat not only dissolves the optimal amountof oxygen in the inlet water flow, but alsodistributesitevenlyatanadjustableflowpat-tern throughout the tank, ensuring that thefish stock benefit from the physical exerciseinvolved in swimming against the flow. Theflow regime can be fully tailored accordingto fish size, stock density and fish species,suchassalmonorcod.Thesystemcomprisesa standalone unit, allowing water flow andoxygen dosing to be individually controlledforeachtank.

Themicro-bubblescreatedbySOLVOX®OxyStream create the additional benefit ofhelping to reduce the concentration of dis-solvedinertgasessuchasnitrogen,argonand

carbon dioxide. In particular, oversaturationofnitrogen,eveninrelativelysmallquantities,canendangerthewellbeingoffishstock,slow-ing growth and increasing the possibility ofdisease, and ultimately, even mortality. WiththeinstallationofOxyStream,externaldegas-singunitstopreventinertgasbuild-upwill,inmanycases,becomeobsolete.

Depending on the application, pumpingpressuresas lowas0.05 to0.2bararenor-mally sufficient to oxygenate the incomingwater,stripnitrogenandcreateoptimaltankhydrodynamics. This low operating pressuremakesthesystemveryenergyefficient.

The capabilities of this technology wereproved during trials conducted at a MarineHarvest facility in2011.Results showed thatOxyStreamwastheonlyoxygenationsourcesuitable for rearingyoung salmonhatched intanksrunningonfreshwater,beforegraduallytransitioning them to seawater. This createsan optimum environment in which to rearsalmon, ensuring the correct oxygen levelsthroughouttheentireproductionperiodandkeeping fish stress levels to an absoluteminimum.

Importantly, thetechnologymakes itpos-sible to precisely predict flow velocity andto adjust this velocity in the circular on-landtanks, Depending on their state of matu-rity, fish need a certain water velocity toremainhealthy. If the velocity is not correct,


FEATURE

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fish behaviour and swimming patterns canbecome erratic, utilising more energy andthereforerequiringmorefood.

The global aquaculture industry hasrespondedtotheintroductionofthissystemwith immense interest and the Linde teamcurrentlyhasmanyunitspilotingatcustomersites and has fielded enquiries from NorthAmerica, the UK, Norway, France, Chile,Australia and even from Saudi Arabia andIsrael.

Future developmentsAs larger tanks are being contemplated,

Linde is already investing in future develop-ments and, to this end, in 2012 openeda state-of-the-art Innovation Centre forAquaculture - a pioneeringR&Dand testingunitlocatedatÅlesund,Norway.Thislocationwasspecificallychosenforitsproximitytotheheart of the world's most industrialised fishfarmingcommunity.

Inadditiontohighlyequippedlaboratories,the centre features a number of test and

demonstration aquaculture tanks, the largestof which is 55 cubic metres and has beenbuilt to a highly innovative specification.Thetank allows both aquaculture technologistsandcustomersaliketoobservehowthelatestoxygenation technologies impact fish devel-opment within an optimal on-land farmingenclosure.Inadditiontoanoverheadwalkwayextendingthefulldiameterlengthofthetank,Linde has maximised observational opportu-nities via eye-level inspection windows andunderwaterlighting.

Outside of Norway, development inaquaculture is going on in many othercountries. After being hit by the ISAvirus, the aquaculture industry in Chileis ramping up again with a robust focuson oxygenation technology to supportdisease control. Technology capable ofmaking more oxygen available at lowenergyisalsoattractingattentionincoun-

triesplanningtoexpandtheiraquacultureindustries.

Linde is also doing research into thespecies of fish most likely to be producedin higher volumes in future years.While theexisting salmon industry will continue togrow, indicationsarethatothertypesof fish,particularly those capableofbeingharvestedin warmer water temperatures of about 25to30degreesCelsius,willcometothefore.

In fact, a research team at the newLinde Innovation Centre for Aquaculture issimulating conditions in tropical areas, bothforfishcultivatedinfreshandsaltwater.Thisis expected to pave the way for Linde todevelop technology surpassing current state-of-the-artsystemsinthisarena.

Broader technologies Linde’s existing aquaculture offering, fea-

turing broader technologies and products,willcontinuetoplayaroleintheforeseeablefuture. Each facility, type of water and fishcrophasdifferentrequirementswhichcanbe

met,incombination,byelementsdrawnfromanentireproductfamily.Someofthisequip-ment isdedicated to saltwaterand some isoptimalforfreshwaterfishfarming.

With 50 years of experience in aquacul-ture,Lindehasaccumulatedtheexpertisetoidentifytherighttypeofequipmentforeachcustomer’suniquerequirementsviathemostcost effective solution — minimum use ofoxygenandenergy.

In addition to SOLVOX® OxyStream,Linde’s SOLVOX® technology line offers awide range of oxygenation systems for theaquaculture industry, comprising equipmentforoptimiseddissolutionofoxygen inwater,perfect distribution of oxygenated water tothefishandaregulationconceptforsmoothandreliableoperation.

SOLVOX®Stream creates a better tankenvironment and improves the wellbeing offarmed fish. It provides good tank hydraulics

andevenoxygendistributionthroughoutthewater volume. This makes the fish spreadout throughout the entire water volume.Comprising of a slot tube with water flowindicator, SOLVOX® Stream ensures thatoxygenated water is homogenously distrib-utedoverthecompletedepthofthetank.Itisalsodesignedtoachieveanoptimalcircula-tionspeedinthefishtank,appropriatetothefish species and size. SOLVOX®Stream isusedincombinationwithoxygenationequip-mentsuchasSOLVOX®A,guaranteeingthatthe required environmental conditions, interms of hydraulics and oxygen concentra-tion, can be set individually for each tank.SOLVOX®Stream can be customised forflow rates ranging from50 litres perminuteto20,000litresperminuteandanimportantfeature is thewater flow indicatorthathelpscontrol water flow into each tank and opti-miseswaterusage.

SOLVOX®C, a pressure dissolver forseawater and fresh water, comprises conesdesigned to increase the concentration ofgases in water to a high level. In standardoperation, gas transfer efficiency is closeto 100 percent. Since the cones can beoperatedatelevatedpressure,thedissolvedoxygen concentration canbe increased sig-nificantlyabovesaturation.SOLVOX®CVisanadditionaloption toboost theoxygena-tion capacity of the cones, allowing up to50 percent higher oxygen dosing withoutincreasing the water flow rate or energyconsumption.

SOLVOX®B is widely used as anemergency oxygenation system because itrequiresnoauxiliaryenergyandsupportsthelifeofthefishintheeventofasystemfailure.Operationalenergyisprovidedsolelybytheoxygentankpressure.

Linde’sSOLVOX®CDceramicdiffuserisahigh-performance,aluminium-housedoxy-gen dissolving system that ensures uniform

bubbles across the entire surface and mini-mises bubble coalescence. It is also suitablefordissolvingoxygen intoshallowtankswithwater depths of less than 1 metre. Its mainfield of application is to provide additionaloxygento individual tanksandraceways,butit is also frequently installed for emergencyoxygensupply.

Fish grow best at a constant oxygenlevel in the water, but the oxygen con-sumptionoffishvarieswithstockingden-sity, feeding regime, activity status, tem-peratureetc.Inordertokeeptheoxygenlevel as constant as possible, differentamounts of oxygen have to be providedatdifferenttimes.TheSOLVOX®Foxygendosingcabinet isdesignedtoachievethissafelyandreliably. ■

More InforMatIon:Website: www.linde-gas.com


FEATURE



FEATURE

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www.novusint.com/aqua

FEED COST REDUCTION | HEALTH THROUGH NUTRITION | OPTIMIZED RAW MATERIALS | FUNCTIONAL FEEDS | SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES

Our success in developing sustainable solutions evolves from a hands-on knowledge and understanding of the global aqua industry. By focusing on the needs of the animals, our team of experts will design a solution for your operation.

After the BSE crisis in the EUin late 2001, processed animalproteins (PAPs) were bannedfromutilisationinfeedsforaqua-

culture and livestock. Some products werere-introducedin2005(bloodproducts,milkproducts, hydrolyzed proteins, gelatin) astheydidnotposeanyriskoftransferringBSEtoconsumptionanimals.Meanwhilethebulkof processed animal proteins was used forotherapplicationsandexportedtomarketsoutsideEurope.

The ever-increasing cost of fishmeal hascausedimportantincreasesinfishfeedprices.It isthereforelogicalthatfishfeedproducerscontinuouslylookforalternatives,butallotherpotentialproteinsourcesarebecomingscarceand expensive. The re-introduction of PAPsintoEuropeanaquafeeds,effectiveonJune1,2013, would help the European aquacultureindustry to solve part of the raw materialproblem.

SustainabilityIt would also reduce considerably the

carbon footprint of aquafeeds, since theseprotein sources are locally available and willpartially substitute imported soybean mealfrom the Americas and fishmeal from PeruandChile.

The carbon footprint of PAPs is muchlower than the footprint of vegetablemeals(Figure1).Alsotheemissionsrelatedto landuseandlandusechange(LULUC)arehigherforvegetablemeals.Thecarbonfootprint of poultry meal originates fromtheproductionof theby-products (based

on a allocation according to economicvalueofmeatandby-products),plusener-gy for transporting the by-products anddryingofthematerial.

Aquaculture is often criticised for usingmore fish thanproducing fish (FIFO>1).There-introductionofPAPsprovidesachancetolowertheFIFOconsiderably.

Apartfromsustainability,alsonutritionally,PAPsarethefirstproteinssourcestobeusedtoreplacefishmeal,foranumberofreasons:

High protein and amino acid contentPAPs are rich in most essential amino

acids except methionine. They are particu-larlyhigh inarginineandotherwatersolubleamino acids (proline, glycine, and glutamic

acid),which act as attractant andpalatant inaquafeeds.

Digestible proteinsDigestibilityvariesa lotbetweendifferent

PAPsandisaffectedbyqualityofrawmateri-alsbeforedryinganddryingmethod.WecanobservethatgoodqualityPAPsshowdigest-ibility levelswhich are as high as thehighestqualityfishmeals.(Table2)

Partially soluble proteins BothfishmealandPAPscontainimportant

amounts of water soluble proteins, in theform of peptides or longer chains. Thesewater soluble proteins are highly digestible,but also will improve the attractibility and

Table 1: Table of composition of feather meal, poultry meal and meat and bone meal in comparison with the requirement of gilthead sea bream, rainbow trout and salmon

Feather meal Poultry meal Meat and

bone meal Salmonids Gilthead sea bream

Crude protein 85 63 50 35-45 38-46

amino acids (in % of CP)

arginine 7,0 6,7 6,9 3.3-5,1 5.0

Histidine 0,8 1,8 1,7 1,6-1,8

Isoleucine 4,9 3,5 2,8 2,0-2.3

leucine 8,2 6,3 5,3 3,6-4.0

Valine 7,4 4,9 3,7 2.9-5,3

lysine 2,4 5,7 5,0 4.0-5,0 5.0

Phenylalanine 4,9 3,6 3,3 4,1-5,3

Meth+Cyst 4,9 3,0 2,1 2,4-4,0 4.0

threonine 4,8 3,6 3,0 1,8-2,2

tryptophan 0,7 0,9 0,6 0,5-1.4 0.6

Nutritional benefits of using Processed Animal Proteins (PAPs) in European aquafeeds

by Eric De Muylder1 and Geert van der Velden2


FEATURE


palatability of aquafeeds. Highly digestibleprotein sources are essential in formulatinglarval and starterdiets for fish. Palatabilityofdiets becomes increasingly important whendietsare formulatedtocontain less fishmeal,butmorevegetableproteins.

Presence of digestible P and Ca Phosphorus digestibility is a major prob-

lem in aquafeed formulation. The phospho-rus present in vegetable proteins is mostlytrappedinphytineandisnotavailableforthefish. Utilisation of phytase can be a solution

to increase the availability of phosphorus.The phosphorus present in meat and bonemeal and poultry meal has a higher avail-ability. As a consequence, the faeces of fishcontaining more animal proteins will containless phosphorus which will find its way intothe environment. This excreted phosphoruscancauseeutrophication.Thisisparticularlyaproblemforcagefarming,andtroutfarminginflowthroughponds.

Low fibre contentMost commercial fish species, cultured in

Europe forhumanconsumptionarecarnivo-rous species. Their ability to digest fibers islimited.Vegetableproteinsourcearegenerallyhigh in fiber content, while animal proteinscontainverylittleamountsoffibers.

Lipid content as energy source, but not as source of essential fatty acids

One disadvantage of PAPs could be thepresence of lipids with saturated fatty acidscomparedtounsaturatedfattyacidsinfishmeal.Lipids in fishnutritionhave a role forprovid-

Figure 1: Carbon footprint of poultry meal and three vegetable meals per tonne of products (Ponsioen &

Blonk, 2010)


FEATURE

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ingessentialunsaturated fattyacids(linolenic,EPAandDHAfor salmonids and EPA andDHA for marine fishes) andasenergysource.

For fish species that cantolerate higher amounts oflipidsintheirdiet,likesalmo-nids,seabreamandseabass,acombinationofanimal,veg-etableand fishoilcansatisfyboth requirements, withoutalteringthefattyacidcontentofthefishflesh.

Presence of some nutrients which still need to be investigated

Due to the ever-increas-

ingpricesandscarcityoffishmeal,researchiscontinuouslysearchingforalternatives.Thisisoftenpossibleuptoacertain level,buttotalreplacementoftenresultsingrowthloss,eventhoughdietswereformulatedtocontainthesameamountsofessentialnutrientsforwhichtherequirementsareknown.

Replacing fishmeal by PAPs gener-ally results in better results than replacingfishmeal by vegetable proteins. There areprobably some unknown nutrients still tobe discovered, which are present in ani-mal proteins but not in vegetable proteins.Hydroxyproline,taurineandnucleicacidsaresome nutrients that has attracted attentionrecently by researchers, but their require-ments still need further investigation. Thereare probably more nutrients to be discov-eredinthenearfuture.

ConclusionPAPs are high quality protein sources.

Their re-introduction into European aqua-feeds will facilitate the formulation of highproteins fish feeds, since their availabilityis better than fishmeal.This will also helpthe strive towards more sustainable aqua-culture. PAPs contain a lot of interestingnutrients and are a better alternative toreplace fishmeal than vegetable proteinsources. ■

Diets contained 17 % Fish oil, 12 % fish oil + 5 % poultry oil or porc bone oil. In

treatment Poultry oil/Fish oil, the fish receive first the diet with poultry oil and than the

diet with only fish oil

Table 2: Overview of Apparent Digestibility Coefficients (ADC) and Apparent Digestibility of Proteins (ADP) observed for Rainbow trout and Gilthead seabream compared to other protein sources

rainbow trout Gilthead sea bream

aDC aDP aDC aDP

lt fish meal 72,6 90,5 71,8 87,5

Danish fish meal 95,8

Hydrolyzed feather meal 65,7-84 % 71,6-87 48,8 51,6-57,7

Meat and bone meal 55,9-72 83-89 35-79

Poultry meal 59,8-77 83-91 80-89,9

Soybean meal 29,5-75,3 95,9 86-90,9

Soy protein concentrate 53,2 90,4

Corn gluten 80-95 74,5-89,5 90

"PAPs are high quality protein sources.

Their re-introduction into European

aquafeeds will facilitate the formulation

of high proteins fish feeds, since their

availability is better than fishmeal"

More InforMatIon:Website: www.sonac.biz1CreveTec, [email protected] BV, [email protected]


FEATURE


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B ioenergetics describe the flowofenergyandnutrientswithinabiologicalsysteminourexamplea fish or shrimp. It describes

the biological process of utilisation andtransformation of absorbed nutrients forenergy, for own body synthesis.The feed,that is consumed, is transformed in thebody, complex chemical compounds arebroken down into simpler components -protein into amino acids, carbohydratesintoglucose,lipidsintofattyacidsandwiththisprocessenergy is released -which isused formaintenance, for renewingwornout tissue and building new tissue - forgrowth. The major organic compoundsin feeds such as lipid, protein and carbo-hydrates are the sources of energy butthey also supply the building material forgrowth.

There are different types of energy,chemicalenergy,electricalenergy,mechani-cal energy and heat. These different formsof energy can be transformed into eachotherbutonlyatacost,thetransformationis not 100 percent efficient. What is lostis mostly in the form of heat. Heat is alsotheonly formofenergy, intowhichall theothers can be transformed and measured.The chemical energy stored in feed andanimal tissue is measured using a bombcalorimeter.Theamountofheatproducedby complete oxidation of feed or tissueis known as the heat of combustion orgross energy (GE). Heat energy is usuallyexpressed in kilocalories (kcal) or kilojoule(kJ).Onekcalequalstheenergyneededtoraisethetemperatureofonekgofwaterbyone degree Celsius (°C). One kcal equals4.184kJ.

Forthebio-energeticmodel,thetwolawsofthermodynamicscanbeapplied

1.Energy cannot be created ordestroyedwithinasystembutmaybe changed into different forms(whatgoesinmustgoout)

2.Inasystemwhereenergyistrans-formed(fromfeedto flesh) thereisadegradationandlossofenergyintheformofheat(nothingis100percentefficient)

Theflowofenergy fromfeedtogrowthinananimalisillustratedinFigure1.Notallthe energy from the feed is digested, sub-stancessuchasfibreandcellulosefromplantingredientspassthroughthedigestivesystemwithoutbeingavailabletothefish.Thecon-sumed GE minus faecal energy losses (FE)iscalled thedigestibleenergy(DE)which isthenavailableforthemetabolicprocessesofananimal.

The next majorlosses occur, whenenergy containing com-pounds (on DE basis)are transformed by thefish, broken down tosmaller units and thenused to build its ownenergy reserves or todeposit protein asgrowth. As mentionedabove, this process oftransformation is never100 percent, there arealways losses and theyare mostly in the formofheat.Inpoikilotherms

such as fish this heat is lost to the sur-roundingwater,inhomeothermsitispartlyused to keep the body temperature con-stant. Only the net energy (NE) is nowavailable for maintenance and for growth.Maintenance requirement represents ener-gyneededformovements,osmo-regulation,blood circulation, first this energy has tobe supplied before the remainder can bechanneled into growth - themain productinfishculture.

Quantification of energy demand in fish

By quantifying the energy budget - theenergy input on one hand and the variousenergy losses on the other hand, valuableinformation can be gained in order to opti-misefeedsandguaranteeoptimalfishgrowth.By defining demands for maintenance andgrowth (Figure 1) and anticipating certainlosses beforehand, feeds can be formulatedandfeedingtablesestablished.

Bioenergetics - application in aquaculture nutrition

by Ingrid Lupatsch, Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture, Swansea University, United Kingdom

Figure 1: Schematic presentation of the energy flow through a fish


FEATURE


Maintenance requirementFish require energy for maintaining basic

processes of life such as blood circulation,osmo-regulation, excretion and movement,regardless of whether or not feed is con-sumed.Ananimaldeprivedoffeedcontinuesto require energy for those processes andwill obtain it from the catabolism of ownbody reserves. Depending on the activity,severalmetaboliclevelscanbedistinguished:basal, standard, routine and active metabo-lism.

Metabolicrate(Q)atall levelsofactivity,depends largely on the size of the fish andthe water temperature, and is (at constanttemperature) proportional to the metabolicbodyweightintheformof

Q = a BW(kg)b

Where(kg)b:Metabolicbodyweighta is the constant for given conditions

(species,activity,temperature)b isthescalingexponentofthemetabolic

bodyweightMostmetabolicstudiesonfisharecarried

outvia indirectcalorimetry.This isbasedonthe assumption, that energy production inananimal isanaerobicprocessandrequiresoxygen for oxidising nutrients either fromthefoodorfromthetissue. Inthiscase it isassumed that the amount of oxygen takenup by respiration will release an equivalentamount of energy which can be calculatedfromtheoxy-caloricvalue.Anothermethodisthecomparativeslaughtertechniquewhichmeasures the caloric value of the tissuesutilisedduringfasting.

Figure2illustratestherelationshipbetweenmetabolic rate of a fasting fish (gilthead seabream)andweight.

The relationship between fasting metabo-lism and fish weight is not linear and results(Figure 2) were fitted to ln - ln functions ashave traditionally been used by animal nutri-tionists to express metabolic body weight.The antilog of these functions describes theallometric relationship common in biologicalmeasurements.

Metabolic rate (kJ /fish /day) = 41.5 BW(kg)0.80

(1)

With an exponent of b= 0.80 for the metabolicbody weight, the implica-tion is that metabolic rateis increasingwith increasingfishweightinabsoluteterms(kJ/fish/day),butsmallerfishspendmoreenergyperunitsize than bigger fish. Thisconcept of metabolic bodyweight will be clarified fur-theron.

It should be noted thatthe fasting metabolism isonly an approximation ofthemaintenancerequirement;allowancemustbe made for the efficiency of utilisation ofthe dietary energy. This can be achieved byfeeding fish graded levels fromzero feeduptomaximumintake.Energygainorlossinfishis thendeterminedbycomparative slaughtertechnique. The following Figures 3 and 4describetherelationshipbetweenenergyfed(DE) and energy retained for sea bream oftwodifferentsizes.(at210C).

It is obvious from Figure 3 that as moreenergy is consumed the more energy isgained,untilthefishrefusetoeatmore.Figure3 also demonstrates that the relationshipbetweendailyDEconsumed (x) andenergyretained (y) is linear and can be describedby the followingequations foreach the twofishsizes:

Sea bream of 30 g y = - 2.2 + 0.66 × (2)

Sea bream of 100 g y = - 4.6 + 0.67 × (3)

During fasting the fishwould lose energyasexpected-2.2kJper fishof30gand4.6kJperfishof100gperday.TheDErequire-ment for maintenance (no energy gain orloss) can be found where energy gain (y)is set at zero. According to the equationsabove,themaintenancerequirementperday

would amount to 2.2 / 0.66 = 3.33 kJ forthe 30 g fish and 6.86 kJ for the 100 g fish.As mentioned before, absolute maintenancerequirement is increasingwith increasing fishweights,butregardedperunitofweightgainit is decreasing. Energy requirement of thesmallerfishis110kJ/kgandforthelargerfishonly69kJ/kg.

Theslopesofthelinesarenearlyidenticalat0.67;theycanberegardedastheefficiencyof utilisation of energy. Per unit of DE con-sumed67percent is retainedasgrowth, theremainderislostasheattothewater.

InFigure4 thesamedataset isusedbutdaily energy retention in fish is presentedreferring to the metabolic weight of kg0.80.ByexpressingDE intakeandthesubsequentretention of energy per metabolic weight(kg0.80) the resulting regressions of the rela-tionshipsforbothfishsizescanbecombined.

ThustherelationshipbetweenDEfed(x)andenergygained(y)bothexpressed inkJ /kg0.80/dayisasfollows:

at 21ºC y = - 33.7 + 0.67 × (4)

Accordingtotheequation(4),themain-tenancerequirementperdaywouldamountto 33.7/0.67 = DEmaint = 50.3 kJ x kg0.80(at 21ºC). Again the slope of the line, the

Figure 2: Metabolic rate (kJ/fish/day) of gilthead sea bream at increasing sizes


FEATURE

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efficiency of energy utiliza-tionforgrowthremainsthesame at 0.67. The recipro-cal of 0.67 is 1.49 (1/0.67),which means that 1.49 kJof DE have to be investedto produce 1 kJ of energyas growth, in other words,the energy cost to depositoneunitofenergyasgainisclosetooneandahalfunitsof energy from the feed(basedinDE).

Besidesfishweight,watertemperature is one of themajor factors to determinemaintenance requirement.Addingdataofanadditionaltrial with sea bream per-formed at 27ºC providesthe following equation fortherelationshipbetweenDEfed and energy gained per(kg)0.80(Figure5):

at 27ºC y = - 51.5 + 0.66 × (5)

According to equation(5), themaintenanceenergyrequirement would amountto DEmaint = 78 kJ kg0.80at a temperature of 27ºC,while at 21ºC the mainte-nance requirement was cal-culated as 50.3 kJ kg0.80 asshown before. However inboth instances the slope ofthe line (efficiency) remainsthesameevenatthehighertemperature.

Requirements for growth

To be able to estimatefeedrequirementsitisessen-tial to predict the growthpotential of the target spe-cies. In contrast to terres-trialanimalsfishseemtogrowcontinuously, growth doesnot cease and reaches anasymptote, which in aquacul-turehowevermightneverbeattained.Asgrowthisaffectedby temperature, it increaseswith increasing temperaturesup to an optimum abovewhichgrowthdecreases,untilthe upper lethal temperatureisreached.

Togetherwiththeantici-pated increase in weight,the energy content of thisgainisanotherfactordeter-

miningthesubsequenttotalenergydemandoffish.

Thefollowingequationsdescribethedailyweight gain of gilthead sea bream for watertemperatures ranging between 20 and 28ºCand the energy content per unit of weightgain.

Weight gain (g / fish / day) = 0.024 × body weight (g) 0.514 × exp 0.060 × Temp (6)

Energy content of fish (kJ / g wet weight) = 4.66 × BW(g) 0.139 (7)

Modelling requirements Thecalculationofdailyenergyandconse-

quentlythefeeddemand(basedondigestibleenergyDE,i.e.theamountabsorbedthroughthe gut) for fish can then be described asfollows:

DE intake (kJ/day) = a x BW (kg)b + c x energy gain (kJ/day)

where DE = digestible energy intake

BW = body weight (kg)

The expected live weight gain, which isdependent upon fish size and water tem-perature,canbepredictedwiththefollowingcommonequation,whereagaina,b,andcareconstantstypicalforafishspecies:

Weight gain (g/day) = a x BW (g)b x expc x Temp

Theaverageenergycontentoftheweightgainforafishisdependentonthefishsizeandcanbedescribedas:

Energy content (kJ/g fish) = a x BW (g)b (i.e. it is body weight dependent)

The expected daily energy gain is there-fore:

Weight gain (g) x energy content of fish (kJ/g)

Forthequantificationofdailymaintenancerequirementwhichistheenergyrequirementatzerogrowth:

DEmaint (kJ) = a x BW (kg)b

The cost of production as DE intake(in units of kJ for energy) for one unitof energy deposited as fish energy (asgrowth) is for many fish species around1.50 or 1 / 1.50 = 0.67 = efficiency forgrowth

Combining those equations suggests thatthe feed allowance based on energy intakecanbecalculatedasfollows:

Feed (g) = [(Maintenance + (weight gain) x (composition) x (1.50)]

Figure 3: Relationship between DE consumed and energy gained (in kJ / fish /

day) for two sizes of gilthead sea bream

Figure 4: Relationship between DE consumed and energy gained (in kJ /

kg0.80 / day) for two sizes of gilthead sea bream (at 210C)

Figure 5: Relationship between DE consumed and energy gained (in kJ / kg0.80 / day) for gilthead sea

bream at increasing temperatures.


FEATURE



FEATURE

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From both nutritionist and aqua-culturist points of view, our aimis to sustainably produce aquaticfoodwithsuperiorsensoryproper-

ties and high cardioprotective properties.The reason is that although preventable,cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain thetop global cause of death and stroke.Thepreventionofatherosclerosisis,therefore,amajorobjectiveofmodernmedicalandbio-chemical investigations into the mechanismof atherosclerosis and how the structureof food components determines their roleinthemechanism(s) involved.Thecomposi-tion of aquafeeds and their impact on thenutritional value of aquatic food is a focalpoint of today’s research and developmentbothinacademiaandindustry.

Since the study of the seven countries(Keys et al., 1984), some unanswered ques-tionsstillremainastowhycohortsinGreeceand Italy had coronary heart disease (CHD)at low frequencies but high levels of serumcholesterol(Figure1).

Thereiscompellingliteratureontheben-eficial role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fattyacids (omega-3 PUFAs) and there is a corebeliefthat fish isgoodforourheartbecauseof thesePUFAs.Mechanistically, though, it isnot clear how omega-3 PUFAs work. Their

postulated mechanism in preventing athero-sclerosis could be through lowering the lev-els of triacylglycerol, preventing arrhythmias,decreasing platelet aggregation or loweringbloodpressure(Saravananet al.,2010).

On the other hand, the association ofomega-3PUFAsandCVDshasbeenrevisedrecentlybyevaluatingallrandomizedtrialsonthe supplementation of omega-3 PUFAs toadults (Rizoset al.,2012). In this review, theresultsof20studieson68,680patientswereevaluated and omega-3 PUFAs were notfoundtobestatisticallysignificantlyassociatedwithCVDs in variouspatientpopulations. Inthe light of this study, we may need to re-focus our research quests towards feed andfoodcomponentswithprovedcardioprotec-tiveactivities.

Polar lipids of fishLipid microconstituents of specific food

that constitute important ingredients of theMediterranean Diet have been found thattheyhavein vitro(inthetesttube)importantcardioprotectiveproperties (by inhibiting theactions of the so called Platelet ActivatingFactor,PAF).PAF is themostpotent inflam-matorylipidmediator,awell-recognizedago-nistofplateletaggregationthatplaysacrucialrole in atherosclerosis, i.e. the developmentofcardiovasculardiseases.These lipidmicro-

constituents can practically inhibit the onsetof atherosclerosis and the development ofCVDs(Zabetakiset al.,2013).Suchlipidshavebeen found inawide rangeof foodsuchasredandwhitewine,yoghurt,fish,oliveoilandolive pomace. Further in vivo (using rabbits)studies of olive oil, olive pomace and aqua-cultured fish (Nasopoulouet al., 2010) havere-confirmedthat it is thepolar lipid fractionof these food sources that can reduce thethicknessofatheroscleroticlesionsinhyperc-holesterolaemicrabbits(Figure2).

In a further mechanistic study, our grouphas recently demonstrated that the polarlipidsofseabreamhavedown-regulatedPAFbiosynthesisandup-regulatedPAFcatabolism;practically the polar lipids of fish can inhibitatherosclerosis related enzymatic activities

(Nasopoulouet al.,2011b).

Heavy dependency on fish oilsThe steadily increasing population on

Earth makes the sustainable production offoodoneofthemajornutritionalproblemsfor mankind to address. In terms of foodsecurity in aquaculture, we need to facesuccessfully a ‘paradox’ on the sustainableproductionoffishfeed:today,highamountsoffishoil(FO)arerequiredtoproducefishfeed.Currently,40percentand60percentoftheglobalproductionoffishmealandfishoil, respectively, are used in aquaculture.Salmonid diets alone consumed over 55

percent of the fish oil used by the aquacul-ture sector in 2006. About 50 percent ofworldmarine fish stocks have recently beenestimated as fully exploited, 32 percent asoverexploitedandonly15percentasunder-exploited. These exploitation data suggestthat the diminishing levels of available wildfish worldwide combined with the fact thataquaculturedcarnivorousspeciesrequirelargeamounts of wild fish in their feed create anemerging necessity to improveour resourcemanagementpractices.

Towards aquafeeds with increased food securityby Ioannis Zabetakis, assistant professor of food chemistry, University of Athens, Greece

Figure 1: Rate of mortality due to Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) per quartile of serum cholesterol in pooled cohorts of the Seven Countries Study (adopted from de Lorgeril M et al. Cardiovasc Res 2002;54:503-515)


FEATURE


Need for novel sources

In order to reducedependence on fish oil, sig-nificant breakthroughs have

occurred over the past fewyearsinreplacingitwithplantoils.Bysubstitutingfeedswith

plantoils,italsoservestoreducecostsduetothefactthatvegeta-

bleoilshavesteadilyincreasingproduc-tion, high availability and better economicvalue.Several studieshavebeencarriedout

toinvestigatecertainvegetableoilsaspos-siblesustainablepartialsubstitutesforfishoils incompoundedfish feeds.Themost

commonvegetableoilsusedforfishfeedpro-ductionhavebeensoybean,linseed,rapeseed,sunflower,palmoilandoliveoil.

Soybeanand rapeseedoil areconsideredpossible alternative lipid sources for salmo-nids, freshwater and marine fish since theyare rich in PUFAs, especially linoleic (18:2ω−6)andoleicacid(18:1ω−9),butdevoidof n-3 PUFA. However, in some cases, fishoil substitution by 60 percent rapeseed oilhas been found to decrease European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) growth. Soybeanoil appears to be a better plant lipid sourceregarding gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)growth while considerable savings in feedcostscouldbeachievedifitcouldbeusedas

a partial dietary substitute for fish oil withincompoundfeeds.Thesameistrueoflinseedoil and rapeseed oil, although to a lesserextent.

Furthermore,theuseofpalmoilindietsofAtlantic salmonand rainbow trouthas given

growthandfeedutilizationefficiencycompa-rabletofishfedwithequivalent levelsof fishoil. Olive oil could also be used as a partialsubstitute for dietary fish oil in Europeansea bass culture, during growth out phase,Atlantic salmon (salmo salar) and rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchus mykiss)withdatashowingsimilargrowthratestotheoneswhenfishwasfedon100percentfishoildiet.Allthesestud-

ieshavebeenrecentlyreviewed(NasopoulouandZabetakis,2012).

New, alternative and in a way ‘non-orthodox’, sources of lipids need to beidentified and valorised in order to achievesustainableproductionof fish feedsand thus

enablingthefurtherdevelopmentofaquacul-tureapplications.Suchpromisinglipidsourcesarevegetableoils(VO).TheuseofVObasedaquafeedshassomestrongadvantages.Olivepomace (OP) and olive pomace oil (OPO)are natural by-products of olive oil produc-tion, which contain micro constituents withatheroprotective(substances)activitysuchasPAF-inhibitorsandphenolic/polyphenolicmol-

Figure 2: Representative optic micrographs x 100 of aortic wall sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin from the two experimental groups, where atherosclerotic

lesions appear as foam cells (↑). (A) Group A (atherogenic diet); (B) Group B (atherogenic diet enriched with sea bream polar lipids) (adopted from Nasopoulou et

al., 2010). Copyright, “Food Chemistry” Elsevier

B)


FEATURE

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eculeswithantioxidantandotherpleiotropicactions. Extensive research has been carriedby our team on olive oil by-products andfish with regard to their capacity to preventatherogenesis.

Recently,thepossibilityofpartiallyreplac-ingfishoilingiltheadseabreamandseabassgrow-outdietbylipidsobtainedfromOPandolivepomaceoil (OPO)hasbeen reported.Inactualfact,thefeedingofOPtofishresultsin an improvement in its ability to preventatherosclerosis and therefore cardiovasculardiseases(Nasopoulouet al.,2011a).

GM plants There have been numerous studies on

genetically modifying the plant oil profile sotheplants increase thebiosynthesisofeitherthe precursors of omega-3 and omega-6fatty acids or these fatty acids themselves.These modifications have focused on C 18Δ6-desaturatedfattyacids(suchasγ-linolenicand stearidonic acid), omega-6- long-chainPUFAs(suchasarachidonicacid)andomega-3-long-chain PUFAS (often referred to as‘fishoils’) (such as EPA andDHA) and theyhave been recently revised (Haslam et al.,2012). The research approach is based onthe assumption that omega-3 and omega-6PUFAs have considerable nutritional valueand thus efforts have focused in enhancingthe bioformation of these molecules in the‘designer’oils(aftergeneticmodification).

However, under the light of recent evi-dence that omega PUFAs have less nutri-tionalvaluethatpreviouslyconsidered(Rizoset al., 2012), these genetically engineering

approaches need to be carefully considered.Scientifically, we need to assess any relatedenvironmental impact when GM plants arecultivated and commercially, we need toaddressthepublicconcernsandneedoftheconsumers (at least in EU) for ‘GMO free’food.

Food for thought / future actionsIn today’s rapidly changing world, we

are asked to face conflicting problems andissues such as the overproduction andwaste of food, obesity, CVDs and diabetesin the developed countries, famine andmalnutrition in the developing countries,climate change, scarcity of water, rationaluseofcultivatedlandandsustainableuseofresources and energy. In this complex andswiftly changing environment, the issue offood security and on how we can securenutrition for the entire human populationbecomes a top priority for all of us inthe feed and food arena.The sustainableproductionof food isacomplexchallenge.Some insights inapproachingthischallengehavebeenhighlightedwiththisar ticle. ■

ReferencesHaslamRP,Ruiz-LopezN,EastmondP,MoloneyM,SayanovaO,NapierJA.2012.Themodificationofplantoilcompositionviametabolicengineering-betternutritionbydesign.PlantBiotechJournal2012:1-12.

KeysA,MenottiA,AravanisC,et al.1984.TheSevenCountriesStudy:2,289deathsin15years.PrevMed13(2):141-54.

NasopoulouC,KarantonisHC,PerreaDN,TheocharisSE,IliopoulosDG,Demopoulos

CA,ZabetakisI.2010.In vivoanti-atherogenicpropertiesofculturedgiltheadseabream(Sparus aurata)polarlipidextractsinhypercholesterolaemicrabbits.FoodChem120:831-6.

NasopoulouC,StamatakisG,DemopoulosCA,ZabetakisI.2011a.Effectsofolivepomaceandolivepomaceoilongrowthperformance,fattyacidcompositionandcardioprotectivepropertiesofgiltheadseabream(Sparus aurata)andseabass(Dicentrarchus labrax).FoodChem129:1108-13.

NasopoulouC,TsouprasAB,KarantonisHC,DemopoulosCA,ZabetakisI.2011b.Fishpolarlipidsretardatherosclerosisinrabbitsbydown-regulatingPAFbiosynthesisandup-regulatingPAFcatabolism.LipidsHealthDis10:213.

NasopoulouC,ZabetakisI.2012.Benefitsoffishoilreplacementbyplantoriginatedoilsincompoundedfishfeeds.Areview.LWTFoodSci.Technol.47:217-224.

RizosEC,NtzaniEE,BikaE.KostapanosMS,ElisafMS.2012.Associationbetweenomega-3fattyacidsupplementationandriskofmajorcardiovasculardiseaseevents.Asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis.JAMA308:1024-33.

SaravananP,DavidsonNC,SchmidtEB,CalderPC.2010.Cardiovasculareffectsofmarineomega-3fattyacids.Lancet376(9740):540-50.

ZabetakisI,AntonopoulouS,DemopoulosCA.2013.ThePreventionofAtherosclerosisbyFoodComponents:PolarLipidsversusOmega-3PUFAs.Commentaryonwww.athero.orgpublishedon22.1.2013(http://www.athero.org/commentaries/comm1119.asp).

More InforMatIon:Email: [email protected]

Negative environmental impact of olive pomace


FEATURE

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Equipment failure or operationalerrorsarebehindthreeoutoffourfarmedsalmonescapes.Twooutofthree escapes are due to holes in

seacagenetsaccordingtoanewstudy.

Researchers working on the SECUREproject (Securing fish – farming technologyandoperationstoreduceescapes)haveana-lysedallescape incidentsbetween2006and2009reportedbyNorwegianfishfarms.Theirefforts provide the industry and researcherswith new insights into the factors leading tolossatNorwegianproductionfacilities.

Structural failures most commonEquipmentfailureordamage isthemajor

factor behind the escape of farmed salmon.Figures from theSECUREproject show that68 percent of escapes occurred because ofstructural failure. An additional 8 percentwere able to escape due to human errorduringoperations.Elevenpercentofescapestook place from land-based facilities and anequalpercentageescapedduetoexternalfac-tors.All inall, the researchershave revealedclearexplanationsfor96percentofthetotalescapesreportedfrom2006to2009.

Factors changing over time“Commonstructuralfailuresincludeprob-

lems with mooring lines, collapsed floatingcollarsandholestorn inthenettingofaseacage. Badweather is another factor contrib-uting to structural failure and escape. Wehavealsodocumentedincidentsofautomaticfeedingdevices loosenandcausingdamage,”says Østen Jensen, research manager withSINTEFFisheriesandAquacultureandprojectmanageroftheSECUREproject.

The escape incident reports reveal thatequipment suppliers and fish farmers havemanaged to solve some of the equipmentproblemsthatpreviouslyledtoahighnumberofescapes.

“Escapes caused by mooring or floatingcollar failure have become more and morerare.The greatest challengenow facingpro-ducersofsalmonandtroutishowtopreventwear and tear to the netting. Holes formedfromchafingcontactbetweenthenetandthesinker tubechainwereresponsible formorethan 50 percent of total escapees between2008and2010,”DrJensensays.

Fewer large-scale escape eventsOperationalerrorduringactivitiessuchas

delousingormaintenance,combinedwithfishtransfer, account for close to 20 percent oftheescapefigures.Thelastlarge-scalesalmonescapeevent, inwhich175,000 fishescapedaproductionfacilityinTrøndelag,occurredinconnectionwithdelousing.

“Large-scaleescapeeventsinwhichmorethan 10,000 fish are involved comprise 19percentofthetotalnumberofescapesduringthe period studied. As much as 91 percentof all fish that escaped can be attributed tolarge-scaleevents,”saysDrJensen.

The reduction in the number of largeescape events is the most significant fac-tor behind the substantial reduction in thenumberofproductionsalmonescapeesfrom2006to2009.

Characteristics of fish likely to escape

Behaviouraldifferencesamongthevariousspeciesoffarmedfishalsoplayintotheriskofescape.Whereasonlyonepercentofsalmon

escapescanbeattributedtobiologicalfactors,oneoutofeveryfourescapedfarmedcodgotoutthroughholesinthenetscausedeitherbypredatorsorthecodthemselves.

“Incontrasttosalmonandtrout,codwilloften bite the netting and tear the netwall.The cod also display more interest in suchholesandarefarmoreeagerthansalmonortrouttotrytoswimthroughthem,”addsDrJensen.

The Houdinis of the seaCod are better escape artists than other

species of production fish, opting to swimthroughobstaclesratherthanaroundthem.

AspartoftheSECUREproject,research-ers at Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheryand Aquaculture (Nofima) have analysedthe behavioural characteristics of cod whichmakethemmorelikelytoescapethanotherproduction species. Using controlled experi-ments, researchers have studied how theybehaveinseacages.

Codconstantlybiteandnibbleonthenetthreads, showinggreat interest in investigat-ing anything that appears unnatural to theirenvironment. This affects how net repairshould be approached at cod-productionfacilities. Repairs are most effective whencolours and shapes of the repaired nettingconformtotheoriginal.Theendsofthreadsneedtobeaffixedsothattherepairwillnotdeviate in appearance from the rest of thenetting.

Improved reportingFish farmers are required to report all

escapeevents to theDirectorateofFisheries.Jensensaysthatescape incidentreportinghasimproved substantially since the Norwegian

ESCAPESprimarily caused by equipment failure

by Torkil Marsdal Hanssen, Norway


FEATURE


AquacultureEscapesCommission(AEC)intro-ducedanotificationtemplatefiveyearsago.

Placing responsibility on suppliersTwoproblemareasstandoutintheefforts

to reduce the risk of escapes in Norwegianaquaculture. Jensen believes that both canbe solved by the suppliers of aquacultureequipment.

“If the aquaculture industry is ever goingtorealisticallyrealiseitsvisionofzeroescapesfrom sea-based production facilities, it mustsolve two big challenges. The first is thatweightingsystemscurrentlyinusetomaintainthe shape and volume of the net pens leadtowearand tear in thenetting.The secondis finding ways to decrease the incidence ofoperational–orhuman–error.”

Solutions can be developedDr Jensen points out that the key to

solving both challenges can be found in thesupplierindustry.

“Improvedproductdesignandprocedurescanmitigateand, inpart,preventbothwearandtearaswellashumanerrorduringopera-tionsatsea.Muchoftheequipmentinuseinsea-based facilities shouldbe redesignedandsimplifiedtomakeitdifficultorimpossibletouse incorrectly. Under the SECURE projectwehaveacquired theknowledgeneeded todevelop better and more secure solutions.Thenextstepisuptothesuppliers.”

Suppliers have already begun applyingthe documented findings from the SECUREproject to test new solutions. The ResearchCouncilofNorwayallocated funding to twonewresearchprojectsthisyear(Towardssus-tainable fish farming at exposedmarine sites[SUSTAINFARMEX2011-2014]andExposedFarming)thathavecarriedoutmodellingtestsusingnetswithintegratedsinkertubes.

Certification scheme improves safety

The SECURE project has documented anumberof factorssignificant foravoidingnetabrasionandtearing:• Insufficient weighting of net-cages, use

of exceedingly large nets, sea-currentconditions and biofouling lead to netdeformation and risk of abrasion andtearing.

• Washing nets by machine reduces thestrengthofnetthreadsby10-20percentafter4-5washings.

• Attachingthesinkertubetothenethasproven to be a more secure solutionthanusingslidingconnectors.

• Conic net pens create more distancebetweenthenetandthechain,reducingtheriskofabrasionandtearing.Inspiteof this, the majority of net pens arecurrentlycylindricalinshape.

“Fish producers are able to buy freely

on the market and can purchase nets andfloating collars separately. It is by no meansautomatic that the net chosen will suit theselected floating collarwhenassembled.Weneedtohaveamoreintegratedapproachtothe design of fish-farming systems to ensurethatcomponentsarecompatible,”explainsDrJensen,whobelievestheintroductionoffacil-itycertificationisastepintherightdirection.

Providing input for regulations

Asof January1, 2013, all fish-productionfacili-ties in Norwaymust have cer-tification statingthatthefacilityisusingcompatiblecomponents.

“TheSECUREprojecthas providedknowledge ofimportance tothe design ofregulations thatthat will formthe basis forfacility certifica-tion, amongother things.We have seenthat the layoutofafacilitycom-binedwithwavesize can haveunforeseen con-sequences. Thehighest wave

doesnotalwayscarrythegreatestforce.Wehave found examples where a low-crestedwaveexertsmuchgreater forceona facilitythan a steep wave. Twice the force is notunusual,andthisshouldobviouslybeincorpo-ratedintothespecificationsforthedesignanddimensions of a production facility,” Jensenconcludes.

More information: www.forskningsradet.no


FEATURE

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Withtheexpansionanddevel-opment of the aquacultureindustry, several challengesarise.The intensification of

production systems increases the pressureon the environment, which can severelyaffect water quality and as a consequencefish or shrimp performance and the inci-denceofdiseases.

Inaquaculture,theapplicationofbeneficialbacteria (probiotics) is not only associatedwith gut health (feed probiotics), but alsowith bioremediation improving the environ-ment (water and soil) in which the animalsarereared.Theeffectsofbiodegradingstrains(suchasBacillus sp.,Paracoccus sp.,Thiobacillus sp.) added directly to the water involve themodulation of the microbiology profile inponds,degradationofundesirablewastecom-pounds (ammonia, nitrite, hydrogen sulfide),enhanced mineralization of organic matter,

decreased anaerobic conditions in pond soilandreducedsludgeaccumulation.

Moreover, enzymes can be an effectivetool in the degradation of organic matterin very intensive production systems. Thesepositivechangesintheenvironmentaresup-ported by proven benefits for the perform-anceandsurvivalofshrimpfromthelarvaltogrow-outstages.

Toxicity of nitrogenous compounds

Nitrogen compounds, such as nitrite,nitrate and ammonium ions / ammonia aretoxic when their concentrations exceed acertainlevelintherearingwater.Ammoniumnitrogen that occurs partly in the form ofammonium ion (NH4+) and ammonia(NH3+)originatesfromdecomposingorganicwasteandanimalexcretionsinthefarm.Thesensitivity to ammonium nitrogen dependslargelyonthespecies.

Some fish have developed strategies, for

example, the formation of glutamine in thebrain to detoxify ammonium to urea, toprotectthemselvesfromtoxicammonialevels(Randall and Tsui, 2002). Nitrite (NO2-) isusually present below dangerous concentra-tionsinfreshandmarinewater.

However, prolonged exposure to highnitritelevels,especiallywhenoxygenislimited,leads to anoxia and slow suffocation of theanimals, because nitrite changes hemoglobinintomethemoglobin,aformthatisnotabletobindoxygen(LewisandMorris,1986).

Nitrate (NO3-) is the least dangerouscompound and low concentrations are notproblematic.Similartonitrite,nitrateconvertshemoglobin, into a non-binder for oxygen.Permanent exposure to high nitrate levelscausesweightlossandahigheroccurrenceofinfectiousdiseases.Toavoid thesecomplica-tions, excess nitrate needs to be removedto reach lower, non-toxic concentrations(Camargaet al.,2005).Thisisoftenachievedbywaterrenewalatthefarms.

Bioremediation in aquacultureWatewater management in aquaculture

systems is crucial to maintain a good healthstatusof theanimalsaswell as tocounteractthe negative impacts on the environment.Bioremediation, the application of micro-organisms like bacteria to remove dangerouswasteproducts, isapromising tool foronsitetreatment of watewater and contaminatedsediments. For the bioremediation of nitrog-enous compounds, bacteria have to performnitrificationanddenitrification.Bacterialnitrifica-tionistheoxidationofammonium/ammonia(NH4+,NH3+)tonitrate(NO3-)viahydroxylamine and nitrite (NO2-). Denitrification

The role of bioremediation in water quality managementby Goncalo A. Santos, MSc, technical manager – aquaculture, Biomin Holding GmbH, Austria


FEATURE


Figure 1: Nitrification and denitrification processes in aquatic environments

describes the reduction of nitrate to nitrousoxideandfinallytonitrogengas,whichreturnsinto the atmosphere (Chávez-Crooker andObreque-Contreras, 2010).Although a rangeofbacterial speciesarecapableofnitrificationand/ordenitrification,notallspeciesareappli-cable for bioremediation products. RecentlystrainssuchasParacoccus sp.andThiobacillus sp.havegainedinterestduetoitsdegradingcapa-bilities. Also Bacillus sp. is also well suited toperformseveralfunctionsinthewatercleanupapplication(Nakanoet al.,1998).

A single strain, rarelyharbours all desiredqualitiesnecessaryforanefficientdegradationoftoxiccompounds,thereforeacombinationofstrainsthatperformbestforoneorseveral

compounds ismore likely toensurea stableperformance.

Beneficial bacteria and enzymes to improve water and soil quality in aquaculture ponds

A key factor for successful aquaculture isto understand the interactions between themicrobialenvironment,gutfloraandimmunesystem of the shrimp, as well as the factorsthat determine the persistence of microbialspecies inthe internalandexternalmicrobialecosystems. While natural environments arebalanced, the farming environment favoursthe growth of micro-organisms as it is richin nutrients and feed waste. Farmed species

are constantly exposed to and challengedby micro-organisms from the surroundingenvironment.

These environmental challenges areobviously influenced by different factors,including farm management and rearingmethods.Aquacultureoperationsgenerallyinvolvethestockingandfeedingofshrimpin open or semi-closed water systems.Semi-closed pond systems have a lowwater turnoverandcanaccumulategases,nutrients, metabolites, waste, etc., whichcan deteriorate the water quality andcreate anoxic conditions in the soil. Thiscanstronglyaffecttheperformanceofthefarmedspecies.Thus,goodpondmanage-

Figure 2: Pond interactions without the addition of beneficial bacteria

Figure 3: Pond interactions with the addition of beneficial bacteria


FEATURE

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ment is crucial for high production anda healthy crop. Since water quality playsan important role, it is of great value tounderstand the various interactions takingplace within the ponds. These are quitecomplexanddependdirectlyonthepondenvironment, stocked biomass, input ofnutrientsandpondmanagement.

AscanbeseeninFigure2,theaccumula-tionanddegradationoforganicwaste inthepondwillresult inan increasedconsumptionof oxygen (O2) and production of wastecompoundssuchasammonia(NH3),nitrites(NO2 -) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), whichcan lead to aphytoplanktonbloom.Massivegrowthofphytoplanktoncanfurtherdepleteoxygenduring thenight and contribute to aphytoplanktonbloomcrash.All these factorscontribute to the contamination of waterand soil, creating favourable conditions for

pathogenstogrowandaffectingtheconditionof the shrimp.Under thesepoor conditions,the shrimp faces higher levels of stress andismore susceptible to diseases,which couldresultinpoorgrowthorafailedcropthroughdiseaseoutbreaks.

With the inclusion of beneficial bacteria(Figure 3), organic matter is utilized as asource of nutrients by the bioremediationbacteria,whichreducestheamountofwasteaccumulatinginthepond.Additionally,specificnitrifyinganddenitrifyingbacteriawillconvertNH3 and NO2- into nitrogen gas, reducing

the level of such toxic compounds. SomebeneficialbacteriacanalsodegradetoxicH2S,improvingwaterqualityandodor.Thecom-binationofallthesefactorswillimprovewaterquality and the condition of the pond soil,resulting in a better environment for shrimpwithbettergrowthandhealthstatus.

In the bioremediation process, enzymesplay the role of catalysts that acceleratebiochemicalreactionsinpondsoilandwater.Whenaddedtotheculturewaterorspreadon top of the pond soil, enzymes are ableto degrade the major organic constituentsnormallyfoundinshrimpandfishponds.Eachenzyme has its mode of action and is veryspecific in the chemical reaction it catalyzes(Table1).

Enzymes are also naturally produced andexcreted by some microbes. These extracel-lular enzymes, such as cellulase, protease andamylase,areproducedduringtheaerobicfer-mentation of organic matter by micro-organ-isms, for example by some Bacillus species.Bacilliarecommonlyfoundinpondsedimentsandcanalsobeaddedtothepondwaterforbioremediationpurposes.SomeBacillus sp.arealsoabletodegradenitrogenouscompounds.In addition, their large variety of excreted(extracellular)enzymeshelpstospeedupthedegradationoforganicmatterandtoxiccom-poundssuchasammonia.TheefficientremovalofnitrogenouscompoundscanalsobecarriedoutbynitrifyinganddenitrifyingbacteriasuchasThiobacillus andParacoccus.

Table 1: A diverse range of enzymes used as bioremediation agents in aquaculture

enzyme substrate

amy;lase ß-Glucoside

Cellulase Cellulose

lipase lipids and fat

Protease Protien

Xylanase Xylan, Hemicellulose

Peectinase Pectin

Figure 4: Average growth rate (g/day) of shrimp during the production period


FEATURE


Whilesomemicro-organismsproliferateina narrow range of environmental conditions(pH,oxygen,availability,etc.),certainenzymesareabletoactinmultipleenvironments.

Nevertheless, some products combiningthepositiveeffectsofbeneficialbacteria andenzymesarealreadybeingusedasbioreme-diationagentsinaquaculture.

Efficacy of enzymes in bioremediation

Enzymes have the capacity to stabilizethe soil organic matter and can be usedeffectively tomanage soil quality and rear-ing conditions for aquatic species.There isnot one specific enzyme that works bestinallcases.Ablendcontainingavarietyofenzymesmaybe themosteffectivemeansforbioremediationinaquaculture.Enzymesgreatly reduce sludge accumulation andanaerobic conditions in pond bottoms.They promote a faster degradation ofthe accumulated organic matter especiallyunder intensive production conditions.This organic matter comprises uneatenfeed, dead plankton, mineral soils, faecesandpathogenicmicro-organisms in thesoilwhere the conditions are often anaerobic.However,forallthesebioremediationproc-esses catalyzed by enzymes, the presenceof beneficial bacteria is important as well.Enzymes acceleratemicrobial processes by

breaking apart large sludge particles, thuscreatingwidersurfaceareaswhichcanthenbe fermented by microbes. This reductionof sludge and dead organic matter can beseenvisuallynotonlythroughbetterwaterquality,butalsothroughbettersoilquality.

Field trialInafieldstudy inChina, itwasobserved

that the combined application of thebioremediation products AquaStar® Pond(Bacillus sp., Enterococcus sp.,Pediococcus sp., Paracoccus sp., Thiobacillus sp) andAquaStar® PondZyme (beneficial bacteriaandablendofamylases,xylanases,cellulasesand proteases) to the water, according toa specific application programme, improvedwater quality, soil condition and ultimately,shrimpperformance.

Four earth shrimpponds (0.7 – 0.8 ha/pond) with a depth of 1 – 1.2 m werestockedwithjuvenileshrimp(approximately1.4 g/shrimp)with a density of 50 shrimp/m². The trial was carried out for a periodof 57 days with a dosage of 500 g/ha ofproduct applied once a month to thetreatment group (twoponds).The controlpondsconsistedoftwopondswithnormalproductionoperations.

The soil of the AquaStar® ponds inPicture 1 was of yellow colour which isregarded as the best bottom type, while

the soil of the control ponds in Picture 2exhibited a dark black colour, an indica-tion of the accumulation of dead organicmatter.

Resultssuggestedthatwiththecombineduseofbeneficialbacteriaandenzymes,pondsoils containing black and glutinous organicsludgeturnedintoamoreyellowsoil.

Intermsofperformance,theaveragedailyweightgainofshrimpintheAquaStar®groupincreasedby36percentandfeedconversionratio improvedby9percentcomparedwiththe control (no probiotic inclusion). TheresultsareshowninFigure4and5.

Basedon theseresults, itwasconcludedthat in the search for more effective andenvironmentally-friendly treatments, benefi-cialbacteriahaveemergedasaviablealter-native. The application of bioremediationsolutions in aquaculture can also benefitfrom the inclusionof enzymes, especially inintensive productions. AquaStar® positivelyaffects the performance of shrimp whilemaintaining a stable environment in thepond, proving to be an effective manage-menttoolinaquaculture.

More InforMatIon:Website: www.biomin.net


FEATURE

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WorldFish,amemberoftheCGIARConsortium,isaninternational,nonprofitresearchorganisation

dedicatedtoreducingpovertyandhungerbyimprovingfisheriesandaquaculture.Fromnewsyntheses

andanalysistotargeted,onthegrounddeliveryandknowledgesharing,WorldFishtechnologies,

productsandserviceshelptomakedevelopmenthappeninmorethan19countriesaroundtheworld.

Withitspartners,WorldFishhasraisedincomesformillionsofpoorpeoplebydevelopingsustainable

aquaculturevaluechainsthatgenerateequitablebenefitstoparticipants,andhasempoweredpoor

communitiestoparticipateinthesustainableco-managementoftheirfisheries.Ithashelpedcountries

copewithdisasterandconflictbyrestoringfisheries,helpingdevelopaquaculturebasedonlivelihoods,

providednationswithtoolstoimprovetheplanningandmanagementofmajorriverbasins,and

developedwidely-consultedglobaldatabasesandstrengthenednationalcapacitiesforfisheries

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Foundedin1975,thecentreiscommitted

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Workinginpartnershipwithprivateandpublicsectorsandcivilsociety,

WorldFishdevelopspro-poorsustainableandequitableaquaculturevalue

chainsthatsupporttheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.WorldFishtakesa

comprehensive,multidisciplinaryresearchapproachthatacknowledgesthe

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Failuretoembracethiscomplexityhasledtopiecemealeffortsinthe

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In commercial andhigh stockingdensityculture practices, feeding plays a signifi-cant role in fast growthandhighyields.Aqua feed contains many ingredients

in highly balanced nutritious componentsfor enhancing the digestive mechanisms infish and shrimp bodies. It leads to betterbodyweightsandhealth,optimum immunityand greater survival rates. Spirulina is auniquehighqualitynaturaldietwithenrichedoptimumproteinforfishandshrimpwhichisproven to be a suitable supplementary feedinaquaculture.

Spirulina is a blue green algae like a spiralof long thin threadsunder genusArthrospira,thephylumOscillatoriaceae.Spirulina iscalledblue green algae (cynobacteria) because ofpresenceofbothgreen(chlorophyll)andblue(phycocyanin)pigmentsinitscellularstructure.ThetwospecieswhicharemostimportantfortheirnutritiousvaluesareSpirulinamaximaandSpirulinaplantensis.

Nutritional food valueTheuseof spirulina as com-

plementary feed in various sec-tors of aquaculture can resultin fast growth factors,enhancedpigmentationandbetterimmunesystems. It is considered as anexcellent food, lacking toxicityandhavingcorrectivepropertiesagainst the pathogenic micro-organisms. It lacks cellulose cellwallsandthereforedoesnotrequireschemicalsor processing in order to become digestible.Thedigestibilityis83–84percent.Spirulinaisregardedasarichsourceofprotein,vitamins,essentialmineral,aminoacids,EFFAlikegammaLNAandantioxidantpigmentslikecarotenoids.

Biochemical compositionProteinandaminoacids:Spirulinacontains

60-70 percent protein along with phenolic

acids, tocopherols, carotenes and linolenicacidsforwhichrepresentsanimportantstapleindiets.Theessentialaminoacidsarepresentaround47percentoftotalproteinweight.Thespectrumofaminoacidrepresentthatthebio-logicalvalueofproteinsinspirulinaisveryhigh.

Aminoacidandbiological functionof fishandshrimp• Isoleucine:Required foroptimal growth,

nitrogen equilibrium in the body. Usedto synthesize other non-essential aminoacids.

• Leucine:Increasesmuscularenergylevels.• Lysine: Building block of blood antibod-

ies strengthens circulatory system andmaintainsnormalgrowthofcells.

• Methionine:Vital lipotropic(fatand lipidmetabolizing) amino acid that maintainsliverhealth.Ananti-stressfactor.

• Phenylalanine:Stimulatesmetabolicrate.• Threonine: Improves intestinal compe-

tenceanddigestiveassimilation.• Tryptophane: Increases utilization of B

vitamins,improvesnervehealth.• Valine:Stimulatesmusclecoordination.

Carbohydrates: Spirulina contains about15-21 percent carbohydrates in the form ofglucose,fructose,sucrose,rhamnose,mannose,xylose and galactose. It provides the appro-priate and important foodstuffs for aquaticcultureanimalswithpoorintestinalabsorption.Carbohydratesoccur insufficientquantitiesofmesoinositol phosphate which is an excellent

sourceof organic phosphorus and inositol.Ahigh moleculatory weight polysaccharide arebelievedtohaveeffectonDNArepairmecha-nisms,immune-stimulatoryandimmunoregula-toryproperties.

Nucleic acids: Spirulina contains 2.2-3.5percentofRNAand0.6-1percentandDNA,whichrepresents lessthan5percentoftheseacidsbasedondryweight.

Essential fatty acids: Spirulina has a highamountofpolyunsaturatedfattyacids(PUFAs)and 1.5–2.0 percent of total lipid. Spirulinais rich in γ-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid(LA),stearidonicacid(SDA),eicosapentaenoicacid(EPA),docosahexaenoicacid(DHA)andarachidonicacid(AA).

β-carotene and vitamins: Spirulina con-tains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin),B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folicacid),B12(cyanocobalamin),vitaminC,vitaminD and vitamin E. The β-carotene, B-groupvitamin, vitamin E, iron, potassium and chlo-rophyll available in the spirulina can promote

themetabolismofcarbohydrate,fats, protein, alcohol, and thereproductionofskin,muscleandmucosa. Spirulina contains largeamounts of natural β-caroteneandthisβ-caroteneisconvertedintovitaminA.

Minerals: Spirulina is a richsource of potassium, and alsocontains calcium, chromium,copper, iron, magnesium, man-ganese, phosphorus, selenium,

sodium, zinc, molybdenum, chloride, germa-niumandboron.

Photosyntheticpigments:Spirulinacontainsmanypigmentsincludingchlorophylla,xantho-phyll,betacarotene,echinenone,myxoxantho-phyll, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin,3-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin,oscillaxanthin,plusthephycobiliproteins,c-phy-cocyaninandallophycocyanin.

Natural pigment enhancers: Phycocyanin

Table 1:

Physical properties General analysis

Composition 100% Protein 60-70%

appearance Fine powder Carbohydrate 15-25%

Colour Dark blue green Fats (lipids) 06-08%

odour & taste Mild like weed Minerals (ash) 07-13%

Digestibility 83-84% Moisture 03-17%

Particle size 64 mesh through Fibre 08-10%

The multifunctional dietary properties of spirulina and its use in aquacultureby Dr S V Pamulapati, chairman and managing director and Prakash Chandra Behera, technical manager (aqua), PVS Group, India


FEATURE


(blue):14percent,chlorophyll (green):1per-cent,carotenoids(orange/red):47percent.

Nutritional supplementary properties

Spirulina can be used as a partial supple-ment or complete replacement for proteinin aqua feeds. Spirulina is a feed supplementfor theall fishes, giant freshwaterprawnsandmarinewatershrimpsandsignificantlyimprove-ment occurs on growth, survival, immunity,viabilityandfeedutilization.Itisacheaperfeedingredientwithhigherproteinlevelsthanotheringredinetsofanimalorigin.

Feedingon spirulinahelps to improvedis-ease resistance and an improvement in their

survival rate.Fast growthoccurs whenfed a dietcontainingspirulina meal(Britz,1996).

Chelatingof toxic min-erals (neutrali-sationoftoxicminerals)

Spirulinahas a uniquequality todetoxify (neu-

tralise) or to chelate toxic minerals, and thischaracteristic is not yet noticed in any othermicroalgae (Maeda and Sakaguchi, 1990;OkamuraandAoyama,1994).Spirulinacanbeusedtodetoxifyarsenicfromwaterandfood.Italsomaybeusedtochelatizeordetoxifyorneutralizethepoisonouseffectofheavymetals(minerals)fromwater,foodandenvironment.Spirulina provides phycocyanin, a source ofbiliverdin,which isamongthemostpotentofallintra-cellularantioxidants.

Immunomodulatory propertiesSpirulina is an effective immune modula-

tor. Itexhibitsanti-inflammatoryproperties, inparticularbyinhibitingthereleaseofhistamine

frommastcellswithmediatedallergicreactions.Itshowsantioxidativeandfreeradicalscaveng-ingproperties.Spirulinaexposureenhancesthephagocyticfunctionsofmacrophagesinaquaticcultureanimals.

It also has antiviral and anti-carcinogenicproperties. It improves the bacterial gut tractclearancepotentialoffish/shrimpandspirulinasupplementsdevelopsthephagocyticcell.

Spirulina is a safe diet to use in terms ofimprovedimmunecompetencewithoutcom-promisingtheperformingbehaviorsofaquaticculture animals. A novel sulphate polysac-charide of spirulina inhibits the replication ofseveralenvelopedviruses.

Thenutrientsofspirulinahelptofightfreeradicals, cell-damagingmolecules absorbedbythe body through pollution, poor diet, injury,orstress.Byremoving freeradicals, thenutri-entshelptheimmunesystemfightcancerandcellular degeneration. Spirulina is a powerfultonic for the immune system.This enzyme isamajor sourceof super oxide in an animal’sbody,andisinvolvedindozensofdegenerativeprocesses involved indisease resistance,agingandsimilarprocessesinfish,shrimpandotheraquaticanimals.

Spirulina in building red blood cells and stem cells

Spirulinaisrichinabrilliantbluepolypep-tide called Phycocyanin. Phycocyanin

Table 2:

amino acid Per 10 gm % of total amino acid Per 10 gm % of total

Isoleucine 350mg 5.6 Cystine 60mg 1.0

leucine 540mg 8.7 arginine 430mg 6.9

lycine 290mg 4.7 Histidine 100mg 1.6

Phenylalanine 280mg 4.6 threonine 320mg 5.2

tyrosine 300mg 4.8 Proline 270mg 4.3

Methionine 140mg 2.3 Valine 400mg 6.5

Glutamic acid 910mg 14.6 alanine 470mg 7.6

aspartic acid 610mg 9.8 Glycine 320mg 5.2

tryptophan 90mg 1.5 Serine 320mg 5.2


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affects the stem cells that make up thecellular immune system and red bloodcellsthatoxygenatethebody.Phycocyaninstimulating hematopoiesis, (the creationofblood),emulatingtheaffectofthehor-mone erythropoetin, (EPO). Phycocyaninalso regulates production of white bloodcells, even when bone marrow stem cellsare damaged by toxic chemicals or radia-tion.

Spirulina anti-viral and anti-cancer abilities

Calcium-Spirulan is a unique polymer-ized sugar molecule extract of spirulina andcontaining both sulphur and calcium. Thetreatment of this water-soluble extract hasbetter recovery rates when infected with alethal Herpes virus. This mechanism occursbecauseCalcium-Spirulandoesnotallowthevirustopenetratethecellmembranetoinfectthecell.Thevirusisstuck,unabletoreplicate.Itiseventuallyeliminatedbythebody'snatu-ral defenses. Spirulina can prevent or inhibitcancers in aquatic animals, and fishes. Theunique polysaccharides of spirulina enhancecellnucleusenzymeactivityandDNArepairsynthesis.

Antimicrobial propertiesSpirulina excretes variable quantities of

products from itsmetabolismsuchasorganicacid,vitaminsandphytohormones.Cellextractof spirulina has shown antimicrobial activitiesagainstpathogenicbacteriaas likeBacillus sps,Streptococcussps,Saccharomycesspsetc.

Bio-mineralisation activitiesSpirulina thrives in high alkaline waters

and it incorporates and synthesizes manyminerals and derivative compounds intoits cell structure. Transformed into naturalorganic formsbyspirulina,mineralsbecomechelated with amino acids and they aremore easily assimilated by the body. Alongwith adequate calcium and magnesium inthewater (especially formarineorganisms),Spirulina helps insure proper electrolytefunction, calcium levels over calcium andothermineral.

Enhancing reproduction Researchhasshownthatfreshandsaltwa-

ter fish and shrimp exhibit superior growth,maturity,energeticbehavior,andmoreelegantcoloring when fed spirulina. It is also welldocumentedthatspirulinaimprovesspawning,fecundity, fertility andhatching rates. It stimu-lates the reproductive processes, increasessurvival ratesof younger fish, post larvae andpromotes the appetite of fish or prawn toattainfullmaturity.

Spirulina as a colourantThecolourappearanceisthemostimpor-

tant characteristic in shrimp and fish forchoice and demand in the food market. Adiet containing spirulinapromotes thephysi-ological activities for generating colour pig-mentationsandglazingappearanceinvariousparts of body. Carotenoids are responsiblefor the development of various colours ofcrustaceans(Brittonet al.,1981).Astaxanthinhasbeenshowntobethepredominantcaro-tenoid associated with the red body colourof the black tiger prawn Penaeus monodon(HowellandMatthews,1991).Spirulinaplat-ensis and pacifica stain contains the highestlevels of β-carotene and zeaxanthin of anynatural source. They both are converted toastaxanthin through anoxidativeprocess forthedesireredpigment.Amarkedincreaseincarotenoid content of the carapace of blacktiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) occurredwhenspirulina-supplementeddietsaregiven.A practical strategy for the improved pig-mentation of cultured P. monodon is theincorporationofspirulinadietforonemonthbeforeharvest.

Conclusions Spirulina appears to have considerable

potentialfordevelopment,especiallyasasmall-scalecropfornutritionalenhancement,livelihooddevelopment and environmental mitigation.Asnaturalfeed,spirulinacanplayanimportantroleinaquaculture,especiallyinaquaticfarmingandhatcherieswheretheresultsarequitesignificant.Ifspirulinafeedsfurtherimprove, itseffectswillbemoreobviousandtheprospectsofspirulinawillbeverybright. ■

References:Banerjee,M.&Deb,M.1996.PotentialofflyashandSpirulinacombinationasaslowreleasefertilizerforricefield.CientificaJaboticabal,24:55–62.

Borowitzka,M.A.1988.Vitaminsandfinechemicalsfrommicro-algae.InM.A.Borowitzka&LBorowitzka,eds.Micro-algalBiotechnology,pp.153–196.Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress.ofMalaya.

Britz,P.J.1996.ThesuitabilityofselectedproteinsourcesforinclusioninformulateddietsfortheSouthAfricanabalone,Haliotismidae.Aquaculture,140:63–73.

Gauthamkolluri&RAshaRajani,Feedingofspirilina-ABoosttothePoultryProduction,Poultrymagazine,Oct-12Pageno31-33

Lu,J.&Takeuchi,T.2004.Spawningandeggqualityofthetilapia,OreochromisniloticusfedsolelyonrawSpirulinaplatensisthroughoutthreegenerations.Aquaculture,234:625–640.

Maeda,S.&Sakaguchi,T.1990.Accumulationanddetoxificationoftoxicmetalelementsbyalgae.IntroductiontoAppl.Phycol.,109–136.

Nakagawa,H.,Gomez-Diaz,G.1975.UsefulnessofSpirulinasp.mealasfeedadditiveforgiantfreshwaterprawn,Macrobrachiumrosenbergii.Suisanzoshuku,43:521–526

Okamura,H.&Aoyama,I.1994.Interactivetoxiceffectanddistributionofheavymetalsinphytoplankton.Toxicol.&WaterQuality,9:7–15.

Paoletti,C.,Pushparaj,B.&Tomaselli,L.F.1975.RicerchesullanutrizionemineralediSpirulinaplatensis.AttiXVIICongr.NazMicrobiol.,2:833–839.

Ruan,J.S.,Long,C.S.&Guo,B.J.1988.Spirulinapreventeddamageinducedbyradiation.J.Genetics,10:27–30.(InChinese).

ShabirAhmad,M.ashrafKhan,NajarA.M&MansoorAhmedSpirulina-Nutritionalresearch,AquaInternational,Feb-10,page22-27

Stott,A.E.,Takeuchi,T.&Koike,Y.2004.Performanceofanewartificialabalonehatcheryculturesystemintermsofsettlementoflarvaeandgrowthandsurvivalofpost-larvaeHaliotisdiscuss(Reeve).Fish.Sci.,70:1070–1081.

Tompkins,J.,DeVille,M.M.,Day,J.G.&Turner,M.F.1995.CultureCollectionofAlgaeandProtozoa.CatalogueofStrains.NaturalEnvironmentResearchCouncil.Kendal,UK,TituWilsonandSonsLtd.

Venkataraman,L.V.,Somasekaran,T.&Becker,E.W.1994.Replacementvalueofblue-greenalga(Spirulinaplatensis)forfishmealandavitamin-mineralpremixforbroilerchicks.BritishPoultrySci.,3:373–381.

Vonshak,A.&Richmond,A.1988.Massproductionoftheblue-greenalgaSpirulina:anoverview.Biomass,15:233–247.

Thisarticlewasoriginallypublishedon


FEATURE


Copyright, ©, 2013, Alltech. All rights reserved

In the last years considerable attentionhas been paid on the use of seaweeds(SW)asapossibleingredientforaqua-feeds.Red,greenandbrownSWcanbe

takenfromtheirnaturalhabitatandbroughtto the shore by the action of winds andtides. Otherwise, biomass can be obtainedfrom secondary and tertiary treatment ofeffluents. Wastewater treatment utilisingphotosynthetic organisms is an interest-ing alternative to reducethe ecological impact ofdomestic, industrial oraquaculture effluents.Generally,high-qualityalgalbiomass is yielded fromalgalcultivation,represent-inganexcellentsourceofhydrocolloids,carotenoids,and bioactive substances,which allows differentindustrial applications. Inaddition,thereiscurrentlyan increasing interestfor the potential of SWin human and animalnutrition.

Seaweed as ingredient in aquafeeds

AlthoughnutritionalpropertiesofSWarenotaswellknownasarethoseoflandplant-basedingredients,theirchemicalcompositionmaybecharacterisedbylowcontentinlipids,moderate in protein, but rich in non-starchpolysaccharides, minerals and vitamins. Lipidcontents range from 0.3 to 7.2 percent,althoughalgal lipidsarerichinPUFAsuchasC20:5n3 (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) andC22:6n3 (docosahexaenoic acid,DHA). Theproteincontributionisrangedfrom10to30g/100 g dry weight, which may vary greatlyamongSWspecies,environmentalconditions

(especiallyundernitrogen-enrichedcondition)andseason.

Thehighbiological valueof algalproteinsmakes algae suitable for inclusion both inanimalfeeds(especiallymarinespecies)andinhumandiets.Thehigh carbohydrate content(30to60%)isaverymarkedcharacteristicinmost SW, comprising mainly soluble carbo-hydrates, likesugars,andpectins,alginicacid,agar and carrageenan as well. Besides their

potential nutritional value, from a techno-logicalpointofview,SWcanalsobeusedasadditivesinthefeedindustry,for instance,asexcellentfeedagglutinants(improvingtextureandwaterstabilityofpellets),orasattractants(increasingfeedintake).

The effects of seaweeds on fishSeveral studieshaveproved that addition

ofsmallamountofSWinaquafeedsresultedin considerable positive effect on growthperformance and feed utilisation efficiency,carcass quality, physiological activity, intesti-nal microbiota, disease resistance, and stress

response(Valenteet al.,2006).Nonetheless,it has been also noted in other publicationsthat high SW inclusion reduces fish growthand feedefficiency.Fromthe literatureavail-ableitcanbedeductedthattheresponseofanimalstoSWseemstobedose-dependentand species-specific. Moreover, certain sub-stances with antinutritive activity may bepresent in SW, like lectins, tannins, phyticacid, and protease and amylase inhibitors

(Oliveiraet al.,2009).Suchantinutritionalfactorsmightinterferewithbioavailabilityand/ordigestibilityofnutri-ents.

Specialemphasisshouldbe focused on proteaseinhibitors. Binding of pro-tease inhibitors to pro-teolytic enzymes causesthe pancreas to secretelargeramountsofdigestiveenzymes toovercome thenegative effects of inhibi-tors on the digestion ofdietary protein. This factcan lead to decreasedweightgain,andpancreatichypertrophy in some fishspecies. For this reason,studies aimed to include

SW in aquafeeds must also bring up theirpossible effects on fish digestive physiology.Todate, there isscarce literatureanalysing ifSW inclusion causes negative consequencesondigestivephysiologyoffish.

Evaluating the effect of seaweeds on digestive proteases

Inarecentstudy,weevaluatedtheeffectofinclusionoftwoSWasdietaryingredientsonintestinalproteolyticactivityofjuvenileseabream.Gracilaria cornea (GR)andUlva rigida(UL)werechoseninthepresentstudyowingto its fast growth, low-cost production and

Effect of dietary inclusion of seaweeds on intestinal

proteolytic activity of juvenile sea bream, Sparus aurata

by María Isabel Sáez, Tomás Martínez and Javier Alarcón, Universidad de Almería-CEIA3, Spain

Figure 1: Detail of experimental feeds. UL-25 percent (above) and control (below)


FEATURE


successfulintegratedcultureinfish-farmefflu-ents.Biomasswasobtained fromtheMarineBiotechnology Centre (ULPGC, Spain). SWwerecultivatedin750Lsemicircularfibreglasstanks filled with seawater plus the fishpondeffluentsofapilotaquaculturesystem(11m3withanoptimaldensityofSparus aurataof20kgm-3, and awater renovation rateof 6–8volday-1).RedandgreenSWwerewashedwithseawater,sun-driedfor48hours,groundandsievedthrough0.1mmsievebeforebeingusedasadietaryingredient.

Dry algal biomass was incorporated intosix experimental diets (40% crude proteinand 12% crude lipid) at increasing levels (5,15 and 25%). A feed without SW servedas a control diet. Feeds were made at theUniversityofAlmeria-CEIA3facilities(Serviceof Experimental Diets; http://www.ual.es/stecnicos_spe). Every experimental feedwasrandomly assigned to triplicate group offifteenseabreamjuveniles(15.4ginitialbodyweight). Fish were fed by hand twice perday (9:00 and 17:00) at a rate of 3 percentof their body weight for 70 days. At theendof thetrial, fishwerekilledaccording tothe requirements of the Directive 2010/63/UE, and digestive tract was removed, andthenprocesses toobtainenzymaticextracts.Intestinal proteases were analysed by twodifferent approaches: a) quantifying the levelofintestinalproteolyticactivity,andb)visual-izing the profile of intestinal proteases inzymograms(Alarcónet al.,1998).Inaddition,thepresenceofproteaseinhibitorsinSWwastestedaccordingtoAlarcónet al.(1999).

Checking the presence of protease inhibitors in SW

Results revealed thepresenceof protease

inhibitors in SW.Dose-responsecurves showedthat UL containedsubstances able toreduce digestiveproteolytic activityin sea bream (upto77%),whereasanegligible inhibitionby GR was found(4%). Obvious dif-ferences in thekinetic of inhibitionof protease activitywere found forUL.Equation definingsuch curve may beused topredict theexpected percent-age of reductionin protease activ-ity, once proteaseactivityinthediges-tive tract and the

amount of feed ingested are known. Forinstance, in thecaseof40g seabream, totalproteaseactivityreleasedafteramealisaround1,300units.Thosefishthatconsumed0.5gofafeedcontaining15percentofUL,showedaratiomgULper unit of activity of 50,whichdetermined areduction nearly40percentintheactivity of diges-tive proteases.Fortunately, fishhavemechanismsto compensatetheeffectof die-taryantinutrients.

Zymogramsobtained afterelectrophoretic.separation ofproteinsisause-ful tool to knowindetailthetypeof inhibitioncaused by pro-tease inhibitors.From the zymo-gram, it is clearthat Ulva pro-duces a general-ised inhibition inalkaline proteas-esof seabream.On the contraryGracilariadidnotaffect any of theactivebands.

The sameresults wereobserved after

incubationofdigestiveproteaseswithextractsoftheexperimentaldiets.Themeaninhibitionranged from 11 to 48 percent. In general,UL-supplemented feeds showed inhibitionvalues higher than the GR-supplementeddiets,whichdidnot exceed16percent. ForULdiets,itwasfoundthatpercentageofinhi-bitionwaspositivelycorrelatedwiththeSWinclusion level, which agrees with the abovementioned dose-response curve. InhibitionproducedbyGR feedscannotbeassociatedtotheuseofthisSW.

Effect of seaweed on digestive proteases of sea bream

Digestiveenzymeswereaffectedbydiets,as fish had different enzyme activity level ofalkaline proteases after 70 days of feedingexperimental diets. In general, a decreasein alkaline protease activity was evidencedwhenfeedsincludedULorGR. Inparticular,the proteolytic activities of fish fed Ulvasupplemented-feeds were significantly lowerthan those of fish fed on control diet. Thepresence of protease inhibitors in SW maybe the reason of the progressive decreaseintheproteolyticactivityinfishfeddietwithincreasing levels of Ulva meal. Supportingthis hypothesis, it has been confirmed thataqueousextractsofUlvameal inhibitalkalineproteasesofS. aurata.Moreover,thedropin

Figure 2: Dose-response curves obtained when different amounts of SW meal (0 to 300 µg) were incubated with a

fixed amount of proteolytic activity (1 U) in the inhibitory assay. Protease inhibition was expressed as the percentage of reduction in proteolytic activity. Such curves are a simple way

to evaluate how hypothetical variations in the inclusion of SW might affect sea bream digestive proteases


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thelevelofalkalineproteaseactivitywasnotaccompanied by a decrease of fish growthandfeedutilization,sinceallfishgrewequally(unpublished data). Santigosa et al. (2008)reportedasimilarfindingwhentroutwerefedondietsincludingplantproteins.

On the other hand, the analysis ofzymograms revealed that the pattern ofintestinal proteases was not modified byinclusion of SW. All sea bream specimensshowed the same number and distribu-tionof active fractions as in control group(afterelectrophoreticalseparation,thepat-tern of intestinal proteases in this speciesis characterized by five groups of activebands). These results confirmed that thetypeofalkalineproteasessecretedintotheintestinal lumen was not modified by anyof experimental diets. The existence of a

compensation mechanism against dietaryprotease inhibitors in juvenile sea breamhasbeenpreviouslyprovedbySantigosaet al. (2010), who found similar results whenfish were fed diets with soybean trypsininhibitor.

According to the results, it is clear thatthe amount of the pancreatic proteasessecretedintotheintestinallumeninjuvenileS. aurata isaffectedby theuseofSW,par-ticularlyUlva.Nevertheless, it isalsoevidentthatthese ingredientsdidnotcausequalita-tive changes in the composition of alkalineproteases, given that all fish showed thesamepatternofproteolyticenzymesintheirintestines, and that growth performance offishwasnotaffected,asdeducedfromthein vivofeedingtrial.

ConclusionsIn vitroproteaseinhibitionassaysareause-

fultooltoassessthepresenceofantinutrientsinSWwithpotentialuseinaquafeeds.Basedon the results of this study, SW, especiallyUlva rigida, have antinutritive factors able toinhibitdigestiveproteasesofS. aurata.Feedingjuvenile S. aurata on seaweed-based dietsdecreased the amount of proteolytic activ-ity secreted into the intestine. However, theinclusion of SW does not alter the patternof proteolytic enzymes in sea bream, whichreveals a compensating mechanism in thisspecies.ResearchisbeingcurrentlyconductedtoassesstheeffectofSWonotherdigestiveenzymes, intestinal microbiota, blood andtissue metabolites, and intestine and liverhistology after 70 days of feeding SW-baseddiets. Further research is needed in orderto known the impact of SW in a long-termfeedingassay. ■

References

AlarcónFJ,DíazM,MoyanoFJandAbellánE.(1998)Characterizationandfunctionalpropertiesofdigestiveproteasesintwosparids;giltheadseabream(Sparus aurata)andcommondentex(Dentex dentex).FishPhysiolBiochem.19:257-267.

Alarcón,FJ,Moyano,FJandDíaz,M.(1999).Effectofinhibitorspresentinproteinsourcesondigestiveproteasesofjuvenileseabream(Sparus aurata).AquaticLivingRes.12:233-238.

Oliveira,MN,Ponte-Freitas,AL,Urano-Carvalho,AF,Taveres-Sampaio,TM,Farias,DF,Alves-Teixera,DI,Gouveia,ST,Gomes-Pereira,JandCastro-CatanhodeSena,MM.(2009)Nutritiveandnon-nutritiveattributesofwashed-upseaweedsfromthecoastofCeará,Brazil.FoodChem.11:254-259.

Santigosa,E,Sánchez,J,Médale,F,Pérez-Sánchez,JandGallardo,MA.(2008).Modificationsofdigestiveenzymesintrout(Onchorynchus mykiss)andseabream(Sparus aurata)inresponsetodietaryfishmealreplacementbyplantproteinsources.Aquaculture252:68-74.

Santigosa,E,SáezdeRodigrañez,MA,Rodiles,A,GarcíaBarroso,FandAlarcón,FJ.(2010).Effectofdietscontainingapurifiedsoybeantrypsininhibitorongrowthperformance,digestiveproteasesandintestinalhistologyinjuvenileseabream(Sparus aurataL.).AquacultureRes.41:e187-e198.

Valente,LMP,Gouveia,A,Rema,P,Matos,J,Gomes,EFandPinto,IS.(2006)EvaluationofthreeseaweedsGracilariabursa-pastoris,Ulva rigidaandGracilaria corneaasdietaryingredientsinEuropeanseabass(Dicentrarchus labrax)juveniles.Aquaculture252:85-91.

Figure 4: Inhibition of sea bream intestinal proteases

after incubation of extracts with solutions prepared using

experimental diets containing 5, 15 and 25 percent of Ulva (UL)

and Gracilaria (GR) meal

Figure 5: Total alkaline protease activity measured in extracts of sea bream fed different experimental diets containing graded levels of SW

Figure 3: Inhibition of intestinal proteolytic enzymes

by Gracilaria cornea and Ulva rigida meal. Qualitative

analysis: visualization of inhibition of active fractions in

zymograms

More inforMation:María Isabel Sáez Casado Email: [email protected]


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Challenges facing the aquaculture feed industryWe talk to feed producers about the

challenges that the industry is facing,

what products they are currently

developing and what the future holds.

Environmental foot print

ALLER AQUA: At Aller Aqua,we are committed to meet-ing a number of environmen-tal targets, complying with strictproduct and manufacturingstandards. The 1989 Danish Acton the Protection of the MarineEnvironment sets strict standardsfor feed intended for theDanishmarket. Danish legislation stipu-latesthatthefeedconversionrateofgrower feedmustnotexceed1.0.Atthesametime,82percentofthefeedmustbedigestible,andtherearelowmaximumlimitsforphosphorusandnitrogen.

BIOMAR: The BioMar Group iseco-conscious and continuouslyfocusesonreducingenvironmen-tal impact from the productionof fish feed. All BioMar factorieshavemodernproductionfacilities,which meet high standards forenvironmentally friendly produc-tion.Furthermore, BioMar has devel-oped and improved its productranges over the years to reducethe environmental impact of fishfarming. This happens throughfocusing on sustainability in thedevelopment and production offeed and through a focus ondeveloping efficient feed types,where the nutrients are utilisedbythefishforgrowthratherthanlosttothefarmenvironment.

Alternative proteinsBIOMAR: As the world produc-tionoffishmealandfishoilcannotbe increased significantly withoutriskofdamagingnaturalfishstocksand the need for fish productsforhumanconsumptionobtainedthrough aquaculture is growing,one of BioMar’s long-term goalsis to reduce our dependenceon marine raw materials. Thisis achieved by including alterna-tives such as vegetable proteinsand oils, thus reducing the needfor marine raw materials. Thischange is a complex task with anumberofissuestobeaddressed.BIOMAR

Alternative proteinsBIOMAR: As the world produc-tionoffishmealandfishoilcannotbe increased significantly withoutriskofdamagingnaturalfishstocksand the need for fish productsforhumanconsumptionobtainedthrough aquaculture is growing,one of BioMar’s long-term goalsis to reduce our dependenceon marine raw materials. Thisis achieved by including alterna-tives such as vegetable proteinsand oils, thus reducing the needfor marine raw materials. Thischange is a complex task with anumberofissuestobeaddressed.BIOMAR

Fish healthBIOMAR: BioMar’s Smart Feedscomprises feed products withactive ingredients or differenttypes of premixes of vitaminesand minerals, which are key tokeepfishhealthyandprovideopti-malfishgrowthandtherebycon-tributetoahealthyfarmbusiness.

Sustainable feedsREED MARICULTURE: ReedMariculture's Instant Algae prod-uctsareclosertonaturethananyother feed on the market. Weproduce whole-cell, whole-foodmicroalgaefeedsandenrichmentsfrom marine algae using propri-etary processes. Our productsprovide fish, bivalve and shrimphatcheries with clean, conven-ient, long shelf-life feeds that aresuperior choices to replace orsupplement live microalgae. Ourfeeds ensure stable and rapidly-reproducing rotifer populationsthatofferrichnutritionalvalue.

BIOMAR: Sustainability is deci-sive to the continuous long-termdevelopment of the aquacultureindustry. It entails that the indus-try is run on a commercial basiswhich meets the needs of thepresent without compromisingthe needs of the future. BioMarfocusesthroughthedevelopmentprogramBioSustainon increasingsustainabilityinfishfarming.-

Feed costs and efficiencey

BIOMAR: Organic food prod-ucts are rapidly gaining impor-tance among consumers. BioMarproduces a number of differentfeedtypescertifiedforfarmingoforganic fish to cover this grow-ing need. New feed conceptsareconstantlybeingdevelopedinordertocaterfornewconsumertrends and help our customersgrowtheirbusiness.

Feed solutions – working with

the farmersBIOMAR: In BioMar we seethe reduction of farm impactas an important mean to facili-tate continued growth for theaquaculture sector, especiallyin the land based aquaculture,where scarce water resourcesneed to be preserved and pro-tected. Environmental regulationhas over the last years in manycountries lowered the limits fortheacceptableamountsofnutri-ents in thewastewater. BioMartherefore focuses on developingfeedswithanoptimalbalanceofnutrients, so that the fishutilisesa maximum of the nutrients inthefeedforgrowth,whileamini-mumofnutrientsarelosttothewater. A more efficient uptakeof nutrients in the fishdoes notonlybenefittheenvironment,butitalsoimprovesfarmeconomy.


AQUAFEEDPRODUCTION

The futureNOVUS:"Weexpecttocontinueto growour existingmarkets andexpandourfootprintinthesemar-ketsthroughnewtechnologiesandpartnerships.Wewillgrowthroughmarket relevancy, for example,overthepast25yearsthesalmonindustryhasachievedanincreaseinproductivityfrom15to20%whilereducing nitrogen waste four fold.Novusprobiotics(livemicroorgan-ismswhichconferahealthbenefit)assistwiththestabilityofpondcul-tures,therebyhelpingtomaximizepond water carrying capacity andenhancingoverallfishhealth.Inthisway,morefisharegrownwithlesswater,asthewaterislesstoxic,andlessoverallwasteresults.

"Novusisaparticipantinthefarm-to-table nutrition continuum andbecauseofthis,wehaveadistinctresponsibilitytothecommunitieswe serve. Novus’s vision is 'ToHelpFeedtheWorldAffordable,Wholesome Food and Achievea Higher Quality of Life'. Ourperformance as a company andourvisionarenotseparate-eachisconnectedinextricablywiththeother. In everythingwedooverthe next five years and beyondyoucanexpecttobeabletocon-nectouractionswithourvision".

See the full interview with Thad Simons, Novus president and CEO on page 62


AQUAFEEDPRODUCTION


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AQUACULTURE

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PathogenicbacteriaantagonistEnhancesfriendlyintestinalmicrofloraImprovesfeedconversionratioandgrowthHelpsmaintainoptimalhealthstatusReducesmortalityinthepondsControlswaterquality

www.norel.es

Insta-Pro®extrudershavebeen improved inordertosuccessfullyproducehighqualitypetfoodandaquaticfeeds.WenowofferNEWspecially designed: Volumetric Feeder /MassFlowBinoptions/PetfoodandFishfeedPreconditioners/Petfood/Fishfeedcutterheads,whichgreatlyimprove the performance of ourextruderswhenproducingPetfoodsandAquaticFeeds

Our NEW Shaped Feeds (type-SF)Preconditioners increase produc-tioncapacity,improveshapingofpetfoods,andreducewearontheex-truderbarrel.Aswithothershaped

products, fine grinding priorto extrusion is essential toensure a good pellet shape.Additionalflavoring,vitamins,

minerals,andfatcanbeaddedbysprayingafterextrusion.

[email protected]

TheexperiencedspecialistsofCoppensInternationalguaranteeinnovativefishfeedprogramsofhighqualityforspeciesliketrout,sturgeon,catfish,carp,tilapia,marinefishandmore.Theseprogramsconsistoflivefeeds,hatcheryfeeds,nurserydiets,broodstockdietsandawiderangeof(pre)-growers.Eachprogramensuresoptimumresultthroughoutthelifecycleofyourfish.Coppensistrulydedicatedtoyourperformance!

www.coppens.eu

Aquafeed production worldwide

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AQUAFEEDPRODUCTION

Insta-Pro®extrudershavebeen improved inordertosuccessfullyproducehighqualitypetfoodandaquaticfeeds.WenowofferNEWspecially designed: Volumetric Feeder /MassFlowBinoptions/PetfoodandFishfeedPreconditioners/Petfood/Fishfeedcutterheads,whichgreatlyimprove the performance of ourextruderswhenproducingPetfoodsandAquaticFeeds

Our NEW Shaped Feeds (type-SF)Preconditioners increase produc-tioncapacity,improveshapingofpetfoods,andreducewearontheex-truderbarrel.Aswithothershaped

products, fine grinding priorto extrusion is essential toensure a good pellet shape.Additionalflavoring,vitamins,

minerals,andfatcanbeaddedbysprayingafterextrusion.

[email protected] www.trouwnutrition.co.uk

TrouwNutritionInternationalisthegloballeaderinpremixes,innovativefeedspecialitiesandnutritionalservicesfortheanimal

nutritionindustry.

Thecompanyhaslocationsin25countriesandaround3,000employees.Since1931,itsfeedtofoodsolutionshavemettheneedsof

feedproducers,integrators,distributorsandhomemixers,aswellasthecompanionanimalindustry.

Extrusion technologySibal,steppedinwaterproductmarketin1984withfishmeal andoil production. In2003 sibal startedextruded fish-feedproductionunder thebrandofBlackSeafeed.WithtwoplantsSibalhas12ton/perhfeed production capacity. Sibal combining 100%anchovyflourandHUFArichanchovyfishoilwiththelatestextrusiontechnology, isservingtofishingsectorwithabalancedfoodformulationandwideproductspectrum.

www.sibal.com.tr

Aquafeed production worldwide

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BioMar

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Crevetec

Cenzone

Coastal aquatic Proteins

Crystal Feed Products

eWoS

epicore

Florida aqua Farms

Grupo Dibaq

Guabi animal nutritian

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Insta Pro International

le Gouessant aquaculture

novalek Inc.

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nutraKol Pty

ocean Star International

ocialis

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SaP Int Corp

Salt Creek Inc.

Service aqua llC

Skretting

San Francisco Bay Brand

trouw

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Washington Fish Growers

Zagro asia

Zeigler Bros

LongrecognizedastheultimatesupplierofsuperiorqualityArtemiacystsandlivefood

enrichments,INVEAquaculturealsooffersacompletelineofhighlynutritionaldrydietsforbothfish

andshrimplarvaeandbroodstock,guaranteeingthebestbalance

betweenformulationandlivefood.

www.inveaquaculture.com

AQUAFEEDPRODUCTION


PRODUCT SHOWCASE 2013

Extru-Tech, Inc.-IntroducesNewValveOptions.Extru-Tech,Inc.SABETHA,KS.February2013—Inacontinuedefforttoimproveproductperformanceandproductioncontrol,Extru-Tech,Inc.hasintroducedanewMid-BarrelValve(MBV),aswellasanewEnergyManagementValve(EMV).Usedindependently,ortogether,bothproductsofferincreasedcontrolofSME(SpecificMechanicalEnergy).

Becauseitisaninternalcomponent,theMBVcanbeaddedinanypositionalongthelengthofthebarrelforon-linecontrolofSMEandproductdensity.Usedwiththecompany’shighlyadaptablesinglescrewextruders,thenewMBVallowsmanufacturerstoachievehigherSME,highercookandlowerbulkdensity,evenwithfreshmeatandhigh-fatrecipes.

ThenewEMVlocatedatthebarreldischarge,meanwhile,controlsthefinalcharacteristicsoftheproductbydynamicallyadjustingtheextruderdierestriction—evenwhenthemachineisinoperation.BecauseoftheadvancedEMVdesignitalsoallowstheflowofoff-specextrudatetobedivertedaway

www.extru-techinc.com

New extrusion programme-ANDRITzFEED&BIOFUELhaslaunchinganewandimprovedextrusionprogrammefortheproductionofallkindsoffishfeed,andpet-food.ThenewimprovedextrudersarebasedontheexperiencegainedfromthepopularANDRITZFEED&BIOFUEL

Ex620,Ex920,Ex617,andEx917extruders,whichallhaveprovedtheirprocessversatility,controllability,andenergyefficientextrusionperformance,leadingtoveryuniformandhighnutrientvaluefeedsforaquacultureandpetsformanyyears.

www.andritz.com

Almex-specialisesinsinglescrewextrusionequipment,fromtheextrusionunittocompleteinstallations.AlmexextrudersandContivarExpandersareinuseworldwideatfishfeed-,oilextraction-,petfood-,animalfeedplants,thefoodindustryandtheprocessingandchemicalindustries.Pleasevisitourwebsitesformoreinformation.

www.extruder.nl www.expander.nl

AquaStar®

aquastar.biomin.net

AquaStar®-WiththedevelopmentoftheAquaStar®productline,BIOMINservestheneedsoftheindustryfornaturalandsustainablesolutions.AquaStar®isawell-defined,multi-strainprobioticproductforfishandshrimpwhichpromotesabeneficialgutmicrofloraaswellasanimprovedenvironmentalconditioninponds,therebyimprovingefficiencyinproduction:

Controls pathogenic microorganisms

Stabilizes water quality and pond bottom

Improves gut health and performance

Bühler’s new hammer mill Granulex-ThehammermillGranulexisthenewdynamicgrindingmachinefromBühler.Designedforultimatepower,highcapacitygrindingupto75tph.ThecompanysaiditsSwiss-madereliabilityandsupremeeaseofmaintenanceminimizedowntime,soyoucanmakemaximumuseofthisproductivity

Bühlersaysitisaninvestmentinqualitythatissuretoshowarapidreturnanddeliverahammerblowtoyouroperatingcosts.

www.buhlergroup.com www.ge-pro.de

Gold Mehl FM -GoldMehlFMisaprocessedpoultryproteinwithhighproteincontentandhighproteindigestibility.

ThisisachievedbyusingdryingprocesswithoptimalconditionsusingLowTemperature(LT)dryingtechnology.

AcomparisonbetweenGoldMehlFManddemandofEAAbyfishandshrimpindicatesthatabalanceexistswithinmostEAAthuspositioningGoldMehlFMasareplacerofFishMeal.

With85%crudeproteincontentandmorethan85%invivodigestibility,theproductisauniqueofferinginthecategoryofAnimalProteinsandisbeingusedwidelyindifferentpartsoftheworld.

New Wenger Extrusion Process for Shrimp Feed Production-Wenger’snewMicroAquaticExtrusionSystemsurpassesthecapabilitiesofothersmalldiameteraquaticfeedprocesses,andredefinesallpreviousshrimpfeedproductiontechnology.BasedonWenger’sversatileC2TXConicalCo-RotatingTwin-ScrewExtruder,thenewsystemistailoredspecificallyforsmall-diameteraquaticfeedsandemploystheaddedinnovationofobliquedietechnologyandahigh-shearconditionertobringnewfeasibilitiestoshrimpfeedproduction,aswell

asothertypesofsmallandmicro-diameteraquaticfeed.

www.wenger.com

A selection of products

currently available in the

aquaculture industry

Use the QR code to reach

each company from your

phone or tablet.


www.ge-pro.de

Gold Mehl FM -GoldMehlFMisaprocessedpoultryproteinwithhighproteincontentandhighproteindigestibility.

ThisisachievedbyusingdryingprocesswithoptimalconditionsusingLowTemperature(LT)dryingtechnology.

AcomparisonbetweenGoldMehlFManddemandofEAAbyfishandshrimpindicatesthatabalanceexistswithinmostEAAthuspositioningGoldMehlFMasareplacerofFishMeal.

With85%crudeproteincontentandmorethan85%invivodigestibility,theproductisauniqueofferinginthecategoryofAnimalProteinsandisbeingusedwidelyindifferentpartsoftheworld.

Beta S – The natural Immune Modulator-LeiberBeta-S®consistsofisolated1.3-1.6-β-D-Glucanmoleculesfrombrewers’yeastcellwalls.Thankstoapatentedandgentleproductionprocess,theirnativestructurestaysintactsothattheyhaveaneffectiveandimmune-modulatingimpactduringintestinalpassage.

LeiberBeta-S®hasascientificallyprovenpositiveeffectontheimmunevariablesoffishincludingtheantibodytiter,theimmuneglobinlevel,andthemortalityrate.

ExcellenceinYeast–Excellentforfish!

www.leibergmbh.de

www.muyang.com

Single screw extruder-Leadingextrusiontechnologyandintelligentcontrol;by-passforavoidingblockage;simpleoperation,preciseandreliable.

Highefficiency-DDCconditionerandoptimalextruderscrew&chamber,minimumSMEinput;recoverableenergy,maximumenergyutilization;uniquesuspendingcutter,replacementandadjustmentwithoutdowntime.

Wideproductionrange-Controllabletemperature,pressureanddensitythankstomodularizeddesignandmanyadd-ons,minimizingreconfigurationacquired.

Satisfyingproductquality-Uniformextrudedpelletswithhighfatabsorption,uniquevisualappearance,environmentfriendlyandsustainable.

New Wenger Extrusion Process for Shrimp Feed Production-Wenger’snewMicroAquaticExtrusionSystemsurpassesthecapabilitiesofothersmalldiameteraquaticfeedprocesses,andredefinesallpreviousshrimpfeedproductiontechnology.BasedonWenger’sversatileC2TXConicalCo-RotatingTwin-ScrewExtruder,thenewsystemistailoredspecificallyforsmall-diameteraquaticfeedsandemploystheaddedinnovationofobliquedietechnologyandahigh-shearconditionertobringnewfeasibilitiestoshrimpfeedproduction,aswell

asothertypesofsmallandmicro-diameteraquaticfeed.

www.wenger.com www.tapcoinc.com

Xtreme Duty (CC-XD) elevator bucket-TapcoInc.’s508mmx254mm(20”x10”)XtremeDuty(CC-XD)elevatorbucket—with26,837.64mm(1,056.6cubicinches(ratedatindustrystandardof110%ofwaterlevel)ofactualcapacity—runsatspeedsupto940fpm.The508mmx254mm(20”x10”)CC-XDfeaturesa15.875mm(5/8”)thickroundedfront.

Thebucketsaremadewith35%-50%moreresinthroughout,andareavailableinnylon,urethaneandpolyethylene.U.S.FoodandDrug

Administration(FDA)-compliantresinsarestandardinpolyethyleneandurethane.

FDA-compliantnylonresinisavailablebyspecialrequest.For

moreinformation,contactYassineAbbadat13147399191or18002882726

See our review of products

launched and displayed

at the 'Aquaculture

2013' event in Nashville,

USA turn to page 58

Liptocitro Growth Plus-isanaturaladditivedevelopedbyLiptosawithgrowthpromoterandhepaticprotectoreffect.

Thisadditivecanbeincorporatedinfeedfishsincefingerlingperioduntiltheendofgrowingphaseinallsortsofaquaculturefish(marineandfreshwater)andshrimp.LiptocitroGrowthPlusgettoreducethecycleproductionthankstoFCRreductionandimprovementindailygainofweight.AsgrowthnaturalpromoterLGPgetthatfishhavebetterprotectionstateversusbacterialdiseasesthankstoBacteriostaticandbactericideeffectagainstmicroorganismsG(+)yG(-)”

www.liptosa.com www.evonik.com

AMINOCarp® -isatooldeliveringaminoacidrecommendationsforgrowingcommoncarp(cyprinuscarpiossp.).

Thesoftwarecalculatesaminoacidrecommendationsbasedonuserinputslikegrowth,feedingintensityandproductionconditionslikedurationoffeedingperiod,proportionofnaturalfeedintotalfeedintakeanddailyfeedingfrequency.

www.akahl.de

The extruder OEE -withanexchangeableandhydraulicallyadjustabledieisanadvancementoftheKAHLannulargapexpander.

Theuser-friendlyandflexibleplantisavailableindifferentsizes.Manyparameterscanbeinfluencedtoobtainanoptimumproductquality.Starchismodifiedby90%/Thedevicecanbeusedforfeedsforallanimalspecies/Highwaterabsorptioncapacity/Highfatcontentsofupto30%forhighenergyfeedarepossible/Differentproductshapesarepossible

TheKAHLextruderOEEprovidesfishandshrimpfeedwithspecialpropertiesforfishfarming.Floatingorveryslowlysinkingpelletsfortilapia,carp,catfish/Slowlysinkingpelletsfortrout,salmon,andperch/Water-stablepelletsforcrustaceans/Rearingfeedwithagranularsizeof0.1-2mm

Chinese Largest Capacity Pellet Mill SZLH1068-SzLH1068pelletmillisoneofthenationalkeyscienceandtechnologysupportprojectsoftheeleventhfive-yearplan.Itisalsothekeypromotionprogramofthenationalagriculturalministryofthetwelfthfive-yearplan.

SZLH1068pelletmillisoneofthenationalkeyscienceandtechnologysupportprojectsoftheeleventhfive-yearplan.Itisalsothekeypromotionprogramofthenationalagriculturalministryofthetwelfthfive-yearplan.

DevelopedandmanufacturedbyZhengchang,SZLH1068hasattaineddomesticlargestcapacityof45-55tonperhour.Itwillbeputinusein160t/hfeedfactoryforthecompanyofHewei.ThesuccessfulmanufactureofSZLH1068haslaidsolidtechnologyfoundationforthemassiveandintensivedevelopmentofChinafeedindustry.TheadoptionofSZLh1068pelletmillwillgreatlysavetheinvestment,productionandmanagementcostsforfeedfactoryandcreatemorevaluesforthem.

www.zhengchang.com

www.reed-mariculture.com

Rotifers -aresmall(50-1000µm)zooplanktonthatoccurinfreshwater,brackish,andmarineenvironments.Rotifersfeedonmicroalgaeandareconsumedbyawidevarietyoffish,shellfish,corals,andotherorganisms.Theyareusedextensivelyinaquacultureandaquariumsbecauseoftheirveryhighreproductiverates(asgreatasdoublingorbetterevery24hours),easeofculturing,optimalsizeforlarvalfish,andnutritionalprofilethatcanbetailoredtotheneedsofpreyspeciesbyuseofspecialfeedssuchasReedMariculture’sRotiGrow®andN-Rich®microalgaefeeds.

ThemostcommonlyusedmarinerotifersarethespeciesBrachionusplicatilis(L-type)andBrachionusrotundiformis(S-typeandSS-type).ReedMariculturesuppliespureculturesofastrainofBrachionusplicatilis(L-typerotifers)withatypicalloricalengthofabout160µm.Thisspeciesiseuryhaline,capableofthrivinginsalinitiesof5-40ppt.

AQ

UA

FEED SUBSCRIBE

www.aquafeed.co.uk/subscribe.php

InternationalAquafeedispublishedsixtimesayear,bringingyouin-depthfeatures,industrynews,events,bookreviewsandmore.Aswellasyourpersonalcopydelivereddirecttoyouraddress,subscriberstoInternationalAquafeedalsoreceiveafreecopyoftheInternationalAquafeedDirectoryworthUK£85.Formoreinformationpleasevisitourwebsite.Foracomplimentarytrialissue,pleasecontacttheCirculation&SubscriptionsManager-TutiTan-Email:[email protected]

ww

w.a

quaf

eed.

co.u

k

ONLINEwww.aquafeed.co.uk/online.php

InternationalAquafeedisalsoavailabletoviewonlinefreeofcharge,withacompletearchiveofbackissues,coverovertwoyearsofthemagazineshistory.Themagazineisavailableasafullonlinemagazine,orasindividualfeatures,thatcanbeseparatelydownloaded,freeofcharge.Formoreinformationpleasevisitthewebsite.

www.evonik.com

AMINOCarp® -isatooldeliveringaminoacidrecommendationsforgrowingcommoncarp(cyprinuscarpiossp.).

Thesoftwarecalculatesaminoacidrecommendationsbasedonuserinputslikegrowth,feedingintensityandproductionconditionslikedurationoffeedingperiod,proportionofnaturalfeedintotalfeedintakeanddailyfeedingfrequency.

www.akahl.de

The extruder OEE -withanexchangeableandhydraulicallyadjustabledieisanadvancementoftheKAHLannulargapexpander.

Theuser-friendlyandflexibleplantisavailableindifferentsizes.Manyparameterscanbeinfluencedtoobtainanoptimumproductquality.Starchismodifiedby90%/Thedevicecanbeusedforfeedsforallanimalspecies/Highwaterabsorptioncapacity/Highfatcontentsofupto30%forhighenergyfeedarepossible/Differentproductshapesarepossible

TheKAHLextruderOEEprovidesfishandshrimpfeedwithspecialpropertiesforfishfarming.Floatingorveryslowlysinkingpelletsfortilapia,carp,catfish/Slowlysinkingpelletsfortrout,salmon,andperch/Water-stablepelletsforcrustaceans/Rearingfeedwithagranularsizeof0.1-2mm

www.reed-mariculture.com

Rotifers -aresmall(50-1000µm)zooplanktonthatoccurinfreshwater,brackish,andmarineenvironments.Rotifersfeedonmicroalgaeandareconsumedbyawidevarietyoffish,shellfish,corals,andotherorganisms.Theyareusedextensivelyinaquacultureandaquariumsbecauseoftheirveryhighreproductiverates(asgreatasdoublingorbetterevery24hours),easeofculturing,optimalsizeforlarvalfish,andnutritionalprofilethatcanbetailoredtotheneedsofpreyspeciesbyuseofspecialfeedssuchasReedMariculture’sRotiGrow®andN-Rich®microalgaefeeds.

ThemostcommonlyusedmarinerotifersarethespeciesBrachionusplicatilis(L-type)andBrachionusrotundiformis(S-typeandSS-type).ReedMariculturesuppliespureculturesofastrainofBrachionusplicatilis(L-typerotifers)withatypicalloricalengthofabout160µm.Thisspeciesiseuryhaline,capableofthrivinginsalinitiesof5-40ppt.


EXPERTT●PIC


Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth look at a particular species and how its feed is managed.

COBIAEXPERT TOPIC

1 ChinaThevastmajorityoftheworld’scobiaispro-duced inChina. In fact in 2004, the countryproduced 80.6 percent of global exportsaccordingtotheFAO.However,despitethis,there is little available information on cobiafeeds or farming strategies used by Chinesefarmers.

2 VietnamIn 2008, Vietnamproduced 1,500 tonnes ofcobia, making it the third largest producerbehindChinaandTaiwan.

Oneofthe largestcobiaoperations inthecountry is run by Marine Farms Vietnam, asubsidiaryofMarineFarmsASA,Norway.Thecompanyhasashorebasefacility,hatcherysiteand ten sea sites,which range from20m to32m indepth.The farms,which are locatednorthofNhaTrang,producemorethan1,500metrictonsofcobiaperyear,withthecapacitytoproducemorethan6,000tonsifneeded.

Not content with only Vietnamesecobiaproduction,MarineFarmsalsohasacobiaoperation inBelizewhichhasbeengrowing cobia in offshore cages since2006.

3 TaiwanTaiwan isoneof thepioneersof cobiaaquaculture. Init ial ly broodstock f ishwere caught from the wild but in the1990s, the country became the first intheworld tosuccessfullyspawncobia.By1997,thetechnologyandknow-howwasinplacetoraisesizeablequantitiesof cobia. Today, broodstock are takenfrom grow out cages and transportedto onshore ponds to spawn. Juvenilecobia (1.5-2years) is sent togrowoutponds, nearshore cages or offshorecages.

According to FAO data, cobia pro-ducers in Taiwan use both f loatingandsinkingpel letscomprisedof42-45percent crude protein and 15-16 per-cent l ipid. The FCR is approximately1.5:1.

4 USAEighty-fivepercentofseafoodintheUSAisimport-ed but there is burgeoning interest in increasingdomesticaquacultureproduction.Cobiaisapromis-ingcandidateforaquacultureproductionduetoitsrapidgrowthrateandgoodfleshquality.Thefirstaquacultureresearchonthespecieswasnoted in1975 in North Carolina, USA. Cobia eggs werecollectedoffthecoastandraisedinarearingtrial.

LikeTaiwan,therehavealsobeensuccess-fulspawningeffortsontheUSA.

While the early production cycle in Taiwanfavoursoutdoorponds, juvenilecobia intheUSAtend to live in fibreglass tanks. According to theFAO,thesetanksareeitheroperatedasrecircula-tionsystems,flow-throughoracombinationofboth.

Researcheffortshavefocusedonextendingthecobia spawning season with the aim of reachingyear-roundeggproduction.Todate,eggshavebeensuccessfullyfertilizedduring10monthsoftheyear.


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3

1

24

Developing

ecologically efficient,

economically viable

and nutritionally

adequate feeds for

cobia Rachycentron

canadumThe University of Miami and other US institutions have teamed up with feed manufacturing companies, producers and the American Soybean Association to develop competitive practical feeds for this emerging aquaculture species

by Jorge A Suarez, Carlos Tudela, Drew Davis, Matthew Taynor, Lindsay Glass,

Ron Hoenig and Daniel D Benetti

Cobia is the only member of thefamily Ranchycentridae. It is atropical and subtropical specieswidely distributed worldwide

(Briggs, 1960; Shaffer and Nakamura, 1989;Ditty and Shaw, 1992; Benetti et al., 2008),exceptintheeasternPacific,whereitrarely

found(Briggs,1960;Collette,1999;Benettiet al.,2008).Cobiaarerecognisedfortheirfastgrowth,excellentmeatquality,andhavebeenintensively farmed since the 1990s (Liao et al.,2004;Benettiet al.,2007).

Thesecharacteristics,alongwithexcellentmeat quality and good market demand andprice, raised enormous interest in commer-cial aquaculturedevelopmentof this species.Indeed,whilecobiawasalittleknowncandi-date species foraquacultureaboutadecadeago, today it has established itself as a topquality culturedmarine fish tropical/subtropi-calinAsiaandtheAmericas.

Technologyforreliablebroodstockspawn-ing and mass production of fingerlings hasbeen mastered at the University of MiamiExperimental Hatchery (UMEH) and otherprivate companies and government institu-tions around theworld.However,while thefundamentaltechnologyforcobiaproductionfrom egg to market is in place (Liao et al.,2004;Benettiet al.,2008;2010),manyyearsofresearchanddevelopmentarestillneededtorefinethecultureprocess,allowingcobiatodeveloponanindustrialscale,especiallyatthegrow-outstage.

Those working with the species both atthe R&D and production concur that themost crucial remaining roadblocks to be

addressed and resolved at this juncture arerelatedtofeedsandnutrition.

At the present time, feeds represent themostexpensiveitemoftheproductioncostsfor cobia, and the inability to provide asustainable, high-quality feed that meets theenergetic and nutritional requirements ofthese fast growing fish continues to eludeproducers. Top quality diets with high inclu-sion levels of fishmeal and fish are avail-able but costs are prohibitively high frombothecologicalandeconomicalperspectives.Therefore, thecollectivegoalof researchers,feed manufacturers and producers is to for-mulate,developandmanufactureecologicallyefficient and economically viable diets thatwillmeetthenutritionalrequirementsofthisspecies.Thisreviewsummarisestheseefforts.

Theevaluationoffeedingredientsiscrucialtonutritionalresearchandfeeddevelopmentforaquaculturespecies. Inevaluating ingredi-ents, there are several important points thatmust be understood to enable the judicioususeofaparticularingredientinfeedformula-tion(Glencrosset al.,2007).Thedetermina-tionofnutrientdigestibility isthefirststepinevaluating the potential of an ingredient foruseinthedietofanaquaculturespecies(Allanet al.,2000).

Aconstraintfortheexpansionofcobiaaqua-culture is the availability of high quality formu-


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lated diets which reduce or eliminate fishmealprotein.Suitablereplacementsareoftenofplantorigin,buttheevaluationofnutrientdigestibilityin new ingredients should be an initial step inevaluatingitspotentialforfishmealreplacement.Therefore,theapparentdigestibilitycoefficients(ADCs)ofproteinandaminoacidsofanovelvariety of non-GMO soybean meal, Navita™,andanindustrystandardsoybeanmeal(defattedsoybeanmeal/roasted solvent-extracted),wereevaluated at University of Miami for juvenilecobia, Rachycentron canadum. Results indicatedthattheNavita™ishighlybio-availabletocobia,asADCsforproteinandaminoacidsobtainedfor this ingredient were significantly higher fornearly every analysed component of the feedthan the ADCs of the conventional soybeanmeal. ADCs crude protein were 81.8% and68.5%, respectively, for Navita™ and conven-tionalsoybeanmeal.Similarly,ADCsofselectedamino acids ranged from 68.3-108.6% for theNavita™ meal, whereas the same coefficientranged from 41.4-97.8% for the conventionalsoybeanmeal.Findingsfromthepresentexperi-ment highlight the potential of Navita™ as asuitable FM replacement in cobia diets andshould help to maximize cobia growth whileminimising the excretion of fish metabolites(Daviset al.,2012).

Reviewing cobia nutritionIn their thorough review of cobia nutri-

tion, Fraser and Davies (2009) pointed outthe importance of paying special attention tothe amino acid requirements when replacingfishmealwithalternativeproteinsources.Chouet al. (2004)mentions thatmethionine is theprimary limiting amino acid replacement instudiesoffishmealwithsoybeanmeal.Lungeret al.(2007)foundthattheaminoacidtaurinesupplementationatalevelof5gkg1dryweight,increased weight gain and feed efficiency incobiafeddietswithhighlevelsofplantprotein.

Fraser and Davies (2009) conclude thatnutritionalstudiesoncobiaarelimitedbecausemosthavebeenconductedusingjuvenilefishwith much lower weights than harvestablesize.Thecobiacommercialweightisbetween4 and 10 kg; however nutritional require-ments have only been examined in juvenilefishweighing50g.Althoughdifferencesintherequirementswereminimal,itwouldstillhaveahighimportantcommercialimpact,especial-lyconsideringproteinandlipidsarethemajordietarycomponentsinfishdiets.Theaccuracyof the nutritional requirements would notonlyhaveapositiveeconomicimpactontheindustry,butalsodecreasetheenvironmentalpollutionbydecreasingnutrientloadingintheaquaticecosystem.AsreviewedbyWelchet al (2010), the importanceof the responsibleuse of natural resources such as fishmeal,fish oil and vegetable crops to ensure theenvironmental sustainability of aquafeeds iswellrecognised.

Although nutritional principles are similarfor all animals, the amounts of nutrientsrequiredvaryamongspecies.Thereareabout40essentialnutrientsinfishdiets(Akiyamaet al.,1993).AccordingtoTacón(1989),nutri-tionalrequirementsinthedietofallculturedaquaticspeciesmaybecategorizedunderfivedifferent nutritional groups: proteins, lipids,carbohydrates,vitaminsandminerals.

Major nutrient requirements for juvenile cobia

Protein:Oneofthemostimportantnutri-entsinthedietofmarinefishisprotein.Thisis attributed to two factors, which are thehighcostoftheingredientandtheorganisms’high protein nutritional requirement. Excessprotein not only increases feed costs but italso increases the excretionof nitrogen intothe environment. The first article used todetermineproteinrequirementsincobiawasthatofChouet al. (2001),whodeterminedby regressionanalysis, aprotein requirementof44.5%.Craig,SchwarzandMcLean(2006)conductedafactorialstudywithtwolevelsofcrudeprotein(40%and50%)andthreelipidlevels(6%,12%and18%).Theauthorsfoundasignificantdifferenceinfeedefficiencyof7.4g cobia fedwith the lowest levelofprotein.On the contrary, when the authors usedlargercobia(49.3g)nosignificantdifferencesin feed efficiency were found between thedifferentlevelsofprotein.

Amino acids: The nutritional value of aproteindiet is influencedbythecompositionofitsaminoacids.Forthisreason,theproteintobeusedinpracticaldietformulationsmustbe based on digestible amino acid profileand quantitative amino acid requirementsin the targeted species. In cobia, studies ofamino acid requirements are limited, onlytwoof the ten amino acids havebeen con-sidered essential (Wilson 2002). Zhou et al.(2006)determinedmethionine requirementsin juvenile cobia. The authors state that formaximumgrowthandlowerfeedconversionratio,therequirementofmethionineis1.19%(drydiet) in thepresenceof0.67%cysteine,correspondingto2.64%dryweightofdietaryprotein.

For lysine,Zhouet al. (2007)determinedtherequirementsinjuvenilecobia.Theresultfor lysine requirements were 2.33% and5.30% dry weight of dietary protein. Thesevaluesofmethionineandlysineareinaccord-ance with the requirement values of otherimportantfishspeciesinaquaculture(Wilson2002).Recently,Renet al.(2012)determinedthe requirementsof arginineon thebasisofSGR and FER. The optimal dietary argininerequirementsofjuvenilecobiawereestimatedtobe2.85%ofthedietand2.82%ofthediet,respectively.

Lipids: Lipids are an important source ofhighlydigestibleenergy,inparticular,freefatty

acids derived from triglycerides constitutingthemajorenergysourceformuscleinalmostallanimals.Theyarealsokeycomponentsofcellular and subcellular membranes (phos-pholipids, sterols, etc.). Performing functionsasbiologicaltransportersintheabsorptionoffat-soluble vitamins are precursors of pros-taglandinsandhormones(FenucciandHaran2006). For juvenile cobia, the lipid require-ment was estimated at 5.76% (Chou et al.,2001).Wanget al.(2005)usedthreeisopro-teicdiets(47%protein)withthreelipidlevels(5%,15%and25%drymatter).Theauthorsfound no significant differences in growthbetweenthecobia(7.7g)feddietscontaining5percentand15percentlipids.Howeverthecobia fed 25 percent lipid had a significantreduction indailydiet consumption, suggest-ingthatlipidlevelsabove15percentreducedgrowthduetodecreasedfeedconsumption.

Carbohydrates: Because cobia commer-cial feedscontainstarchandcerealproducts,related research on carbohydrate require-ments are very important. Schwarz et al.(2007) suggests that cobia are able to useup to 360g/kg-1 of dietary starch from lowmolecularweight carbohydrate such as dex-trin. Webb et al. (2009) determined thatcobia can use carbohydrates to levels of340g/kg-1(drydiet)withanoptimumenergyprotein of approximately 34mg protein kJ-1metabolisableenergy.

Vitamins:Vitaminsarenutrientsnecessaryforgrowth,health,andreproductionoforgan-ismsandare required invery small amountsin fishdiet.Maiet al. (2009)determinedtherequirementsofcholineinjuvenilecobia.Therequirement determined by ‘broken line’ forweight gainwas 696mg/kg-1 choline diet ascholine chloride. Unfortunately there is notenough informationon the requirements forvitaminsandmineralsinCobia.

Future research areasFor the future we propose the following

researchintheareaofcobianutrition:• Determine nutritional requirements at

differentsizesclasses• Further requirements of amino acids,

vitaminsandminerals• Continue research replacementof fish-

meal and fish oil to alternative sourcesofproteinandlipid

• Complement existing information ondigestibility and energy balance of pro-tein ingredients of plant and animalorigin

• Monitoring the quality of commercialfeeds,usedbytheindustry

• Implementation of managementpractices

In conclusion, the collaborative effort ofresearchers, feedmanufacturersandproduc-ers are driving steadfast progress towardsdevelopingpracticalandeconomicaldietsfor


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cobiaatalldevelopmentalstages.Governmentsupportaswellasinterestandfundinggener-ated by American Soybean Association andits various affiliated groups have been ofparamount importance in advancing knowl-edgeandtechnologiesthefield.Theindustryis much further ahead than it was about adecade ago. It is recognised that enhancedknowledge and better nutrition are allowingcobia aquacultureproduction tocontinue toexpand exponentiallyworldwidewhilemov-ingawayfrominadequatedietsandtrashfish.The development of an ecologically efficientand economically viable cobia aquaculture

industry is and will continue to benefit allstakeholders,fromproducerstoconsumers.

References

Allan,G.L.,Parkinson,S.,Booth,M.A.,Stone,D.A.J.,Rowland,S.J.,Frances,J.,Warner-Smith,R.,2000.ReplacementoffishmealindietsforAustraliansilverpech,Bidyanusbidyanus:I.Digestibilityofalternativeingredients.Aquaculture186,293-310

AkiyamaD.,1993.Elusodeproductosabasedesoyaydeotrossuplementosproteicosvegetalesenalimentosparaacuacultura.MemoriasdelPrimerSimposiumInternacionaldeNutriciónyTecnologíadeAlimentosparaAcuacultura,pp.257-269.

Benetti,D.D.,M.R.Orhun,I.Zink,F.G.Cavalin,B.Sardenberg,K.Palmer,B.Denlinger,D.BacoatandB.O'Hanlon.2007.Aquacultureofcobia(Rachycentron canadum)intheAmericasandtheCaribbean.Pages57-78.In:IC.LiaoandE.M.Leaño(editors)In:CobiaAquaculture:Research,DevelopmentandCommercialProduction.AsianFisheriesSociety,Manila,Philippines,WorldAquacultureSociety,Louisiana,USA,TheFisheriesSocietyofTaiwan,KeelungTaiwan,andNationalTaiwanOceanUniversity,Keelung,Taiwan.

Benetti,D.D.,2008.CobiaaquacultureexpandingintheAmericasandtheCaribbean.GlobalAquacultureAdvocate1(2):46-48

Benetti,D.D.,B.O’Hanlon,J.A.Rivera,A.W.Welch,C.MaxeyandM.R.Orhun2010.Growthratesofcobia(Rachycentron canadum)inopenoceancagesintheCaribbean.Aquaculture302:195-201

Briggs,J.C.,1960.Fishesofworld-wide(circumtropical)distribution.Copeia3,171-180.Catacutan,M.R.&Pagador,G.E.,2004.Partialreplacementoffishmealbydefattedsoybeanmealinformulateddietsforthemangroveredsnapper,Lutjanusargentimaculatus(Forsskal1775).Aquacult.Res.,35,299–306.

ChouR.L.,SuM.S.&ChenH.Y.,2001.Optimaldietaryproteinandlipidlevelsforjuvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum).Aquaculture193,81-89.

ChouR.L.,HerB.Y.,SuM.S.,HwangG.,WuY.H.&ChenH.Y.,2004.SubstitutingfishmealwithsoybeanmealindietsofjuvenilecobiaRachycentron canadum.Aquaculture229,325-333.

Collette,B.B.,1999.Rachycentridae.In:Carpenter,K.E.,andNiem,V.H.(Eds.),TheLivingMarineResourcesoftheWesternCentralPacific.Volume4.Bonyfishespart2(MugilidaetoCarangidae).FAO.Rome.

CraigS.R.,SchwarzM.H.&McLeanE.,2006.Juvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum)canutilizeawiderangeofproteinandlipidlevelswithoutimpactsonproductioncharacteristics.Aquaculture261,384-391.

Davis,D.,Suárez,J.,Buentello,A.,Benetti,D(abstractacceptedinOctober2012).Apparentdigestibilitycoefficientsofproteinandaminoacidsofanovelnon-GMOvarietyofsoybeanmealforjuvenilecobia,Rachycentron canadum;Abstract,oralpresentation,2013AquacultureAmericaConference,WorldAquacultureSociety,February21-25,Nashville,Tennessee.


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FenucciJ.&HaránN.,2006.EstadoactualyperspectivasdelanutricióndeloscamaronesPeneidoscultivadosenIberoamérica.subprogramaii“acuicultura”redtemáticaii.c.pp153

FraserT.&DaviesS.,2009.ReviewarticleNutritionalrequirementsofcobia,Rachycentron canadum(Linnaeus):areview.AquacultureResearch.1-16.

Glencross,B.D.,Booth,M.,Allan,G.L.,2007.Afeedisonlyasgoodasitsingredients–areviewofingredientevaluationstrategiesforaquaculturefeeds.AquacultureNutrition.13;17-34.

Liao,I.,Juang,T.,Tsia,W.,Hsueh,C.,Chang,S.,Leano,E.,2004.CobiacultureinTaiwan:currentstatusandproblems.Aquaculture237,155-165.

LungerA.N.,McLeanE.&CraigS.R.,2007.Theefectsoforganicproteinsupplementationupongrowth,feedconversionandtexturequalityparametersofjuvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum).Aquaculture264,342-352.

Mai,K.,Xiao,L.,Ai,Q.,Wang,X.,Xu,W.,Zhang,W.,Liufu,Z.,Ren,M.,2009.Dietarycholinerequirementforjuvenilecobia,Rachycentron canadum.Aquaculture289,124-128.

MingchunRen,Ai.,Q&Mai,K.,2012.Dietaryargininerequirementsofjuvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum).AquacultureResearch,2012,1-9

SchwarzM.H.,MowryD.,McLeanE.&CraigS.R.,2007.Performanceofadvancedjuvenilecobia,Rachycentron canadum,rearedunderdiferent

thermalregimes:evidenceforcompensatorygrowthandamethodforcoldbanking.JournalofAppliedAquaculture19,71-84.

Shaffer,R.V.,Nakamura,E.L.,1989.SynopsisofbiologicaldataonthecobiaRachycentron canadum(Pisces:Rachycentridae).FAOFisheriesSynopsis.153(NationalMarineFisheriesService/S153),U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,NOAATechnicalReport,NationalMarineFisheriesService82.Washingtion,D.C.

Tacón.A,Nutricionyalimentaciondepecesycamaronescultivadosmanualdecapacitación.,1989.organizacióndelasnacionesunidasparalaagriculturaylaalimentaciónBrasilia,Brasil.

WangJ.T.,LiuY.J.,TianL.X.,MaiK.S.,DuZ.Y.,WangY.&YangH.J.,2005.Effectofdietarylipidlevelongrowthperformance,lipiddeposition,hepaticlipogenesisinjuvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum).Aquaculture249,439-447

Webb,K.A.,RawlisonL.T.&HoltG.J.,2009.Effectsofdietaryratioongrowthandfeedefficiencyofjuvenilecobia,Rachycentron canadum.AquacultureNutrition.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2095.2009.00672.x

Welsh,A.,R.Hoenig,J.Stieglitz,D.D.Benetti,A.Tacon,N.Sims,andB.O'Hanlon2010.Fromfishingtothesustainablefarmingofcarnivorousmarinefinfish.ReviewsinFisheriesScience18(3):235-247

WilsonR.P.,2002.Aminoacidsandproteins.In:FishNutrition(ed.byJ.Halver&R.Hardy),pp.143–179.AcademicPress,SanDiego,CA,USA.

ZhouQ.C.,WuZ.H.,TanB.P.,ChiS.Y.&YangQ.H.,2006.OptimaldietarymethioninerequirementforjuvenileCobia(Rachycentron canadum).Aquaculture258,551-557.

ZhouQ.C.,WuZ.H.,ChiS.Y.&YangQ.H.,2007.Dietarylysinerequirementofjuvenilecobia(Rachycentron canadum).Aquaculture273,634-640.


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THE 8TH INDONESIA’S NO.1 LIVESTOCK, FEED, DAIRY AND FISHERIES INDUSTRY SHOW

5 - 7 June 2013BNDCC - Bali Nusa Dua Convention Center

Bali - Indonesia

PT. NAPINDO MEDIA ASHATAMAJl. Kelapa Sawit XIV Blok M1 No.10, Billy & Moon, Pondok Kelapa, Jakarta 13450, Indonesia Tel: (62-21) 8644756/85, Fax: (62-21) 8650963, E-mail: [email protected]

incorporating with

Directorate General of Livestock and Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Indonesia

Hosted by Organised bySupported by

Official Regional Publication

Supporting PublicationsOfficial LocalPublication

C

M

Y

CM

MY

CY

CMY

K

IDL13-Intl Aqua Feed .pdf 1 2/19/13 1:48 PM

INDUSTRYEVENTSIN

DU

STRY

EV

ENTS

11th-12thMarch13GLOBALG.A.PPublicWorkshopAquaculture,Bangkok,Thailand

Contact: Daniela Fabiszisky, GLOBAL G.A.P, Spichernstr.55, 50672, Cologne, Germany

Tel: +49 2215 799333Fax: +49 2215 799389Email: [email protected]: www.globalgap.org

13th-15thMarch13AquaticAsia2013,BITEC,BangkokInternationalTrade&Exhibition,Centre,Bangkok,Thailand

Contact: Guus van Ham, P.O. Box 8800, 3503 RV Utrecht, The Netherlands

Tel: +31 302 952302Fax: +31 302 952809Email: [email protected]: www.aquatic-asia.net

13th-15thMarch13VIVAsia2013,BITEC,BangkokInternationalTrade&ExhibitionCentre,88Bangna-tradRoad,Bangna,Prakanong,Bangkok10260,Thailand

Contact: Anneke van Rooijen, P.O. Box 8800, 3503 RV Utrecht, The Netherlands

Tel: +31 302 952772Fax: +31 302 952809Email: [email protected]: www.viv.net

24th-27thMarch13AridlandAquacultureSymposium&Workshops(RecirculationandAquaponics),UAEUniversity

Contact: Roy Palmer, World Aquaculture Society, 143 J. M. Parker Coliseum, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA

Tel: +61 419 528733Fax: +1 2255 783493Email: [email protected]: www.was.org

26th-28thMarch13AGRAMiddleEast,DubaiInternationalExhibitionCentreDubai,UAE

Contact: Rizwan Mustafa, PO Box 28943, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Tel: +971 44 072424Fax: +971 44 072485Email: [email protected]: www.agramiddleeast.com

24th-25thApril13EuropeanAlgaeBiomass,Vienna,Austria

Contact: Dimitri Pavlyk, 5/13 Great Suffolk Street, London, SE1 0NS, UK

Tel: +44 2079 812503Fax: +44 2075 930071Email: [email protected]: www.wplgroup.com/aci/confer-ences/eu-eal3.asp

25th-26thApril13GLOBALG.A.PPublicWorkshop,Aquaculture,Brussels,Belgium

Contact: Daniela Fabiszisky, GLOBAL G.A.P, Spichernstr.55, 50672 Cologne, Germany

Tel: +49 2215 799333Fax: +49 2215 799389Email: [email protected]: www.globalgap.org

22nd-24thMay13VIVRussia2013,InternationalCrocusExhibitionCenter,Moscow,Russia

Contact: Guus van Ham, P.O. Box 8800, 3503 RV Utrecht, The Netherlands

Tel: +31 302 952302Fax: +31 302 952809Email: [email protected]: www.viv.net

30thMay13-2ndJune13Aquarama2013,Hall401-403,SuntecSingapore,InternationalConvention&ExhibitionCentre,1RafflesBoulevard,SuntecCity,Singapore039593

Contact: Ms. Jennifer Lee, 3 Pickering Street, #02-48 China Square Central, Singapore 048660

Tel: +65 65 920891Fax: +65 64 386090Email: [email protected]: http://aquarama.com.sg/

5th-7thJune13INDOLIVESTOCK2013EXPO&FORUM,BaliNusaDuaConventionCenter,Bali,Indonesia

Contact: Didit Siswodwiatmoko / Devi Ardiatne, Jl. Kelapa Sawit XIV Blok M1 No. 10, Kompleks Billy & Moon, Pondok Kelapa Jakarta 13450, Indonesia

Tel: +62 218 644756 ext: 118 & 123Fax: +62 218 650963Email: [email protected]: www.indolivestock.com

9th-12thAugust13AquacultureEurope2013,NTNU–Trondheim,Norway

Contact: Conference manager, Slijkensesteenweg 4, 8400 Ostend, Belgium

Tel: +32 59 323859Fax: [email protected]: www.easonline.org

9th-12thSeptember13BioMarineBusinessConvention2013,WorldTradeCongressCentre,Halifax,NS,Canada

Contact: Sylvie Couture, 1200, Montreal Road, Building M-19, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6, Canada

Tel: +1 6139 912060Fax: +1 6139 937250Email: [email protected]: www.biomarine.org

22nd-27thSeptember1320thAnnualPracticalShortCourseonAquacultureFeedExtrusion,NutritionandFeedManagement,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,Texas,USA

Contact: Mian N Riaz, Food Protein R&D Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA

Tel: +1 9798 452774Fax: +1 9798 452744Email: [email protected]: www.tamu.edu/extrusion

6th-10thOctober13TenthInternationalSymposiumonTilapiainAquaculture(ISTA-10),CrownePlazaHotel,GivatRam,HaaliyaSt.1,Jerusalem,Israel

Contact: Prof Gideon HULATA, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel

Tel: +972 37 610692Fax: +972 37 610799Email: [email protected] or Email: [email protected]: www.ista10.com/

10th-12thOctober13ShanghaiInternationalFisheries&SeafoodEXPO2013,ShanghaiNewInternationalExpoCenter,Shanghai,China

Contact: Shelly Zhou, Suite 1101, 11F, Xiusen Building, No. 129 South Laiting Rd, Songjiang District, Shanghai, 201615, China

Tel: +86 13818 503302Fax: +86 2167 759097Email: [email protected]: www.sifse.com/en

7th-9thNovember13EXPOPESCA&ACUIPERU,CentrodeExposicionesJockey,HipodromodeMonterrico,Lima33,Peru

Contact: Guillermo Thais, Thais Corporation S.A.C., Av. Jatosisa Mz-A, Lt-12, Urb. San Fernando – Pachacamac, Lima 19 - Peru

Tel: +511 2 017820 (202)Fax: +511 2 017820 (209)Email: [email protected]: www.thaiscorp.com

7th-11thJune14WorldAquaculture2014,AdelaideConventionCentre,SA,Australia

Contact: Australia - Sarah-Jane Day, International – John Cooksey, Marevent, Begijnengracht 40, Ghent, 9000 Belgium

Tel: +32 92 334912Email: [email protected]: [email protected]: www.aquaculture.org.au


Aquarama,May 30- June 2, 2013 Suntec,Singapore

Singaporeisanaptlocationfor Asia’s biggest orna-mental fish show. The

country is the world’s largestexporterofornamentalfish,withexports totalling 20.3 percentof global production in 2008.Aquarama returns for a thir-teenth year with an exhibitiondedicatedtoallthingsaquarium-related.With a focus on inter-national ornamental fish, inver-tebrates, plants and accesso-ries, the show offers plenty ofopportunities to get immersedinaquatics.

International industry playersattendAquaramatosourcenewproducts,setnewindustrystand-ards, or learn about the latesttechnology and industry devel-opments.There will be farmvisits, a newproducts showcaseandavarietyoftradeandpublicseminars.

This year the three tradeseminars will focus around thetheme of ‘current aquatics –future perspectives’. Session 1:Industry-related Conservationwill look at hot issues in theaquatics world including, theongoing studies on the plightof the Banggai cardinalfish, theAmazonian ornamental fishery,conservation and managementstrategies for Indian ornamentalfish, andCITES andCBD issuessurroundingthedragonfish.

Se s s ion 2 : Hea l th andBiosecurity in the OrnamentalAquatic Industry will examinebiosecurityissuesinAustralia,fishhealthmanagement in commer-cial premises and barcoding ofornamentalfish.

Finally Session 3: Husbandryand Legislation covers govern-mental perspectives on theornamental aquatic industry, thelive rock trade, wild-caught andcaptive-bred seahorses, nanoaquaria, Brazilian legislation andthe next CITES Conference oftheParties.

More InforMatIon:Website: www.aquarama.com.sg

INDUSTRYEVENTS

International Crocus ExhibitionCenter,Moscow,Russia

VIVissynonymouswithhigh-quality agriculture shows.Formed in the 1970s,

VakbeursIntensieveVeehouderij(orintensiveanimalfarming)cateredforthe burgeoning interest in arablefarming,milk andcattleproductionin theNetherlands.Since then,VIVhas grown from a national tradeevent into seven separate showsheld around theworld.TodayVIVshows attractover 1,000 interna-tional companies andvisitors fromover140countries.

VIVRussiaisoneofthesuccessstories of theVIV family.At thebeginning of the century theRussianeconomybegan togrowrapidly again after the crisis atthe end of the 1990s.A strongemphasis from central govern-ment on self-sufficiency for theRussian meat industry provedfer tile ground forVIV Russia.

Star ting in 2004 thisVIV showquickly became a point of ref-erence for the Russian meatindustry.

Now in its sixth edition,VIVRussia 2013 showcases newproducts and services, state-of-the ar t technologies and the

latesttrendsintheanimalproteinindustry. In addition to the exhi-bition an extensive conferenceand seminar programme is alsoplanned.

GuusvanHam,projectmanager,VIVwantstoprovideRussiancom-panies with a platform, offeringeverythingthatisneededtobuildefficient supply chains for theintensive production of poultrymeat, eggs andpork.Animal feedandanimalhealth–at thebegin-ning of the supply chain – andproductprocessing–attheendof

thechain–willplayaveryimpor-tantroleinthis.“Wewanttoshareour knowledgewith theRussiansin these areas in particular.Wewill also be presenting solutions

for the effects of antibiotics useduringa seriesof congressesandseminars.Thesecongresseswillbehigh-level,objectiveandnon-com-mercial,”saysGuusvanHam.

VIV’s central theme remains theconversion of vegetable productsin to animal protein, primarily intheformofmeatandeggs.Butthegrowing economies of the world

arealsorespondingtoanincreasingdemandforfishproductsatVIV

More InforMatIon:www.viv.net

VIVRussia May 21-23, 2013

Plans are a l ready infull swing for Wor ldAquaculture Adelaide

2014 (WAA14) which takesplaceJune7-11,2014.

“The theme for the con-ference is ‘Create, Nurture,Grow’ which reflects thedynamicnatureofaquaculturedevelopment in the region,”says Dr Graham Mair chair-man, World AquacultureAdelaide2014

“Agreeing the theme earlyonhasgivenusaheadstartandwe have a number of strongteams already working on arange of conference develop-ment tasks and we are confi-dentthat,withthesupporttheeventisreceivingfromindustryandgovernment,thiswillbeanexciting and rewarding event,”addsMair.

The Program Committeeheaded by Professor JoseFernandez-Polanco and Dr

JennyCobcroft have theirCallfor Papers ready to roll outsoonaftertheconference.

Workshops and tours,both pre and post confer-ence, will be featured addi-tionstothestrongconferenceprograminAdelaideandtheywill include important activi-ties for farmers, researchersandstudentsalike.

Mair emphasised, “We aregratefulforthesupportwearereceiving from all our spon-sors and thewillingnessof themanyorganiserstoput intimeandefforttodevelopthewiderange of planned activities. Iam certain that the end resultwill be excellent and memo-rable experience for delegatesandwelookforwardtoseeingeveryone in Adelaide in June2014”.

More InforMatIon:www.was.org


PlansunderwayforWorldAquacultureAdelaide2014June 7-11, 2014

20th Annual Practical Short Course on

Aquaculture Feed Extrusion, Nutrition, & Feed Management

September 22-27, 2013

For more information, visit http://foodprotein.tamu.edu/extrusion

or contact Dr. Mian N. Riaz

[email protected] 979-845-2774

Hands-On Experience

Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas

o various shaping dies (sinking, floating, high fat), coating (surface vs vacuum), nutrition, feed formulation, and MUCH MORE!

Extruding Aquaculture Feeds

o 30+ lectures over a wide variety of aquaculture industry topics

o one-on-one interaction with qualified industry experts

o at the internationally recognized Food Protein R&D Center on the campus of

o discussion and live equipment demonstrations following lectures on four major types of extruders

REGISTER NOW for FREE entrance at

www.viv.net

VIV Russia 2013May 21-23, 2013 | Moscow, Russia

Opening the gates to the Russian Feed to Meat trade.

Special themes

Innovations & Products Review -fromkeyindustryevents

Review Aquaculture 2013, Nashville, USAInternational Aquafeed’s Tom Blacker heads to the ‘music city’ for Aquaculture 2013

The World AquacultureSociety's popular event,Aquaculture 2013 tookplace in a downtown

conference centre in the 'musiccity',Nashville,TennesseebetweenFebruary 22-24, 2013. Roger

Gilbert,proprietorofPerendalePublishersLtdandTomBlacker,market-ing and sales and directories coordinator were exhibiting, along withhundredsofothersinthemainexhibitionhall.

From early on the first morning, participants gathered in the mainballroomfortheOpeningandPlenary.TheofficialSteeringCommittee’sopening address, the session moved to official awards, speeches andpresentations with great enthusiasm and an optimistic note prevailedfor the imminent event at large. Notably, Novus Inc.'s Craig Browdywon theUSAquaculture SocietyDistinguished Service award andDrEdwardAllisonpresentedaninterestinglectureonglobalwarmingandaquaculture.ThebeginningwasfantasticallyimpressiveandDrAllison'sspeechplacedaquaculturesuperblywellinthecontextofglobalwarm-ing.Overlappingthiswastheexpoandtheseminarroomtheexhibition

hallwasalivewithmanyvisitorsbrowsing the longaisles filledwithallkindsofstands,products,prizedrawsandpublications.

Fromthefirstmomentonwards,ourstandinthecentreoftheexhi-bitionhallhadvisitors interestedtoseeandhearaboutourtitles.WenoticedagenuineinterestinboththeEnglishandEspañolInternationalAquafeed issues on show. Regular readers gave great feedback andnew readers had some insightful opinions.Hundredsof copiesof ourmagazines were distributed, In fact, there were limits needed on thedistribution so as to ensure participants over the entire event couldreceivecopies!

Theatmospherewasrelaxedthroughoutthevariousareasandthefoodanddrinksatsomeexhibitor'sstandswereawelcomeopportunitytomingleandnetwork.Someofourregularadvertiserswereinattend-anceandwereverypleasanttomeetindeed.

There were no shortage of academic seminars with question andansweralloverthreefloorsofa largeconferencecentre;theonesweattendedwere fantastic and inspirational to spuruson to standards. Imanaged to find time toattend two.The firstwasanAlltechseminarentitled'Successfulfishoilsparinginwhiteseabassfeedsusingsaturatedfatty acid-rich soy oil' on Friday and Reed Mariculture's Eric Henrypresenting 'Practical rotifer culture for zebrafish facilities' on Saturday.Bothwereinformativeandinterestingandprovidedgoodquestionandanswersessions.

The presence of feed producers, academics, manufacturers andorganisations all in the vibrant capital of Tennessee was truly uniqueanditexceededourexpectationsofthevalueitwouldbring.Thenextaquacultureexhibitionhastoreachthehighstandardsasthisone!


Model TT - Transport aeratorThis 12 volt aerator provides positive aeration for tanksofvarious sizes. Whether you haul fish for long distances orshort, Model TT provides aeration to make sure your fisharriveattheirdestinationlivelyandhealthy.After several years of testing, we are now offering a new,improvedmotorforModelTTbuiltexclusivelyforFresh-floCorp.ThebasicModelTTaeratorisdesignedforuseinfreshwaterorsaltwater.

www.freshflo.com

Extrusion technologySibal,steppedinwaterproductmarketin1984withfishmealandoilproduction.In2003sibalstartedextrudedfish-feedproductionunderthebrandofBlackSea feed.With twoplantsSibalhas12ton/perhfeedproductioncapacity.Sibalcombining100%anchovyflourandHUFArichanchovyfishoilwiththelatestextrusiontechnology, is serving to fishing sector with a balanced foodformulationandwideproductspectrum.

www.andritz.com

Flo-RationThe Power House, Inc. announces a revolutionarynew aerator. Flo-Ration was designed and developedto replace paddlewheel aerators. It is based on theprovenandpatentedPowerHouseverticalliftaerationtechnology. The 1-hp Flo-Ration is adjustable tooperate inoneof threepositions…HORIZONTAL...VERTICAL…or45DEGREES.Flo-Rationisavailablein115or230Volts;50or60Hz.Cordlengthsareavailablefrom50to200feet.A2-yearwarrantyisincluded.

www.thepowerhouseinc.com

Extrusion technologySibal,steppedinwaterproductmarketin1984withfishmealandoilproduction.In2003sibalstartedextrudedfish-feedproductionunderthebrandofBlackSeafeed.WithtwoplantsSibalhas12ton/perhfeedproductioncapacity. Sibal combining 100% anchovy flour andHUFA rich anchovy fish oil with the latest extrusiontechnology, is serving to fishing sectorwithabalancedfoodformulationandwideproductspectrum.

www.sibal.com.tr


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The aquafeed interview

To set the scene, what are Novus’ principle technologies especially for aquaculture?

Consumerdemandforfish-basedproteininemerginganddevelopedmarketsisontherise.Atcurrentmarketdemand,7milliontonsofaquaculturefishareproducedannuallyandthisfigurewillcontinuetoincrease.Yet,thetraditionalmodelusesoceanfishforproducingfishmealtosupplyaquacultureproduction.Asproducerslookforcheaper,morerenewablefeedstocks,vegetableprotein,especiallysoybean,hasbecomeanincreasinglyattractiveingredientinthefeedmix.However,vegetableproteinrequiresassistancetoincreaseitsbioavailabilityforaquaspecies.

Novustechnology,whichenhancesthedigestibilityofvegetableprotein,allowsforconsiderablereductionsoffishmealinclusioninaquadiets,upto80%,dependingonthespecies.ThisoptimisedHealth-through-Nutritionapproachisaccomplishedthroughahighlycostefficientfeedsupplementsolutionblend.Novus’sproprietaryblendofGutEnvironmentModifiersinfluencesthegutflora(microorganismsthatliveinthedigestivetracts)ofshrimpandotherspecies,effectivelyenhancingtheirabilitytocopewithstressfulcultureconditions.Asaresult,animalseatbetter,digestmoreandgrowfaster,allthewhilereducingthewasteofuneatenornon-digestedfeedintothesurroundingsystem

Can you put Novus into a global context for feed?

OurtotalsalesworldwideareoverUS$1.3billion.Overhalfthisrevenueisaccruedthroughmethionineproductsales,butintermsofgrowthandoverthepasttenyearswehaveseennon-methionineproductsgrowingrapidlytooverUS$300millionfromUS$30million–thiswehaveachievednotjustthroughinternaldevelopmentbutalsothroughacquisition.

Liquidmethioninehasbeenonthemarketfor30yearswhilemethionineitselfhasbeenavailableinpowderformforalmosthalfacentury.MethionineisaUS$1billionmarketworldwideandisaveryimportantingredientintheproductionofpoultry.ThatislikelytoremainandincreaseaswesearchforareplacementtoChileanfishmealinlivestockdiets.Forexample,aswestarttofeedmoresoybeansasaproteinreplacementforfishmealwewillneedmoremethioninetohelpbalancetheproteininfishmeal-freediets.

Methionine is one product, but what other innovative products are you working on?

Frommethioninewehavedevelopedotherproductssuchaschelatedtracemineralsthatcanbedeliveredtoanimalinanefficientway.Theseproductshavethepotentialtoreducetheamountofmineralswefeedtoanimalsbyimprovingbio-availability.Thatwillmeanlessmineralsinthedietandthereby

reducetheimpactontheenvironmentwhilestillremainingcompetitive.Wehavenowbroughtthistechnologytoaquacultureandsupplythemarketwithbothstraightsaswithfullorganicmineralpremixes.

Iseethecompanymovingintosupra-nutritionalproductsthatimprovehealthofanimalswhileatthesametimereducingoreliminatingmuchofthedrugusageweseetoday.WehaveastrongfocusinTherapeuticnutritionandourtechnologyportfolioincludesorganicacids,manufactureredinGermanypre-andprobiotics,andextractsofessentialoilsnowcomingoutofourresearchanddevelopmentprogrammersinSpain.Wehavebeensuccessfulinlaunchingandcustomizingthesetechnologiesforaquacultureapplications,rangingfromvibriosisinAsianshrimp,toenteritisinMediterraneanseabreamorsealiceinsalmon.

Are there other non-dietary products under development?

Feedqualitycanbeaugmentedwithmoldinhibitorsbasedonorganicacidstodetoxifyrawmaterialsbyusingamycotoxinbinder.Thisisaveryimportantareaforfeedmanufacturing,especiallyindroughtyearswhencornqualityforinstanceispoorandcontaminationishigh.

Wearealsolookingatpreservingfatprofilesfortheirnutrientvalues,usingforexample,proteaseenzymestoassistingettingmoreproteinvalueoutofthefinalfeed.WeareinpartnershipwithVereniumtodevelopingnewheat-stable,phytazeproductswhichwillultimatelyhaveapplicationsforaquafeedindustry.

How important are differences between markets when it comes to product development?

Ifwelookback21yearswewereclearlyfocusedonthepoultryindustrywhichwasaveryfastgrowingsectoratthetime.TenyearsagoweincreasedproductionandourglobalfootprintbybuildinginfrastructureinAsia,mostlythroughadistributionnetworksupportingthegrowthofmethioninesalescoupledwithourliquidapplicationsystems,whichprovedhighlysuitableinfeedmills.

Todayweareleveragingadeepunderstandingofnutrientabsorptionandguthealth.Goodnutritioncanreducecoststofarmersandreducetheamountofwastethatisleftfortheenvironmenttoabsorb.Weareinthe‘wastereduction’businessandbyproducingproductsthatallowvariousspeciestogrowtotheirgeneticpotentialsupportsthatcause.

Inhumantermsitshouldn’tbeabouttakingdrugsormulti-vitaminseverymorning,buttohavemorecontroloverourhealththatwecanachievethroughourowndiets.

Evenwithlessqualityfeednowavailableweshouldbeabletoachievemorethroughsounddiets.

Novuswill sooncelebrate its22ndbirthday!Novus International, Inc.was founded in1991,but their scientific rootsandhistoryoriginatedover50yearsago.Inthe1950s,St.Louis,Missouri-basedMonsantoCompanybeganconductinglivestockandpoultryfeedmetabolismstudies.In1959,oneofitsproductsreceivedFDAapprovalasananimalfeed

additive,whichhelpedlaunchtheMonsantodivisionthatwouldbecomeNovus.In1991,inanefforttofocusonitscorebusi-nesses—seed,herbicideandbiotechnology—MonsantosolditsFeedIngredientsdivisiontoMitsui&Co.,Ltd.andNipponSodaCo.,Ltd.ThenewownerssawNovus’sstrategicpotentialforgrowth.

InternationalAquafeedhadtheopportunityinLondonrecentlytointerviewtheheadofNovus,PresidentandCEOThadSimons,whosayshisorganization’sVisionisto“helpfeedtheworldaffordable,wholesomefood.”

Thad

Simo

ns, N

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The aquafeed interview

AnextendedversionofthisinterviewcanbefoundontheAquaculturistblog.


Watch the interview on your smart phoneSimply download the Aurasma light app, and then subscribe to our channel at http://auras.ma/s/1shRr

Point your phone at the image below and watch it come to life with the full interview

AkerBiomarinerecognisedforsustainabilityefforts

AkerBioMarinehaswonanaward fromtheNutrition Business Journal for itsrole inbuildingthekrill fishery infrastruc-ture.TheNorwegiancompanygainedthe‘InvestingintheFuture’awardforitsworkincreatingacontrolledkrillsupplychain intheAntarcticwitha long-termfocusonsustainableharvesting.SustainabilityhasbeenakeyconcernofAker

BioMarine’sbusinesssinceits inception.ThecompanyhascooperatedwithWorldWildFundforNature,Norway,hasMarineStewardshipCouncilcertificationandhascollaboratedwiththeCommission fortheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResources.

“Withasensibleapproachtokrillfisherygovernancebyexternalmanagement,andtakingtheresponsibilityforourownhar-vestingactivitiesseriously,wehavealwaysbelievedthis tobeawin-winrelationship;otherwisetherewouldbenoreasontoinvest,”saysWebjørnEikrem,EVP,UpstreamOperations,AkerBioMarine.

www.akerbiomarine.com

USperchfarmwins‘IndustryoftheYear’award

BellAquaculture, the largest yellowperch farm in theUSAhasbeennamed‘Industryof theYear’atthe JayCountyChamberofCommerceat itsAnnualMeetingandAwardsBanquet.TheIndian-basedcompanywasciteda"aninternationalpacesetterinthefieldofaquaculture,"

byBill Bradley, executive director, JayCountryDevelopmentCorporation for itswork convertingwastefishintofertilizer.

"I was very surprised and both thrilled and humbled that BellAquaculture was chosen for thisspecialhonor.Onbehalfofourentirecompany,IthanktheJayCountyChamberforsinglingoutBellAquacultureandourindustryasawholewiththismuchappreciatedpublicrecognition,"saysNormanMcCowan,president,BellAquaculture.

www.bellaquaculture.com

EvonikcontributiontoassistHurricaneSandyreliefefforts

InlightofthedevastationcausedbyHurricaneSandyonOctober29,2012,speciality chemical company Evonik has donated $5,000 to the PiscatawayOfficeof EmergencyManagement.Thedonation is a tokenof gratitude to

theemergencypersonnelwhoworktokeepthecommunityofPiscatawaysafe.The largesttropicalstormeverrecordedintheAtlantic,Sandy isoneofthe

costliest natural disasters theUnited States has seen.Alongwith a death tollofover100,Sandy isestimated tohavecausedbillionsofdollars inpropertydamage and lost business.“We hope the funding will help the departmentas they work with our community to recover from the storm,” says GeorgeMossaad,Piscataway’ssitemanager.

ThisisnotthefirsttimeEvonikhasbeenlinkedtonaturaldisastersupport.Inrecentyears,thecorporationhasalsoprovidedreliefandrebuildingeffortsfollowinghurricanesKatrina,RitaandIkeandtsunamisandearthquakesintheAsianPacific.

TomBates,presidentofEvonikCorporationsays,“Evonikisactivelyinvolvedinhelpingmakethequalityoflifeinlocalcommu-nitiesbetterbyparticipatinginnon-profit,charitableandcommunityorganisations.”

www.evonik.com

BioMarBalticseeschangeinmanagementafter22years

ManagingdirectorforBioMarintheBalticMarketArea,LarsRahbæk,has resigned following a 22-year career. R&D manager in BiomarContinentalEurope,OleChristensen,willtakeovertherole.

OriginallyaBioMarsalesassistantintheDanishmarket,Rahbæktookoverassalesandmarketingmanagerattheendof2001andalsobecameamemberoftheDanishmanagementteam.Rahbækhasheldthemanagingdirectorpositionsinceearly2007andfollowinghisresignation,intendstopursueopportunitiesoutsideofBioMar.

AsregionalR&Dmanagersince2007,ChristensenhasactivelyparticipatedindesigningandimplementinganewR&Dstrategyandnewproductdevelopmentprocesses.Alongsidethis,ChristensenhasalsobeeninvolvedinalargenumberofprojectswiththeaimofimprovingoperationalefficienciesinBioMar’sEuropeanfactories.

Toensurecontinuityduringthistakeover,RahbækandChristensenwillworkcloselytogetheruntilApril2013.www.biomar.com


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Innovations for a better world.

Bühler AG, Feed & Biomass, CH-9240 Uzwil, Switzerland, T +41 71 955 11 11, F +41 71 955 28 96

[email protected], www.buhlergroup.com

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service combining local presence with global expertise both lowers feed mill operating

costs and increases capacity utilization. To find out more, visit www.buhlergroup.com

Aqua_Feed-July_2011.indd 1 28.07.2011 12:23:44

Documents

Mar/Apr 2013 - International Aquafeed magazine