Mao’s China 1949–1976 1

Mao’s China (1949–1976)

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Mao’s China 1949–1976 2

The Communists Take PowerThe Communists Take Power

• In October 1949, Mao Zedong and the Communist Party seized In October 1949, Mao Zedong and the Communist Party seized power to establish the power to establish the People’s Republic of China (PRC).People’s Republic of China (PRC). They were supported in a military capacity by the They were supported in a military capacity by the People's People's Liberation Army (PLA). Liberation Army (PLA). This followed a sustained civil war This followed a sustained civil war with the Kuomintang led by Chiang-Kai Shek, who following with the Kuomintang led by Chiang-Kai Shek, who following defeat went into exile on the island of Taiwan.defeat went into exile on the island of Taiwan.

• The Chinese quickly aligned themselves with the other well-The Chinese quickly aligned themselves with the other well-known Communist nation, the Soviet Union, signing a Treaty of known Communist nation, the Soviet Union, signing a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with the Soviets in Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with the Soviets in February 1950. February 1950.

• This development saw China and the Soviet Union move close This development saw China and the Soviet Union move close together as ideological allies, with China initially reliant on the together as ideological allies, with China initially reliant on the Soviet Union in terms of economic development and progress. Soviet Union in terms of economic development and progress.

共产党Translation: Communist Party

Mao’s China 1949–1976 3

Background: Sino-Soviet RelationsBackground: Sino-Soviet Relations

• In the years immediately following the In the years immediately following the establishment of Communist rule in China, establishment of Communist rule in China, Mao’s regime sought to develop strong Mao’s regime sought to develop strong economic links with the Soviet Union, and economic links with the Soviet Union, and eventually became reliant on financial and eventually became reliant on financial and technological support by the mid-1950s. technological support by the mid-1950s.

• The Korean War erupted in 1950 and came to The Korean War erupted in 1950 and came to an uneasy settlement in 1953 after the USA an uneasy settlement in 1953 after the USA threatened to use nuclear weapons against threatened to use nuclear weapons against China. This conflict initially brought China and China. This conflict initially brought China and the Soviet Union close together, and Soviet the Soviet Union close together, and Soviet economic support continued.economic support continued.

• However, the death of Stalin in 1953 led to However, the death of Stalin in 1953 led to strains in the relationship, as Mao and Stalin’s strains in the relationship, as Mao and Stalin’s successor Khrushchev had differing successor Khrushchev had differing interpretations of how to develop Communism. interpretations of how to develop Communism.

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Governing China (1949 onwards)Governing China (1949 onwards)• After 1949, there were now two Communist regimes After 1949, there were now two Communist regimes

in ostensible partnership and this heightened western in ostensible partnership and this heightened western fears about the fears about the ‘domino effect’‘domino effect’ of Communism. of Communism. However, China’s relations with the Soviet Union However, China’s relations with the Soviet Union would soon run into trouble. would soon run into trouble.

• The new Chinese government's main priorities and The new Chinese government's main priorities and challenges focused on governing a nation of over 500 challenges focused on governing a nation of over 500 million people and where almost 90% lived in rural million people and where almost 90% lived in rural areas and where life expectancy was only 40. areas and where life expectancy was only 40.

• Mao therefore needed to construct a system of Mao therefore needed to construct a system of government that allowed the Communists to retain government that allowed the Communists to retain control but to also improve the lives of ordinary control but to also improve the lives of ordinary people along class-based egalitarian principles. people along class-based egalitarian principles.

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The Structure of China’s GovernmentThe Structure of China’s Government• The Chinese government under Mao was a The Chinese government under Mao was a

centralised, totalitarian regime that was focused centralised, totalitarian regime that was focused on keeping the Communist Party in power and on keeping the Communist Party in power and was not concerned with wider democratic was not concerned with wider democratic freedoms of individual civil liberties. freedoms of individual civil liberties.

• The key executive decision-making body was the The key executive decision-making body was the Politburo,Politburo, a body of approximately 24 members, a body of approximately 24 members, headed by Mao as Chairman. Power was then headed by Mao as Chairman. Power was then further centralised in the further centralised in the Standing Committee Standing Committee of the Communist party of China (where most of of the Communist party of China (where most of the key decisions were made).the key decisions were made).

The three key institutions of the government were:The three key institutions of the government were:• 1. Military 1. Military –– People's Liberation Army (PLA) People's Liberation Army (PLA)• 2. Government Bureaucracy2. Government Bureaucracy• 3. Communist Party3. Communist Party

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• Zhou Enlai:Zhou Enlai: Premier of the People’s Republic from Premier of the People’s Republic from 1949-76, dying eight months prior to Mao in January 1949-76, dying eight months prior to Mao in January 1976. He was generally a Mao loyalist and is 1976. He was generally a Mao loyalist and is associated with the more moderate and liberal associated with the more moderate and liberal interlude of the ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign.interlude of the ‘Hundred Flowers’ campaign.

• Lin Biao:Lin Biao: Communist military leader who rose to Communist military leader who rose to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966-prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), where he effectively became Mao’s second-in-76), where he effectively became Mao’s second-in-command by the late 1960s. Died in a plane crash command by the late 1960s. Died in a plane crash in 1971 after an attempted coup against Mao. in 1971 after an attempted coup against Mao.

• Deng Xiaoping: Deng Xiaoping: Prominent Communist politician Prominent Communist politician heavily involved in the reforms of the ‘Great Leap heavily involved in the reforms of the ‘Great Leap Forward’ (1958) but purged during the Cultural Forward’ (1958) but purged during the Cultural Revolution. Ultimately succeeded Mao as China’s Revolution. Ultimately succeeded Mao as China’s leader from the late 1970s onwards.leader from the late 1970s onwards.

Mao was supported as Chairman of the People’s Mao was supported as Chairman of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) by a number of key individuals Republic of China (PRC) by a number of key individuals between 1949 and 1976:between 1949 and 1976:

Communist China: Key Figures (1)Communist China: Key Figures (1)

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• Kang Sheng:Kang Sheng: Leading Communist politician, was Leading Communist politician, was head of the security and intelligence services head of the security and intelligence services from the late 1950s until his death in 1975. He from the late 1950s until his death in 1975. He was later blamed along with the ‘Gang of Four’ for was later blamed along with the ‘Gang of Four’ for the excesses and extremes of the Cultural the excesses and extremes of the Cultural Revolution. Revolution.

• Liu Shaoqi:Liu Shaoqi: Chairman of the People’s Republic Chairman of the People’s Republic and head of state from April 1959 to October and head of state from April 1959 to October 1968. Viewed as a revolutionary theorist, he 1968. Viewed as a revolutionary theorist, he implemented policies that supported the implemented policies that supported the economic reconstruction in China. In the late economic reconstruction in China. In the late 1960s he fell from favour during the Cultural 1960s he fell from favour during the Cultural Revolution. Revolution.

• Jiang Qing: Jiang Qing: Mao’s fourth and final wife whom he Mao’s fourth and final wife whom he married in 1938. She effectively became married in 1938. She effectively became Communist China’s first lady, and she rose to Communist China’s first lady, and she rose to political prominence during the Cultural political prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966Revolution (1966––76) and she was one of the 76) and she was one of the ‘Gang of Four’ who sought to seize power after ‘Gang of Four’ who sought to seize power after Mao’s death.Mao’s death.

Communist China Key Figures (2)Communist China Key Figures (2)Other key figures during Mao’s years in power Other key figures during Mao’s years in power included:included:

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Mao’s Ideology for Governing ChinaMao’s Ideology for Governing China• Mao Zedong was not a conventional Marxist thinker, Mao Zedong was not a conventional Marxist thinker,

and his interpretation of Communist theories saw him and his interpretation of Communist theories saw him develop a different ideological approach once he was develop a different ideological approach once he was established in power. established in power.

• Mao embraced the basic ideas of Marx but instead of Mao embraced the basic ideas of Marx but instead of the focus on an urban revolutionary consciousness as the focus on an urban revolutionary consciousness as promoted by the Soviet Union, Mao developed the promoted by the Soviet Union, Mao developed the idea of a ‘revolutionary peasantry’ as a reflection of idea of a ‘revolutionary peasantry’ as a reflection of China’s predominantly rural status. This resulted in China’s predominantly rural status. This resulted in less of focus on technology and more emphasise on less of focus on technology and more emphasise on agrarian collectivisation than the Soviet version of agrarian collectivisation than the Soviet version of Communism (leading to Sino-Soviet tensions). Communism (leading to Sino-Soviet tensions).

• Mao’s ideological outlook ultimately led to policies Mao’s ideological outlook ultimately led to policies that were heavily motivated by the significance of that were heavily motivated by the significance of ‘class’, and this was an important factor in ‘class’, and this was an important factor in determining both his economic and social policy-determining both his economic and social policy-making. making.

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The Sino-Soviet Economic The Sino-Soviet Economic RelationshipRelationship• As the 1950s progressed there was a deterioration of As the 1950s progressed there was a deterioration of

relations between China and the Soviet Union, despite relations between China and the Soviet Union, despite ongoing trade and technological links. ongoing trade and technological links.

• The catalyst for this tension appears to have been Stalin’s The catalyst for this tension appears to have been Stalin’s

death in 1953. His successor death in 1953. His successor Khrushchev Khrushchev was reluctant to was reluctant to accept Mao as anything other than a junior partner, and accept Mao as anything other than a junior partner, and this angered the Chinese. this angered the Chinese.

• As the 1950s progressed, disputes accelerated over As the 1950s progressed, disputes accelerated over TaiwanTaiwan and nuclear technology, as well as emerging and nuclear technology, as well as emerging ideological differences. By the early 1960s, Khrushchev ideological differences. By the early 1960s, Khrushchev withdrew all Soviet military advisors from China. withdrew all Soviet military advisors from China.

• In 1958, Mao launched China’s In 1958, Mao launched China’s ‘Great Leap ‘Great Leap Forward’Forward’ an independent approach to an independent approach to Communism detached from Soviet control. It Communism detached from Soviet control. It was focused on small-scale collectivization and was focused on small-scale collectivization and was financially disastrous for China, leaving the was financially disastrous for China, leaving the country increasingly reliant on Soviet finance.country increasingly reliant on Soviet finance.

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Women in Mao’s ChinaWomen in Mao’s China• The role of women was an interesting development The role of women was an interesting development

within Mao's China, with Communist principles of within Mao's China, with Communist principles of equality suggesting an end to women’s ‘feudal’ and equality suggesting an end to women’s ‘feudal’ and inferior status within society. inferior status within society.

• From an early stage of Mao's leadership it appeared From an early stage of Mao's leadership it appeared that there would be progress in this area, with the that there would be progress in this area, with the 1950 Marriage Law 1950 Marriage Law outlawing forced marriage and outlawing forced marriage and concubinage. concubinage.

• However, Mao himself continued to have a significant However, Mao himself continued to have a significant amount of sexual relations with women in a manner amount of sexual relations with women in a manner that seemed to depict them in an inferior role to be that seemed to depict them in an inferior role to be used for his pleasure. used for his pleasure.

• Nevertheless, in the form of Mao’s fourth wife, Nevertheless, in the form of Mao’s fourth wife, Jiang Qing, Jiang Qing, China had China had a formidable and powerful female political figure by the 1960s, a a formidable and powerful female political figure by the 1960s, a visible sign of progress for women in Chinese society.visible sign of progress for women in Chinese society.

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Mao’s Social PoliciesMao’s Social Policies• Communist propaganda posters sought to Communist propaganda posters sought to

promote the happiness of family life within a promote the happiness of family life within a society governed by Mao. In this context, Mao’s society governed by Mao. In this context, Mao’s government made significant attempts from an government made significant attempts from an early stage to remove any perceived threats to early stage to remove any perceived threats to such an idyllic image. such an idyllic image.

• Mao’s regime took a hard-line approach to any Mao’s regime took a hard-line approach to any

forces that threatened to disrupt the desired forces that threatened to disrupt the desired stability and harmony that the Communist stability and harmony that the Communist government sought to instil across Chinese government sought to instil across Chinese society. This included taking a heavy line society. This included taking a heavy line against crime and illicit use of drugs, with long against crime and illicit use of drugs, with long prison sentences and even the death penalty prison sentences and even the death penalty (capital punishment). (capital punishment). • In the 1950s, Mao pursued the ‘Three-Antis’ and ‘Five-Antis’ In the 1950s, Mao pursued the ‘Three-Antis’ and ‘Five-Antis’

campaigns against those forces he felt were a threat to China’s campaigns against those forces he felt were a threat to China’s social harmony. He also outlawed forced marriage in 1950, social harmony. He also outlawed forced marriage in 1950, seen as a positive step for the rights of Chinese women.seen as a positive step for the rights of Chinese women.

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The ‘Hundred Flowers Campaign’The ‘Hundred Flowers Campaign’• Following various international and domestic Following various international and domestic

developments, by the mid-1950s, Mao’s position on a developments, by the mid-1950s, Mao’s position on a domestic level at the head of the Communist regime in domestic level at the head of the Communist regime in China was becoming well-established. China was becoming well-established.

• This growing sense of political security prompted him to This growing sense of political security prompted him to initiate a more liberal phase in his leadership, supported initiate a more liberal phase in his leadership, supported in particular by Premier of the Republic in particular by Premier of the Republic Zhou Enlai. Zhou Enlai.

• Therefore from April 1956 onwards, the Therefore from April 1956 onwards, the ‘Hundred ‘Hundred Flowers Campaign’ Flowers Campaign’ was launched, encouraging greater was launched, encouraging greater intellectual and literary freedoms within Communist intellectual and literary freedoms within Communist China. China.

• However, despite such government relaxation, by late However, despite such government relaxation, by late 1957 the policy was departed from amidst fears of 1957 the policy was departed from amidst fears of ‘liberal’ uprisings, as evident in parts of Communist ‘liberal’ uprisings, as evident in parts of Communist Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe.

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The ‘Great Leap Forward’ The ‘Great Leap Forward’ (1958)(1958)• As an indicator of Mao’s desire to develop a As an indicator of Mao’s desire to develop a

distinctive Communist approach and viewpoint, in distinctive Communist approach and viewpoint, in 1958 Mao launched China’s ‘Great Leap Forward’, an 1958 Mao launched China’s ‘Great Leap Forward’, an independent socio-economic approach to independent socio-economic approach to Communism detached from Soviet control. Communism detached from Soviet control.

• Mao felt that China was more suited to a peasant-led Mao felt that China was more suited to a peasant-led Communism as opposed to the urban focus of the Communism as opposed to the urban focus of the Soviet Union and its European satellite regimes. Soviet Union and its European satellite regimes.

• Propaganda was used Propaganda was used (left above)(left above) to give a false to give a false impression of the levels of progress made. Many of impression of the levels of progress made. Many of the Chinese peasantry endured significant hardships the Chinese peasantry endured significant hardships in the pursuit of unrealistic production targets.in the pursuit of unrealistic production targets.

• This policy, initially part of the second ‘Five Year This policy, initially part of the second ‘Five Year Plan’, was effectively abandoned early in 1961 amidst Plan’, was effectively abandoned early in 1961 amidst widespread famine. Its failings weakened Mao’s widespread famine. Its failings weakened Mao’s position both on a domestic and international level.position both on a domestic and international level.

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Economic Policy & The Impact of Economic Policy & The Impact of CollectivizationCollectivization

• The Great Leap Forward’s economic outlook The Great Leap Forward’s economic outlook built on existing agricultural reform and focused built on existing agricultural reform and focused on a distinct type of ‘collectivist’ Communism on a distinct type of ‘collectivist’ Communism that revolved around the collectivization of that revolved around the collectivization of small rural communities or people’s communes, small rural communities or people’s communes, as they were referred to by Mao. as they were referred to by Mao.

• This focus on such This focus on such ‘super-collectives’ ‘super-collectives’ differed differed to the Soviet emphasis on investing in urban, to the Soviet emphasis on investing in urban, heavy industry. The overall approach focused on heavy industry. The overall approach focused on the modernisation of China’s backward agrarian the modernisation of China’s backward agrarian system as part of the attempt to create a system as part of the attempt to create a modern Communist society. modern Communist society. • Such developments were linked to ‘Five Year Plans’ and Such developments were linked to ‘Five Year Plans’ and industrial production increased by an average annual rate of 19 industrial production increased by an average annual rate of 19 percent (1952percent (1952––57), with national income growing at 9 percent a 57), with national income growing at 9 percent a year. This transformed Chinese agriculture and the country’s year. This transformed Chinese agriculture and the country’s overall economic model, although such growth was from a very overall economic model, although such growth was from a very low base and progress was relatively slow.low base and progress was relatively slow.

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The ‘Cultural Revolution’ (1966The ‘Cultural Revolution’ (1966––76)76)

• The failure of the ‘Great Leap Forward’ in the The failure of the ‘Great Leap Forward’ in the late 1950s, followed by Khrushchev's removal late 1950s, followed by Khrushchev's removal from office in the Soviet Union in 1964, made from office in the Soviet Union in 1964, made Mao’s position more vulnerable in China. Mao’s position more vulnerable in China.

• Mao therefore sought to revitalise his Mao therefore sought to revitalise his ‘revolutionary’ credentials by launching an ‘revolutionary’ credentials by launching an attack on what he believed were conservative attack on what he believed were conservative ‘counter-revolutionary’ forces within China. ‘counter-revolutionary’ forces within China.

• Mao argued that a new ‘elite’ had replaced an Mao argued that a new ‘elite’ had replaced an ‘old elite’ by the mid-1960s, and this was ‘old elite’ by the mid-1960s, and this was contrary to the aims and principles of the contrary to the aims and principles of the original revolution in 1949. original revolution in 1949.

• In this context, Mao initiated a new ‘Cultural In this context, Mao initiated a new ‘Cultural Revolution’ against such counter-revolutionary Revolution’ against such counter-revolutionary elements of society, a policy brutally and elements of society, a policy brutally and violently enforced. violently enforced.

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• The ‘Cultural Revolution’ was ruthlessly implemented The ‘Cultural Revolution’ was ruthlessly implemented by Mao’s Communist ‘Red Guard’, but in human terms by Mao’s Communist ‘Red Guard’, but in human terms its consequences were little short of catastrophic. its consequences were little short of catastrophic.

• It resulted in millions of people being forced into It resulted in millions of people being forced into manual labour, with many dying due to the manual labour, with many dying due to the government’s brutal enforcement measures. government’s brutal enforcement measures. Thousands more were executed by the Red Guards, Thousands more were executed by the Red Guards, with Jiang Qing prominent in many of its excesses with Jiang Qing prominent in many of its excesses during the policy's later phases into the 1970s. during the policy's later phases into the 1970s.

• This policy ultimately caused social, economic and This policy ultimately caused social, economic and political instability, reducing the country’s economic political instability, reducing the country’s economic production by 12% (1966production by 12% (1966––68). The Chinese economy 68). The Chinese economy was significantly damaged and ordinary people was significantly damaged and ordinary people suffered due to lack of food and overall poverty.suffered due to lack of food and overall poverty.

Impact of the ‘Cultural Revolution’Impact of the ‘Cultural Revolution’

共产党Translation:

Communist Party

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The End of MaoismThe End of Maoism• By the late 1960s, Mao appeared to be By the late 1960s, Mao appeared to be

retreating from some of his most radical retreating from some of his most radical policies that came to a head during the policies that came to a head during the ‘Cultural Revolution’. This indicated that the ‘Cultural Revolution’. This indicated that the ideology of Maoism had run out of steam ideology of Maoism had run out of steam and that a new approach to tackling China’s and that a new approach to tackling China’s problems was required. problems was required.

• China had achieved some economic progress and developed China had achieved some economic progress and developed links with the USA in the early 1970s, indicating it was on the links with the USA in the early 1970s, indicating it was on the verge of developing trade links with the broader outside verge of developing trade links with the broader outside world from a less hostile position.world from a less hostile position.

• Following Mao’s death in 1976, China would embrace aspects Following Mao’s death in 1976, China would embrace aspects of capitalism within a more modern, liberal economy.of capitalism within a more modern, liberal economy.

Mao’s China 1949–1976 18

The ‘Gang of Four’The ‘Gang of Four’• The ‘Gang of Four’ was a term attached to four left-The ‘Gang of Four’ was a term attached to four left-

wing Chinese political leaders who appeared to gain wing Chinese political leaders who appeared to gain more power during the latter stages of the Cultural more power during the latter stages of the Cultural Revolution, and who appeared to be seeking to seize Revolution, and who appeared to be seeking to seize power as Mao’s heath worsened.power as Mao’s heath worsened.

• The four were The four were Jiang Qing, Jiang Qing, the group’s leading figure the group’s leading figure and Mao’s fourth and final wife, and Mao’s fourth and final wife, Zhang ChungiaoZhang Chungiao, , Yao WenyuanYao Wenyuan and and Wang HongwenWang Hongwen.. As Mao’s As Mao’s health began to decline during the early 1970s, this health began to decline during the early 1970s, this group gained political power and influence at his group gained political power and influence at his expense. expense.

• In October 1976, a month after Mao’s death, all four In October 1976, a month after Mao’s death, all four were arrested, symbolising the end of a decade of were arrested, symbolising the end of a decade of turmoil in China. Many later condemned them as turmoil in China. Many later condemned them as being ‘counter-revolutionary’.being ‘counter-revolutionary’.

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• At times during Mao’s prolonged period in At times during Mao’s prolonged period in office it appeared that state-sponsored office it appeared that state-sponsored violence was a fundamental aspect of his style violence was a fundamental aspect of his style of Communist rule and essential for him to of Communist rule and essential for him to maintain his grip on power. He subsequently maintain his grip on power. He subsequently presided over a society with major institutional presided over a society with major institutional and social problems alongside a culture of and social problems alongside a culture of government ‘terror’.government ‘terror’.

Overview of Mao’s Rule (1949Overview of Mao’s Rule (1949––76)76)

• On a positive note, despite such evidence of ‘terror’ and On a positive note, despite such evidence of ‘terror’ and extreme social hardships during his period of rule, there was extreme social hardships during his period of rule, there was significant progress in some areas of the economy, military, significant progress in some areas of the economy, military, science, industry and technology.science, industry and technology.

• Many believe that Mao’s Many believe that Mao’s class-focusedclass-focused approach laid the approach laid the foundations in terms of technology, economy and infrastructure foundations in terms of technology, economy and infrastructure for the emergence of modern China as an economic and for the emergence of modern China as an economic and military superpower in the 21st century.military superpower in the 21st century.

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Mao Zedong’s LegacyMao Zedong’s Legacy

• Mao Zedong died on the 9th September 1976 Mao Zedong died on the 9th September 1976 after a period of poor health and nearly 27 years after a period of poor health and nearly 27 years as China’s leader.as China’s leader. During this time China became During this time China became a significant international power. a significant international power.

• It is estimated that between 50It is estimated that between 50––75 million 75 million Chinese people died during almost a quarter of a Chinese people died during almost a quarter of a century of Mao’s rule, due to both failed policies century of Mao’s rule, due to both failed policies and severe persecution of perceived opponents of and severe persecution of perceived opponents of the regime.the regime. • However Mao’s distinct interpretation of However Mao’s distinct interpretation of

Communist ideology has also been praised as Communist ideology has also been praised as evidence of his original revolutionary views and evidence of his original revolutionary views and thoughts. Many people still view him as a thoughts. Many people still view him as a visionary philosopher, military strategist and visionary philosopher, military strategist and paramount politician.paramount politician.

• There is little doubt that Mao’s rule transformed There is little doubt that Mao’s rule transformed China and that he was one of the most significant China and that he was one of the most significant historical figures of the 20th century. historical figures of the 20th century.