Manual. 219p. - ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 249 091 SE 045 099

AUTHOR Bernal, Benito C., Jr.TITLE Engineering Aid 3 & 2, Vol. 2. Rate Training

Manual.INSTITUTION Naval Education and Training Command, Washington,

D.C.; Naval Education and Training ProgramDevelopment Center, Pensacola, Fla.

REPORT NO NAVEDTRA-10628PUB DATE 82NOTE 219p.PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner)

(051)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC09 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Climate Control; *Construction (Process);

*Construction Materials; *Diagrams; *ElectricalSystems; *Engineering; Independent Study; Masonry;Military Personnel; *Military Training; PostsecondaryEducation; Reprography; Road Construction;Specifications

IDENTIFIERS Naval Education and Training Command

ABSTRACTDesigned for individual study and not formal

classroom instruction, this rate training manual provides subjectmatter that relates directly to the occupational qualifications ofthe Engineering Aid (EA) rating. This volume contains 10 chapterswhich deal with: (1) wood and light frame structures (examining theuses, kinds, sizes, and grades of lumber, the various structuralmembers and their functions, and the rough and finished hardware*);(2) heavy construction (focusing on wood, steel, and steel framestructures); (3) basic materials commonly used in concrete andmasonry construction; (4) materials for mechanical and electricalsystems; (5) horizontal construction (examining road and airfieldconstruction terminology, construction methods, and uses of commonconstruction materials); (6) construction drawings; (7) mechanicalplans; (8) electrical plans; (9) various types of references used bytechnical specification writers in the preparation of projectspecifications (including their format and the terminology used); and(10) typical reproduction equipment and the peocedures in maintainingengineering drawing files. (JN)

************************i****************t*****+***********************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***************************************k*******************************

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U.B. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

E CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCE.N1 irl *FOCI

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Although the words "he," "him," and "his"are used sparingly. in this manual to enhancecommunication, they are not intended to begender driven nor to affront or discriminateagainst 'anyone reading Engineering Aid 3 & 2,Volume 2, NAVEDT12A 10628.

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ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2,VOLUME 2

NAVEDTRA 10628

1982 Edition Prepared byEACS Benito C. Bernal, Jr.

PREFACE

The ultimate purpose of training Naval personnel is to produce acombatant Navy which can insure victory at sea. A consequence of the qualityof training given them is their superibr state of readiness. Its result is avictorious Navy.

This Rate Training Manual and Nonresident Career Course (RTM/NRCC)form a self-study package that will enable Engineering Aids to fulfill therequirements of their rating. In this RTM/NRCC, the emphasis is placed onyou, the Engineering Aid, to acquire a basic understanding of the materials,the procedures, the terminology, the specifications, and the constructionsequences used in the construction field. With this knowledge and experience,you should be able to develop a quality set of drawings.

Designed for individual study and not formal classroom instruction, theRTM provides subject matter that relates directly to the occupational quali-fications of the Engineering Aid rating. The NRCC provides the usual wayof satisfying the requirements for completing-the RTM. The set of assign-ments in the NRCC includes learning objectives and supporting itemsdesigned to lead the students through the Rate Training Manual.

This RTM/NRCC was prepared by the Naval Education and TrainingProgram Development Center, Pensacola, Florida, for the Chief of NavalEducation and Training. Technical assistance was provided by the NavalFacilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, Virginia; the Chief of NavalTechnical Training, Millington, Tennessee; the Naval Construction TrainingCenter, Port Hueneme, California; the Naval Construction Training Center,Gulfport, Mississippi; and the Civil Engineer Support Office, Port Hueneme,California.

1982 Edition

Stock Ordering No.05024P-053-1400

Published byNAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAM

DEVELOPMENT CENTER

UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D.C.: 1982

THE UNITED STATES NAVY

GUARDIAN OF OUR COUNTRYThe United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of thesea and is a ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable ofstrong action to preserve the peace or of instant offensive action towin in war.

It is upon the maintenance of this control that our country's gloriousfuture depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR

Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navy's heritage from the past. Tothese may be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as thewatchwords of the present and the future.

At home or on distant stations wc:1 serve with pride, confident in therespect of our country, our shipmates, and our families.

Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.

Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve withhonor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY

The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, andgreater power to protect and defend the United States on the sea,under the sea, and in the air.

Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States hergreatest advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory inwar.

Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes ofthe new Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in tIv,future, in continued dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on ourheritage from the past.

Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.

ii 6'

CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

1. Wood and Lightwood Frame Structures 1-1

2. Heavy Construction: Wood, Steel, and Steel FrameStructures 2-1

3. Concrete and Masonry 3-1

4. Mechanical and Electrical Systems (Materials) '4-1

5. Horizontal Construction 5 -1

6. Construction Drawings 6-1

7. Mechanical Plans 7-1

8. Electrical Plans 8 -1

9. Specifications 9-1

10. Reproduction and Drawing Files 10-1

INDEX 1-1

Nonresident Career Course follows Index

iii

SUMMARY OF ENGINEERING AID 3 &RATE TRAINING MANUALS

VOLUME 1

Engineering Aid 3 & 2, Volume 1, NAVEDTRA 10634-C includes chapterson the Job Ahead; Administration and Organization; Mathematics andUnits of Measurement; Drafting: Equipment and Supplies; Drafting: BasicTechniques, Format, and Conventions; Lettering; Drafting: GeometricConstruction; and Drafting: Projections and Sketching.

VOLUME 2

Engineering Aid 3 & 2, Volume 2, NAVEDTRA 10628 includes chapters onWood and Lightwood Frame Structures, Wood and Steel Frame Structures,Concrete and Masonry, Mechanical and Electrical Systems (Materials),Horizontal Construction, Construction Drawings, Mechanical and ElectricalPlans, Specifications, and Reproduction and Drawing Files.

VOLUME 3

Engineering Aid 3 & 2, Volume 3, NAVEDTRA 10629 will include chapterson Construction Surveying and Material Testing. The publication date forthis Rate Training Manual will be established at a later date.

iv

CHAPTER 1

WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

To prepare an engineering drawing, regard-less of type, you will find it necessary to apply aknowledge of the materials and methods of con-structing wood and lightwood frame structures.This chapter scribes the uses, kinds, sizes,grades, and other characteristics of lumber; thevarious structural members and their functions;and the rough and finishing hardware.

WOOD

Of all the different construction materials,wood is probably the most often used as well asthe most important. The variety of uses of woodis practically unlimited. Few SEABEE construc-tion projects, whether involving permanentstructures or temporary, are built without usingwood. Temporary uses include concrete forms,scaffolding, shoring, and bracing. The woodthat is used for temporary construction isremoved before or after the permanent structureis completed and is normally reusable.

There are many types or species of wood.Each type has its own characteristics and itsrecommended uses. For most large projects, thetype and classification of wood are given in theproject specifications. For smaller projects,which do NOT have written specifications, thetype and classification of wood are included inthe drawings. Engineering Aids should becomefamiliar with the different types of wood that areused for construction. The most common typeof wood for this purpose is Douglas fir, It isstrong, straight-grained, relatively soft, and easyto work with. In the Architectural GraphicStandards, common woods are listed by species,grades, uses, characteristics, and strength fac-tors.

1-1

LUMBER

In construction, the terms "wood,""lumber," and "timber" have distinct, separatemeanings. WOOD is the hard, fibrous substancewhich forms the major part of the trunk andbranches of a tree. LUMBER is wood that hasbeen cut and surfaced for construction use.TIMBER is lumber whose smallest dimension isNOT less than 5 inches. Another term, MILL-WORK, refers to manufactured lumber prod-ucts, such as doors, window frames, windowcasings, shutters, interior trim, cabinets, andmoldings,

Sizes

Standard lumber sizes have been establishedin the United States to permit uniformity inplanning structures and in ordering materials.Lumber is identified by NOMINAL SIZES. Thenominal size of a piece of lumber is larger thanthe actual DRESSED dimensions. Dressed lum-ber has been SURFACED (planed smooth) ontwo or more sides. It is designated according tothe number of sides or edges surfaced. If sur-faced on two sides only, the designation is S2S(surfaced 2 sides); surfaced on all four sides, S4S(surfaced 4 sides) or S2S2E (surfaced 2 sides, 2edges). Lumber is ordered and designated ondrawings by its nominal size rather than by itsdressed dimensions. The difference between thenominal and dressed sizes of lumber is impor-tant, not only to the gineering Aid, hal also tothe Builder. When actual thicknesses or widthsof lumber are not taken into consideration, theoverall dimensions r; the structures will havecumulative errors. !This problem will be coveredin detail later in tnis manual.) Common widths

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2 VOLUME 2

Table W.Nominal and Dressed Sizes of Lumber

Item

Thickness (Inches) Face Width (Inches)

Nominal Dressed Nominal Dressed

Boards

3/4

1

1 1/4

23456789

1011

121416

1 1.'22 1/23 1/24 1/25 1/26 1/27 1/48 1/49 1/4

10 1/411 1/4131/415 1/4

2Dimension 2 1/2

Lumber 3

3 1/2

1 1/222 1/23

2345

68

10121416

1 1/22 1/23 1/24 1/25 1/27 1/49 1/4

11 1/413 1/415 1/4

DimensionLumber

44 1/2

3 1/24

23

45

68

1012

1 1/22 1/23 1/24 1/25 1/27 1/49 1/4

111/4

Timbers 5&Thicker

5&Wider

1-2it

Chapter 1WOOD AND LIOHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

and thicknesses of lumber in nominal anddressed dimensions are shown in table 1-1.

Classification

Lumber is classified according to its use,size, and extent of manufacture. When classifiedaccording to use, _lumber falls into three cate-gories:

1. Yard lumbergrades, sizes, and patternsgenerally intended for ordinary constuction andgeneral building purposes.

2. Structural lumber-2 or more inches inthickness and width for use where workingstresses are required.

3. Factory and shop lumberproduced orselected mainly for manufacture of furniture,doors, cabinets, and other millwo0c.

Nominal, rough, green lumber has threegeneral classifications according to size:

1. BOARDSless than 2 inches thick and 1or more inches wide. If less than 6 inches wide,they may be classified as strips.

2. DIMENSIONAt least 2 inches thick,but less than 5 inches thick and 2 or more incheswide. It may be classified as framing, joists,planks, rafters, studs, and small timbers.

3. TIMBERSsmallest dimension is 5 ormore inches. They may be classified as beams,stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, and purlins.

Lumber classified by extent of manufactureconsists of three types:

1. Rough lumber not dressed (surfaced) butsawed, edged, and trimmed to where saw marksshow in the wood on the four longitudinalsurfaces of each piece for its overall length.

2. Dressed lumber surfaced by a planingmachine to attain a smooth surface and uniformsize.

3. Worked lumber dressed and alsomatched, shiplapped, or patterned.

1-3

Grading

In accordance with American LumberStandards set by the National Bureau of Stand-ards for the U.S. Department of Commerce,lumber is graded for quality. The major gradesof yard lumber, in descending order of quality,are SELECT LUMBER and COMMON LUM-BER. Each of these grades is subdivided, alsoin descending order of quality.

Select lumber has a good appearance andgood qualities for finishing. One kind of selectlumber is suitable for natural finishes, anotherkind for painted finishes. Select lumber fornatural finishes is graded A or B. Grade A isnearly free of defects and blemishes, but grade Bcontains a few minor blemishes. Select lumberfor painted finishes is grade C or D. Theblemishes in grade C are more numerous andsignificant than those in grade B. There are evenmore blemishes in grade D than in grade C.Either grade, C or D, presents a satisfactoryappearance when painted.

Common lumber is suitable'for general con-struction and utility purposes. It, also, is sub-divided by grade in descending order of quality.No. 1 common is, sound, tightknotted stock,containing only a few minor defects. It must besuitable for use as watertight lumber. No. 2common contains a limited number of signifi-cant defects but no knotholes or other seriousdefects. It must be suitable for use as graintightlumber. No. 3 common contains a few defects.larger and coarser than those in No. 2; for exam-ple, occasional knotholes. No. 4 is low-qualitymaterial, contains serious defects like knotholes,checks, shakes, and decay. No. 5 common holdstogether only under ordinary handling. In addi-tion to the numerical grades, some associationsuse these: construction, standard, utility, andeconomy.

Structural lumber is graded according toallowable stresses that determine its safe load-carrying capacity. This capacity is based onvarious factors, such as species of the wood,density, moisture content, knots, cross-grainchecks, and splits, that affect the strength oflumber. Factory and shop lumber is generallygraded by its intended use; the grades varygreatly from use to use.

Board Measure

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2, VOLUME 2

The basic unit of quantity for lumber is .

called a BOARD FOOT. It is defined as thevolume of a board 1 foot long by 1 foot wide by1 inch thick. Since the length of lumber isusually measured in feet, the width in inches,and the thickness in inches, the formula forquantity of lumber in board feet becomes:

Thickness (inches) x width (inches) x length (feet) board measure

12 (board feet)

Example: Calculate the board measure of a14-foot length of a 2 by 4. Applying the for-mula, you get:

2 x 4 x 14 9 1/312

Lumber less than 1 inch thick is presumed19. be finch thick for board measure purposes.Board- measure is calculated on the basis of thenominal, not the dressed dimensions of lumber.The symbol for board feet is bm and the symbolfor a unit of 1,000 is M. If 10,000 board feet oflumber were needed, for example, the quantitywould be 10Mbm.

PLYWOOD

Plywood is a panel product made from thinsheets of wood called veneers. An odd numberof veneersthree, five, sevenis generally usedso the grains on the face and back of the panelrun in the same direction. Plywood is split-proof, puncture-proof, and pound for pound,one of the strongest materials available. Dryfrom the mill, plywood is never ",green." Fromovendry to complete moisture (saturation, aplywood panel swells across or along the grainonly about 0.2 of 1 percent and considerably lesswith normal exposures.

There is probably no building material asversatile as plywood. Builders use it for concreteforms, wall and roof sheathing, flooring, boxbeams, soffits, stressed-skin panels, paneling,partitions, doors, furniture, cabinets, built-ins,shelving, and hundreds of other uses.

Sizes

Plywood is generally available in panelwidths of 16, 48, and 60 inches, and in panellengths ranging from 60 to 144 inches in 12 -inchincrements. Other sizes are also available onspecial order. Panels 48 inches wide by 96inches long (4 by 8 feet), and 48 inches wideby 120 inches long (4 by 10 feet), are mostcommonly available. The 4- by 8-foot and largersizes simplify construction, saving time andlabor,

Nominal thicknesses of sanded panels rangefrom 1/4 to 1 1/4 inches or greater, generallyin 1/8-inch increments. Unsanded panels areavailable in nominal thicknesses of 5/16 to 1 1/4inches or-greater, in increments of 1/8 inchfor thicknesses over 3/8 inch. Under 3/8 inch,thicknesses are in 1/16-inch increments.

NSpecial order "natural finish" veneer.Select all heartwood or all sapwood.Free of open defects. Allows somerepairs.

ASmooth and paintable. Neatly maderepairs permissible. Also used for naturalfinish in less demanding applications.

BSolid surface veneer. Circular repairplugs and tight knots permitted.

CKnotholes to 1". Occasional knotholes1 /2" larger permitted providing totalwidth of all knots and knotholes within aspecified section does not exceed certainlimits. Limited splits permitted. Mini-mum veneer permitted in exterior-typeplywood.

C-- Improved C veneer with splits limited toPldg 1/8" in width and knotholes and borer

holes limited to 1/4" by 1/2".

D----Permits knots and knotholes to 2 1/2" inwidth and 1/2" larger under certainspecified limits. Limited splits permitted.

1-4 I

Figure 1- 1. Plywood veneer grades.

Chanter 1WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

Types

Plywood is classified by type as INTERIORor EXTERIOR. Made of high quality veneersand more durable adhesives, exterior plywood isbetter than interior at withstanding exposure tothe elements. Even when wetted and dried re-peatedly or otherwise subjected to the weather,exterior plywood retains its glue bond andwithstands exposure to the elements. Interiorplywood can withstand an occasional wettingbut not permanent exposure to the elements.

Grades

The several trades within each type ofplywood are determined by the grade of the

veneer (N, A, B, C, or D) used for the face andback of the panel. (See figure 1-1.) Panel gradesare generally designated by the kind of glue andby the veneer grade on the back and face,Grading is based on the number of defects, suchas knotholes, pitch pockets, split, Ciscolora-dons, and patches in each face of the plywoodpanel.

Identification Stamps

Stamps are placed on the edges and back ofeach sheet of plywood so it can be properly iden-tified. Figure 1-2 shows typical back and edgestamps found on a standard sheet of plywood. Itshows all information needed about the sheet,except its actual size.

TYPICAL BACK-STAMP

RADE OF VENEER ON PANEL FACE

GRADE OF VENEER ONPANEL BACK

ANUMBERSPECIES GROUP

UP 1DESIGNATES THETYPE OF PLYWOOD-EXTERIOREXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

PS1-74 900ImmilPRODUCT STANDARD GOVERNING MILL NUMBER

MANUFACTURE

TYPICAL EDGE-MARKRADE OF VENEER ON PANEL FACE

GRADE OF VENEER ON PANEL BACK

DESIGNATES THEEXTERIOR OR

LAIC

TYPE OF PLYWOODINTERIOR

PRODUCT STANDARDii.GOVERNINGMANUFACTURE

G -1 EXT-APA PS -74 0?0,SPECIES GROUP NUMBER MILL NUMBER

Figure 1-2.---Standard plywood identification symbols.

1-5

14


STRUCTURAL...L.__

48/24INTERIORPs Hi 000

. EXTERIOR GLUE

STRUCTURAL I I

INTERIOR32/16EPAPS R4 000EXTERIOR GLUE

STANDARD

32/168INTERIORPS 1.14 000

133.429Figure 1-3.Structural and sheathing identification

symbols.

Figure 1-3 illustrates the stamps found on thebacks of structural and sheathing panels. Theyvary somewhat from the standard stamps. Theactual grade is NOT given NOR is the speciesgroup. The index numbers 48/24 and 32/16 givethe maximum spacing in inches of supports. Thenumber to the left of the slash is the maximumon center spacing of supports for roof decking.The number to the right of the slash is themaximum on center spacing of supports forsubfloors. A number 0 on the right of the slashindicates that the panel should NOT be used forsubflgnivni No reference to the index number isneed en the panel is to be used for wallsheathing.

Detailed information on specific types andgrades and their uses can be found in commer-cial standards for the manufacture of plywoodsestablished by the U.S. Department of Com-merce. General plywood characteristics andarchitectural information can be found inthe following publications: American PlywoodAssociation, National Lumber ManufacturingAssociation, or the Architectural GraphicStandards. The latter book can be found in thebattalion technical library.

TREATMENT

When not properly treated and installed,wood can be destroyed by decay, fungi, boring

1-6

insects, weathering, or fire. Although designedfor the specific use of the wood, treatment variesfrom project to project and from one geographicarea to another. The kind and amount of treat-;ment is usually given by the project specifica-'tic ais. Where no written specifications exist, thedrawings should indicate the kind and amountof wood treatment. .

Manufacturers' commercial standards con-tain information on wood pretreated bythe manufacturer. NAVFAC pub': cations andspecifications provide technical information andesign requirements for the treatment of woused in buildings and structures.

FRAME STRUCTURES

In a frame building, the frame consistsmainly of wood or steel load-bearing membersthat are joined together to form an internalsupporting structure, much like the skeleton ofa human body.

When a complete set of drawings is made fora certain building, large scale details are usuallyshown for typical sections, joints, and otherunusual construction features. Understandingthe different functions of the structural mem-bers of a frame building will enable you to makethese drawings correctly and promptly.

HORIZONTAL WOOD FRAMESTRUCTURAL MEMBERS

The lowest horizontal wood frame structuralmember is the silla piece of dimensionallumber which is laid flat on and bolted down tothe top of the foundation wall. Actually, it is thewall, not the sill, that supports members joinedto the sill. The sill simply provides a nailing basefor joining such members.

Horizontal members which support thefloors in wood frame structures are calledJOISTS or BEAMS, depending on their distanceapart. Members less than 4 feet apart are calledjoists; members placed 4 feet or more apart arecalled beams. The usual spacing for wood framefloor members is either 16 inches or 24 inches.Joists are usually 2 by 8, 2 by 10, or 2 by 12.

Horizontal members which support joists atpoints other than along the outer wail lines are

Cha ter 1WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FR AME STRUCTURES

called GIRDERS. When the SPAN (horizontaldistance between outside walls) is longer thancan be covered by a single joist, a girder must beplaced as an intermediate support for joist ends.Ground-floor girders are commonly supportedby concrete or masonry,PILLARS and PILAS-TERS. A pillar is a girder support which is clearof the foundation walls. A pilaster is set againsta foundation wall, and supports the end of agirder. Both pillars and pilasters 'are themselvessupported by concrete FOOTINGS. Upper-floorgirders are supported by COLUMNS.

GIRTS are horizontal wood framing mem-bers which help to support the outer-wall ends ofupper-floor joists in balloon framing. Balloonframing is explained later, in the discussion on

CRIPPLE STUDS

sill assemblies. SOLEPLATES are horizontalwood framing members which serve eas nailingbases for STUDS in "platform' framing. Studsand platform framing are also explained later.

TOP PLATES are horizontal wood framingmembers which are nailed to the tops of wall orpartition studs.

RAFTERS are framing members which sup-port a roof. For a FLAT roof, ;,hey are horizon-tal; for a PITCHED (sloping) roof, they areinclined. Rafters are similar in cross section tojoists, and usually have the same spacing.

A HEADER is a horizontal wood framingmember which forms the upper member of arough door frame, or upper or lower member ofa rough window frame, as showr, in figure 1-4.

CRIPPLE STUDS

). ----DOUBLE TOP HEADER

(ON EDGE)

DOUBLETRIMMER

STUD

re-TRImmERSTUD

DOUBLE SUBSILLHEADER

1

CRIPPLESTUDS

DOUBLE T P HEADER(ON EDGE)

TRIMMERSTUD

DOUBLETRIMMER

STUD

Figure 1-4.Part of a wail frame, showing headers.

1-7

1.)

45.437


Similar members which form the ends of a roughfloor opening, or of the roof opening for adormer window or skylight, are also calledheaders.

A TRUSS is a horizontal member whichconsists of a framework rather than a singlepiece. Trusses can be used to span spaces whichare too wide for spanning by a single-piece mem-ber without intermediate supports. Figure 1-5

Figure 1.5.Roof or ratter truss.

I TT- [1. F4,11.

t

,

%11

.1

1

Figure 16,Tnissed headers.

-Tr

45.438

is

shows a roof or rafter truss. Figure 1-6 showstwo types of trussed headers. The purposeof trussing a header is to increase its supportingstrength when the space to be spanned istoo wide to permit the use of a single-memberheader.

Joists are set on edge, and lateral supportfor joists on edge is provided by between-the-joist members called BRIDGING. Thereare two kinds of bridgingCROSS bridgingand SOLID bridgingas shown in figure1-7. Where used over a long span, joiststend to sway from side to side so they

JOIST

CROSS BRIDGING

( A )

JOIST

SO if fifnrI ING

(B)

45.439 45.444Figure 1-7.--Cross bridging and solid bridging.

1 -8

lH

Chapter 1WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

are bridged to stiffen the floor frame, toprevent unequal deflection of the joists,and to enable an overloaded joist to receivesome assistance from the joist on either side ofit.

Joists are covered by a layer (or by adouble layer) of boards called the SUB-FLOORING. Subflooring boards may be laidSTRAIGHT (perpendicular to the joists).Because the subflooring helps to brace thejoists, it is considered part of the frame of thebuilding.

VERTICAL WOOD FRAMESTRUCTURAL MEMBERS

The principal vertical wood frame structuralmembers are the studs which are usually 2 by 4's.Figure 1.4 shows various types of studs in a wallframe. At a building corner, studs are combinedin various ways to form a CORNER POST, asshown in figures 1-8 and 1-9.

Board SHEATHING is nailed to outside-wall studs to form the wall sheathing. Likesubflooring, it may be laid either straight ordiagonal and is considered part of the frame ofthe building.

t

.1 .',

Figure 1-ILSimplest type of corner post.

SHORT PIECES OFSTUD STOCK ABOUT

3 FT 0.C.

SHORT PIECE OFSTUD STOCK FOR

NAILING BASEBOARD

45.442Figure 1A.- -! lore solid type of corner post.

SILL ASSEMBLIES

The method of framing the studs to thesill is called a SILL ASSEMBLY. Commonlyused sill assemblies are shown in figures1-10, T-sill; 1-11, Eastern; 1-12, box sill;and 1-13, sill in brick veneer construction.The T-sill and Eastern assemblies are usedin what is called BALLOON framing, inwhich studs are anchored on the sill andare continuous (that is, in one piece) fromsill to roofline. The box-sill assembly isused in PLATFORM or WESTERN framing,where studs are cut in separate lengths foreach floor and are anchored on soleplates

.---

resting on the subflooring. The constructionmethod for a sill assembly using brick veneeras exterior siding is similar to the box-sill assembly method except that the sill isset in the foundation wall to allow enough

45.441 space for the brick to rest directly on thewall.


HEADER JOIST

REGULAR JOIST/ . _ ._ ...... ._....._

..------SIL.L

STUD

FIRE-STOP HEADER

SILL

STUDS HEADER JOIST

Figure 1.10. --T -sill assembly.

SILL

SILL

STUDS

REGULAR JOISTS

FIRE-STOP

HEADERS

b

A '

Figure 1-11.Eastern sill assembly.

1-10

ISIS

45.443

45,444

Cha ter WOOD AND LIOHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

SOLE PLATE

JOIST SUBFLOOF

Par

pc.

HEADER40.

JOIST

-SILLA

a

a

1

6

A/R SPACE

Mgr TAL WALL TIESEvERy te'OURTH

COURSE

STUD--

SOLE PLATE

CORNER POST

46,/STUD

SOLE PLATE

SUBFLOOR voilar.j..-41.1111#11111.1441400;111.11°-;:iP- 45

4/UTSIDE

JOISTSJOIST ILL

HEADER JOIST

A

SILL

Figure 1-12.Box sill assembly.

a" X 4" .srup.3"

L AT H PLASTER

SHEATHING

T" FIN/SNEAD FLOOR

e'a

45.445

45.723

Figure 1-13.Sill assembly in brick veneer construction.


45.447Figure 1-14.Method of supporting upper-floor joist ends

in balloon framing.

HEADERJOIST

UPPER FLOORCORNER POST

4;1'

UPPER FLO1RSOLE PLATE

OUTSIDE JOIST

JOISTSLOWER FLOOR

TOP PLATE

LOVER FLOORSOLE PLATE

45.448Figure 1-15.Method of framing upper-floor joists and

studs in platform framing.

Figure 1-14 shows how upper-flooring joistsare supported by studs and the ribbon board(also called a GIRT or LEDGER) in balloonframing. Figure 1-15 shows htzw upper-floorjoists are supported in platform framing.

ROOF FRAMING MEMBERS

The principal framing members in a roof arethe raftershorizontal in a flat roof, inclined ina pitched roof. When the rafters are placedfarther apart, horizontal members, calledPURL1NS, are placed across them to serve asthe nailing or connecting member for the roof-ing. Purlins are generally used with standardmetal roofing sheets, such as 3- by 8-footcorrugated galvanized iron (G.I.) or aluminumsheets. The common practice is to use roofingnails to install metal sheet roofing; however, fora more permanent structure in which heaviergage sheets are used, rivets and metal straps areused instead of nails.

The three most common types of pitchedroofs are the SHED or SINGLE-PITCH, theGABLE or DOUBLE-PITCH, and the HIP(fig. 1-16). A shed roof has a single surface,sloping downward from a RIDGE on one side ofthe structure. A gable roof has two surfaces,sloping downward from a ridge located between

,11

45.449Figure 1-1b.Common types of pitched roofs.

1-12 cl f /

Cha ter WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

the sides of the structureusually midwaybetween them. A hip roof is pitched on the sideslike a gable roof, and also on one or both ends.When both surfaces of a gable roof, or allsurfaces of a hip roof, slope at the same angle,the roof is an EQUAL-PITCH roof. When thesurfaces of the same roof slope at differentangles, it is an UNEQUAL-PITCH roof.

Roof Pitch

The PITCH (amount of slope) of a roof isexpressed as a FRACTION in which the numer-ator is the UNIT RISE and the denominator isthe UNIT SPAN. By common practice, unit run

CUT OF ROOF12

I PITCH

3/4 PIT CH

VS PITCH1/2 PITCH,

5/12 PITCH1/3 PITCH1/4 PITCH1/6 PITCH

SPAN

-"{RUN )

--).1 UNIT OF SPAN (24")

UNIT OF RUNUNIT OF SPAN

12"

24" RI1E PER UNIT OF RUN

1 8"R1SE PER UNIT OF RUN

I5" RISE PER UNIT OF RUN

12" RISE PER UNIT OF RUN





PLATE

Figure 1-17.--Roof pitch diagram.

is always given as 12. See the roof pitch diagramshown in figure 1-17. Expressed in equationform1

PITCH = Unit RiseUnit Span

Unit Rise2 x Unit Run

Suppose that a roof rises 8 units for every 12units of runmeaning that unit rise is 8, and theunit run is 12. Since the unit span is 24, the pitchof the roof is 8/24, or 1/3. This value is alsoindicated in the center view of the roof pitchdiagram in figure 1-17.

On construction drawings, the pitch of aroof is indicated by a small ROOF TRIANGLElike the one shown in the upper view of figure1-17. The triangle is drawn to scale in which thelength of the horizontal side equals the unit run,(which is always 12), and the length of thevertical side equals the unit rise.

Roof Additions

Each of the roofs shown in figure 1-16consists, technically speaking, of only a singleroof, even though the gable roof has twosurfaces and the hip roof four. A more compli-cated roof consists of a MAIN roof and one ormore ADDITIONS. Figure 1-18 shows a mainhip roof plus a gable.

GAEILL 400:1',ON

133.114 45.451

Figure 1-18.Main hip roof and gable addition.

1-13

ENGINEERING AID 3 & VOLUME 2

A roof may also contain DORMERS, asshown in figure 1-19. The figure shows a SHEDdormer and two GABLE dormers. There arealso HIP dormers.

SHED DORMER

Figure 1-19.Dormers.

GABLE DORMER

45.452

ROOF FRAMING PLAN

SIDE CUT

HIP JACKRAFTER

PLUMB CUT

COMMON RAFTER

HEEL CUTPLATE

I COMMON RAFTERS 3 VALLEY RAFTERS 5 VALLEY JACKS2 HIP RAFTERS 4 HIP JACK 6 CRIPPLE JACKS

45.724Figure 1-20.Rafter terms.

1-14

Rafter Nomenclature

As mentioned earlier, the pieces which makeup the main body of the framework of all roofsare called rafters. They do for the roof whatjoists do for the floor and what the studs do forthe wall. Rafters are generally inclined membersspaced from 16 to 48 inches apart which vary insize, depending on their length and the distanceat which they are spaced. The tops of the in-dined rafters are fastened in one of the variouscommon ways which is determined by the typeof roof. The bottoms of the rafters rest on theplate member which provides a connecting linkbetween the wall and the roof and is really afunctional part of both. The structural relation-ship between the rafters and the wall is the samein all types of roofs. The rafters are NOT framedinto the plate, but simply nailed to it. Some arecut to fit the plate. In hasty construction, raftersare Inerely laid on top of the plate and nailed inplace. Rafters may extend a short distancebeyond the wall to form the eaves and protectthe sides of the building.

The names of the different varieties of raftersare shown in figures 1-20 through 1-28. Figure1-20 is a typical roof framing plan. In order tohave a better picture of those members thatcannot be seen in the plan view shown in figure1-20, several types of roof framings shouldbe presented in isometric drawings. The follow-ing definitions supplement the notes in thedrawings.

COMMON RAFTERSRafters that extendfrom the plates to the ridgeboard at right anglesto both.

HIP RAFTERS Rafters that extend diago-nally from the corners formed by perpendicularplates to the ridgeboard.

VALLEY RAFTERSRafters that extendfrom the plates to the ridgeboard along the lineswhere two roofs intersect.

2I

LOOKOUT RAFTERS


--PLAT!.

ji)O RAT I RS

4.

FLAT ROOF RAFTERS

'-DOUBLE LOOKOUTHEADER

PLATE

Figure 1-21.Flat avid shed roof framings.

T ' 1.1 Aif

'et

or +4 F I

Figure 1-22.Gable roof framing.45.455

1-15

SHED ROOF RAFTERS

45.453:454

HIP JACKSRafters whose lower ends reston the plate and upper ends against the hiprafter.

VALLEY JACKSRafters whose lowerends rest against the valley rafters and upperends against the ridgeboard.

CRIPPLE JACKSRafters that are nailedbetween hip and valley rafters.

JACK RAFTERSHip jacks, valley jacks,or cripple jacks.

TOP OR PLUMB CUTThe cut made atthe end of the rafter to be placed against theridgeboard or, if the ridgeboard is omitted,against the opposite rafters. (See figure 1-20.)

SEAT, BOTTOM, OR HEEL CUTThecut made at the end of the raTtercvhfek.tuales-ton the plate.

SIDE OR CHEEK CUTA bevel cut on theside of a rafter to fit against another framemember.


ENDPLATEALL

477 Ars4111,

HIP RAFTER

RIDGE PIECE

NIP JACKS

COMMON RAFTER

HIP JACKS HIP RAFTER

HIP JACKS

Figure 1-23. Equal-pitch roof framing.

MAIN ROOF VALLEY JACKS

MAIN ROOFCOMMON RAFTERS

W.'Iki111$ROOF RIDGE PIECE

144ADDITION VALLEY JACKS

SIDEMALLRAFTER PLATE

COMMON RAFTERS

ADDITION COMMON RAFTERS

ADDITION RIDGE PIECE

41/

MAIN ROOF SIDETALLRAFTER PLATE

VALLEY RAFTER-ADDITION SIDERALLRAFTER PLATE

Figure 1-24.Addition roof framing.

1-16

ADDITION END. WAL LRAFTER PLATE

45.456

45.457


CRIPPLE COMMON RAFTER

DOUBLEDCOMMON RAFTER

DOUBLED COMMON RAFTER

UPPER HEADER

MAIN ROOF VALLEY JACK

VALLEY RAFTER

LOWER HEADER

HIP JACKS


Figure 1-25.Framing of gab!t dormer without side walls.

MAIROOF VALLEY JACKS

ADDITION VALLEY JACKS

HIP JACKS

45.457.0

Figure 1-24.Types of jack rafters. 45.459

1-17

2


MAIN ROOFVALLEY JACK 1

PA

w toot%

1. °:"di

.--_

DORMER RAFTER PLATE

DORMER SIDE STUD 1111,10;lift4 / 4i

11",CRIPPLE COMMONRAFTERS

VALLEY RAFTER

MAIN ROOF VALLEY JACK


DORMER vALL EYJACK

OCAveR CCRNER PCST

45.45$Figure 1-27.Framing 3f gabk dormer with side walls.

VALLEY CRIPPLE JACK

rtIP VALLEY CRIPPLE JACKS

45.460Figure l-20.Crippk jacks.

EAVE OR TAIL --The portion of the rafterextending beyond the outer edge of the plate.

In figures 1-21 through 1-28, you will see thatsome structural members are doubled. Thesemembers are expected to carry a greater load.

1-18

Examples include plates, headers, rafters atvarious openings, and rafters that support theroof additions. Doubled members are also usedat openings in walls and floors.

BUILDING FINISH

Perhaps the best way to define buildingfinish is to say that most of those parts of astructure which are NOT among the load-bearing members comprise the finish. The finishis divided into "exterior" finish (locatedprincipally on the outside of the structure) and"interior" finish (located inside).

EXTERIOR FINISH

The principal items of the exterior finish arethe cornices, the roof covering, the door andwindow finish frames, and the outside-wallcovering, if any.

The order in which these principal items areerected may vary slightly, but since the roofcoring must go on as soon as possible, and itcannot be put on until the cornices have beenconstructed, the cornices are usually installedearly in the exterior finish. In general, the orderin which the exterior finish items are discussed inthe following sections is about the order inwhich they are erectedexcept, that two ormore items may be constructed simultaneously.

Cornices

Thi! rafter-end edges of a roof are called the"eaves." A hip roof has eaves all the wayaround. A gable roof has only two eaves; thegable-end or end-wall edges of a gable roof arecalled "rakes."

The exterior finish constructed at and justbelow the eaves of a roof is called a "cornice."The practical purpose of a cornice is to seal thejoint between wall and roof against weatherpenetration. Purely ornamental parts of acornice (or of any other finish, for that matter)are called "trim."


Figure 1-29 shows a simple type of cornice,used on a roof with no rafter overhang. A roofwith a rafter overhang may have the "open"cornice shown in figures 1-30 and 1-31, or the"closed" or "box" cornice shown in figure1-32. A short extension of a cornice along the

ROOF SHEATHING

CROWN MOLDING

FRIEZERAFTER

WALL SHEATHING

STUD

Figure 1-29.Simpk cornice.

FRIEZE

YwN4

Sh,E A 1

45.493

gable-end wall of a gable-roof structure is calleda "cornice return" (fig. 1-33). Finish along therakes of a gable roof is called the "gable cornicetrim" (fig. 1-34).

Roof Covering

On pitched-roof Navy-built structures, theroof covering most commonly used is made ofasphalt or asbestos-cement. Asphalt roofingcomes in rolls (usually 36 inches wide and calledroll roofing) and in individual shingles calledasphalt strip shingles (fig. 1-35). Asbestos-cement roofing usually consists of individualshingles; the size most commonly used is 12inches wide by 24 inches long. A shingle 12inches wide is laid with 5 inches exposed to theweather and 7 inches overlapped by the nexthigher course of shingles.

On flat or nearly flat roofs, the roof coveringis usually built-up. It consists of several layers(called plies) of felt, set in a hot binder of meltedpitch or asphalt. A final layer of binder is spreadon the top of the uppermost ply of felt, and isusually sprinkled with a layer of gravel, crushedstone, or slag.

The usual number of plies in a built-up roofis five. Felt comes in rolls, usually 36 incheswide. Figure 1-36 shows how five plies of felt arelaid on an initial layer of 36-inch wide-buildingpaper. Note how the widths at the starting edgeof the roof vary so as to get five-ply coverage

Figure 1-30.Open cornice without fascia.45.494


CROWN MOLDING

FASCIA

FRIEZE

CROWN LDING

FAscIA

PLANCIER

BED MOLDING

FRIEZE

FRIEZE

Figure 1-31.Open cornice with fascia.

Figure 1-32.Closed or boxed cornice.

RAKE MOLDING

- FASCIA

-4==. CORNICE RETURN

CROWN MOLDING

FASCIA

BED MOLDING

FRIEZE-

Figure 1-33.Cornice return.45.496.0

1-20

45.495

45.4%

Figure I-34.Gshk cornice trim.

2b

45.497

Chapter )WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

fY

TAB

36"

TAB NOTCH

4.

7''

LAP

4

S" TO*EATHE

Figure 1-35.Asphalt strip shingle.

BUILDING PAPER 2PL Y DRYNAILER

3.PL Y HOT

Figure 1-36.-Building paper and felt on five-ply built-up roof.

with 10 inches to the weather all the way up theroof.

Finish Door and Vlindow Frames

Figure 1-37 shows the principal parts of afinish door frame. On an outside door, theframe includes the side and head casings. On aninside door, the frame consists only of the sideand head jambs; the casings are considered partof the inside-wall covering.

29.120

45.499

Figure 1-38 shows section drawings ofoutside-door frame details.

The part of a window which forms a framefor the glass is called sash, and window sash isconsidered part of the interior, not the exterior,finish. However, a window with a sash whichis hinged at the side is called a casementwindowsingle easement if there is only onesash, double casement if there are two. Awindow which is hinged at the top or bottom iscalled a transom window. One with a number ofhorizontally hinged sashes, which open and


zSIDE

CASING!

SIDE. JAMBS

SILL BE.vEt.ALLOnANCE

4-

SILLDADO

SILL

Figure 1-37.Principal parts of a finish door frame.

SHEATHING STUD INSIDE WALLCOVERING

SHEATHING STUD INSIDE WALLCOVERING

DRIP CAPDOUBLE HEADER GROUND FOR

NAILING INSIDECASING

SIDE STUDAND TRIMMER

HEAD CASINGr.

Itu II

R M3316

HEAD JAM

I 1", In

;

3RABBE

GROUND FORNAILING INSIDE

CASING

DOOR 1 24

SECTION THROUGHHEAD JAMB

' SIDE CASING

it 4 1"Id 2

SIDE JAM DOOR 1 1"4

1 SIA 4

SECTION THROUGHSIDE JAMB

Figure 1-311.Outside-door frame details.

1-223U

" RABBET

45.500

45.501

Chapter 1 WOOD AND LIOHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

HEADCASING

ou x42116 2

BLIND STOPr I 1.114 4

SHEATHING STUD INSIDE WALLCOIRING

DOUBLEHEADER

RUDE HEADCASING

PLASTERGROUND

CHANNEL FORUPPER SASH

kCHANNEL FOR

LOWER SASH

SECTION THROUGHHEAD JAMB

r BLIND STOP2ti pi4

SHEATHING INSIDE WALLCOVERING

CHANNEL FOR CHANNEL FORUPPER SASH LOWER SASH

SECTION THROUGHSIDE JAMB

Figure 1-39.Head- and side-jamb details for double-bung window.

close together like the slats in a venetian blind, isa jalousie window. A window having two sasheswhich slide vertically past each other is a double-hung window.

Basically, the finish frames for all these aremuch alike, consisting principally, like a finishdoor frame, of side jambs, head jamb, sill, andoutside casing (the inside casing being con-sidered part of the inside-wall covering).However, a double-hung window frame con-tains some items that are NOT used on framesfor other types of windows. Section drawingsshowing head- and side-jamb details for adouble-hung window are shown in figure 1-39.Sill details are shown in figure 1-40.

Outside-Wall Covering

The wood sheathing on a frame structure iscovered with siding. This may be board siding,or it may consist of sheets of synthetic material,such as plywood, asphalt, asbestos-cement, or"composition." Composition is a general termapplied to manufactured sheet materials, such as

1-23

Sil in8 2

CHANNEL. FORLOWER SASH

SIDE. BLIND STOPCASING

CHANNEL FORUPPER SASH

INSIDE STOPPARTINGSTOP

SuBSILLfit AN

SHE A T !INC,

45.502

STOOL

, APRON

SILL BEVELALLOWANCE

3u

4

45.503Figure 1-40.Sil1 detail for a double-hung window.

31


gypsum board, asphalt felt, fiberboard, andinsulation board.

There are two general types of wooden boardsidingcommon siding and drop siding. Com-mon siding consists of boards which overlapeach other shingle-wise. Common siding inboards not more than 4 feet long is calledclapboard. Common siding in longer lengths butNOT more than 8 inches wide is called bevelsiding. Common siding in boards longer than4 feet and wider than 8 inches is called bungalowsiding.

Board siding which is joined edge-to-edge(rather than overlapping) is called drop siding.Figure 1-41 shows three common types of dropsiding.

INTERIOR FINISH

The interior finish consists mainly of thecoverings applied to the rough inside walls,ceilings, and subfloors. Other interior finish

r.?UARE. EDGED SIM FLAP DRESSED AND MATCHED

Figure 1.41.--Types of drop siding.45.506

1-24

items are inside door frames, doors (both insideand outside), window sash, and stairs.

Ceiling and Wall Covering

Ceiling and wall covering may be broadlydivided into plaster and dry-wall covering. Dry-wall covering is a general term applied to sheetsor panels of wood, plywood, gypsum, fiber-board, and the like.

A plaster wall and/or ceiling coveringrequires the prior construction of a plasterbasethat is, a plane-surface base to which theplaster can be applied, such as gypsum lath,fiberboard lath, or metal lath. Gypsum lathusually consists of 16- by 48-inch sheets ofgypsum board, either solid or perforated withholes for keying. Fiberboard lath is similar, butmade of synthetic fibrous material rather thangypsum. Metal lath consists of screen-like sheetsof ribbed or meshed metal.

Before lath is applied to walls and ceilings,plaster grounds are installed as called for inthe working drawings (refer back to figs. 1-38and 1-39). These are wood strips of the samethickness as the combined thickness of lath andplaster. They serve as guides to the plasterers, toinsure that the plaster around door and windowframes will be of correct and uniform thicknessbehind the casings.

Plastering on metal lath is usually done inthree coats, having a combined thickness ofabout 5/8 inch. The first coat is called theSCRATCH coat, because it is usuallyAored toimprove the adhesion of the second t. Thesecond coat is called the BROWN coat. Thefinal, finish coat is called the WHITE, SKIM, orFINISH coat.

The basic ingredients for scratch-coat andbrown-coat plaster are lime putty and sand,mixed with enough water to attain properspreading consistency. A finish coat is composedof lime putty plus a dry aggregate which gives asmooth-finish appearance, such as plaster-of-paris, calcium sulphate, or a composition knownas Keen's cement.

The most common materials used for drywallfinishes are gypsum-board, wood paneling,fiberboard, and ceramic tile.

Gypsum board usually comes 4 feet wide byany length up to 12 feet. It may be applied with


the long dimension either in line with or at rightangles to joists and studs. A 4-foot sheet appliedwith the long dimension in line with joists orstuds which are 16 inches O.C. (that is, oncenters, meaning that the distance from thecenter of one member to the center of the next is16 inches) will cover three joists or stud spaces.Gypsum board is nailed on with special cement-coated nails, the heads of which are concealedby countersinking a little below the surface ofthe board and filling the depression with jointcement. Joints between boards are condoled bycementing on joint tape.

Wood paneling and plywood come in sheets(called panels) of various sizes, for applicationeither horizontally (long dimension at rightangles to joist/studs) or vertically (long dimen-sion in line with joists/studs). For horizontalapplication, lengths of stud or joist stock, callednailers, are set between the studs or joists, alongthe lines of panel joints, for the nailing of edges.

Fiberboard wall or ceiling covering usuallycomes in 2- by 8-foot panels, applied (usingnailers) crosswise to joists or studs. However,fiberboard also comes in small squares orrectangles called tiles. Common sizes of tiles are12 by 12 inches, 12 by 24 inches, 16 by 16 inches,and 16 by 32 inches. Tiles can be nailed to studs,joists, and nailers but are more commonly gluedto a backing of wallboard.

Ceramic tile is used to cover all or part of thewalls, and sometimes the ceilings as well, inbathrooms, shower rooms, galleys, and otherspaces subject to a high degree of dampness. Inother spaces, it may be used for ornamentalpurposes. The type most commonly used isglazed interior tile, usually 3/8 inch thick and in4 1/4- to 6-inch squares. Margins, corners, andbaselines are covered with trimmers of varioussizes and shapes.

Ceramic tile may be set in a bed of tilecement or in a tile adhesive provided by themanufacturer. For a cement-bed setting againstwooden studs or joists, a layer of building paperis laid on first, and metal lath is then appliedover the paper. A scratch-and-level coat of tilecement, 1/2 to 5/8 inch thick, is applied to thelath and allowed to dry. The tile is then set in a1/4- to 1/2-inch cement-bed setting.

1-25

For adhesive setting to joists or studs, abacking gypsum lath is nailed on, then theadhesive is applied to the lath.

Concrete or Masonry Wall Covering

Plaster may be applied directly to a concreteor masonry wall. For tile setting, a layer ofplaster is usually applied to a masonry wall,allowed to dry, and then the tile cemented to theplaster. For a concrete wall with a good finish,the tile may be cemented directly to the concrete.

Stairs

The two principal elements in a stairwayare the treads which people walk on and thestringers (also called springing trees, horses,and carriages) which support the treads. Thesimplest type of stairway, shown at the left infigure 1-42, consists of these two elements alone.

Additional parts commonly used in a fin-ished stairway are shown at the right infigure 1-42. The stairway shown here has threestringers, each of which is sawed out of a singletimber. For this reason, a stringer of this type iscommonly called a cutout or sawed stringer. Onsome stairways, the treads and risers are nailedto triangular stair blocks attached to straight-edged stringers.

A stairway which continues in the samestraight line from one floor to the next is called astraight-flight stairway. When space does NOTpermit the construction of one of these, a changestairway (one which changes direction one ormore times between floors) is installed. Achange stairway in which there are platformsbetween sections is called a platform stairway.

Stairs, in a structure are divided into principalstairs and service stairs. Principal stairs are thoseextending between floors above the basementand below the attic floor. Porch, basement, andattic stairs are service stairs.

Window Sash

A window schedule on the constructiondrawings gives the dimensions, type, such ascasement, double-hung, etc., and the number oflights (panes of glass) for each window in the

3 3

TREAD


TREAD

STAIR WELLHEADER

RISER

CUTOUT STRIKERNOSING

CLEAT

STR NGER

FINISH FLOOR LINE

Figure 142.Parts of a stairway.

structure. A window might be listed on theschedule as, for example: No. 3, DH, 2 feet 4inches by 3 feet 10 inches, 12 LTS. This mewsthat window No. 3 (it will have this numberon any drawing in which it is shown) is adouble-hung window with a finished openingmeasuring 2 feet 4 inches by 3 feet 10 inches andhaving 12 lights of glass. In any view in whichthe window appears, the arrangement of thelights will be shown. On one of the lights, afigure such as 8/10 will appear. This means thateach light of glass has nominal dimensions of8 by 10 inches.

Figure 1-43 shows a double-hung windowsash and the names of its parts.

Finish Flooring

Finish flooring is broadly divided into"wood" finish flooring and "resilient" finish

`,UNIT RUN

UNIT RISE

UNIT RUN

UNIT RISE PLUS FINISH FLOORTHICKNESS MINUS TREAD THICKNESS

01.507

flooring. Most wood finish flooring comesin strips which are side-matchedthat is,tongue-and-grooved for edge-joining; some isend-matched as well. Wood flooring strips areusually recessed on the lower face and toenailedthrough the subflooring into joists, as shown infigure 1-44.

In Navy structures, wood finish flooring hasbeen largely supplanted by various types ofresilient flooring, most of which is applied in theform of 6 by 6, 9 by 9, or 12 by 12 floor tiles.Materials commonly used are asphalt, linoleum,cork, rubber, and a plastic composition calledvinyl. With each type of tile, the manufacturerrecommends an appropriate type of adhesive forattaching the tile to the subflooring.

Doors

Doors are made in many styles, but the typemost frequently used is the "panel" door shownin figure 1-45.

1-263 4

Chapter i WOOD AND LIOHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES

UPPERSTILE

L

LOWERSTILE

L..

MUNTIN

L...

TOP RAIL

IHORIZONTAL

BAR

1UPPER

MEETINGRAIL

BOTTOMRAIL

---?FACE FACE WIDTH

WIDTH PLUS I/4"

UPPERSTILE

I

UPPERMEETING

RA'L

LOWERSTILE

..--I

Figure 1.43.Parts of double-hung window sash.

S.RG,IOR

45.510Figure 1.44.--Toenalling wood flnish flooring.

1-27

Interior Trim

LOWER MEETINGRAIL

45.509

The most prominent items in the interiortrim are the inside door and window casings,which may be plain-faced or ornamentallymolded in various ways. Another item is thebaseboard, which covers the joint between aninside wail and finish floor (fig, 1-46).

HARDWARE

HARDWARE is a general term covering awide variety of accessories that are usually made


TOP RAIL4 3/4'

344'

HINGE 5111 E

4 3/4'

LOCK RAIL8'

130T TOM RAIL

9 5/9

Figure 1.45.- -Pavel door.45.511

of metal or plastic and ordinarily used inbuilding construction. Hardware includes bothfinishing and rough hardware.

FINISHING HARDWARE consists of itemsthat are made in attractive shapes and finishesand are usually visible as an integral part of thefinished structure. Included are locks, hinges,door pulls, cabinet -hardware. window fasten-ings, door closers and check., door holders, andautomatic exit devices. In addition, there are thelock- operating trim, such as knobs and handles,escutcheon plates, strike plates, and knobrosettes. There are also push plates, push bars,kick piates, door stops, and flush bolts.

ROUGH HARDWARE consists of itemsthat are NOT usually finished for an attractiveappearance. These items include casement andspecial window hardware, sliding and foldingdoor supports, and fastenings for screens, stormwindows, shades, venetian blinds, and awnings.

Other items may be considered hardware. Ifyou are not sure whether an item is hardware or

1-28

45.512Figure 1-46. -- Baseboard.

what its function is, refer to a commercial text,such as the Architectural Graphic Standards.

FASTENERS

The devices used in fastening or connectingmembers together to form structures depend onthe kinds of material the members are made of.The most common fastening devices are nails,screws, and bolts.

NAILS

There are many types of nailsall of whichare classified according to their use and form.The standard nail is made of steel wire. The wirenail is round-shafted, straight, pointed, and mayvary in size, weight, size and shape of head, typeof point, and finish. The holding power of nailsis less than that of screws or bolts.

Thl COMMON WTRE nail and BOX nail(view A, fig. 1-47) are the same, except that the

3 G

Cha ter WOOD AND LIGHTWOOD FRAME STRUCTURES '.

(A)

Er====1:11E1COMMON WIRE

NAIL

(C)

DUPLEXNAIL

COMMON WIRE NAILS

(B)

FINISHINGNAIL

(D)

ROOFINGNAIL

F G H I J K L M N O P77

VV

SIZE

ENGTN AND GAGE

INC ES NUMBER

APPROXIMATENUMBER TO

POUND

A64 2 11

8 50d 5 3 14

C 40d 5 4 18

0 30d dii 5 24E 20d 4 6 31

F 16 d 3i 7 49G 12d 3; 8 63H 10d 3 9 69I 9d 21 10i 96

J 8d 2i 10i 106K 7d 2k 11i 161

1. 6d 2 Ili 181

N 5d Ii 12i 271N 4d ii 12i 5160 3d 1k 14 568P 2d 1 15 876

29.121

Figure I-47.Types and sizes of common wire nails and oiler

1-29


wire sizes are one or two numbers smaller for agiven length of the box nail than they are for thecommon nail. The FINISHING nail (view B,fig. 1-47) is made from finer wire and has asmaller head than the common nail. Its headmay be driven below the surface of the wood,which leaves only a small hole that is easilyputtied. The DUPLEX nail (view C, fig. 1-47)seems to have two heads. Actually one serves asa shoulder to give maximum holding powerwhile the other projects above the surfaceof the wood to make withdrawal simple. TheROOFING NAIL (view D, fig. 1-47) is round-shafted and galvanized. It has a relatively shortbody and comparatively large head. Like thecommon wire, finishing, or duplex nail, it has adiamond point.

Besides the general-purpose nails shown infigure 1-47, there are special-purpose nails.Examples include wire brads, plasterboardnails, concrete nails, and masonry nails. Thewire brad has a needle point; the plasterboardnail a large-diameter flat head. The concrete nailis specially hardened for driving in concrete. Sois the masonry nail although its body is usuallygrooved or spiraled.

Sizes of Wire Nails

Lengths of wire nails NOT more than 5inches long are designated by the penny system,where the letter "d" is the symbol for apenny. Thus, a 6d nail means sixpenny nail. Thethickness of a wire nail is expressed by number,which relates to standard wire gage. Nail sizes(penny and length in inches), gages, and approx-imate number of nails per pound are given infigure 1-47. Nails longer than 5 inches (calledSPIKES) are not designated by the penny.

Nails in Frame Construction

Rough carpentry joints are nailed withcommon wire nails. For a joist end which buttsagainst a header joist, twenty-penny nails, twoto each end, are driven through the header joistinto the joist end. Floor-opening headers aresimilarly fastened to trimmer joists. Outsidefloor trimmers are nailed to inside floortrimmers with sixteen-penny nails. Joist ends aretoenailed to sills or plates with tenpenny nails,

1-30

two to each side. Cross-bridging struts are nailedto joists with eightpenny nails.

Members of doubled-stud plates are nailedtogether with tenpenny nails. Studs are toenaileddown to sills or soleplates with eightpenny nails,two to each side. Window headers and subsillsare nailed to studs with sixteen-penny nails,driven though the stud into the end of theheader.

A common or jack rafter is toenailed to therafter plate with tenpenny nails, two to eachside. At the upper end (as at a ridge piece or ahip or valley rafter), one of the pair of commonor jack rafters is nailed to the ridge piece, hip, orvalley with two or three tenpenny nails, driventhrough the ridge piece, hip, or valley. The

LAG SCREWS

ROUND FLAT OVALHEAD HE HEM)

WOOD SCREWS

METAL SCREWS

411111111.111010111111*4

P1507 11104:1Y

Murrill` DIMICTIR

LtN014

T'UN C4

A SLOT TED 3 PHILLIPSHEAD HEAD

Figure 1- 48.-- Types of sereli....29.123


corresponding rafter of the pair is toenailed atthe upper end.

Wall stud bracing is nailed to studs witheightpenny nails, two to each stud crossing.Board sheathing or subflooring is nailed to studsor joists with eightpenny nails; two to eachcrossing for boards up to 8 inches wide and threeto each crossing for wider boards.

Outside door and window frames are nailedto rough-frame studs and headers with sixteen-penny casing nails driven through the jambs intothe studs and headers. Inside door frames arenailed to partition studs and headers with eight-penny casing nails. Wood exterior finish isnailed on with sixpenny finish nails for 1/2-inchmaterial and eightpenny nails for thicker mate-rial. Inside casings are nailed to jamb edges withfourpenny casing or finish nails and to studswith eightpenny casing or finish nails.

SCREWS

A wood screw is a fastener which is threadedinto the wood. Wood screws are designated bythe type of head (fig. 1-48) and the materialfrom which they are made, for example, flat-head brass or roundhead steel. The size of awood screw is designated by its length in inchesand a number relating to its body diametermeaning, the diameter .of the unthreaded part.This number runs from 0 (about 1/15-inchdiameter) to 24 (about 3/8-inch diameter).

Lag screws, called LAG BOLTS (fig. 1-48),are often required where ordinary wood screwsare too short or too light, or where spikes do nothold securely. T hey are available in lengths of1 to 16 inches and in body diameters of 1/4 to1 inch. Their heads are either square or hexago-nal.

Sheet metal, sheet aluminum, and other thinmetal parts are assembled with SHEET METALscrews and THREAD-CUTTING screws (fig.1-48). Sheet metal screws are self-tapping; theycan fasten metals up to about 28 gage. Thread-cutting screws are used to fasten metals that are1/4 inch thick or less.

SQUARE OR COMMON

II Illllii

HEXASON HEAD-HEXAOON NUT

SQUARE HEAD- SQUARE NUTMACHINE BOLTS

FINNED NECK

PINED NECK.

CARRIAGE BOLTS

ROUND HEAD

Ft AT HEADSTOVE BOLTS

1-31

Figure 1-49.Types of bolts.

BOLTS

WELD

29.124

A steel bolt is a fastener having a head atone end and threads, as shown in figure 1-49.Instead of threading into wood like a screw, itgoes through a bored hole and is held by a nut.Stove bolts range in length from 3/8 to 4 inchesand in body diameter from 1/8 to 3/8 inch. Notespecially strong, they are used only for fasten-ing light pieces. CARRIAGE and MACHINEbolts are strong enough to fasten load-bearingmembers, such as trusses. In length, they rangefrom 3/4 to 20 inches; in diameter, from 3/16 to3/4 inch. The carriage bolt has a square sectionbelow its head which embeds in the wood as thenut is set up, keeping the bolt from turning.

:3 :

CHAPTER 2

HEAVY CONSTRUCTION: WOOD, STEEL, ANDSTEEL FRAME STRUCTURES

As a general rule, the term "heavy con-struction" 'refers to a project in which largebulks of materials and/or extra-heavy structuralmembers are used, such as steel, timber, con-crete, or a combination of these materials. In theNaval Construction Force, this would includethe construction of bridges or waterfront andsteel frame structures.

The SEABEE's construction functions, insupport of the Navy's and Marine's OperatingForces, might include designing and construc-tion of these various structures, or theirrehabilitation; therefore, you, as an EA, shouldunderstand the terminology, the basic prin-ciples, and the methodology used in the con-struction of these facilities. Your knowledge ofthe methods and materials used in their con-struction will greatly assist you in the prepara-tion of engineering drawings (original, modified,or as-built).

This chapter will discuss the basic construc-tion methods and materials, their components,and their uses within the structures.

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

The spanning structure of a "suspension"bridge is supported from above by cables loopedbetween tall "piers." A bridge other than asuspension bridge is supported from below bypiers (specially cantilever truss bridges), or aseries of transverse structures called "bents."The two main subdivisions of a "bent" bridgeare the "superstructure" (the spanning structurewhich carries the roadway) and the "substruc-ture" (the bents, plus the foundations on whichthey are anchored).

2-1

TRESTLE AND PILE BENTS

A timber "trestle" bent is shown in figure2-1. This bent is used on firm, dry ground or onsolid bottom in shallow water. A "pile" bent isused in soft or marshy ground, or in water toodeep or too swift-flow,ing for trestle bents. In apile bent, the "posts" consist of piles driven inthe ground, and there is no sill or footing.

ABUTMENTS

The ground points which support the ends ofthe superstructure of a bridge are called the"abutments." Figure 2-2 shows the abutmentexcavation, sill, and footing for a timber trestle-bent or pile-bent bridge.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

The principal parts of the superstructure arethe decking (roadway or surface of the spanning

TRANSVERSE DIAGONAL CAPSCAB BRACING

FOOTING

Figure 2-1.Timber trestle bent.45.523

ENGIN IN V 2

45.524Figure 2-2.Abutment sill and footing.

structure) and the zirders (horizontal load-bearing members which support the decking).The girders are themselves supported by the capsof the bents. On a timber bridge, the deckingconsists of a lower layer of timbers, called theflooring and an upper layer, called the treadway.On a timber structure, the girders (each of whichextends from the cap on one bent to the cap onthe next) are often called stringers. On a con-crete structure, steelplate girders, or reinforced-concrete girders are used.

On an advanced base timber bridge or pier,the stringers usually consist of timbers about 10inches by 16 inches in cross-section, placedabout 3 feet 3 1/2 inches O.C. with the longsection dimension vertical. Girder length is com-monly 14 feet which means that bents on a struc-ture of this type are usually somewhat less than14 feet apart.

PILE CONSTRUCTION

A pile is a load-bearing wood, steel, or con-crete structural member which is driven into theground. A pile which sustains a downward loadis a bearing pile; one which sustains a transverseload is a sheet pile. A bearing pile which isdriven, other than vertically, is called a batterpile.

BEARING PILES

Timber bearing piles are usually straight treetrunks with closely trimmed branches with the

2-2

bark removed. The small end of the pile is calledthe tip, the larger end the butt. Timber pilesrange from 16 to. 90 feet in length.

A steel bearing pile might be an H-pile (hav-ing an H-shaped cross section) or a pipe pile(having a circular cross section). A pipe pilemight be open-end (open at the bottom) orclosed-end (closed at the bottom).

A concrete bearing pile can be cast-in-placeor precast. A shell type is constructed, as shownin figure 2-3. For a shell-less type, a hole is madefirst, either by driving and withdrawing a man-drel (fig. 2-3), or by boring. The concrete for thepile is then poured into the hole and cast againstthe natural earth.

Precast concrete piles are r ct in forms in acasting yard.

SHEET PILES

Sheet piles, made of wood, steel, or concrete,are equipped or constructed for edge-joining, sothey can be driven edge-to-edge to form a con-tinuous wall or bulkhead. A few common usesof sheet piles are as follows:

1. To resist lateral soil pressure as part of atemporary or permanent structure. For example,steel sheet piling is widely used to form

MANDREL CONCWETF

SHELL SHELL SHELL

SHELL AND MANDRELDRIVEN TOGETHER

MANDREL COMPLETE STA140AQCwiTHORAvIN TAPER PitE r 1: f!

WITH CONCPEIf

45.526Figure 2.3.-- Shell -type cast-in-place concrete pile.

41

Chapter 2HEAVY CONSTRUCSTEEL FRAME

TION: WOOD, STEEL, ANDSTRUCTURES

"bulkheads" and "retaining walls" for thelateral or transverse support of soil.

2. To construct cofferdams or structuresbuilt to exclude water from a construction area.

3. To prevent slides and cave-ins in trenchesand other excavations.

A wood sheet pile might consist of a single,double, or triple layer of planks, as shown infigure 2-4.

The edges of a steel sheet pile are called IN-TERLOCKS because they are shaped for lock-ing the piles together edge-to-edge. The part ofthe pile between the interlocks is called theWEB. Steel sheet piles are manufactured in fivestandard section shapes: (1) DEEP-ARCH, (2)ARCH, (3) STRAIGHT-WEB, (4) Z-SEC-TION, and (5) CORNER-SECTION.

Sections vary slightly in shape with differentmanufacturers, each of whom has a particularletter and number symbol for each section theymanufacture. (See figure 2-5.)

Concrete sheet piles are cast with tongue-and-groove edges for edge-joining. See Builder3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 10648-0 for further discus-sion of various types of sheet piles.

WATERFRONT STRUCTURES

Waterfront structures may be broadly di-vided into (1) offshore structures like break-waters, designed to create a sheltered harbor,

t ",:i" r; q.,r 4.;

45.526.0

Figure 2 -4. Wood sheet piles.

2-3

(2) alongshore structures like seawalls, designedto establish a definite shoreline and maintain itagainst wave erosion, and (3) wharfage struc-tures, designed to make it possible for ships to'lie alongside for loading and discharge.

HARBOR-SHELTER STRUCTURES

A breakwater is an offshore barrier, erectedto break the action of the waves and therebymaintain an area of calm water inside thebreakwater. A jetty is a similar structure, exceptthat its main purpose is to direct the current ortidal flow along the line of a selected channel.

The simplest type of breakwater/jetty is therubble-mound type shown in figure 2-6. Rockfor this structure is classified as follows:

Cap rock is the largest rock, placed at thetop.

Class A rock is rock in which 85 percent ormore consists of pieces weighing more than 2tons each.

Class B rock is rock in which 60 percent ormore consists of pieces weighing more than 100pounds each, but less than 2 tons (class A).

Class C rock (also called quarry waste) is anyrock smaller than class B.

For a deep-water site, or for one with anextra-high tide range, ,a rubble-moundbreakwater may be topped with a concrete capstructure, as shown in figure 2-7. A structure ofthis type is called a composite breakwater/jetty.In figure 2-7, the cap structure is made of a seriesof precast concrete boxes called "caissons,"each of which is floated over its place of loca-tion, and then sunk into position by loading withclass C rock. A monolithic (single-piece) con-crete cap is then cast along the tops of thecaissons.

A groin is a structure similar to abreakwater/jetty, but having still a third pur-pose. A groin is used in a situation wherea shoreline is subject to alongsho. erosion,caused by wave or current action parallel to oroblique to the shoreline. The groin is run outfrom the shoreline (usually there is a succession


INTERLOCKS WITHALL OTHERS EXCEPT 1.31

INTERLOCK WITH EACH OTHER

(A) INLAND STEEL SHEET PILING SECTIONS.

r18"

12"

113

ZP38 (BETHLEHEM)

21"

ZP32 (BETHLEHEM)

T

311

(B) Z- SECTIONS,

9

1....111.1

71"---1-

(C) TWO STANDARD CORNER SECTIONS.

Figure M.Standard steel sheet pile sections.

2-4 4 3

133.212

Chapter 2HEAVY CONSTRUCTION: WOOD, STEEL, ANDSTEEL FRAME STRUCTURES

HARBOR SIDE

CAP ROCK

%.018111.1111...

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.. . - -. . , - ...- -N7"', 1- VARIESS

111 .; CLASS B c°3.°99 L ASSPbo ,0/ .

aCLASS C

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MEAN SEA LEVEL

CLASS B

114

CLASS B

Figure 2-6.1-Rubble-mound or rock-mound breakwater/Jetty.

HARBOR SIDE SEA SIDE

MEAN LOW WATER

CONCRETE CAISSON

CLASS B

1',

CLASS C

Figure 2-7.C rposite breakwater/Jetty.

of groins at intervals) to check the along-shore wave action or deflect it away from theshore.

A mole is a breakwater which is pavedon the top for use as a wharfage structure.To scrve this purpose, it must have a verticalface on the inner or harborside. A jetty maybe similarly constructed and used, but it 'sstill called a jetty.

STABLE-SHORELINE STRUCTURES

These structures are constructed parallel withthe shoreline to protect it from erosion and otherwave damage.

2-5

45.527

45.528

A seawall is a vertical or sloping wallwhich offers protection to a section of theshoreline against erosion and slippage dueto tide ana wave action. A seawall is usuallya self-sufficient type structure, such as agravity-type retaining wall; whereas, a bulk-head is usually a thinner structure whichdepends partly on wales carried on tie rodsextending to buried anchors. Seawalls areclassified according to the types of construction.A seawall may be made of riprap or solid con-crete. Several types of seawall structures areshown in figure 2-8.

As used in port construction, a bulkhead isa vertical retaining structure used along a shore,or to form the face of a quay (pronounced key)


RIPRAP

BEACH

(A) INCLINED-FACE CONCRETE SEAWALL.

--. - - - -1 .1. 1\I 1 ... / / \ \

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I I --11 /I / / \ \\ \ II CONCRETEI / /01 // \ \ 1r SHEET PILING

// \ \\ II\\ I

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(C) STEPPED-FACE CONCRETE SEAWALL.

FILL

BEACH

II

II

(4

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I Il I / SHEET PILING

111"

11

I.,4

(B) CURVED-FACE CONCRETE SEAWALL.

FILL-

14 MHwnassatative144./

\44

\`\ 11

CONCRETE\\ n SHEET PILING

/Al "/I \\d \\ w

(D) COMBINATION CURVED-FACE AND STEPPEDFACE CONCRETE SEAWALL.

Figure 2-8.Various types of seawalls.

or the shore end of a pile wharf or approach. Itspurpose is to support and protect an area ofshore or fill from erosion. Bulkheads areclassified according to types of construction,such as the following:

1. Pile and sheathing bulkhead.

2. Wood sheet pile bulkhead.

3. Steel sheet pile bulkhead.

4. Concrete sheet pile bulkhead.

Most bulkheads are made of steel sheet piles.Figure 2-9 shows a steel sheet pile bulkhead in

2-6

45.532

the course of construction. A working drawingfor such a bulkhead is shown in figure 2-10. Theplan shows that the bulkhead will consist of arow of deep-arch web piles with a "wale" foranchoring outer ends of the tie rods. The walewill consist of two 12-inch channels back-to-back. The anchorage will consist of a row ofarch-web piles with a similar wale for anchoringinner ends of tie rods which is spaced nine feeton center.

The section view shows that the anchoragewill lie 58 feet behind the bulkhead. This viewalso suggests the order of construction sequence.First, the shore and bottom will be excavated to

4:)


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Figure M.Steel sheet pile bulkhead.

the level of the long, sloping dotted line. Thesheet piles for the bulkhead arid anchorage willthen be driven. The intervening dotted lines, atintervals of 19 feet 4 inches, represent support-ing piles which will be driven to hold up the tie

'CA

,. TS". -24

45.533

rods. These piles will be driven next, and the tierods then set in place. The wales will be boltedon, and the tie rods will be tightened moderately(they are equipped with turnbuckles for this pur-pose).


2.12' ml ES*

4E04' PIPE SPACERS741E0e-S.SOLTS

say'sar. e SOLI'S

4N54N0' (WASHER

STAGGER SPLICES IN UPPERAND LOWER CHANNELSSPLICE a Vx sa .8 Oi.T$ 74.00.4141210011 7/1.450'.11*2PIPE SPA ERS rWX0`.4.

WASHER 10'x1N0'10'

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, 31-4

4DETAIL PLAN OF BULKHEAD

NuMBER OF ICARP2I0130) MAYSE INCREASED OR DECREASEDIF NECESSARY

SECTION THRU BULKHEAD

Figure 2-10.Working drawing for steel sheet pile bulkhead.

Backfilling to the bulkhead will then begin.The first backfilling operation will consist of fill-ing over the anchorage, out to the sloping dottedline. The turnbuckles on the tie rods will then beset up to bring the bulkhead plumb. Then the re-maining fill, out to the bulkhead, will be put in.Finally, outside the bulkhead, the bottom will bedredged to a depth of 30 feet.

To make it possible for ships to comealongside the bulkhead, it will be fitted with

2-8

45,534

a timber cap and batter fender piles, asshown in the detail appearing in figure2-11.

Fender piles are installed vertically at properintervals in the waterfront edge of wharfs orquays to serve the following purposes:

1. They cushion a wharf from impact ofships and protect the outer row of bearing pilesfrom damage.

DEP,7 t

Z,:i


2 8"x 12" WALES CONT

8"X10" CHOCK

FINDER PILE

SECTION A-A

BOLT I" it) X19"2-C 1.0 G WASHERS

BOLT I" X19"

1.-6"X4"X 1:X 0'-62

BOLT I" 4 X 19"2-C.I.O.G. WASHERS

PLAN

Figure 2-11.Cap and fender pile for bulkhead.

2. They protect the outer face of quays fromdamages due to the impact of ships.

3. They protect the hulls of craft from un-due abrasion.

WHARFAGE STRUCTURES

Figure 2-12 shows various plan views ofwharfage structures. Any of these may be con-structed of fill, supported by bulkheads, and aQUAY is always a structure of this type.However, a pier or marginal wharf usually con-sists of a timber, steel, or concrete superstruc-ture, supported on a substructure of timber,steel, or concrete-pile bents.

Generally, QUAYS are almost completelyrigid structures; sometimes their fender piles arebacked up with heavy springs to provide a com-bination of yielding and resistance. Fender pilesare driven at a slight batter beside each outsidepile, except on the extreme inshore wharf sec-tions. Every third fender pile may extend 3 to 4feet above the curb. The others are cut flushwith the curb.

45.535

Construction drawings for a 20-foot ad-vanced base timber PIER are shown in figures2-13, 2-14, and 2-15. Figure 2-13 is a generalplan view; figure 2-14 is a part plan on a largerscale; figure 2-15 is a section view showing theframing arrangements of one of the bents. A billof materials (not shown) gives the dimensions offraming members and fasteners. The numbersshown refer to item numbers on the bill ofmaterials; beside each item number, the bill givesa description of the item. From the drawings andthe bill of materials, one can derive the followingstructural data about the pier.

Each length of a pier lying between adjacentbents is called a bay; the length of a bay isobviously equal, then, to the horizontal distancebetween bents. The general plan shows thatthe advanced base 20-foot timber pier willconsist of one 13-foot outboard bay, one13-foot inboard bay, ten 12-foot interior bays,and as many more interior bays as are requiredto reach the shore. The total distance of the out-board bay from the shoreline will depend onhow far offshore the water begins to be deepenough to float a ship.

2-9 4


(., QUAY

^1-

121 SQUARE oitR

IN RIGHT-ANGLE PIER FOR ONEFREIGHTER ON EACH SIDE

A

t.4) RIGHT-ANGLE PIER FOR ONEFREIGHTER AND ONE LIGHTERON EACH SIDE

(S) AcuTEANGLE PIER FOR ONEFREIGHTER ON EACH SIDE

02Cr W

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(G) RIGHT-ANGLE PIER FOR TWOFREIGHTERS ON EACH SIDE

(7) ACUTIANGLE PIER FOR TWOFREIGHTERS ON EACH SIDE

(Si TTYPE MARGINAL WHARF FORFAZSIGLITAEOR% OUTSIDE FACE

1St UTYPE MARGINAL WNW

M WHARF WIDTH L WHARF LENGTH

NOTE NOT TO SCALE FOR EXPLANATION OFLAYOUT TERMINOLOGY ONLY

Figure 2.12. Types of wharfage structures.45.536

36'-0"

If a bill of materials is taken from the sectionview (fig. 2-15), it will show that each bent willconsist of three bearing piles (No. 1), one on thecenterline and the others 7 feet 6 inches from thecenterline. The bearing piles will be bracedtransversely by two 3- by 10-inch by 9-footdiagonal braces (No. 6), bolted on with 1- by20-inch bolts (No. 21) and 1- by 22-inch bolts(No. 22); also by one 16-foot horizontal brace(No. 5), bolted on with 1- by 20-inch bolts.

Additional, transverse bracing for each bentwill be provided by a pair of batter piles (No. 2)with specified batter at 5 run to 12 rise. One pileof each pair will be driven on either side of thebent, as shown. The butts of the batter piles willbe joined to 12- by 14-inch longitudinal batterpile caps (No. 7), each of which will be bolted tothe undersides of two adjacent bearing pile capswith 1- by 28-inch bolts, in the positions shownin the part plan (fig. 2-14). The batter pile capswill be placed 3 feet inboard of the line of theouter bearing piles of the bents. They will bebacked by 6- by 14-inch by 2 foot 6-inch batterpile cap blocks (No. 8), each of which will bebolted to a bearing pile cap with four 1- by26-inch bolts (No. 35).

Longitudinal bracing between the bents willconsist of 14-foot lengths of 3 by 10's (Nos. 19and 20), bolted to the bearing piles with 1- by20-inch bolts (No. 21) and 1- by 22-inch bolts(No. 22).

2

VARIES

sY

z0

CLEAT

11'9 9i! 1Tt P.Ii-4177-97-7,1;

.id chi lid11 11 t=3 II II II

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19.0' le-0"

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13.6 BAYS @12-0.INBoAuci TO SUIT RQUIREMENTS

10 BAYS() 1e-0%1200"TYPICAL INTERIOR BAYS

si-0"OUTBOARD

CONTINUE FENDER PILES

{I.-0"x rIO" REMOVABLEDECKING FOR FiREHOSE.

PAINT RED

Figure 2.13.General plan of advanced base 20-foot timber pier.

2-10

4 :)

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45.537


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st PIE

11 YE011.01.=1===1.MIII

I lir All AC

11.3.79P.TrITTI.I all= I 11111WIRWlair=MIME°I

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TYPICAL INTERIOR SAY OUTBOARD BAY

Figure 2.14.Part plan of advanced base 20.foot Umber pier.

(E)

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45.538.0Figure 2-15.Section view of advanced base 20-foot

timber pier,

2-11

I.0

0

45.538

The superstructure will consist of a singlelayer of 4- by 12-inch planks (No. 12), laid onnine 6- by 14-inch by 14-foot "inside" stringers(No. 1) and two 10- by 14-inch by 12-foot "out-side" stringers (No. 10). The inside stringers willbe fastened to the pile caps with 1- by 24-inchdrift bolts (these and other heavy-constructionfasteners are described at the end of thischapter). The outside stringers will be fastenedto the pile caps with 1- by 30-inch bolts (No. 34).

The deck planks will be fastened to thestringers with 3/8- by 8-inch spikes (No. 32).After the deck is laid, 12-foot lengths of 8 by10's (No. 14) will be fastened to the outsidestringers to form the curb. Lengths of curbingswill be distributed, as shown in the general plan(fig. 2-13). You can see that the curbing will beinterrupted wherever a "cleat" will be located.Cleats and other mooring hardware are de-scribed later. The curbing will be bolted to theoutside stringers with 3/4- by 32-inch bolts.

The pier will be equipped with a fendersystem for protection against the shock of con-tact with ships coming or lying alongside. Fenderpiles, spaced as shown in the part plan (fig,


2-14), will be driven along both sides of the pierand bolted to the outside stringers with 1- by26-inch bolts (No. 3). The heads of these boltswill be "countersunk" below the faces of thefender Diles.

An 8- by 10-inch timber fender wall (No. 15)will be bolted to the backs of the fender pileswith 1- by 24-inch bolts. Lengths. of 8 by 10's,called fender pile chocks, (No. 9) will be cut tofit between the fender piles and will be bolted tothe outside stringers and the fender pile wales.Spacing for these bolts is shown in the part plan.

The general plan shows that the fendersystem will include two 7-pile dolphins, located15 feet beyond the outer end of the pier. Adolphin is a detached cluster of piles like the oneshown in figure 2-16. A similar cluster attachedto the pier is called a pile cluster.

Various types of mooring hardware are in-stalled on a wharfage structure for the attach-ment of mooring lines from ships. As indicatedin the general plan, cleats, spaced as shown, areused on the 20-foot timber pier. The bill of

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45.540Figure 2-16.-7-pile, 12-pile, and 19-pile dolphins.

2-12

Figure 2-17.-42-inch mooring cleat.

I'4-

45.539

materials specifies 42-inch cleats; a 42-inchmooring cleat is shown in figure 2-17. Themethod of attaching a cleat to the pier is shownin the part plan. Two 10- by 14-inch timbers arebolted to either side of the first inside stringerand the cleat is bolted down to the timbers.

Another common item of mooring hardwareis the bollard shown in figure 2-18. Figure 2-19shows a method of attaching a bollard to atimber pier.

TIMBER FASTENERSAND CONNECTORS

In working in heavy construction, you will beconcerned with the more common types offasteners used in heavy construction. The nextfew paragraphs will explain the methods used inattaching these fasteners and connectors.

TIMBER FASTENERS

The BOLTS used to fasten heavy timbersusually come in 1/2-, 3/4-, and 1-inch diameterswith square heads and square nuts. A round

51


Figure 2-18.-24-inch bollard.

DECKING

CHOCK

'1 MS

i2"X !EN 4..cr LONG.

12"X iric tote LONG

LONGITUDINAL OWING

BOLLARD

0

(<,

BATTER PILE

MOORINGHARDWAREBOLT

CURB

II 0 IL.INNI61,1 Illi INiM RZVi 1-

111:111M 111

FENDER PILE

.11.

45.542

Figure 2-19.Method of attaching bollard to timber pier.

for the drift bolt should be one-sixteenth of an45.541 inch larger than the diameter of the drift bolt

and about 3 inches shorter. Drift bolt diametersrun from 1/2 inch to 1 inch and lengths varyfrom 18 inches to 26 inches.

steel washer is placed under the head and thenut, and the bolt is tightened until the washersbite well into the wood to compensate for futureshrinkage. Bolts should be spaced not less than 9inches O.C. Edge distance should not be lessthan 2 1/2 inches, and the end distance shouldnot be less than 7 inches.

Drift bolts, sometimes called drift pins, arebolts used primarily to prevent timbers frommovii.g laterally in relation to each other, ratherthan to resist pulling apart. They are used morein dock and trestle work than in trusses andbuilding frames. Drift bolts are long, threadlessrods, either square or round, and may havesquare, wedge, or pointed ends. They are driveninto a hole bored through the member buttedagainst and into the abutting member. The hole

Butt joints are also fastened with a SCABwhich is a short length of timber that is spiked orbolted to the adjoining members at the joint, asshown in figure 2 -26'.

TIMBER CONNECTORS

TIMBER CONNECTOR is a general termapplied to a variety of devices used to increasethe strength and rigidity of bolted-lap joints be-tween heavy timbers. The SPLIT RING, asshown in figure 2-21, is embedded in circulargrooves which are cut with a special type of bitin the faces of the timbers which are to bejoined. Split rings come with 2 1/4-, 4-, 6-, and8-inch diameters. The 2 1/2-inch ring takes a1/2-inch bolt; the others take a 3/4-inch bolt. If

2-13 5 ;2,

---.- 7'41

VO uE2

133.198

Figure 2-20.Scabs.

45.543

Figure 2-21.Split ring and split ring joint.

more than one ring is used at a joint, theminimum spacings center-to-center shall be 9inches, and at least 2 1/2-ring diameters whenthe pull on the joint will be parallel to the grain,or 1 1/2-ring diameters when the pull will be

2-14

perpendicular to the grain. Edge distance whichis measured from the center of the 'ring to theedge of the member should not be less than one -half the ring diameter plus 1 inch. End distancewhich is measured from the center of the ring tothe end of the member should not be less than 7inches.

The TOOTHED RING (fig. 2-22) functionsin much the same manner as the split ring, but itcan be imbedded without the necessity of cuttinggrooves in the members. The toothed ring isembedded by the pressure produced by tighten-ing a bolt of high-tensile strength, as shown\infigure 2-23. The hole for this bolt is made one-sixteenth of an inch larger than the bolt diameterso that the bolt may be easily extracted after thering is embedded. It is then replaced by an ordi-nary steel bolt.

Toothed rings come with 2-, 2 5/8-, 3 3/8-,and 4-inch diameters. The 2-inch ring takes a1/2-inch bolt, the 2 5/8-inch ring takes a5/8-inch bolt, and the others a 3/4-inch bolt.Spacings, edges, and end distances are the sameas they are for split rings.

The SPIKE GRID is used as shown in figure2-24. A spike grid may be FLAT (for joining twoflat surfaces), SINGLE-CURVED (for joining

45.544Figure 2-22.Toothed ring and toothed-ring joint.


Figure 2-23.Embedding toothed rings.133.199

45.545Figure 2.24. Spike grids and spike grid joints.

a flat and a curved surface), or DOUBLE-CURVED (for joining two curved surfaces). A.spike grid is embedded in the same manner as atoothed ring.

STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES

Structural steel forms the framework ofmany types of structures, such as bridges, piers,

2-15

hangers, towers, warehouses, and shop build-ings. The steel framework of the structuremay be visible, as in bridges and tower.or concealed within the walls of varioustypes of buildings. In any case, the steelframework carries the weight of the structureand the applied loads.

The steel structure is a framework of struc-tural steel members. The individual membermight be a single piece of steel or several compo-nent pieces that are fabricated in the shop andassembled at the jobsite.

A structural steel member which is fabri-cated in the shop is made from one ormore STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES. Awide variety of standard shapes of differentcross sections are manufactured. Figure 2-25illustrates many of these various shapes. Thethree most common types of structural meth-bers are the W-shape (wide flange), the S-shape(American Standard I-beam), and the C-shape(American Standard channel). These three typesare identified by the nominal depth, ininches, along the web and the weight perfoot of length, in pounds. As an example,a W12 x 27 indicates .1 W-shape with aweb 12 inches deep, with a weight of 27pounds per linear foot. Figure 2-26 showsthe cross sectional views of the W-, S-,and C-shapes. The difference between theW-snape and the S-shape is in the designof the inner surfaces of the flange. TheW-shape has parallel inner- and outer-flangesurfaces with a constant thickness, while theS-shape has a slope of approximately 17 ° on theinner flange surfaces. The C-shape is similar tothe S-shape in that its inner flange surface is alsosloped approximately 17 °.

The W-SHAPE is a structural memberwhose cross section forms the letter H and is themost widely used structural member. It is de-signed so that its flanges provide strength in ahorizontal plane, while the web gives strength ina, vertical plane. W-shapes are used as beams,columns, truss members, and in other load-bearing applications.

The BEARING PILE (BP shape) is almostidentical to the W-shape. The only difference

5


OLDSYMBOL

OLDILLUSTRATED

USE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLENEW

SYMBOL

NEWILLUSTRATED

USE

VIF

BP

I

U

M

M

Jr

Jr L-I

L

ST

PL

BAR

0

24VF76

14 BP73

15/42.9

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8X8M34.3

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L7X 4 Xi

ST51F10.5

PLI8X-2X2I-6"

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X -4

06+

W -SHAPE (WIDE FLANGE)

BEARING PILE

S-SHAPE (AMERICAN STD I- BEAM )

C-SHAPE (AMERICAN STD CHANNEL)

M-SHAPE(MISC SHAPES OTHER THANW, BP, S, a C )

MC-SHAPE (CHANNELS OTHER THANAMERICAN STD.)

ANGLES :

EQUAL LEG

UN-EQUAL LEG

TEES, STRUCTURAL:

CUT FROM W -SHAPE

CUT FROM S -SHAPE

CUT FROM M-SHAPE

PLATE

FLAT BAR

PIPE, STRUCTURAL

AIIKk4110!

0.

127

f

W

BP

S

C

M

MC

L

WT

ST

MT

PL

BAR

.-

W24 X 76

BPI4 X73

SI5X42.9

C9 X13.4

M8 X 34.3

M8X17

M7X 5.5

MCI2 X45

MCI2 X12.6

iL3 X 3X-4

L7 X 4X i

WT 12 X38

ST 12 X38

MTI2 X38

PL4X1811X30"

BAR 212- X -14

PIPE 4 STD

PIPE 4X-STRG

PIPE 4 XX-STRG

tpla)

3

Figure 2-25.Structural shapes and designations,

2-16,e+76:91k

t

127.273


FLANGE WIDTH

W -SHAPE

WIG FLANGE

S-SHAPE

C-SHAPE

11.30

Figure 2-26.Structural shapes.

is that the flange and web thickness of the bear-ing pile are equal, whereas the W-shape has dif-ferent web and flange thicknesses.

The S-SHAPE is distinguished by its crosssection being shaped like the letter I. S-shapesare used less frequently than W-shapes since theS-shapes possess less strength and are lessadaptable than W-shapes.

The C-SHAPE has a cross section somewhatsimilar to the letter C. It is especially usefulin locations where a single flat face without out-standing flanges on one side is required. TheC-shape is NOT very efficient for a beam orcolumn when used alone. However, efficientbuilt-up mer-' -Ts may be constructed of chan-nels assembled together with other structuralshapes and connected by rivets or welds.

An ANGLE is a structural shape whose crosssection resembles the letter L. Two types, as il-lustrated in figure 2-27, are commonly usedan

EQUAL LEGS UNEQUAL LEGS

figure 2-27.--Angles.

equal-leg angle and an unequal-leg angle. Theangle is identified by the dimension and thick-ness of its legs, for example, angle 6 by 4 by 1/2inch. The dimension of the legs should beobtained by .neasuring along the outside of thebacks of the legs. When an angle has unequallegs, the dimension of the wider leg is given first,as in the example just cited. The third dimensionapplies to the thickness of the legs which alwayshave equal thickness. Angles may be used incombinations of two or four to form mainmembers. A single angle may also be used toconnect main parts together.

STEELPLATE is a structural shape whosecross section is in the form of a flat rectangle.Generally, one of the main points to rememberabout plate is that it has a width of 8 inches ormore and a thickness of 1/4 inch or greater.

Plates are generally used as connections be-tween other structural members or as compo-nent parts of built-up structural members. Platescut to specific sizes may be obtained in widthsranging from 8 inches to 120 inches or more, andin various thicknesses. The edges of these platesmay be cut by shears (sheared plates) or be rolledsquare (universal mill plates).

Plates frequently are referred to by theirthickness and width in inches, as plate 1/2 by 24inches. The length in all cases is given in inches.Note in figure 2-28 that 1 cubic foot of steelweighs 490 pounds. This weight, divided by 12,gives you 40.8, which is the weight (in pounds)of a steelplate 1 foot square and 1 inch thick.The fractional portion is normally dropped and

ONE CUBIC FOOT OFSTEEL-490 POUNDS STEEL PLATE

THICKNESS NAME2* 80 POUND

60 POUNDI* 40 POUND

30 POUND20 POUND

IN15 POUND

4' 10 POUND

40 POUND PLATE

11.31 11.32

Figure 2-28. %tight and thickness of steelpiatc.

2-17

EN INEERING AID 3 & 2 VOL ME 2

FLAT SQUARE ROUND

Figure 2-29.Bars.11.33

1-inch plate is called a 40-pound plate. In prac-tice, you may hear plate referred to by its ap-proximate weight per square foot for a specifiedthickness. An example is 20-pound plate whichindicates a 1/2-inch plate. (See figure 2-25.)

The structural shape referred to as a BARhas a width of 8 inches or less and a thicknessgreater than three-sixteenths of an inch. Theedges of bars usually are rolled square, likeuniversal mill plates. The dimensions are ex-pressed in a similar manner as that for plates; forinstance, bar 6 inches by 1/2-inch. Bars areavailable in a variety of cross-sectionalshapesround, hexagonal, octagonal, square,and flat. Three different shapes are illustratedin figure 2-29. Both squares and rounds arecommonly used as bracing members of lightstructures. Their dimensions, in inches, apply tothe side of the square or the diameter of theround.

TRUSS

ROOF BRACING

STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES

Construction of a framework of structuralsteel involves two principal operationsfabrica-tion and erection. Fabrication involves the proc-essing of raw materials to form the finishedmembers of the structure. Erection includes allrigging, hoisting, or lifting of members to theirproper places in the structure and making thefinished connections between members.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES

A wide variety of structures are erected usingstructural steel. Basically they can be listed asbuildings, bridges, and towers; most other struc-tures are modifications of these three.

Buildings

The steel framework carries the load of thestructure and transmits it to the foundation;therefore, the framework must be strong enoughto carry the applied loads and stiff enough sothat it will not undergo excessive deflectioneither during construction or while in service.

In figure 2-30, the vertical members whichsupport the trusses are called COLUMNS. Thesecolumns rest on either a concrete foundation orFOOTINGS. The load of the column is usuallyspread over the top of the footing by a steel-plate connected to the column. The roofing is

PURLINS

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RIDGE LINE

SAVESTRUT

BRACING

COLUMN

COLUMNFOOTING

Figure 2-30.Framework of a typical mill building.

2-185 I,

GIRTS

SAVELINE


supported by the horizontal members calledPURLINS which are fitted between the trusses.

Walls in this type of building may be self-supporting, such as brick or concrete blocks orthey may be hung on the framework, as is thecase with wood, corrugated metal, or cement-asbestos sheets. Wall sheathing is supported onlight horizontal members, called GIRTS. Thebuilding frame is made rigid by members invertical planes, which may be arranged as DI-AGONAL BRACES or KNEE BRACES. A di-agonal brace joins opposite corners of aquadrangular frame. Usually, diagonal bracesare used in pairs. A knee brace does NOT extendall the way across the diagonal of the quadri-lateral, but it is made shorter so as to occupyonly the knee or corner. A STRUT is any smallor secondary member designed to take a load incompression. An eave strut, therefore, is a com-pression member which extends along the line of

COLUMN SPLICE

.7

COLUMN

SPANDREL BEAM

FLOOR BEAM

the eave of the building. Other bracing membersare provided either in the plane of the roof, inthe plane of the lower chords of the roof trusses,or both. The frame illustrated is typical of thetype of framing known as mill-building con-struction.

In multistory buildings, floor and roof loadsare carried by BEAMS and GIRDERS and sup-ported by columns. A beam-and-column build-ing framework usually is NOT braced withdiagonal bracing because such bracing would in-terfere with windows or doors. Instead, thejoints between beams and columns are maderigid by the application of several types of windbracing methods (designer's choice) that canwithstand bending caused by the applied forces.This type of construction is known as SKEL-ETON CONSTRUCTION when the beams aresupported by columns (figure 2-31) and asWALL-BEARING CONSTRUCTION when

GIRDER

-...1101.0"""

TEMPORARY WORKING PLATFORM

Figure 2-31.Skeleton structural steel construction. 45.464

2-19

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 1 VOLUME 2UPPER CHORD

WEB DIAGONALS

LOWER CHORD-

DIAGONAL LATERALBRACING

INTERMEDIATE DIAPHRAGM

WEB VERTICALS

A

INTERMEDIATE FLOOR'BRACING

INNER GIRDER.

OUTER STRINGER

INNER STRINGER

Figure 2-32.Truss bridge.

PLANK TREADWAY

SOLE PLATE'

BEARING PLATE

END POSTS

END FLOORBEAM

CABIN PLATE

END PEDESTAL

45.868

END DIAPHRAGMEND STIFFENER

OUTER GIRDER

Figure 2-33.Stringer bridge span.

the beams are supported by masonry walls. Inskeleton construction, the portions of the outerwalls between windows are supported by SPAN-DREL BEAMS located within, or parallel to,the walls.

2-20

Bridges

LAMINATED WOOD DECK

GIRDER SPLICE

A bridge consists of a floor or deck, sup-ports, and necessary bracing. Supportingmembers for the floor consist of longitudinal

5:i


stringers supported directly on abutments, or onpiers, towers, or a series of bents. The stringersare supported by transverse floor beams whichare in turn supported by the main trusses (fig.2-32). In a stringer bridge span (fig. 2-33), themain members carrying the load take the placeof intermediate stringers. Truss members arenamed according to their location in the truss.The members on the perimeter of the truss arethe CHORD MEMBERS. Those in the interiorof the truss are the WEB VERTICALS or WEBDIAGONALS, depending on their position. In-clined end members of the chord, adjacent to theabutments, are usually called END POSTSrather than chord members. Bridge spans areknown as through spans when the traffic passesthrough the main trusses and under a top lateralbracing system, as shown in view A, figure 2-34,

(AI THROUGH TRUSS SPAN

( B) DECK TRUSS SPAN

(CI PONY TRUSS SPAN

( D. HALF THROUGH GIRDER SPAN

F ' DECK GIRDER SPAN

Figure 2-34. - -1!,pes of bridge spans.

2-21

and as deck spans when the traffic passesabove the main members and all bracing, asshown in views B and E, figure 2-34. Inpony truss spans, as shown in view C,figure 2-34 and half-through girder spans, asshown in view D, figure 2.34, no top lateralbracing is used because of the small depth of thegirders or trusses.

Towers

Towers are framework structures designed toprovide vertical support. They may be used tosupport another structure, such as a bridge, orthey may be used to support a piece of equip-ment, such as a communications antenna. Sincethe prime purpose of a tower is to provide ver-tical support to a load applied at the top, thecompression members providing this support arethe only ones which require high-structuralstrength. The rest of the structure is designedto stiffen the vertical members and to preventbending under load. Primarily, the bracingmembers are designed to take loads in tensionand are based on a series of diagonals. A typicaltrestle tower used in bridge construction isshown in figure 2-35.

Preengineered Metal Structures

Preengineered metal structures are com-monly used in military construction. They areusually designed and fabricated by civilian in-dustry to conform with the specifications setforth by the Armed Forces. Rigid frame build-ings, steel towers, communications antennas,and steel tanks are some of the most commonlyused structures, particularly at overseas advancebases. Preengineered structures offer an advan-tage in that they are factory built and designedto be erected in the shortest amount of timepossible. Each structure is shipped as a completekit, including all the materials and instructionsneeded to erect it. There are many types of pre-engineered structures available from variousmanufacturers, such as Pasco, Endure, Butler,and Strand Corporation. Information on no-menclatures and various assemblies is describedin the Steelworker 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 10653-F.

)

CAP SEAM


LONGITUDINALRODS

SEARING PLATE

LONGITUDINALSTRUT

SPUCE

TRANSVERSESTRUT

Figure 2-35.A trestle tower.

STRUCTURAL STEELCONNECTORS

There are four basic connectors used inmaking structural steel connections. Theyare BOLTS, WELDS, PINS, and RIVETS.Bolts and welds are the most common con-nectors used in military construction. Pinsare used for connections at the ends ofbracing rods and various support memberswhich require freedom of rotation. Com-mercial prefabricated steel assemblies maybe received in the field with riveted con-nectors. Types and uses of the four basicconnectors will be discussed below.

BOLTS

Bolts are used more than any other type ofconnectors. They are easy to use and, in contrastto all other types of connectors, require littlespecial equipment. The development of new,higher strength steels and improved manufactur-ing processes have resulted in the production ofbolts which will produce strong structural steelconnections.

Specifications for most bolted-structuraljoints call for the use of high-strength-steel boltstightened to a high tension. The bolts are used inholes slightly larger than the nominal bolt size.Joints that are required to resist shear between

BUTT OR SQUAREGROOVE WELD

FILLET WELD

PLUG WELD READ WELD

111111MVIEJM10UAll DWI 00011 $04111.1 DOUILI MCA 004J1l1 %INCA COMA

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2-22G

Figure 2.36.Types of welds.


their connected parts are designated as eitherfriction-type or bearing-type connectors.

Bolted parts should fit solidly together whenthey are assembled and should NOT beseparated by gaskets or any other type of com-pressible material. Holes should be a nominaldiameter, not more than one-sixteenth inch inexcess of the nominal bolt diameter. When thebolted parts are assembled, all joint surfacesshould be free of scale, burrs, dirt, and otherforeign material. Contact surfaces withinfriction-type joints must be free of oil, paint, orother coatings.

WELDS

Welding is a highly specialized skill that re-quires technical training in order to insure com-petence of the operator. Load-bearing parts of astructure that are to be welded should be doneonly by properly qualified personnel.

The two principal welding processes usedin structural work are ELECTRIC ARCWELDING and OXY-MAPP ARC WELD-ING. In the electric arc welding process, thewelding heat is developed by the P' tric arcformed between a suitable electrode the base

BUTT JOINT

EDGE JOINT

metal. The electrode used is generally steel. Onlyshielded-arc electrodes should be used. Thisprocess of welding is preferred for structuralworks. In the oxy-mapp gas welding process,heat is obtained by burning mapp gas mixedwith oxygen as they are discharged underpressure from a torch designed for this purpose.This process is preferred for thinner metals.

The principal types of welds and weldedjoints that are suitable for structural work are il-lustrated in figures 2-36 and 2-37.

PINS

Pins for very large structures are manufac-tured especially for the type of job and may havediameters of 24 inches or more, and be severalfeet in length. For most types of jobs, however,pins generally are between 1 1/4 inches and 10inches in diameters. The two types of pins com-monly used are threaded bridge pins and cotterpins (fig. 2-38). THREADED PINS are held inplace after insertion by threaded recessed nutson both ends of the pin. COTTER PINS areheld in place by small cotters which pass throughholes drilled in the pins. Washers andseparators, made from lengths of steel pipe, areused to space members longitudinally on pins.

TRANSVERSEFILLET WELD

TEE JOINT

LAP JOINTS

Figure 2,37.Welded joints.

2-23

LONGITUDINAL11.LLET WELD

CORNER JOINT

4:4


C

NUT

THREADED

THREADED PINS

COTTER

COTTER PINS

Figure 2-38.Pins for structural steel connections.

Holes for small pins are drilled; largerpinholes are bored. Engineering practice permitsboring holes with a diameter of 1 1/4 inches ormore with an adjustable hole cutter. The cotterpinholes are usually bored one thirty-second orone sixty-fourth of an inch larger than thediameter of the finished pin. For bracing con-nections where adjustable members are used, itis acceptable to drill pinholes one-sixteenth of aninch larger than the pin diameter. The pinholesmust be true, smooth, straight, and at rightangles to the axis of the member. They should bebored accurately, and all holes in the samemember must be parallel.

RIVETS

Rivets are manufactured of soft steel invarious nominal sizes and lengths. The sizes usedmost often in structural work are 3/4 inch and

7/8 inch in diameter. The lengths differ accord-ing to the thickness of materials to be connected.Rivets are inserted in the rivet holes while theyare red hot; consequently, the holes are drilledor punched one-sixteenth of an inch larger indiameter than the nominal diameter of the coldrivet. Holes for 3/4-inch diameter rivets aredrilled thirteen-sixteenths of an inch in diameterand holes for 7/8-inch rivets are drilled fifteen-sixteenths of an inch in diameter,

Rivets are manufactured with one wholehead already formed. The rivet shank is cylin-drical and the second head is formed by drivingit with a pneumatic hammer. The rivet set whichis inserted in the end of the hammer has a cavityof the proper shape to form the head of therivet. Most structural rivets have two fullrounded button heads (fig. 2-39). Manufacturedheads of rivets may also be obtained in counter-sunk shape to fit into holes countersunk in thematerial to be connected. When a driven-countersunk head is to be formed, the rivet isdriven with a flat-ended rivet set to fill thecountersunk cavity in the material,

'a=ILENGTHI

COUNTERSUNKBUTTON

MANUFACTURED HEADS

D:=1.I-LENGD-H

SUTTON

2-24

,1

g7ECOUNTERSUNK

DRIVEN HEADS

COMBINATIONS OF DRIVEN HEADS

G:H

K-r

t.

- C ) 9

DRIVEN HEADS

C

MANUFACTUREDHEADS

DIMENSIONS OF RIVETS

Figure 2-39.Strueturul rivets.11.292

CHAPTER 3

CONCRETE AND MASONRY

This chapter provides information andguidance for the Engineering Aid engaged in orresponsible for drawing structural and architec-tural layouts from existing plans, engineeringsketches, or specifications. It includes infor-mation on basic materials commonly used inconcrete and masonry construction.

Basic principles and procedures associatedwith the construction of reinforced, precast, andprestressed concrete and tilt-up construction arealso discussed in this chapter. Terminology as itapplies to masonry construction and variousmasonry units is used to acquaint the Engineer-ing Aid with the various terms used in this typeof construction.

CONCRETE

CONCRETE is a synthetic constructionmaterial made by mixing CEMENT, FINEAGGREGATE (usually sand), COARSE AG-GREGATE (usually gravel or crushed stone)and WATER together in proper proportions;the product is not concrete unless all four ofthese ingredients are present. A mixture ofcement, sand, and water, without coarse ag-gregate, is NOT concrete, but MORTAR orGROUT. Never fall into the common error ofcalling a CONCRETE wall or floor a CEMENTwall or floor. There is no such thing as a cementwall or floor.

The fine and coarse aggregate in a concretemix are called the INERT ingredients; the ce-ment and water are the ACTIVE ingredients.The inert ingredients and the cement arethoroughly mixed together first. As soon as thewater is added, a chemical reaction between the

water and the cement begins, and it is this reac-tion (which is called HYDRATION) that causesthe concrete to harden.

Always remember that the hardening processis caused by hydration of the cement by thewater, not by a DRYING OUT of the mix. In-stead of being dried out, the concrete must bekept as moist as possible during the initial hydra-tion process. Drying out would cause a drop inwater content below the amount required forsatisfactory hydration of the cement.

The fact that the hardening process hasnothing whatever to do with a drying out of theconcrete is clearly shown by the fact that con-crete will harden just as well under water as itwill in the air.

Concrete may be cast into bricks, blocks,and other relatively small building units whichare used in concrete MASONRY construction.

The proportion of concrete to other ma-terials used in building construction has greatlyincreased in recent years to the point wherelarge, multistory modern buildings are con-structed entirely of concrete, with concretefootings, foundations, columns, walls, girders,beams, joists, floors, and roofs.

REQUIREMENTS FORGOOD CONCRETE

The first requirement for good concrete is asupply of good cement of a type suitable for thework at hand. Next is a supply of satisfactorysand, coarse aggregate, and water; all of whichmust be carefully weighed and measured. Every-thing else being equal, the mix with the bestgraded, strongest, best shaped, and cleanest

3-1

G.i

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2 VOLUME 2\

aggregate will make the strongest and mostdurable concrete.

The best designed, best graded, and highestquality mix in the world will NOT make goodconcrete if it is not WORKABLE enough to fillthe form spaces thoroughly. On the other hand,too much fluidity will result in certain defects.Improper handling during the whole concrete-making process (from the initial aggregatehandling to the final placement of the mix) willcause segregation of aggregate particles by sizes,resulting in nonuniform, poor concrete.

Finally, the best designed, best graded,highest quality, and best placed mix in the worldwill not produce good concrete if it is not prop-erly CUREDmeaning, properly protectedagainst loss of moisture during the earlier stagesof setting.

As you can see, the important properties ofconcrete are its strength, durability, and water-tightness. These factors are controlled by theWATER-CEMENT RATIO or the proportionof water to cement in the mix.

Strength

The COMPRESSIVE strength of concrete isvery high, but its TENSILE strength (meaningits ability to resist stretching, bending, ortwisting) is relatively low. Consequently, con-crete which must resist a good deal of stretching,bending, or twisting, such as concrete in beams,girders, walls, columns, and the like, must beREINFORCED with steel. Concrete which mustresist compression only may not require rein-forcement.

Durability

The DURABILITY of concrete means theextent to which the material is capable ofresisting the deterioration caused by exposure toservice conditions. Ordinary structural concretewhich is to be exposed to the elements must bewatertight and weather resistant. Concretewhich is subject to wear, such as floor slabs andpavements must be capable of resisting abrasion.It has been found that the major factor con-trolling durability is strengthin other words,the stronger the concrete is, the more durable

3-2

it will be. As mentioned previously, the chieffactor controlling strength is the water-cementratio, but the character, size, and grading(distribution of particle sizes between the largestpermissible coarse and the smallest permissiblefine) of the aggregate also have important effectson both strength and durability. Given a water-cement ratio which will produce maximumstrength consistent with workability require-ments, maximum strength and durability willstill not be attained unless the sand and coarseaggregate consist of well-graded, clean, hard,and durable particles, free from undesirablesubstances (fig. 3-1).

Watertightness

The ideal concrete mix would be one madewith just the amount of water required for com-plete hydration of the cement. This would be aDRY mix, however, too stiff to pour in theforms. A mix which is fluid enough to be pouredinto forms always contains a certain amount ofwater over and above that which will combinewith the cement, and this water will eventuallyevaporate, leaving voids or pores in the con-crete.

Even so, penetration of the concrete by waterwould still be impossibleif these voids were notinterconnected. They are interconnected, how-ever, as a result of a slight sinking of solid par-ticles in the mix during the hardening period. Asthese particles sink, they leave water-filled chan-nels which become voids when the water evapo-rates.

The larger and more numerous these voidsare, the more the watertightness of the concretewill be impaired. Since the size and number ofthe voids vary directly with the amount of waterused in excess of the amount required to hydratethe cement, it follows that to keep the concreteas watertight as possible, you must not use morewater than the minimum amount required to at-tain the necessary degree of workability.

PLAIN CONCRETE

Plain concrete is defined as concrete with noreinforcement. This type of concrete is usuallyused in a place where a heavy concentration of

Chapter 3 CONCRETE AND MASONRY

I wATERTIGHTNESS

RESISTANCE TO ADVERSECHEMICAL REACTIONS

LEACHING (SOLUTION)OTHER REACTIONS

EXTERNAL IN ORIGINAUTOGENOUS

OPTIMUM AIRLOW MATE CEMENT RATIOWITH LDW ATER CONTENT

WELLGRADED AGGREGATELOW PERCENTAGE OF SANDwELLROUNDED AGGREGATEREASONABLY FINE GROUNDCEMENT PLASTIC CONSISTENCYMOT TOO WET)VIBRATION

HOMOGENEOUS CONCRETEWORKABLE MIXTHOROUGH MIXINGPROPER HANDLINGVIBRATION

ADEQUATE CURINGFAVORABLE TEMPERATUREMINIMUM LOSS OF MOISTURE

AGGREGATELIMPERVIOUSSTRUCTURALLY STABLELARGE MAXIMUM SIZE

SUITABLE CEMENTLOW C 3A, MSG, FREE LIMELOW N. 20 AND K20FREE OF FALSE HT

RESISTANCE TO WEATHERINGTEMPERATURE VARIATIONSMOISTURE VARIATIONSFREEZING AND THAWING

LOW VOLUME CHANCE

RESISTANCE TO WEARRUNNINO WATERMECHANICAL A ERASION

LOW wATERCEMENT RATIOWITH LOW WATER CONTENT

(SEE ABOVE)HOMOGENOUS CONCRETE

(SEE ABOVE)ADEQUATE CURING

(SEE ABOVE)INERT AGGREGATE

STABLE CONCRETE ENVIRONMENTINCLUDING RESISTANCE TOALKALIES IN CEMENT

SUITABLE CEMENT(SEE ABOVE)RESISTANT TO SALTS IN SOIL

AND GROUND WATERSUITABLE POZZOLANENTRAINED AIR

Jr `TwC

A40 4+ 0t

0

LOW wATERCEmENT RATIOWITH LOW WATER CONTENT

(SEE ABOVE)HIGH STRENGTHADEQUATE CURING

(SEE ABOVE)DENSE, HOMOGENEOUS CONCRETE

(SEE ABOVE)SPECIAL SURFACE FINISH

REDUCED FINES IN SANDwEARRESISTANCE AGGREGATEMACHINE FINISHING

000DUNIFORM

CONCRETE

eiCONTROLLED HANDLING

PLACING, AND CURING

GOOD QUALITY OF PASTELOW wATERCEmENT RATIOADEQUATE CURINGAPPROPRIATE CEMENT

GOOD QUALITY OF AGGREGATESTRUCTURAL SOUNDNESSUNIPORM SUITABLE GRADINGFAVORABLE SHAPE AND TEXTURE

DENSE CONCRETELOW WATER CONTENTPLASTIC WORKABLE mixEFFICIENT MIXINGVIBRATIONLOW AIR CONTENT

EFFECTIVE US! OF MATERIALSLARGE MAX. SIZE AGGREGATEGOOD GRADINGPDZZOLANMINIMUM WASTEMINIMUM SLUMPMINIMUM CEMENT

EFFECTIVE OPERATIONDEPENDABLE EQUIPMENTEFFECTIVE METHODS. PLANT

LAYOUT, AND ORGANIZATIONAUTOMATIC CONTROL

EASE OF HANDLINGUNIFORMLY WORKABLE MIXHOMOGENEOUS CONCRETEVIBRATIONENTRAINED AIR

Figure 3-1.The principal properties of good corcrete.

3-3

117.83

BESTr ! . .


weight is NOT a factor, such as a sidewalk or adriveway.

REINFORCED CONCRETE

The term "reinforced concrete" refers toconcrete containing steel as reinforcement anddesigned on the assumption that both materialsact together in resisting force. Reinforcing steelis used in various types of concrete construction,such as retaining walls, foundation walls,beams, floor slabs, and footings. However, incertain types of . construction, such as somepavements and floors, -einforcing steel may notbe required.

Concrete is strong in compression but weakin tension. The tensile strength is generally ratedabout 10 percent of the compression. Thus, con-crete works well for columns and posts whichare the compression members in a structure.But, when it is used for tension membersforbeams, girders, foundation walls, or floorsconcrete must be reinforced to attain thenecessary strength in tension.

Reinforced Concrete StructuralMembers

A reinforced concrete structure is made up ofmany types of reinforced structural members,including beams, columns, girders, walls,footings, slabs, etc.

VERTICAL STIRRUP

BEAM REINFORCEMENT. Several com-mon types of beam reinforcing steel shapes areshown in figure 3-2. Both straight and bent-upprincipal reinforcing bars are depended on toresist the bending tension in the bottom over thecentral portion of the span. Fewer bars arenecessary on the bottom near the ends of thespan where the bending moment is small. Forthis reason, some bars may be bent so that theinclined portion can be used to resist diagonaltension. The reinforcing bars of continuousbeams are continued across the supports to resisttension in the top in that area.

COLUMN REINFORCEMENT. --A col-umn is a slender, vertical member which carries asuperimposed load. Concrete columns mustalways be reinforced with steel unless the heightis less than three times the least lateral dimen-sion, in which case the member is called a PIERor PEDESTAL. Most concrete columns are alsosubjected to bending. Figure 3-3 shows twotypes of column reinforcement. Vertical rein-forcement is the principal reinforcement.Lateral reinforcement surrounds the columnhorizontally and consists of individual ties (view(a), fig. 3-3) or a continuous spiral tie (view (b),fig. 3-3).

A loaded concrete column shortens verticallyand expands laterally. Lateral reinforcement inthe form of lateral ties is used to restrain theexpansion. The principal value of lateral

13ENT.uP OR TRUSS BAR

HOOK

r

H1 r STRAIGHT

WELDED STIRRUPS

BOLSTER (BAR SUPPORT)

Figure 3.2,T)pical shapes of reinforcing steel.

3-4

f")

45.727

Cha s ter CONCRETE AND MASONRY

TIE

SHELLCONCRETE

T2

VERTICALREINFORCEMENT

SPIRAL

(0)TIED COLUMN

(b)

SPIRAL COLUMN

45.726Figure 3-3.Reinforced concrete columns.

reinforcement is to provide intermediate lateralsupport for the vertical or longitudinal rein-forcement. Columns reinforced in this mannerare called TIED COLUMNS. If the restrainingreinforcement is a continuous winding spiralwhich encircles the core and longitudinal steel,the column is called a SPIRAL COLUMN. Aspiral column is generally considered to be moresubstantial than a tied column due to the con-tinuity of the spiral reinforcement, as opposedto the many imperfect anchorages at the ends ofthe individual lateral ties in the tied column. Thepitch of the spiral reinforcement can be reducedto provide effective lateral support. The pitch ofthe spiral, the size, and the number of bars arespecified by the engineer.

COMPOSITE AND COMBINATIONCOLUMNS.A structural steel or cast-iron

3-5

column thoroughly encased in concrete and rein-forced with both longitudinal and spiral rein-forcement is called a COMPOSITE COLUMN.The cross-sectional area of the metal core of acomposite column can NOT exceed 20 percentof the gross area of the column. A structuralsteel column encased in concrete at least 2 1/2inches thick over all the metal and reinforcedwith welded wire fabric is called a COMBINA-TION COLUMN. Composite and combinationcolumns are often used in the construction oflarge buildings.

The vertical reinforcement in a column helpsto carry the direct axial load as the columnshortens under load. Vertical bars are locatedaround the periphery of a column for effectiveresistance to possible bending. Each verticalrebar tends to buckle outward in the direction ofleast opposition. For this reason, every verticalrebar should be held securely, at close verticalintervals against outward lateral movement. Asecond system of ties, T2 (view (a), fig. 3-3) isnecessary to confine the four intermediate ver-tical rebars. If these ties are omitted, the eight-bar group tends to come into a slightly circularconfiguration under load. The resultant bulgingleads to destructive cracking of the concrete shelland failure of the column. A round column hasan obvious advantage in this respect.

SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE RE-INFORCEMENT.Slabs and walls must notonly be reinforced by the principal reinforce-ment against the applied loads to which they aresubjected, but they must also be reinforced inthe lateral direction to resist the effects ofshrinkage and temperature change. Concreteshrinks as the heat of hydration dissipates.Depending on the extent adjacent constructioninterferes, this movement of concrete tends tobecome stressed in tension. A small percentageof steel must be used to resist this force. Simi-larly, concrete must be allowed to contract withthe lowering of temperature. A fall in tempera-ture of about 83°F causes as much movement asdrying shrinkage. The amount of shrinkage andtemperature reinforcement usually provided foris approximately 1/5 of I percent of the area ofthe cross section of concrete, as required by thespecifications.


Reinforcing Steel

Steel is the best material for reinforcing con-crete because the coefficients of expansion ofboth the steel and the concrete are consideredalmost the same. That is, at a normal tempera-ture', they will expand and contract at an almostequal rate. (At very high temperatures, steel willexpand more rapidly than the concrete and thetwo materials will separate.)

Steel also works well as a reinforcement forconcrete because it makes a good bond with theconcrete. This bond strength is proportional tothe contact area surface of the steel to the con-crete. In other words, the greater the surface ofsteel exposed to the adherence of the concrete,the. stronger the bond. A deformed, reinforcingbar is better than a plain round or square one: Infact, when plain bars of a given diameter areused instead of deformed bars, approximately 40percent more plain bars must be used.

The adherence of the concrete depends onthe roughness of the steel surface; the rougherthe steel, the better the adherence. Thus, steelwith a light, firm layer of rust is superior to cleansteel, but steel with loose or scaly rust is inferior.Loose or scaly rust may be removed from thesteel by rubbing the steel with burlap.

The requirements for reinforcing steel arethat it be strong in tension and, at the same time,ductile enough to be shaped or bent cold.

Reinforcing steel may be used in the form ofbars or rods which are either plain or deformedor in the form of expanded metal, wire, wirefabric, or sheet metal. Each type is useful fordifferent purposes, and engineers design struc-tures with these purposes in mind.

REINFORCING BARS.Plain bars areusually round in cross section. They are used asmain tension reinforcement for concrete struc-tures. They are the least used of the rod-typereinforcement because they offer only smooth,even surfaces for the adherence of concrete.Reinforcing bars or rods are commonly referredto as rebars.

3-6

Deformed bars are like the plain bars exceptthat they have either indentations in them orridges on them, or both, in a regular pattern.The twisted bar, for example, is made bytwisting a plain square bar cold. The spiralridges along the surface of the deformed bar in-crease its bond strength with concrete. Otherforps used are the round- and square-corrtgated bars. These bars are formed withprojections around the surface which extendinto the surrounding concrete and prevent slip-page. Another type is formed with longitudinalfins projecting from the surface to preventtwisting. Figure 3-4 shows a few of the varioustypes of deformed bars available. In the UnitedStates, deformed bars are used almost exclu-sively, while in Europe, both deformed andplain bars are used.

There are 10 standard sizes of reinforcingbars. Table 3-1 lists the bar numbers, weight,and nominal diameter of the 10 standard sizes.Bars #3 through #11, inclusive, are deformedbars. Remember that bar numbers are based onthe learest number of 1/8 inches (3.175 mm) in-cluded in the nominal diameter of the bar. Tomeasure rebar, you must measure across theround/square portion where there is no defor-mation. The raised portion of the deformation isnot considered in measuring the rebar diameter.

Frequently, it is rechAred that reinforcingbars be bent into various shapes. There areseveral reasons for this. First, let us go back to

29.182Figure 3-4.Types of deformed reinforcing burs.

:1

Chapter 3CONCRETE AND MASONRY

Table 3-1.Standard Reinforcing Bars

Bar NumbersWeight Nominal Diameter

PoundsPer Foot Inches

Milli-meters

#2 0,167 0.250 6.3

#3 0.376 0.375 9.5

#4 0.668 0.500 12.7

#5 1.043 0.625 15.8

#6 1.502 0.750 19.0

#7 2.044 0.875 22.2

#8 2.670 1'.000 25.4

#9 3.400 1.128 28.5.

#10 4.303 1.270 31.7

#11 5.313 1.410 34.9

the reason for using reinforcing steel inconcreteto increase the tensile and compres-sive strength of concrete. You might comparethe hidden action within a beam from live anddead loads to breaking a stick over your knee.You have seen how the splinters next to yourkliee push toward the middle of the stick whenyou apply force, w :life the splinters from themiddle to the opposite side pull away from themiddle. This is similar to what happens insidethe beam.

For instance, take a simple beam (abeam restiog freely on two supports nearits ends). The dead load (weight of the beam)causes the beam to bend or sag. Now,from the center of the beam to the bottom,the forces tend to stretch or lengthen thebottom portion of the beam. This part is

said to he in tension, and that is wherethe steel reinforcing bars are needed. Asa result of the combination of the concreteand steel, the tensile strength in the beam

3-7

resists the force of the load and keeps thebeam from breaking apart. At the exact centerof the beam, between the compressive stress andthe tensile stress, there is no stress at allit isneutral.

In the case of a continuous beam, it is a littledifferent. The top of the beam may be in com-pression along part of its length and in tensionalong another part. This is because a continuousbeam rests on more than two supports. Thus,the bending of the beam is NOT all in one direc-tion but is reversed as it goes over intermediatesupports.

To help the concrete resist these stresses,engineers design the bends of reinforcing steelso that the steel will set into the concrete justwhere the tensile stresses take place. That is whysome reinforcing rods are bent in almost a zigzagpattern. The joining of each bar with the next,the anchoring of the bar ends within concrete,and the anchoring by overlapping two bar endstogether are some of the important ways to in-crease and keep bond strength. Some of thebends which you will encounter are shown infigure 3-5.

When reinforcing bars are bent, cautionmust be exercised to insure the bends arenot too sharp. If too sharp a bend is putinto the bars, they may crack or may beweakened.

Therefore, certain minimum bend diametershave been established for the different barsizes and for the various types of hooks.These bending details are shown in figure3-6. There are many different types of bends,depending on where the rods are to beplaced. For example, there are bends on heavybeam and girder bars, bends for reinforce-ment of vertical columns at or near floorlevels, stirrup and column ties, slab rein-forcement, and bars or wire for column ,piralreinforcement.

EXPANDED METAL AND WELDEDWIRE FABRIC'. Expanded metal or wire

mesh is also used for reinforcing co,1,rete.Expanded metal is made by partly shearing a

1N111.111.M.=11pall ENGINEERING AID & 2 VOLUME 2

t

"er

r-Th (171Jr- .14-3--1

Figure 3-5.i ypical reinforcement bar bends,

sheet of steel, as shown in view (A), figure 3-7.The sheet steel has been sheared in parallel linesand then pulled out or expanded to tum a dia-mond shape between each parallel cut. Anot'type is square rather than diamond shap:.shown in view (B), figure 3-7. Expanded rm.tal isfrequently used during plastering operations.

Welded wire fabric is available in both rolk(fig, 3-8) for light building construction andsheets for highways and use in buildings whenroll sizes will not give ample reinforcement. Wirefabric is furnished in both square and rectangu-lar patterns, welded at each intersection, The

3-8

127.75

rectangular sizes range from 2 by 4 inches to 6 by12 inches. The square patterns are available in 2by 2 inches, 3 by 3 inches, 4 by 4 inches, and 6 by6 inches. Both are furnished in a wide variety ofwire gages. The square pattern has the same gagein both directions, while the rectangular type.nay have the same gage in both direction or thelarger gage running longitudinally.

PRECAST CONCRETE

Precasting is the fabrication of a structuralmember at a place other than its final position

Quit ter 3CONCRETE AND MASONRY

Recommended sizes - 180° hook Bar sized

Barexten.

Bar extensionrequired for hook 42

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

4

5

6

7

8

10

11

1-3

1.51-7

3

4

5

6

7

8

111/4

1-03/4

1-21/4

=B .=b OM =1

jD

4d Min. D = 6d for bars 03 to g8D := 8d for bars #9 to 411

Minimum sizes - 180° hook Bar sized

Barexten.

.1

d Ext.u2

3

4. -5'-'

67

8

9

1011

4

5

5

67

9

1011

13

14

1 Yil

21/4

3W41/4

51/4

6

7

89

10

MN/ 11.311 !MB 1"

j i D%

OM ..11 IIMM OM

D.5d Min.D .5d Max.

Note: Minimum sizeonly for special conditions.

hooks to be used

----r.Recommended minimum sizes - 90 hook Bar size

d

Barexten.Ext.

0 23

4

5

6

7

8

91011

d

3%2

68

10

1-01.21.41.71.102-0

;orexten.

czmid

.0 MO ... .11, OM Iii

D

J--- ''' 12d

Min. D - 6d for u3 to 48D -, 8d for 49 to 411D 10d for 414 To 418

----"TE7sizeRecommended sizes - 135° stirrup hook ........HExt.u 2

3

4

5

Th4

4Y2

5Y)

MY IkeaGNI& lwa V.

1 D 6d

Note: Stirrup hooks may be bent to the diameter of the supporting bars.

127.79

Figure 3-6.Standard hook details.

3-9

ENGINEERING AID

(A)

(B)

127.74Figure 3-7.Expanded or diamond mesh steel reinforce-

ment.

29.182Figure 3 -8. Welded Wire Fabric.

of use. It can be done anywhere, although thisprocedure is best adapted to a factory or yard.Jobsite precasting is not uncommon for largeprojects. Precast concrete can be produced inseveral different shapes and sizes, including

3 & 2, VOLUME 2

3-10

piles, girders, and roof members. Prestressedconcrete is especially well adapted to precastingtechniques.

Generally, structural members includingstandard highway girders, poles, electric poles,masts, and building members are precast by fac-tory methods unless the difficulty or imprac-ticability of transportation makes jobsite castingmore desirable.

Precast Concrete Floors and Roof Slabs,Walls, and Partitions

The most commonly used precast slabs orpanels for FLOOR and ROOF DECKS are thechannel and double-T types. (See fig. 3-9.)

The channel slabs vary in size with a depthranging from 9 to 12 inches, width 2 to 5 feet,and a thickness of 1 to 2 inches. They have beenused in spans up to 50 feet. If desired or needed,the legs of the channels may be extended acrossthe ends and, if used in combination with the top

CHANNEL

DOUBLE- T

TONGUE AND GROOVE

Figure 3-9.Typical precast planks.133.263

_Chapter 3CONCRETE AND

slabs, may be stiffened with occasional crossribs. Wire mesh may be used in the top slabs forreinforcement. The longitudinal grooves locatedalong the top of the channel legs may be groutedto form keys between adjacent slabs.

The double-T slabs vary in size from 4 to 6feet in width and 9 to 16 feet in depth. They havebeen used in spans as long as 50 feet. When thetop-slab size ranges from 1 1/2 to 2 inches inthickness, it should be reinforced with wiremesh.

The tongu_ and-groove panel could vary ex-tensively in size, according to the design require-ment. They are placed in position much liketongue-and-groove lumber. That is, the tongueof one panel is placed inside the groove of anadjacent panel. They are often used as deckingpanels in large pier construction.

Welding matching plates are ordinarily usedto connect the supporting members to the floorand roof slabs.

Panels precast in a horizontal position, in acasting yard, or on the floor of the building, areordinarily used in the makeup of bearing andnonbearing WALLS and PARTITIONS. Thesepanels are placed in their vertical position bycranes or by the tilt-up procedure.

Usually, these panels are solid, reinforcedslabs, 5 to 8 inches in thickness, with the lengthvarying according to the distances between col-umns or other supporting members. When win-dows and door openings are cast in the slabs,extra reinforcements should be installed aroundthe openings.

A concrete floor slab with a smooth, regularsurface can be used as a casting surface. Whencasting on the smooth surface, the casting sur-face should be covered with some form of liquidor sheet material to prevent bonding between thesurface and the wall panel. The upper surface ofthe panel may be finished as regular concrete isfinished by troweling, floating, or brooming.

SANDWICH PANELS are panels that con-sist of two thin, dense, reinforced concrete-faceslabs separated by a core of insulating materialsuch as lightweight concrete, cellular glass,plastic foam, or some other rigid insulatingmaterial.

These panels are sometimes used for exteriorwalls to provide additional heat insulation. The

3-1 1

MASONRY

thickness of' the sandwich panels varies from 5 to8 inches, and the face slabs are tied together withwire, small rods, or in some other manner.Welded or bolted matching plates are also usedto connect the wall panels to the building frame,top and bottom. Caulking on the outside andgrouting on the inside should be used to makethe points between the wall panels watertight.

Precast Concrete Joists, Beams,Girders, and Columns

Small, closely spaced beams used in floorconstruction are usually called JOISTS;however, these same beams whenever used inroof construction are called PURLINS. Thecross sections of these beams are shaped like a Tor an I. The ones with the inverted T-sections areusually used in composite construction wherethey support cast-in-place floor or roof slabs.

BEAMS and GIRDERS are terms usuallyapplied to the same members, but the one withthe longer span should be referred to as thegirder. Beams and girders may be conventionalprecast design or prestressed. Most of the beamswill be I-shaped unless the ends are rectangular.The T-shaped ones can also be used.

Precast concrete COLUMNS may be solid orhollow. If the hollow type is desired, heavy card-board tubing should be used to form the core. Alooped rod is cast in the column footing and pro-jects upward into the hollow core to help holdthe column upright. An opening should be left inthe side of the column so that the column corecan be filled with grout. This causes the loopedrod to become embedded to form an anchor.The opening is dry packed.

Advantages of Precast Concrete

It has the greatest advantage when identicalmembers are to be cast because the same formscan be used several times. Other advantagesare:

Control of the quality of concrete.

Smoother surfaces, and plastering is notnecessary.

Less storage space is needed.

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2. VOLUME 2

Concrete member can be cast under allweather conditions.

Better protection for curing.

Weather condition do not affect erection.

Faster erection time.

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

A prestressed concrete unit is one in whichengineered stresses have been placed before ithas been subjected to a load. When PRETEN-SIONING is used, the reinforcement (high-tensile-strength steel strands) is stretchedthrough the form between the two end abut-ments or anchors. A predetermined amount ofstress is applied to the steel strands. The concreteis then poured, encasing the reinforcement. Asthe concrete sets, it bonds to the pretensioned'steel. When it has reached a specified strength,the tension on the reinforcement is released.This prestresses the concrete, putting it undercompression, thus creating a built-in tensilestrength.

POST-TENSIONING involves a precastmember which contains normal reinforcing inaddition to a number of channels through whichthe prestressing cables or rods may be passed,The chaniAs are usually formed by suspending

PLAIN CONCRETE .B.E.AM.1UNLOADED

f

LOADED

Inflated tubes through the form and casting theconcrete around them. When the concrete hasset, the tubes are deflated and removed. Oncethe concrete has reached a specified strength,prestressing steel strands or TENDONS arepulled into the channels and secured at one end.They are then stressed from the opposite endwith a portable hydraulic jack and anchored byone of' several automatic gripping devices.

Post-tensioning may be done where themember is poured or at the jobsite. Eachmember may be tensioned, or two or moremembers may be tensioned together after erec-tion. In general, post-tensioning is used ifthe unit is over 45 feet long or over 7 tons inweight. However, some types of pretensionedroof slabs will be considerably longer andheavier than this.

When a beam is prestressed, either by preten-sioning or post-tensioning, the tensioned steelproduces a high compression in the lower part ofthe beam. This compression creates an upwardbow or camber in the beam (fig. 3-10). When aload is placed on the beam, the camber is forcedout, creating a level beam with no deflection.

Those members which are relatively small orwhich can be readily precast are normallypretensioned. These include precast roof slabs,1-slabs, floor slabs, and roof joists.

FINSTRESSED CONCRETE BEAM

UNLOADED

LOADER

Figure .)-10.--Comparison of plain and prestressed concrete beams.

3-12

cc

fn

Chapter 3CONCRETE AND

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

Conventional concrete weighs approximately150 pounds per cubic foot. Lightweight concreteweighs 20 to 130 pounds per cubic foot, depend-ing on its intended use. Lightweight concrete canbe made by using either gas-generating chemicalsor lightweight aggregates, such as expandedshale, clay, or slag. Concrete containing aggre-gates, such as perlite and vermiculite, is verylight in weight and is primarily used as insulatingmaterial. Lightweight concrete is usually clas-sified according to its weight per cubic foot.

Insulating lightweight concrete has a unitweight ranging from 20 to 70 pounds per cubicfoot, and its compressive strength seldom ex-ceeds 1,000 psi.

Structural lightweight concrete has a unitweight up to 115 pounds per cubic foot and a28-day compressive strength in excess of 2,000psi.

Simi lightweight concrete has a unit weight of115 to 130 pounds per cubic foot and an ultimatecompressive strength comparable to normal con-crete. Sand of normal weight is substituted par-tially or completely for the lightweight fineaggregate.

The first extensive use of lightweight con-crete was for concrete block. Present uses oflightweight concrete include structural applica-tions, such as cast-in-place and precast walls,floors, roof sections, and insulation applica-tions, such as fireproofing.

The general principles of concrete propor-tioning may be applied to lightweight concreteaggregates. But when the aggregates are highlyabsorptive, some modifications are required.The uniformity and quality of lightweight con-crete depend primarily on the uniformity of themoisture content of the aggregate.

TILT -UP CONSTRUCTION

Tilt-up concrete construction is a specialform of precast concrete building. This methodconsists basically of jobsite prefabrication, inwhich the walls are cast in a horizontal position,tilted to a vertical position, and then secured inplace. Tilt-up construction is best suited forlarge one-story buildings, but it can he used in

3-13

MASONRY

multistory structures. Usually, mutistory struc-tures are built by setting the walls for the firststory, placing the floor above, then repeating theprocedure for each succeeding floor. An alter-nate method is to cast two- to four story panels.

The wall panels are usually cast on the floorslab of the structure. Care must be. exercised toinsure the floor slab is smooth and level and thatall openings for pipes and other utilities are tem-porarily plugged. The casting surface is treatedwith a good bond-breaking agent to insure thepanel does not adhere when it is lifted.

Reinforcement of Tilt-Up Panels

The steel in a tilt-up panel is set in the samemanner as it is in a floor slab. Mats of reinforce-ment ate placed on chairs and tied as needed.Reinforcement should be as near the centerof the panel as possible. Reinforcing bars arerun through the side forms of the panel. Whenwelded wire fabric or expanded wire mesh isused, dowel bars are used to tie the panels andtheir vertical supports together. Additional rein-forcement is generally needed around openings.

The panel is picked up or tilted by the use ofPICK-UP INSERTS. These inserts are tied intothe reinforcement. As the panel is raised into itsvertical position, the maximum stress will occur;therefore, the location and number of pick-upinserts is extremely important. There areengineering manuals which provide informationon inserts, their locations, and capacities.

Tilt-up Panel Foundations

An economical and widely used method tosupport tilt-up panels is a simple pad footing.The floor slab, which is constructed first, isNOT poured to the perimeter of the building topermit excavating and pouring the footings.After the panel is placed on the footing, thefloor slab is completed. It may be connecteddirectly to the outside wall panel or a trench mayhe left to run mechanical, electrical, or plumbinglines.

Another method that is commonly used, asan alternative, is to set the panels on a gradebeam or foundation wall at floor level. Regard-less of the type of footing, the panel should


be set into a mortar bed to insure a good bondbetween the foundation wall and the panel.

Panel Connections

The panels may be tied together in a varietyof ways. The location and use of the structurewill dictate what method can or can NOT beused. The strongest method is a cast-in-placecolumn with the panel-reinforcing steel tied intothe column. However, this does NOT allow forexpansion and contraction. It may be preferableto tie only the corner panels to the columns andallow the remaining panels to move.

A variety of other methods of connecting thepanels are also used. A BUTTED connection,utilizing grout or a gasket, can be used if the walldoes NOT contribute any structural strength tothe structure. Steel columns are welded to steelangles or plates secured in the wall panel.Precast columns can also be used. Steel angles orplates are secured in both the columns and plateand welded together to secure the panel.

When panel connections which do not ac-tually hold the panels in place are used, thepanels are generally welded to the foundationand the roof by using steel angles or plates.All connections must provide a waterproofjoint. To accomplish this, expansion jointmateri,11 it, used whenever necessary.

Finishes

Tilt-up panels may be finished in a variety ofways similar to any other concrete floor or wall.Some finishes may require the panel to bepoured face up; others will require face-downpouring. This may affect the manner in whichthe panels are raised and set,

CONCRETE FORMS

Most structural concrete is made by placingwalled CAS TING) plastic concrete into spacesenclosed by previously constructed FORMS.l'he plastic concrete hardens into the shapeoutlined by the forms, after which the forms areusually removed,

Forms for concrete structures must be tight,t 'yid, and strong. If the forms are NOT tight,

3-14

there will be a loss of paste which may causeweakness or a loss of water which may causesand streaking. The forms must be strongenough and well braced enough to resist the highpressure exerted by the concrete.

Forms, or parts of forms, are often omittedwhen a firm earth surface exists which is capableof supporting and/or molding the concrete. Inmost footings, for example, the bottom of thefooting is cast directly against the earth, andonly the sides are molded in forms. Manyfootings are cast with both bottom and sidesagainst the natural earth. In this case, however,the specifications usually call for larger footings.A foundation wall is often cast between a formon the inner side and the natural earth surfaceon the outer side.

Form Materials

Form material should be of wood, plywood,steel, or other approved material, except thatforms for concrete pavement other than oncurves should be metal, and on curves, flexibleor curved forms of metal or wood may be used.Wood forms, for surfaces exposed to view in thefinished structure and requiring a standardfinish, should be tongue-and-groove boards orplywood. Forms for surfaces requiring specialfinishes should be plywood or tongue-and-groove board), or should be lined with plywood,a nonabsorptive hard-pressed fiberboard, or onother approved material.

Foundation Forms

Foundations vary according to their use, thebearing capacity of the soil, and the type ofmaterial available. The material may be cutstone, rock, brick, concrete, tile, or wood,depending upon the weight which the founda-tion is to support. Foundations may be classifiedas wall or column (pier) foundations,

WALL foundations are built solid, the wallsof the building being of continuous heavy con-struction for their total length. Solid walls areused when there are heavy loads to be carried orwhere the earth has low supporting strength.

These walls may be made of concrete, rock,brick, or cut stone, with a footing at the bottom.


The combined slab and foundation,sometimes referred to as the THICKENED-EDGE slab, is useful in a warm climate wherefrost penetration is not a problem and where thesoil condition is especially favorable. It consistsof a shallow perimeter-reinforced footingpoured integrally with the slab over a VAPORBARRIER. The bottom of the footing should beat least 1 foot below the natural gradeline andsupported on solid, unfilled, and well-drainedground.

When the ground freezes to any appreci-able depth during the winter, the wall ofthe building must be supported by a founda-tion or piers which extend below the frost-line to a solid bearing on unfilled soil. Insuch construction, the concrete slab and thefoundation wall are usually separate. There arethree typical methods which are suitable forfor such conditions (figs. 3-11, 3-12, and3-13).

The most desirable properties in a vapor bar-rier to be used under a concrete slab are: a goodvapor-transmission rating; resistance to damageby Moisture and rot; and the ability to withstandnormal usage during pouring operations. Such

ANCHOR

P E J

CONCRETE

VAPOR ARRIER

u MINIMUM .

".` -711" GRAVEL FILL

:47 17e.7;447GRADE SEAM

11

I II

STEEL DOWELIN I REINFORCEMENT

I

41

RIGID INSULATION

I BEAM REINFORCING BAR

SPACED CONCRETE PIER(SPREAD AT BOTTOM)

134,652

Figure 3-11.Reinforced grade beam for concrete slab.Beam spans between concrete piers located below frost-line.

3-15

ANCHOR

MINIMUM

MEAT DUCT FORPERIMETER HEATING

ONCRE TE BLAB

" - ORAVEL.. I 0.r, VAPOR OARRIER

INSULATION

FOOTING E LOW 111,109%1NC

134.653Figure 3-12.Full foundation wall for cold climates.

Perimeter heat duct insulated to reduce heat loss.

properties are included in the following types ofmaterials:

1. Fifty-five pound roll roofing or heavyasphalt-laminated duplex barriers.

2. Heavy plastic film, such as 6-mil orheavier polyethylene, or similar plasticfilm laminated to a duplex-treated paper.

3. Three layers of roofing felt mopped withhot asphalt.

Wall Forms

Wall forms are made up of five basic parts.They are: (1) sheathing, to shape and retain theconcrete until it sets; (2) studs, to form aframework and support the sheathing; (3) wales,to keep the form alined and support the studs;(4) braces, to hold the forms erect under lateralpressure; and (5) ties and spreaders or tie-spreader units, to hold the sides of the forms atthe correct spacing (fig, 3-14).

Wall forms may be built in place orprefabricated, depending on the shape and thedesirability for reuse.

Wall forms are usually reinforced againstdisplacement by the use of TIES. Two types of


WALL STUDS

ANCHORED SLEEPERS

WOOD STRIP

HOT TAR SEAL

SILL CALK

8" MINIMUM

04C. VJ.

FOUNDATIONWALL

FOOTING

SLAB

VAPOR BARRIER

INSULATION

FILL

134.659Figure 3-13.Independent concrete floor slab and wall. Concrete block is used over poured footing which is below frostline.

Rigid insulation may also be located along the inside of the block wall.

SHEATHING

Figure 3.11. Parts of opica! wall form. 29.128

3-16

simple wire ties, used with wood SPREADERS,are shown in figure 3-15. The wire is passedaround the studs and wales and through smallholes bored in the sheathing. The spreader isplaced as close as possible to the studs, and thetie is set taut by the wedge shown in the upperview or by twisting with a small toggle, as shownin the lower view. When the concrete reaches thelevel of the spreader, the spreader is knocked outand removed. The parts of the wire which are in-side the forms remain in the concrete; the out-side surplus is cut off after the forms areremoved.

Wire ties and wooden spreaders have beenlargely replaced by various manufactureddevices which combine the function of the tieand spreader. Figure 3-16 shown one of these,called a SNAP TIE. These ties are made invarious sizes to fit various wall thicknesses. Thetie holders can be removed from the tie rod. The


TIE

133.10Figure 3.15. Wire ties for wall forms.

HOLDER

//

---7-7-P

gP SPREADER WASHERS

116

%

.-".......,

r a---1NAP TIE ''--,

:0:

/0.4.0.,"A' .lj

TIE HOI-

\;:.;1T 4 1 . 7 0 7 ,....tie....................7,11......

Ftlil!lc

D

... 1 I

I,f,

1BREAKING POINTSP

ti0,

-..,i SHEATHINGi'/41 .

ii,eV'

.:nt ire lei

WA

\ ST

WA L

STU

Figure 3-16. Snap tie.

\IV

DER

LE

UD

45.470

rod goes through small holes bored in thesheathing and also through the wales which areusually doubled for that purpose. Tapping thetie holders down on the ends of the rod bringsthe sheathing to bear solidly against the spreader

3-17

washers. After the concrete has hardened, the tieholders can be detached to strip the forms. Afterthe forms are stripped, a special wrench is usedto break off the outer sections of rod; they breakoff at the breaking points, located about 1 inchinside the surface of the concrete. Small surfaceholes remain which can be plugged with grout, ifnecessary.

Another type of wall form tie is the TIEROD, as shown in figure 3-17. The rod inthis type consists of three sections: an inner sec-tion which is threaded on both ends and twothreaded outer sections. The inner section, withthe cones set to the thickness of the wall, isplaced betWeen the forms, and the outer sectionsare passed through the wales and sheathing andthreaded into the cone nuts. The clamps are thenthreaded up on the outer sections to bring theforms to bear against the cone nuts. After theconcrete hardens, the clamps are loosened, andthe outer sections of rod are removed bythreading them out of the cone nuts. After theforms are stripped, the cone nuts are removedfrom the concrete by threading them off the in-ner sections of rod with a special wrench leavingthe cone-shaped surface holes. The outer sec-tions and the cone nuts may be reused in-definitely.

The use of prefabricated panels for form-work has recently been on the increase. Thesepanels can be reused many times and reduce thetime and labor required for erecting forms onthe site.

CLAMP

rzs {:_ ? ; :Z.; 7 /

OUTER ROD

Iv

STUDS

SHEATHING

CONE NUT

_ Li

INNER ROO

Figure 3-17.--ie rod.45.471


Many types of prefabricated form panels arein use. Contractors sometimes build their ownpanels from wood framing covered with ply-wood sheating. The standard size is 2 feet by 8feet, but panels can be sized to suit any par-ticular situation.

Panels made with a metal frame and ply-wood sheathing are also in common use and areavailable in a variety of sizes. Special sectionsare produced to form inside corners, pilasters,etc. Panels are held together by patented panelclamps. Flat bar ties (which lock into place be-tween panels) eliminate the need for spreaders.Forms are alined by using one or more doubledrows of 2 by 4's, secured to the forms by aspecial device which is attached to the barties.

Form panels made completely of steel arealso available. The standard size is 24 by 48inches, but various other sizes are also manufac-tured. Inside and outside corner sections arestandard, and insert angles allow odd-sizedpanels to be made up as desired.

Large projects requiring mass concrete place-ment are often formed by the use of giant panelsor ganged, prefabricated forms. Cranes usuallyraise and place these large sections, so their sizeis limited only by the available equipment. Theselarge forms are built or assembled on theground, and their only basic difference fromregular forms is the extra bracing required towithstand handling.

Special attention must be given to cornerswhen forms are being erected. These are weakpoints because the continuity of sheathing andwales is broken. Forms must be pulled tightlytogether at these points to prevent leakage ofconcrete.

Column Forms

Figure 3-18 shows a column futm. Since therate of placing in a column form is very high andsince the bursting pressure exerted on the formby the concrete increases directly with the rate ofplacing, a column form must be securely bracedby the yokes shown in the figure. Since thebursting pressure is greater at the bottom of theform than it is at the top, the yokes are placed

3-18

PANELS

45.472

Figure 348.Column form.

closer together at the bottom than they are at thetop.

Beam and Girder Forms

The type of construction to be used for beamforms depends upon whether the form is to beremoved in one piece or whether the sides are tobe stripped and the bottom left in place untilsuch time as the concrete has developed enoughstrength to permit removal of the shoring. Thelatter type beam form is preferred, and detailsfor this type are shown in figure 3-19. Beamforms are subjected to very little burstingpressure but must be shored up at frequent inter-vals to prevent sagging under the weight of thefresh concrete.

Figure 3-20 shows a typical interior beamform with slab forms supported on the beamsides. This drawing indicates that 3/4-inch ply-wood serves as the beam sides and that the beam


TEMPORARY CLEAT

2" S4S 4

SHIMMING

GIRDER FORM

TEMPORARY SPREADER

1" X 4" LEDGERFOR FLOOR SLABFORM JOISTS

2" S4SSOF FIT

CHAMFER

STRIP

BEAM FORM

2" X 4 STUDS

SHIMMING

45.474Figure 3-19.--TypieaI beam and girder forms.

bottom is a solid piece of 2-inch dimension lum-ber supported on the bottom by 4- by 4-inch T-head shores. The vertical side members, referredto in the figure as blocking, are placed to assist intransmitting slab loads to the supporting shores.

3-19

Overhead Floor and Roof Slabs

Concrete used for floor and roof slabs maybe either precast units or cast-in-place concrete,in accordance with the design of the structure. if


SLOCKi

tHANAFER S imp

Concrete slab

Decking

Joist

BEAM SIDE3/4 INCH PLYWOOD

PonI "I

T :

Scab N

mad 4" X 4"

ac

40Wood shore

BEAM BOTTOM2 -INCH DIMENSION LUMBER

Ledger

45.867Figure 3-20.Typical components of beam formwork with

slab framing in.

precast units are to be used, the columns, beams,and girders are formed as previously described.The use of cast-in-place concrete for overheadfloors and roof slabs requires much more form-ing and shoring. Shoring refers to the temporaryconstruction used to support the forms, Thesupporting columns may be poured and allowedto cure and used for support dong with the shor-ing, or they may be poured with the slabs andbeams.

Whenever concrete is cast in place foroverhead floors and roof slabs, its weight shouldbe kept to a minimum while maintaining thedesigned strength. This is accomplished in avariety of ways. One is a BEAM-AND-SLABfloor. Here the slab is supported by a series ofparallel beams. Another type is known as aFLAT-SLAB floor. There are no beams in thistype of construction, but the slab is supportedby thickened sections over the columns knownas DROP PANELS. Increases: support isprovi Jed at the column by enlarging its top endinto what is known as a COLUMN CAPITAL.A third type is a RIBBED SLAB. It consists of aseries of concrete joists or ribs, containing thereinforcement, cast monolithically with a rela-tively thin slab. The ribs, in turn, frame intosupporting girders. The main purpose of using aribbed-slab floor is to reduce the dead load byeoneentrating the leinforcement in the ribs andeaying out most of the concrete between them.A variation of the ribbed slab is glade by run-ning ribs in two directions, at right angle's to one

3-20

another, thus 'producing what is commonly re-ferred to as a WAFFLE floor.

Another method of reducing the weight offloors is to produce a series of voids. This maybe done by laying cardboard tubes with sealedends in rows, by using egg-crate type cardboardcore forms, or by using a type of lightweightblock, laid in rows, to replace the concrete.

MASONRY

MASONRY is that form of constructioncomposed of stone, concrete, brick, gypsum,hollow clay tile, concrete block, tile, or othersimilar building units or materials or a combina-tion of these materials, laid up unit by unit andset in mortar. This section will discuss the basicmasonry materials commonly used in construc-tion.

CONCRETE MASONRY

Concrete masonry has become increasinglyimportant as a construction material. Importanttechnological developments in the manufactureand utilization of the units have accompaniedthe rapid increase in the use of concretemasonry. Concrete, masonry walls properlydesigned and constructed will satisfy variousbuilding requirements including fire, safety,durability, economy, appearance, utility, com-fort, and good acoustics.

The most common concrete masonry unit isthe CONLaETE BLOCK. It is manufacturedfrom both normal and lightweight aggregates.There are two types of concrete blockheavyweight and lightweight. The heavyweightblock is manufactured from cement, water, andaggregates, such as sand, gravel, and crushedlimestone. The lightweight blocks utilize a com-bination of cement, water, and a lightweight ag-gregate. Cinders, pumice, expanded shale, andvermiculite are a few of the aggregates used inlightweight block production. The lightweightunits weigh about 30 percent less than theheavyweight units.

Concrete blocks are made to comply withcertain requirements, notably compressivestrength, absorption, and moisture content.Compressive strength requirements provide a


measure of the blocks' ability to carry loads andwithstand structural stresses. Absorption re-quirements provide a measure of the density ofthe concrete while moisture content require-ments indicate if the unit is sufficient' . L 1 foruse in wall construction.

Block Sizes and Shapes

Concrete block units are made in sizes andshapes to fit different construction needs. Unitsare made in full- and half-length sizes, as shownin figure 3-21. Concrete unit sizes are usually

STRETCHER( 3 CORE )

CORNER DOUBLE CORNER ORPIER

BULL NOSE JAMB

FULL CUT HEADER HALF CUT HEADER SOLID TO STRETCHER(2 CORE

FLOOR SOFFIT FLOOR SOLID

STRETCHER JAMB

4" OR PARTITION

14

SOLID BRICK FR000ED BRICK

BEAM ORLINTEL

TROUGH PARTITION

STRETCHER CORNER CHANNEL STRETCHER ORNER CHANNEL STRETCHER(MODULAR)

1Dittienstons shown are actual unit 8111411. A 1%" x 114" s tts%" unit Is co manly known xs in 8" x 8' s Si" blank.)

29,142

Figure 3-2I..Tpicid sizes and shapes of concrete masonry units.

3-21


referred to by their nominal dimensions. A unitmeasuring 7 5/8 inches wide, 7 5/8 inches high,and 15 5/8 inches long is referred to as an 8- by8- by 16-inch unit. When it is laid in a wall with3/8-inch mortar joints, the unit will occupy aspace 16 inches long and 8 inches high. Besidesthe basic 8- by 8- by 16-inch units, the illmtra-tion shows a smaller partition unit and other

Figure -22.--Concrete block.

.14 $1110....sc.1( xosscssor

sr:11 WnreomMES/4 poomosso. P.

,sankt alusa, /am! gesraw Isms. mwse smaon m.o.= ci

pilnag labm-7,.c. gm. r_ve,I.ocr.d...3....,ânz.11

WY- n. a ....Var. . .

S.4.

117.106

A ).:< ?<\ i(\ y< .7<je.( ,/ -/ )(/ zes

G.)

%A. A ,-,s+

).4

)2.4

A* ,romi 11.,1

I I

units which are used much as cut brick are inbrick masonry.

The corner unit is laid at a corner or at somesimilar point where a smooth rather than arecessed end is required. The header unit is usedin a backing course placed behind a brick facetier header course. Part of the block is cut awayto admit the brick headers. The uses of the otherspecials shown are self-evident. Besides theshapes shown in figure 3-21, a number of smallershapes for various special purposes are avail-able. Units may be cut to the desired shapes witha bolster or, more conveniently accurately,with a power-driven masonry saw.

The sides and the recessed ends of a concreteblock are called the SHELL (fig. 3-22). Thematerial which forms the partitions between thecores is called the WEB, and the holes betweenthe webs are called CORES. Each of the longsides of a block is called a FACE SHELL, andeach of the recessed ends is called an ENDSHELL. The vertical ends of the face shells, oneither side of the end shells, are called theEDGES.

Wall Patterns

The large number of shapes and sizes of con-crete blocks lend themselves to a great manyuses. Figure 3-23 illustrates but a few of thewall patterns that can be developed using vari-ous pattern bonds and block sizes. Commercial

oliA0 k !f.

1rlstroste4 70.4 !,,kat

%A 4S",4 .1.1 ,4 .1 ;11

Figure 323. -Wall patteriti.

3-22 r

aAStt: AP 4 U' 1.1 /15

o' !I .27 t ,:t 1


publications from the Portland Cement Associa-tion illustrate many more. Figure 3-24 showssome of the styles of SCREEN BLOCKS (blockswith patterned holes). This type of block is usedto make a decorative wall called a PIERCED orSCREEN wall, Other architectural effects canbe achieved by laying some block in relief (fig.3-25) or by varying the type of mortar joint.

Figure 3-24.Screen block designs.

Figure 3.25.Blocks laid in relief.

3-23

Modular Planning

Concrete masonry walls should be laidout to make maximum use of full- and half-length units, thus minimizing cutting andfitting of units on the job. Length andheight of walls, width and height of open-ings, and wall areas between doors, windows,and corners should be planned to use full-size and half-size units which are usuallyavailable (fig. 3-26). This procedure assumesthat window and door frames are of modulardimensions which fit modular full- and half-size units. Then, all horizontal dimensionsshould be in multiples of nominal full-lengthmasonry units, and both horizontal and verticaldimensions should be designed to be inmultiples of 8 inches. Table 3-2 lists nominallengths of concrete masonry walls by stretchers,and table 3-3 lists nominal heights of concretemasonry walls by courses. When units 8 by 4 by16 are used, the horizontal dimensions should beplanned in multiples of 8 inches (half-lengthunits) and the vertical dimensions in multiples of4 inches. If the thickness of the wall is greater orless than the length of a half unit, a speciallength unit is required at each corner in eachCourse.

STRUCTURAL CLAY TILEMASONRY

Hollow masonry units made of burned clayor shale are called, variously, structural tiles,hollow tiles, structural clay tiles, structuralclay hollow tiles, and structural clay hollowbuilding tiles, but most commonly called build-ing tile. In building tile manufacture, plasticclay is pugged through a die, and the shapewhich emerges is cut off into units. Theunits are then burned much as bricks areburned.

The apertures in a building tile, which cor-respond to the cores in a brick or a concreteblock, are called CELLS. The solid sides of a tileare called the SHELL, and the perforatedmaterial :nclosed by the shell is called the WEB.A tile which is laid on one of its shell facesis called a SIDE-CONSTRUCTION tile; one


Table 3-2.-Nominal Length of Concrete Masonry Wallsby Stretchers

(Actual length of wall is measured from outside edge tooutside edge of units and is equal to the nominal lengthminus 34" (one mortar joint).)

No. of stretchers

Nominal length of ooncrete masonry welts

Units Me" long andhalf units 744" Ionwith 31" thick he

joints.

Units 11W' long andheir units SW' longwith 31" thick bead

joints.

1 1' 4" 1' 0".134 2' 0" 1' 6".2 2' 8"... .. . 2' 0".

2% 3' 4" 2' 6".3 4' 0".. _ .... 3' 0".335 4' 8" 3' 6".

4. 5' 4" . _ 4' 0".434 8' 0".. _...... 4' 6".6 6' 8" 5' 0".

534 7' 4" 5' 0".6 8' 0" 0' 0".6% 8'11" 6' 6":

7 9' 4" 7' 0".734 10' 0"..... . 7' 6".8 10' 8"__ _ .._ _ 8' 0".

834 11' 4" 8' 6".9 12' 0".... ,. . 9' 0".934 12' 8" 9' 6".

10 1S' 4" 10' 0".1035 14' 0" 10' 6".11 14' 8" 11' 0".

.............11% 15' 4" II' 6".12 18' 0" 12' 0",12s. 16' 8'' 12' 6".

13 17' 4" 13' 0".'3% 18' 0" 13' 6".14_ 1W 8" _ 14' 0-.

14% 19' 4'' 14' 6".15 . 20' 0". ...... 15' 0".20 26' 8". _..... 20' 0".

Table 3.3.-Nominal Height of Concrete Masonry Wallsby Courses

(For concrete masonry units 7" and ni" in height laidwith V mortar joints. Height is measured from centerto center of mortar joints.)

No. of courses

Nominal height of concrete masonry walls

Volts 7,fi" high and3e" thick bed joint

UnItk 34" hli,h and:hi" thick brd joint

18H 4".

2 1' 4" 8"3 2' 0"........... 1' 0".

4 2' 8" 1' 4".5 3' 4" 1' 8H.0 4' 0,, 2' 0".

7 ... .. ........ ....... 4' 8".. 2' 4".8.. 5' 4 ".. 2' 8".9 6' 0"....... 3' 0".

10 6' 8".. .._ 3' 4".15 10' 0".... _ . 5' 0".20. 13' 4".... 6' 8H.--25 . 16' 8".... .... 8' 4".30 20' 0"....... 10' 0".35. 23' V__ 11' 8".

... .... 26' 8" ... 13' 4".45... _ . :itf 0" ... 15' 0"50...... . 33' 4".... ... 16' 8".

which is laid on one of its web faces is called anEND - CONSTRUCTION tile. Figures 3-27 and3-28 show the sizes and shapes of basic side- andend-construction building units. Special shapesfor use at corners and openings, or for use asclosures, are also available.

Physical Characteristics

The compressive strength of the individualtile depends upon the materials used and uponthe method of manufacture, in addition to thethickness of the shells and webs. A minimumcompressive strength of tile masonry of 300pounds per square inch based on the gross sec-tion may be expected. The tensile strength ofstructural clay tile masonry is small. In most

3-24,73

WRONG

3CONCRETE AND MASONRY

RIGHT

ELEVATION ELEVATIONSHADED PORTION INDICATES CUT MASONRY ALL MASONRY FULL OR HALF SIZE UNITS

( BASED ON 811x 8ux IC" BLOCK )

II II

Ski"

...... 41-0" 2'-8" 31 4"

7Figure 3-26.Planning concrete =sour, wail openings.

8"

45,728

8"

Figure 3-27.Standard shapes of side-construction building tiles.

cases, it is less than 10 percent of the com-pressive strength.

The abrasion resistance of clay tile dependsprimarily upon its compressive strength. Thestronger the tile, the greater its resistance to

3-.25

29.143.

wearing. The abrasion resistance decreases, asthe amount of water absorbed increases.

Structural clay facing tile hafi excellentresistance to weathering. Freezing and thawingaction produces almost no deterioration, Tile


3 'A"

2"

2"

12"

Figure 3-28,Standard shapes of end-construction building tiles.

that will absorb no more than 16 percent of itsweight of water have never given unsr t .ifactoryperformance in resisting the effect of freezingand thawing action, Only portland cement-limemortar or mortar prepared from masonry ce-ment should be used if the masonry is exposed tothe weather.

Walls containing structural clay tile havebetter heat-insulating qualities than walls com-posed of solid units, due to the dead air spacethat exists in tile walls. The resistance to soundpenetration of this type of masonry comparesfavorably with the resistance of solid masonrywalls, but it is somewhat less.

The fire resistance of tile walls is con-siderably less than the fire resistance of solidmasonry walls. It can be improved by applying acoat of plaster to the surface of the wall. Parti-tion walls of structural clay tile 6 inches thickwill resist a fire for 1 hour provided the fire pro-duces a temperature of not more than 1,700 °F.

3-26

2"

29.144

The solid material in structural clay tileweighs about 125 pounds per cubic foot. Sincethe tile contains hollow cells of various sizes, theweight of the tile varies, depending upon themanufacturer and type. A 6-inch tile wall weighsapproximately 30 pounds per square foot, whilea 12-inch weighs approximately 45 pounds persquare foot.

Uses for Structural Clay Tile

Structural clay tile may he used for exteriorwalls of either the load-bearing or nonload-bearing type. It is suitable for both below-grad.eand above-grade construction.

Structural load-bearing tile is made from 4-to12-inch thicknesses with various face dimen-sions. The use of these tiles is restricted bybuilding codes and specifications, so consult theproject specification.

Nonload- bearing partition walls from 4- to12-inch thicknesses are frequently made of

Cha ter 3-- CONCRETE AND MASONRY

structural clay tile. These walls are easily built,light in weight, and haveood heat- and sound-insulating properties.

Figure 3-29 illustrates the use of structuralclay tile as a back unit for a brick wall.

Figure 3-30 illustrates the use of 8- by 5- by12-inch tile in wall construction. To avoid ex-posure of the open end of the tile, a thin tilecalled a SOAP is used at the corner.

133.40Figure 3-29.Structural tile used as a backing for brick.

2" x 5" SOAP

133.41Figure 3-30.Eight-inch structural clay the wall.

STONE MASONRY

Stone masonry is masonry in which the unitsconsist of natural stone. In RUBBLE stonemasonry, the stones are left in their naturalstate, without any kind of shaping. In ASHLARmasonry, the faces of stones which are to heplaced in surface positions are squared so thatthe surfaces of the finished structure will bemore or less continuous plane surfaces. Bothrubble and ashlar work may be either RAN-DOM or COURSED.

Random rubble is the crudest of all types ofstonework. Little attention is paid to laying thestones in courses, as shown in figure 3-31. Eachlayer must contain bonding stones that extendthrough the wall, as shown in figure 3-32. Thisproduces a wall that is well tied together. Thebed joints should be horizontal for stability, butthe "builds" or head joints may run in anydirection.

Coursed rubble is assembled of roughlysquared stones in such a manner as to produceapproximately continuous horizontal bed joints,as shown in figure 3-33.

The stone for use in stone masonry should bestrong, durable, and cheap. Durability andstrength depend upon the chemical compositionand physical structure of the stone. Some of themore commonly found stones that are suitable

3-27

Figore 3-31.Random rubble masonry.

;ii

133.44


BOND HEADER

133.46Figure 3-32.Bond stones.

133.45Figure 3-33.--Coursed rubble masonry.

are limestone, sandstone, granite, and slate. Un-squared stones obtained from nearby ledges orquarries or even field stones may be used. Thesize of the stone should be such that two peoplecan easily handle it. A variety of sizes isnecessary in order to avoid using large quantitiesof mortar.

The mortar for use in stone masonry may becomposed of portland cement and sand in theproportions of one part cement to three parts

sand by volume. Such mortar shrinks excessivelyand does not work well with the trowel. A bettermortar to use is portland cement-lime mortar.Mortar made with ordinary portland cement willstain most types of stone. If staining must beprevented, nonstaining white portland cementshould be used in making the mortar. Lime doesnot usually stain the stone.

BRICK MASONRY

In brick masonry construction, units ofbaked clay or shale of uniform size are laid incourses with mortar joints to form walls of

HALF OR BAT THREE-QUARTER CLOSURE QUARTER CLOSURE

,r

KING CLOSURE QUEEN CLOSURE SPLIT

133.28Figure 3-34. Nomenclature of common shapes of cut

brick.

CULL

3-28

BEDS SIDE

Figure 3-35.-- Names of brick surfaces.

END

29.141


virtually unlimited length and height. Theseunits are small enough to be placed with onehand. Bricks are kiln-baked from various clayand shale mixtures. The chemical and physicalcharacteristics of the ingredients vary con-siderably; these and the kiln temperatures com-bine to produce brick in a variety of colors andhardnesses. In some regions, pits are opened andfound to yield clay or shale which, when groundand moistened, can be formed and baked intodurable brick; in other regions, clays or shalesfrorn.several pits must be mixed.

The. dimensions of a U.S. standard buildingbrick are 2 1/4 by 3 3/4 by 8. The actual dimen-sions of brick may vary a little because ofshrinkage during burning.

Brick Nomenclature

Frequently, the Builder must cut the brickinto various shapes. The Most common shapes

BULL HEADER

BULL STRETCHER

are shown in figure 3-34. They are called half orbat, three-quarter closure, quarter closure, kingclosure, queen closure, and split. They are usedto fill in the spaces at corners and such otherplaces where a full brick will not fit.

The six surfaces of a brick are called the face,the side, the cull, the end, and the beds, asshown in figure 3-35.

Masonry Terms

Specific terms are used to describe thevarious positions of masonry units and mortarjoints in a wall (fig. 3-36). These are:

Course. One of the continuous horizontallayers (or rows) of masonry which, bondedtogether, form the masonry structure.

A continuous single vertical wall ofcbri .

133.289

Figure 3-36.--Masono units and mortar joints.

3 -29

ENGINEERING AID 3 8s2, VOLUME 2

Stretcher. A masonry unit laid flat with itslongest dimension parallel to the face of thewall.

Bull-Stretcher. A rowlock brick laid with itslongest dimension parallel to the face of thewail.

Bull-Header. A rowlock brick laid with itslongest dimension perpendicular to the face ofthe wall.

Header. A masonry unit laid flat with itslongest rnension perpendicular to the face ofthe wall. It is generally used to tie two wythes ofmasonry together.

Rowlock . A brick laid on its edge (face).

Soldier. A brick laid on its end so that itslongest dimension is parallel to the vertical axisof the face of the wall.

Brick Classification

A finished brick structure contains FACEbrick (brick placed on the exposed face of thestructure) and BACKUP brick (brick placedbehind the face brick). The face brick is often ofhigher quality than the backup brick; however,the entire wall may be built of COMMON brick.Common brick is brick which is made from pit-run clay, with no attempt at color control and nospecial surface treatment like glazing or enamel-ing. Most common brick is red.

Although any surface brick is a face brick asdistinguished from a backup brick, the term facebrick is also used to distinguish high-qualitybrick from brick which is of common-brickquality or less. Applying this criterion, facebrick is more uniform in color than commonbrick, and it may be obtained in a variety ofcolors as well. It may be specifically finished onthe surface, and in any case, it has a better sur-face appearance than common brick. It may alsobe more durable, as a result of the use of selectclay and other materials, or as a result of specialmanufacturing methods.

Backup brick may consist of brick which isinferior in quality even to common brick. Brickwhich has been underburned or overhurned, orbrick made with inferior day or by inferiormethods, is often used for backup brick.

3-30H

Still another type of classification dividesbrick into grades in accordance with the prob-able climatic conditions to which it is to be ex-posed. These are as follows:

GRADE SW is brick designed to withstandexposure to below-freezing temperatures in amoist climate like that of the northern regions ofthe United States.

GRADE MW is brick designed to withstandexposure to below-freezing temperatures in adrier climate than that mentioned in the previousparagraph.

GRADE NW is brick primarily intended forinterior or backup brick. It may be used ex-posed, however, in a region where no frostaction occurs, or in a region where frost actionoccurs, but the annual rainfall is less than 15inches.

Types of Brick

There are many types of brick. Some are dif-ferent in formation and composition whileothers vary according to their use. Some com-monly used types of brick are:

BUILDING brick, formerly called commonbrick, is made of ordinary clays or shales andburned in the usual manner in the kilns. Thesebricks do not have special scorings or markingsand are not produced in any special color or sur-face texture. Building brick is also known ashard- and kiln-run brick. It is used generally forthe backing courses in solid or cavity brick walls.The harder and more durable kinds are pre-ferred for this purpose.

FACE bricks are used in the exposed face ofa wall and are higher quality units than backupbrick. They have better durability and appear-ance. The most common colors of face brick arevarious shades of brown, red, gray, yellow, andwhite.

CLINKER bricks are bricks which have beenoverburned in the kilns. This type of brick isusually hard and durable and may be irregular inshape. Rough hard corresponds to the clinkerclassification.

Chapter E7C(2kICRETE AND MASONRY

PRESS bricks are made by the dry pressprocess. This class of brick has regular smoothfaces, sharp edges, and perfectly square corners.Ordinarily, all press brick are used as face brick.

GLAZED bricks have one surface of each-brick glazed in white or other colors. Theceramic glazing consists of mineral ingredientswhich fuse together in a glass-like coating duringburning. This type of brick is particularly suitedfor walls or partitions in hospitals, dairies,laboratories, or other buildings where clean-liness and ease of cleaning is necessary.

FIREBRICK is made of a special type of fireclay which will withstand the high temperaturesof fireplaces, boilers, and similar usages withoutcracking or decomposing. Firebrick is largerthan regular structural brick, and often, it ishand molded.

CORED BRICK are made with two rows offive holes extending through their beds to reduceweight. There is no significant difference be-tween the strength of walls constructed withcored brick and those constructed with solidbrick. Resistance to moisture penetration isabout the same for both types of walls. The mosteasily available brick that will meet the re-quirements should be used whether the brick iscored or solid.

SAND-LIME bricks are made from a leanmixture of slaked lime and fine silicious sand,molded under mechanical pressure, and hard-ened under steam pressure.

Types of Bonds

When the word "bond" is used in referenceto masonry, it may have three different mean-ings:

STRUCTURAL BOND is a method of inter-locking or tying individual masonry unitstogether so that the entire assembly acts as asingle structural unit. Structural bonding ofbrick and tile walls may be accomplished in threeways: first, by overlapping (interlocking) themasonry units; second, by the use of metal tiesimbedded in connecting joints; and third, bythe adhesion of grout to adjacent wythes ofmasonry.

3-31

MORTAR BOND is the adhesion of thejoint mortar to the masonry units or to the rein-forcing steel.

PATTERN BOND is the pattern formed bythe masonry units and the mortar joints on theface of a wall. The pattern may result from thetype of structural bond used or may be purely adecorative one in no way related to the structuralbond. There are five basic pattern bonds in com-mon use today, as shown in figure 3-37. Theseare the running bond, common bond, stackbond, Flemish bond, and English bond.

RUNNING BOND is the simplest of thebasic pattern bonds; the running bond consistsof all stretchers. Since there are no headers usedin this bond, metal ties are usually used. Run-ning bond is used largely in cavity wall construc-tion and veneered walls of brick and often infacing tile walls where the bonding may be ac-complished by extra width stretcher tile.

COMMON or AMERICAN BOND is avariation of running bond with a course of full-length headers at regular intervals. Theseheaders provide structural bonding, as well aspattern. Header courses usually appear at everyfifth, sixth, or seventh course, depending on thestructural bonding requirements. In laying outany bond pattern, it is very important that thecorners be started correctly. For common bond,a three-quarter brick must start each headercourse at the corner. Common bond may bevaried by using a Flemish header course.

STACK BOND is purely a pattern bond.There is no overlapping of the units, all verticaljoints being alined. Usually, this pattern isbonded to the backing with rigid steel ties, butwhen 8-inch-thick-stretcher units are available,they may be used. In large wall areas and inload-bearing construction, it is advisable to rein-force the wall with steel pencil rods placed in thehorizontal mortar joints. The vertical alinemen:requires dimensionally accurate units, orcarefully prematched units, for each verticaljoint alinement. Variety in pattern may heachieved by numerous combinations andmodifications of the basic patterns shown.

FL EM1SH BOND k made up of alternatestretchers and headers, with the headers inalternate courses centered over the ,)tretcheis

(t)


ospoimiamitanwitirA_IIPPHE_cieNtl=!f.4-1147aama,_-,maw:__ romfawilamasWurniona_owfairomil

Jona iimmours

MET

RUNNING

NMI I 11111111M11111ffillEllimpimqvskxkliprtallias_WaIMI*1111NEFININCIIiMMIMINWINIIqminuplownikiwili*aimmuOriNINNOMMIs=11.011PilimstoonsImmimpiniasilipwaiiiamiwOmmjamfook_moliinsommicseiftrwoosicaillisqsall111141:11!MQii i TIOWERNMEN

COMMON

.%1/0*1 18441MN 100Ml 1111111111

PA*1'1 MOB

r..umsli-elmookajunstkaimimmincum.:1111111.14

um as ImmomInsm.fiLsmitylomiNo Imo as lama nimmos,INN ammininom omaijolon

minim sow !Emit

FLEMISH

1/3 RUNNING

STACK

MEM. _Cy311 slianjodiSelailmilorimpokirtkiftmr.IIalsw-twaitiialwaysKasialassm

uaimmilomanainctwaipaanajaweanoralormissairkstataarmainnoal .1 s malamiLiof 1.16NKISTimfouRsrmorogpoimsmommisoilimill- WM.

ENGLISH

Figure 3-37.Some types of brick masonry bond.

in the intervening courses. Where the headersare not used for the structural bonding, theymay be obtained by using half brick, calledblind-headers. There are two methods used instarting the corners. Figure 3-37 shows the socalled FLEMISH corner in which a three-quarter brick is used to start each course and theENGLISH corner in which 2 inch or quarter-brick closures must be used.

ENGLISH BOND is composed of alternatecoutses of headers and stretchers. The headers

FLEMISH COMMON

1.111.1110111 41\ A"VIWAllSI.Arl", 111101.1.11111101111.111

11111111111.111.01 -.77.-41311.1Par_E_,:4:,4fr:ANNINfamallmonspowNimmImmual:K.1--

101.1111.11.101111.11Posisso!orguisanionnalilaism

-r- aim

ENGLISH CROSS

133.288

are centered on the stretchers and joints be-tween stretchers. The vertical (head jointsbetween stretchers in all courses line upvertically. Blind headers are used in courseswhich are not structural bonding courses.The English cross bond is a variation ofEnglish bond and differs only in that verticaljointS between the stretchers in alternate coursesdo NOT line up vertically. These joints center onthe stretchers themselves in the courses aboveand below.

CHAPTER 4

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS(MATERIALS)

In order to prepare workable constructiondrawings, Engineering Aids should be able torecognize and describe the materials used inmechanical and electrical systems and under-stand their use and function.

In this chapter, only the plumbing anddrainage portions of the mechanical systems andthe various materials used will be discussed. Wewill also present the different types of materialsused in electrical systems associated with the in-stallation of electrical power within buildings.

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

The plumbing systems installed by theSEABEES are divided into the WATERDISTRIBUTION SYSTEM and the DRAIN-AGE SYSTEM. The water distribution systemconsists of the pipes and fittings which supplyhot and cold water from the building water sup-ply to the building fixtures, such as lavatories,water closets, washers, and sinks. The drainagesystem consists of the piping and fittings re-quired to remove the water supplied to the fix-tures from the building and out into the sewerlines or disposal field. You, as an EA, will not beexpected to design the system; however, youmight be called upon to prepare constructiondrawings from sketches and specifications.Therefore, your basic knowledge of the differenttypes of piping materials and fittings used ineach system will help you in the preparation ofworkable mechanical drawings.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

As just stated, the purpose of a waterdistribution system is to carry water throughout

4-1

a building to where it is needed. This system (fig.4-1) consists o' the water service pipe, waterdistribution pipe, connecting pipe, fittings, andthe control valves. The water service pipe beginsat the w4ttr main. The water distributing pipestarts a,t7the end of the service pipe and carriesthe ',miter throughout the building. There areseveral types of pipe and fittings used in waterdistribution systems, but only the most commontypes used in the SEABEES will be discussed.

Copper Tubing

For water distribution pipes, copper tubing isone of the most widely used materials. This isbecause it does NOT rust and is highly resistantto any accumulation of scale particles in thepipe. This tubing is available in three differenttypesK, L, and M. K has the thickest walls,and M the thinnest walls, with L's thickness inbetween the other two. The thin walls pf coppertubing are soldered to copper fittings.'Solderingallows all the tubing and fittings to be set inplace before the joints are finished. Generally,faster installation will be the result.

'RA tiONSTOP

STREE TMAIN SERVICE

GOOSE NECK

CAW K E DPIPE

SLFEVf

METER

PIPE

FOUNDATION

SUPPLY TOBUILDING

\ *ATFRDIS TRI BU TING

PIPE TOFIXTURESVALVE

, 9 8 /

45.869Figure 4-1.--Water supply and distribution system.

ENGINEERING AID 3 LI VOLUME 2

Type K copper tubing is available in eitherrigid (hard temper) or flexible (soft temper) andis primarily used for underground service in thewater distribution systems. Soft temper tubing isavailable in 40- or 60-foot coils, while hardtemper tubing comes in 12- and 20-foot straightlengths.

Type L copper tubing is also available ineither hard or soft temper and either in coils or'in straight lengths. The soft temper tubing isoften used as replacement plumbing because ofthe tube's flexibility which allows easier installa-tiOn. Type L copper tubing is widely used inwater distribution systems.

Type M copper tubing is made in hardtemper only and is available in straight lengthsof 12 and 20, feet. It has a thin wall and is usedfor branch si4pplies where water pressure is low,but it is NOD used for mains and risers. It is alsoused for chilled water systems, for exposed linesin hot water heating systems, and for drainagepiping.

Plastic Pipe

Plastic pipe has been extensively used inNAVY construction. Its economy and ease of in-stallation make it increasingly popular for use ineither water distribution systems or sewerdrainage systems. Available in 10-foot lengths, itis lighter than steel or copper and requires nospecial tools to install. Plastic pipe has severaladvantages over metal pipe: It is flexible; it hassuperior resistance to rupture from freezing; ithas complete resistance to corrosion; and, inaddition, it can be installed above or belowground. Plastic fittings are available which aresimilar in appearance to those used with metalpiping. Plastic pipe can also be adapted toiinetalpipe fittings. Valves used with plastic pipe areusually made of brass.

Cast-Iron Water Pipe

Cast-iron pipe, sometimes called cast-ironpressure pipe, is used for water mains and fre-quently for service pipe up to a building. Unlikecast-iron soil pipe, cast-iron water pipe is

manufactured in 20-foot lengths rather than

4-2

5-foot lengths. Besides bell and spigot joints,cast-iron water pipes and fittings are made witheither flanged, mechanical, or screwed joints.The screwed joints are only used on smalldiameter pipe.

The three major types of fittings used withcast-iron water pipe are tees, elbows, andcouplings. They are similar in appearance to thefittings used with cast-iron soil pipe (to be dis-cussed later).

Galvanized Steel Pipe

Galvanized steel pipe is commonly used forthe water distributing pipes inside a building tosupply hot and cold water to the fixtures. Thistype of pipe is manufactured in 20-foot lengthsand to resist corrosion, it is GALVANIZED(coated with zinc) at the factory, both itiside andoutside. Pipe sizes are based on nominal IN-SIDE diameters. Inside diameters vary with thethickness of the pipe. Outside diameters remainconstant so that pipe can be threaded for stand-ard fittings.

Common types of fittings used with galva-nized steel pipe are shown in figure 4-2. TheSTRAIGHT COUPLING is used for joiningtwo lengths of pipe in a straight run Mich doesNOT require additional fittings. A run is thatportion of a pipe or fitting continuing in astraight line in the direction of flow. AREDUCER is used to join two pipes of differentsizes. The ECCENTRIC REDUCER has twofemale (inside) threads of different sizes withdifferent centers so when they are joined, thetwo pieces of pipe will NOT be in line with eachother, but can be installed so as to provideoptimum drainage of the line.

A NIPPLE is a short length of pipe (12inches or less) with a male (outside) thread oneach end. It is used to make an extension from afitting and is available in many precut sizes. TheTEE is used for connecting pipes of differentdiameters or for changing direction of pipe runs.The 900 and 45° ELBOW (or ELLS) are used tochange direction of the pipe either 90° or 45 °.Regular elbows have female threads at bothoutlets. In a close space where it is impossible orimpractical to use a regular elbow and nipple

Cha ter s 4--MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL Y TEMS MATERIALS

STRAIGHTCOUP ING

I. .qi44d4f111

11111111111111111

...

CLOSENIPPLE

TEE

REDUCER

SHOULDERNIPPLE

e

NIPPLE

900 ELL

UNION BUSHING

450 ELL

ECCENTRICREDUCER

I

1.11111.01111111

3

NIPPLE

STREET ELL

PLUG CAP

Figure 4-2.Types of pipe fittings.

4-3

93

11.310


together, the STREET ELBOW or ELL is usedto change direction. Unlike a regular elbow, ithas one female and one male threaded outlet.

To join straight runs of pipe, UNIONS andCOUPLINGS are used. A clamp on thecoupling allows for easy disconnection withoutdisturbing the pipes themselves. A pipeBUSHING is a specialized fitting with a malethread on the outside and a female thread on theinside. Bushings may be used to reduce the siz-of openings of fittings and valves to a smallerdiameter. Pipe PLUGS are fittings with malethreads screwed into other fittings to close open-ings. Pipe plugs have various types of heads,such as square, slotted, and hexagon. A pipeCAP is a fitting with a female thread and it isused for the same purpose as a plug, except thatthe pipe cap screws on the male thread of a pieceof pipe or nipple.

Fittings are identified by the sizes of pipewhich are connected to their openings. For ex-ample, a 3- by 3- by 1 1/2-inch tee is one that hastwo openings for a 3-inch run of pipe and a1 1 /2-inch reduced outlet. If all openings are thesame size, only one nominal diameter isdesignated. For example, a 3-inch tee is one thathas three 3-inch openings.

Valves

Valves are devices that are used to stop,start, or regulate the flow of water into,through, or from pipes. Essentially, valves con-sist of a body containing an openiug and ameans of closing the opening with a valve disc orplug which can be tightly pressed against aseating surface around or within the opening.Figure 4-3 shows three kinds of valves used inplumbing systems. They are the gate, globe, andcheck valves.

The GATE VALVE has a wedge- shaped,movable plug, called a gate, which fits tightlyagainst the seat when the valve is closed. Whenthe gate is open an unrestricted flow passage isprovided. The gate valves are operated eitherfully open or closed, never in any other positionto adjust the rate of flow.

GLOBE VALVES, so called because of theirglobular-shaped body, are used for regulating

4-4

GATE VALVE

INLET

GLOBE VALVE

SWING CHECK VALVE

Figure 4.3.Types of valves.45.870

flow by means of throttling (adjusting rate offlow).

CHECK VALVES are principally used toautomatically prevent backflow in pipelines.The SWING CHECK VALVE, shown in figure4-3, is used where an unrestricted flow is desired.

The direction of flow is usually indicated bythe manufacturer on globe and check valves.Gate valves are installed without regard to flowdirection.

Chapter 4MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (MATERIALS)

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The purpose of a drainage system is to carrysewage, rainwater, or other liquid wastes to apoint of disposal, Although there are three typesof drainage systemsstorm, industrial, andsanitarywe will discuss only the latter which isthe most common drainage system installed bythe SEABEES.

Sanitary Drainage System

The SANITARY DRAINAGE SYSTEMcarries sanitary and domestic wastes and ter-minates at a sewage treatment facility. Surfaceand ground waters must be excluded from thissystem to prevent an Overload of the sewagetreatment facilities.

Cast-iron and galvanized-steel pipes and fit-tings are used most often in the installation of asanitary drainage system. However, the types ofmaterials actually used will depend uponwhether the installation is underground, outsidebuildings, underground within buildings, oraboveground within buildings. The availabilityof certain types of desired materials might also,govern the type of pipe actually used. Below, wewill discuss some of the material used in asanitary drainage system.

CAST-IRON PIPE AND FITTINGS.-Cast-iron soil pipe and fittings are composed ofgray cast iron made of compact, close-grain, pigiron, scrap iron and steel, metallurgiml coke, orlimestone. Cast-iron soil pipe is normally used in

or under buildings, protruding at least 5 feetfrom the building. Here, it connects into a con-crete or clay sewerline. Cast-iron soil pipe is alsoused when going under roads or other places ofheavy traffic. If the soil is unstable or containscinder and ashes, vitrified clay pipe is usedinstead of cast-iron soil pipe.

Cast-iron soil pipe comes in 5-foot and10-foot lengths, with nominal inside diametersof 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 15 inches. It isavailable as single-hub or double-hub in design,as indicated in figure 4-4. Note that single-hubpipe has a hub at one end and a spigot at theother, while a double-hub pipe has a hub onboth ends. Hubs or bells, of cast-iron soil pipe

4-5

BARREL

-* HUB

SINGLE HUB PIPE

BARREL

- HUB

DOUBLE HUB PIPE

SPIGOT

HUB

11

54.24

Figure 4-4.Single-hub and double-hub cast-iron soil pipe.

are enlarged sleeve-like fittings, which are cast asa part of the pipe to make water- and pressure-tight joints with oakum and lead. Cast-iron soilpipe fittings are used for making branch connec-tions or changes in direction of a line. Commontypes of fittings are described. below and shownin figure 4-5.

Bends. The 1/16 bend is used to change thedirection of cast-iron soil pipe 22 1/2 °. A 1/8bend changes the direction 45 °. The direction ischanged 90° in a close space when the SHORT-SWEEP 1/4 bend is used. The LONG-SWEEP1/4 bend is used to change the direction 90°more gradually than a quarter bend. TheREDUCING 1/4 bend changes the direction ofthe pipe gradually 90° and in the sweep portion,it reduces nearly one size.

Tees. Tees are used to connect branches tocontinuous lines. For connecting lines of dif-ferent sizes, REDUCING tees are often used.The TEST tee is used in stack and waste installa-tions where the vertical stack joins the horizon-tal sanitary sewer. it is installed at this point toallow the plumber to insert a TEST tee and fillthe system with water while testing for leakage.The TAPPED tee is frequently used in the vent-ing system where it is called the main vent tee.The SANITARY tee is commonly used in a mainstack to allow the takeoff of a cast-iron soil pipebranch.


(1) 1/16 BEND (t) 1/8 BEND

(I) REDUCING TEE (2) TEST TEE

(3) 1/4 BEND

(3 TAPPED TEE

(A) BENDS (B) TEES

STRAIGHT REDUCING

DOUBLE BOX

(C) 90 V- BRANCHES

I, I) REDUCING (2) STRAIGHT

(D) 45 Y- BRANCHES

Figure 4-5.Common cast-iron soil pipe fittings.

4-6

10

54.25


Ninety. Degree Y- Branches. Four types ofcast-iron soil pipe 90° Y-branches generally usedare illustrated in figure 4-5. These are normallyreferred to as COMBINATION Y AND 1/8thBENDS. The STRAIGHT type of 90° Y-branchis used in sanitary sewer systems where a branchfeeds into a main, and it is desirable to have theincoming branch feeding into the main as nearlyas possible in a line parallel to the main flow.The REDUCING 90° Y-branch is the same asthe straight type, except that the branch cominginto the main is a smaller size pipe than themain. The DOUBLE 90° Y-branch (or DOU-BLE COMBINATION Y and 1/8th BEND) iseasy to recognize since .there is a 45° takeoffbending into a 90° takeoff on both sides of thefitting. It is especially useful as an individualvent. The BOX type 90° Y-branch has twotakeoffs. It is designed so that each takeoffforms a 90° angle with the main pipe. The twotakeoffs are spaced 90° from each other.

Forty-Five Degree Y-Branches. The twotypes of 45 ° Y-branches are the reducing andstraight types. They are used to join two sanitarysewer branches at a 45° angle. The REDUCINGtype is a straight section of pipe with a 45°takeoff of a smaller size branching off one side.The STRAIGHT type of 45 ° Y-branch, or trueY, is the same as the reducing type except thatboth bells are the same size.

VITRIFIED CLAY AND CONCRETEPIPE. Vitrified clay pipe is made of mois-tened, powdered clay. It is available in layinglengths of 2, 2 1/2, and 3 feet, and in diametersranging from 4 to 42 inches. Like cast-iron soilpipe, it has a bell end and a spigot end to facili-tate joining. Vitrified clay pipe is used for housesewerlines, sanitary sewer mains, and stormdrains. The types of fittings for clay pipe arefew: bends and T- and Y-branches, primarily.

Precast concrete pipe may be used for sewersin the smaller sizesthose less than 24 inches.This pipe is not reinforced with strA.1. Dimen-sions of concrete pipe are similar to vitrified claypipe.

Figure 4-6 shows some common fittings usedwith vitrified clay and concrete pipes. It shouldbe noted that these types of pipes are used out-side the building which greatly reduces the

4-7

Ì -BRAN CH

SHORT-RADIUSV8 BEND

DOUBLE-BRANCH

LONG-RADIUS1/4 BEND

INCREASER

T -BRANCH

REDUCER

54.35

Figure 4-6.Cross section of clay or concrete fittings.

number of different types of fittings. Joints onvitrified clay and concrete pipe are made ofcement or bituminous compounds. Cementjoints might be made of grouta mixture ofcement, sand, and water.

ABOVEGROUND DRAINAGE PIP-INC Aboveground sewage piping withinbuildings consists of either one or a combinationof the following: brass or copper pipe, coppertubing, extra heavy or service - weight cast iron,galvanized wrought iron, galvanyed steel orlead, or plastic pipe. However, galvanized steelpipe is the most often used pipe.

UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE PIP-ING.Underground piping outside of buildingsmay be cast iron, concrete, vitrified clay,


asbestos cement, or rigid plastic, but cast-ironsoil pipe, concrete, and vitrified clay are themost common. Underground piping withinbuildings is usually cast-iron soil pipe; however,galvanized steel, lead, or copper is sometimesused.

TRAPS.A trap is a device which catchesand holds a quantity of water, thus forming aseal which prevents the gases resulting fromsewage decomposition from entering thebuilding through the pipe. Traps (fig. 4-7) mustbe installed on fixtures, such as lavatories, sinks,and urinals, with the exception of a water closetwhich is made with the trap as an integral part ofit.

Traps may be made of copper, plastic, steel,wrought iron, or brass, with brass being themost commonly used. Traps in water closets aremade of vitreous china and are cast right into thefixture. Since the trap may occasionally need tobe cleaned, there should be a plug in the bottomwhich may be removed or the trap should havescrewed connections on each end for easyremoval.

VENTS.Vent pipes allow gases in thesewage drainage system to discharge to the out-side. They allow sufficient air to enter, reducingthe air turbulence in the system. Without a vent,once the water is discharged from the fixture,

Figure 4-7.--Traps.

the moving waste tends to siphon the water fromother fixture traps as it goes through the pipes.This means that the vent piping must serve thevarious fixtures, or groups of fixtures, as well asthe rest of the sewage drainage system. The ventfrom a fixture or group of fixtures ties in withthe main vent stack (fig. 4-8) or the stack ventwhich goes to the exterior. Vent piping may becopper, plastic, cast iron, or steel.

A vent stack is that portion of the verticalsewage drainage pipe which extends above thehighest horizontal drain that is connected to it.It extends through the roof to the exterior of thebuilding. A vent stack is used in multistorybuildings where a pipe is required to provide theflow of air throughout the drainage system. Thevent begins at the soil or waste pipe, just belowthe lowest horizontal connection, and may gothrough the roof or connect back into the soil orwaste pipe.

For more information on plumbing drainagesystems, refer to the latest edition ofUtilitiesman 3 & 2, NAVEDTRA 10656.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

All -buildings require -an ele-c-trical .system to ....provide power for the lights and to run variousappliances and equipment. At all Navy bases,the electrical system consists of three parts: thepowerplant that supplies the electrical power,the distribution system that carries the electricalcurrent from the generating station to thevarious buildings, and the interior wiring systemthat illuminates the building and feeds the elec-trical power to the appliances and equipmentwithin a building.

In this section, we will discuss a variety ofmaterials and fittings that are used in the in-stallation of electrical wiring. For more informa-tion, refer to the latest editions of ConstructionElectrician 3 & 2. NA VEDTRA 10636, Architec-tural Graphic Standards, Army TechnicalManuals, and the National Electrical Code(NEC).

CONDUCTORS

11.327 Electrical conductors generally consist ofdrawn copper or aluminum foi med into wire,

4-8

IUD

Chapter 4MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

MAINVENT TEE

A

MAIN VENT

FOURTHFLOOR

MATERIALS

WASTECONNECTIONS

TNIRFLOOR

SECONDFLOOR

FIRSTFLOOR tire

tr"NOTE: A, 1, C,DESIGNATE

FUTURE TRAPVENT TERMINAL}

TESTTEE

EASEMENT

CONCRETE OR IRICRSTACK SUPPORT

Figure 4.8. Typical stack and vent installation.

They provide paths for the flow of electrical cur-rent. Conductors are usually covered with in-sulation material to minimize the chances forshort circuits and for the protection of person-nel.

Single Conductors

A single conductor might consist of one solidwire or a number of stranded, uncovered, solidwires which share in carrying the total current. Astranded conductor has the advantage of beingmore flexible than a solid conductor, making itmore adaptable for pulling through any bends in

4-9

54.38

a conduit. Common types of single conductorsare shown in figure 4-9.

Conductors vary in diameter. Wire manufac-turers have established a numerical system,called the American Wire Gage (AWG) Stand-ard, to eliminate the necessity for cumbersomecircular mil or fractional inch diameters indescribing wire sizes. Figure 4-10 shows a com-parison of 1/2 actual wire diameters to theirAWG numerical designations. Notice that thewire gage number increases as the diameter ofthe wire decreases.

The wire size Most frequently used forinterior wiring is No. 12 AWG and is a solid


BRAID

COPPER WIRES

RUBBER

TIN

COPPER WIRE

RUBBER

(I) RUBBER-COVERED

BRAID STRANDED

VARNISHED CAMBRIC

( 2 ) CAMBRIC -COVERED

SOLID WIRE

TWO LAYERS OF COTTONIMPREGNATED WITH

PARAFFIN

SOLID WIRE

TIN

( 3) BELL ( 4) PLASTIC - COVERED

73.301

Figure 4-9.Types of single conductors.

conductor. No. 8 and larger wires are normallyused for heavy power circuits or as service en-trance leads to buildings.

The type of wire used to conduct currentfrom out!et boxes to sockets in the lighting fix-tures is called "fixture wire" which has been fac-tory installed with the lighting fixture. It isstranded for flexibility and is usually size 16 or18 AWG.

Multiwire Conductors

A multiwire conductor, called a CABLE, isan assembly of two or more conductors in-sulated from each other with additional insula-tion or a protective shield formed or woundaround the group of conductors. The coveringor insulation for individual wires is color codedfor proper identification. Figure 4-11 showscommon types of multiwire conductors.

4-10

AWG

NUMBERh ACTUAL

SIZEDIAMETER(INCHES)

18 .0403

16 .0508

14 . .0640

12 .0808

10 .1018

8 .1284

6 .184

4 .232

2 .292

1 .332

1/0 .373

2/0 .419

3/0 .470

4/0 .528

45.871Figure 4-10.--Comparison of standard wire gage numbers

to wire diameters.

Nonmetallic-sheathed cable (NMC) is morecommonly called by the trade name"ROMEX." ROMEX (NMC) comes in sizesNo. 14 through 2 for copper conductors andNo. 12 through 2 for aluminum or copper-cladaluminum conductors. This type of cable comeswith a bare (uninsulated) ground wire. Theground wire is laid in the interstices (intervals)between the circuit conductors and under theoutside braid. The ground wire is used to insurethe grounding of all metal boxes in the circuit,and also furnishes the ground for the grounded-type convenience outlets which are required inNavy installations. Romex is NOT authorized to


FILLER

ARMOR RUBBER-

COVEREDWIRES

( 1) METALLIC-ARMORCABLE (BX)

RUBBER -

COVEREDWIRES

\COTTON-

COVEREDPAPER

BRAID

( 2) NONMETALLIC-SHEATHEDCABLE (ROMEX)

RUBBER-COVEREDWIRES

LEAD

( 3 ) LEAD-SHEATHED CABLE

RUBBER-COVERED WIRE

RUBBER TAPE

ASPHALT-

IMPREGNA.TEDWIRE

JUTE RUBBERFILLER

TWO LAYERS

OF DUCK

HARD RUBBER

(4) ARMORED PARKWAY ( 5 ) SERVICE -ENTRANCE

CABLE CABLE

RUBBER

PAPER

UNINSuLATEDWIRE

ARMOR

FABRIC

73.302

Figure 4-11.Types of muldwire conductors ( Wes).

be used as service entrance cable, in garages, instorage battery rooms, imbedded in poured con-crete, or in any hazardous area.

Nonmetallic-sheathed cable is used for tem-porary wiring in locations where the use of con-duit would be unfeasible.

WIRE CONNECTORS

Figure 4-12 shows various types of connec-tors which are used to join or splice conductors.The type used will depedd on the type of installa-tion and the wire size. Most connectors operateon the same principle, that of gripping or press-ing the conductors together. WIRE NUTS areused extensively for connecting insulated singleconductors installed inside of buildings.

4-11

WIRE NUTS

SCREWS

HEXAGONSOCKET

SMALL WIRETERMINAL

73.305

Figure 4-12.Cable and wire connectors.

OUTLET BOXES

Outlet boxes bind together the elements of a

conduit or cable system in a continuousgrounded system. They provide a means ofholding the conduit in position, space formounting such devices as switches and recep-tacles, protection for these devices, and spacefor making splices and connections. Outletboxes used in Navy construction are usuallymade of galvanized steel; however, nonmetallicboxes, such as rigid plastic compounds, are be-ing used for approved installation. Boxes areeither round, octagonal, square, or rectangularin shape. Commonly used outlet boxes areshown in figure 4-13.

An outlet box is simply a metal container, setflush or nearly flush with the wall, floor, or

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2 VOLUME 7.

(A)

(D)

(B)

(E)

Figure 4-13.Types of outlet boxes.

ceiling, into which the outlet, receptacle; orswitch will be inserted and fastened. Figure 4-13(box A) is a 4-inch octagon box used for ceilingoutlets. This box is made with 1/2- or 3/4-inchKNOCKOUTSindentations which can beknocked out to make holes for the admission ofconductors and connectors. Box B is a 411/16-inch square box used for heavy duty, suchas for a range or dryer receptacle. It is made withknockouts up to 1 inch in diameter. Box C is asectional or GEM BOX used for switches orreceptacles. By loosening a screw, the side panelon the gem box can be removed so that two ormore boxes can be GANGED (combined) to in-stall more than one switch or receptacle at alocation. Box D is a UTILITY BOX, called ahandy box, made with 1/2- or 3/4-inchknockouts and used principally for open-typework. Box E is a 4-inch square box with 1/2- or3/4-inch knockouts, used quite often for switchor receptacle installation. It is equipped with

73.15

plastic rings having flanges of various depths sothat the box may set in plaster walls of variousthicknesses.

Besides the boxes shown, there are specialboxes for switches when more than two switchesat one location are required. These are calledCONDUIT GANG BOXES, and they are madeto accommodate three, four, five, or sixswitches. Each size box has a cover made to fit.

CONDUIT AND FITTINGS

An electrical conduit is a pipe, tube, or othermeans in which electrical wires are installed forprotection from accidental damage or from theelements. If pipes or tubing are used, the fittingsdepend upon the pipe or tubing material. Theconduit used in Navy construction is generallyclassified as RIGID, THIN-WALL, or FLEXI-BLE conduits. The three types of conduit andtheir associated fittings are shown in figure 4-14.

4-12

1 /

Chapter 4MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (MATERIALS) L__.

(I) STEEL CONDUIT PIPE

Ma 4111112( 2) CONDULETS

CONDUIT

OUTLETBOXWALL

LOCKNUT BUSHING LOCKNUT BUSHING

( 3 ) DEAD-END CONDUIT IN OUTLET BOX

A. RIGID CONDUIT

(4) CONDUIT COUPLING

(5) CONDUIT ELBOW

(6) CONDUIT UNION

,t\ % .; .. . ;

(1 ) THIN-WALLCONDUIT

( 3 1 BOX CONNECTOR

C1=111(I) PLAIN ( 2 ) PLASTIC

likt,.... 0 ..

omf.41111-;,

( 3) (4)COUPLINGS FOR COUPLINGS

FLEXIBLE-STEEL FLEXIBLECONDUIT RIGID CONDUIT

C. FLEXIBLE (GREENFIELD)

)00111k- COVERED

I 1

44

( 5)FOR BOX

-TO-CONNECTOR

CONDUIT

TYPE(2) INDENTFITTING

)COUPLING

H111,11111

timirB. THIN-WALL CONDUIT

Figure 4-14.Types of conduit and their associated fittings.

4-13

1V3

45.872


Rigid Conduit

Rigid galvanized steel or aluminum conduitis made in 10-foot lengths. It is threaded on bothends and comes with a coupling on one end. Itcomes in sizes. from 1/2 inch to 6 inches indiameter. Various fittings used for connectingrigid-metal conduit are shown in figure 4-14.

Another type of rigid conduit has recentlybeen approved by NAVFAC. This is rigid plasticconduit which is specially suitable for use inareas where corrosion of metal conduits hasbeen a problem. This condUit is primarily in-tended for underground wire and cable racewayuse and is made in two forms. Type I is designedfor concrete encasement, and Type II is designedfor direct earth burial. Rigid plastic conduit andfittings are joined together by a solvent-typeadhesive welding process. It also comes in sizesof 1/2 to 6 inches in diameter. To change direc-tion in the line, they are either bent'or connectedto junction boxes. Elbow fittings may also beused.

Thin-Wall Conduit

Electric metallic tubing (EMT) or thin-wallconduit, as it is better known, is a type of con-duit with a wall thickness quite a bit less than therigid conduit, and is made in sizes from 1/2 to 2inches in diameter. Thin-wall conduit cannot bethreaded; therefore, special types of fittings, asshown in figure 4-14, must be used for connect-ing pipe-to-pipe to boxes.

Flexible Conduit

Flexible conduit (fig. 4-14) is a spirallywrapped metal band wound upoh itself. andinterlocking in such a manner as to provide around cross section of high mechanical strengthand flexibility. It is used where rigid conduitwould be impossible to install and requires noelbow fittings. It is made in sizes from 1/2 to 3inches in diameter.

SWITCHES

For interior wiring, single-pole, 3- or 4-waytoggle switches are used. Most of the switches

will be 'single-pole, but occasionally a 3-waysystem is installed, and on rare occasions, a4-way system.

A single-pole switch is a one-blade, on-and-off switch which may be installed singly or inmultiples of two or more in the same metal box.

In a 3-way switch circuit, there are two posi-tions, either of which may be used to turn a lightON or OFF. The typical situation is one in whichone switch is at the head of a stairway and theother at the foot.

A 4-way switch is an extension of a 3-way cir-cuit by the addition of a 4-way switch series.

Note that 3- and 4-way switches can be usedas single-pole switches, and 4-way switches canbe used as 3-way switches. Some activities mayinstall all small-wattage, 4-way switches for alllighting circuits to reduce their inventories.However, 3- and 4-way switches are usuallylarger than single-pole switches and take upmore box room. The size of a switch depends onits ampacity (rated maximum amperage). Theampacity and maximum allowable voltage arestamped on the switch.

RECEPTACLES

A convenience outlet (fig. 4-15) is a duplexreceptacle with two vertical or T-slots and a

CENTER TAB MATBE BROKEN OFFTO ISOLATE THETWO SCREWTERMINALS

Figure 4-15.---Duplex convenience outlet.

4-14

1 0 H

73.28

Chapter 4 MECHANICAL, AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (MATERIALS)

Figure 4.16.Range receptacle.

round contact for theconnected to the framegrounded to the boxsecure the receptacle to

73.29

ground. This ground is

of the receptacle and is

by way of screws thatthe box.

A range receptacle (fig. 4-16) might be either

a surface type or a flush type. It has two slanted

contacts and one vertical contact and is rated at

50 amps. Receptacles for clothes dryers aresimilar but are rated at 30 amps. Range and

dryer receptacles are rated at 250 volts and are

used with three-wire, 115/230 volts, two hot

wires and a neutral. A receptacle for use with anair-conditioner taking 230 volts is made with twohorizontal slots and one round contact for the

ground.

DISTRIBUTION PANELS

A panelboard is defined by the NationalElectric Code (NEC) as "a single panel or groupof panel units designed for assembly in the form

of a single panel, including buses (buses and

busways are explained in articles 364 and 384-21

of the NEC). It comes with or without switchesand/or automatk. -current protective devices

for the control ot . ,At, heat, or power circuits

of small individual as well as aggregate capacity;

4-15

.r

73.11

Figure 4-17.Lighting panel.

it is designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutoutbox and placed in or against a wall or partition

and is 6114y accessible from the front."

As an Engineering Aid, the electrical layout

of breaker panels for both light and power is

your main concern. (See fig. 4-17.) The breaker

panel uses a thermal unit built into the switch

with the breaker being preset at the factory to

open automatically at a predetermined amperesetting. It may be reset to the ON position after a

short cooling-off period.Lighting panels are normally equipped with

15-amp single-pole automatic circuit breakers,while the power panels may have 1-, 2-, or 3-pole

automatic circuit breakers with a capacity tohandle the designated load. Figure 4-18 shows a

typical layout for an entrance switch, a lightingpanel, and a power panel.

In most buildings, the entrance switch and

panelboards should be mounted close to each

other,

11 o


TO MOTORS AND CONVENIENCE OUTLETS

73.12

Figure 4-18.Typkal layout for entrance switch, lighting panel, and power panel.

CHAPTER 5

HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

The success of ;s military operation oftendepends on rapidity of movement andmaintenance of sv,pply lires. In turn, both de-pend on routes or lines of travel; that is, roads,

railways, sea routes, and air lanes. Parts of theseroutes are usually constructed by the SEABEES;

. example, a road for automotive vehicles or aFIELD FOR AIRCRAFT.

It is easy to see that road construction and

airfield construction have much in commonmethod, of construction, equipment used,

sequence of operations, and the like. Each road

or airfield requires a subgrade, base course, and

surface course. The methods of cutting and fill -

ing, grading and compacting, and surfacing all

are similar. The responsibility for des igning and

laying out lies with the same persontheengineering officer.

As an Engineering Aid reporting to aSEABEE unit for duty, you can expect anassignment in the Engineering Division, which is

directed by an engineering officer. To be able to

carry out this assignment, you must learn theterminology of road and airfield construction,methods of construction, and uses of commonconstruction materials.

The principles of plotting points and drawing

layouts for roads and airfields will be discussed

in a later volume which is under development.

ROADS

A military road is defined as any route used

by the military for transportation of any type.

This includes everything from a superhighway to

a simple path through the jungle. The type ofroad required depends mainly upon the missions

5-1

of the units that use it. In forward combat

zones, the requirements are usually met by the

most expedient road; that is, one that will get the

job done with no attempt for permanency. Inthe rear zones, however, the requirementsusually call for some degree of permanency andrelatively high construction standards.

NOMENCLATURE

When assigned to the Engineering Division,

you may help prepare the working plans for theconstruction of roads and airfields; example, a2-lane, earth, gravel, or paved-surface road.Figures 5-1 and 5-2 show the basic parts of aroad. The following are definitions of terms thatyou are likely to use when preparing the working

plans for a road.

a. CUT. (1) An excavation through whichthe road passes. (2) The vertical distance the

final grade is below the existing grade.

b. FINAL, OR FINISHED GRADE. The

elevation to which the road surface is built.

c. SURFACE. That portion of the roadwhich comes into direct contact with traffic.

d. EXISTING GRADE. Tht undisturbedearth before construction begins.

e. FILL. (1) Earth that has been piled up tomake the road. (2) The vertical distance the final

grade is above the existing grade.

f. SUBGRADE. The foundation of a road

which can be either undisturbed earth (for a cut)

or material placed on fop of the existing grade.

g. BASE. Select ! material (crushed stone,gravel, etc.) placed in. a layer over the subgrade

for the purpose of distributing the load to the

subgrade.


THROUGH CUT

. .. _ . da.

SIDE HILL CUT ---

SHOULDER

CULVERTTRAVELED WAY

'' SURFACE OR WEARING COURSEe, ' 11111// /,NI /'///1 ////,

FILL

444.

INTERCEPTORDITCH

Figure 5-1.Perspective of road illustrating road nomenclature.

ROADBED

ROADWAY

TRAVELEDWAY

TRAFFIC LANE.:

-1/2:?:2.f.-.4.,.

1_, . ., A ..4 -::!ie...DITCH :%;'i. N',. lt,'F.--,.... Anveip. e.._,,.,./...y.z.4.4.,/a;.7,... :na grAL4,,,,a4,,,.,4..,,,,,,_

`....::.' rff...,

45.873

CROWN

BACK SLOPE

DITCH SLOPE

SURFACECOURSE

COURSEr-v.'SIDESLOPE

SHOULDER

Figure 5-2.Typical cross-section illustrating road nomenclature.

5-2.1 1

45.8/4

WEIN...M.MMIIIMChapter 5HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

h. TRAFFIC LANE. Portion of the roadsurface ever which a single line of traffic travel-

ing in the same direction will pass.i. TRAVELED WAY. That portion of the

roadway upon which all vehicles travel (both

lanes for a 2-lane road).j. SHOULDERS. The additional width im-

mediately adjacent to each side of the traveled

way.k. ROADBED. The graded portion of a

highway usually considered as the area betweenthe intersections of top and side slopes uponwhich the base course, surface course,shoulders, and median are constructed.

1. ROADWAY, The portion of a highway,

including shoulders, for vehicular use.m. ROADWAY DITCH. The excavation,

br channel adjacent and parallel to the roadbed.

n. DITCH SLOPE. The slope which ex-

tends from the outside edge of the shoulder to\ the bottom of the ditch.

o. BACK SLOPE. The slope from the top

dc the cut to the bottom of the ditch.p. SIDE SLOPE. The slope from the out-

side edge of the shoulder to the toe of the fill.

q. TOE OF SLOPE. The extremity of the

fill (where the existing grade intercepts the fill).

r. INTERCEPTOR DITCH. (1) A ditchcut to intercept the water table of any subsurfacedrainage. (2) A ditch cut along top of fills to in-

tercept surface drainage.s. WIDTH OF CLEARED AREA. The

width of the entire area that is cleared for the

roadway.t. SLOPE RATIO. A measure of the

relative steepness of the slope, expressed as the

ratio of the horizontal distance to the vertical

distance.u. CENTERLINE. The exact center, or

middle, of the roadbed; the symbol for

centerline is q.v. BLANKET COURSE. A 1- or 2-inch

screening spread upon subgrade to prevent mix-

ing of base and subgrade.w. CROWN. The difference in elevation

between the centerline and the edge of thetraveled way.

x. SUPERELEVATION. The difference in

elevation between the outside and inside edge of

the traveled way in a horizontal curve.

5-3

y. STATION. A horizontal distancegenerally measured in intervals of 100 feet along

the centerline.z. STATION NUMBER. The total

distance from the beginning of construction to aparticular point, (example, 4 + 58 is equal to458 feet).

SURVEY

When it is decided that a road is neededthrough a particular area, the first and logicalstep is to determine a route for it to follow. This

route may be chosen by the use of maps, aerial

photographs, aerial reconnaissance, ground

vehicle reconnaisance, or by walk-throughreconnaissance, or any combination of these.Once the route is chosen, a surveying crewmakes /the preliminary survey.

The preliminary survey consists of a series of

straight lines, called traverse lines, connecting a

series of selected points, called traverse stations.

A survey party will stake in each traverse sta-

tion, determine the distances J,etween them, and

the direction of the straight lines connecting

them. The line direction is known as the bearing

and is measured by the number of degrees a line

deviates from the North-South direction. From

this information, an Engineering Aid will draw

the point of intersections (PI) and the connect-

ing lines. Then an engineer will compute the

horizontal curves at each point of intersection,and an EA will draw the curves and mark thestationing. This is the proposed centerline. This

drawing is given to a final location party who

stakes in the centerline and curves. The party

chief may make changes in alinement with theapproval of the engineer, but the changes mustbe recorded. Once the final location is deter-

mined, all information and changes pertinent to

the location are used to prepare a second and

final drawing showing the final centerline loca-

tinny construction limits, all curves and curvedata, station marks, control points, natural and

manmade terrain features, trees, buildings, and

anything that is helpful in construction. This

drawing is a "bird's-eye view" of the road and is

actually what you see from a position directlyabove. This is known as a road plan (fig. 5-3). It

is drawn on plan-and-profile paper. The plan is

CURVE DATA I

I 5$80 x 23°11: 2 40 11

T t 1 32.53

L 243.41

cVtooCr 3400

**3\ 2400

PI I OR 6

S 0

lh

1+00

STA 1 +42 47

_STA 0400SE/1N CONSTRUCTION

T STA 3445115

4+00

5+00

00

;: to

U.S ROUTE tt904 LANES

1 +0010+00

5400 1+00

RC. STA 1445.95

CURVE DATA 2

I t 54n 4203o°N = 21121

TL 110.2/

L: 203./1

Figure 5-3.The road plan.

P/

00

OR A

11+00

T. STA 104 49.12

FIELD SKETCHNOTE : THIS ORAWING IS NOT TO SCALE

War oim Rtml aim;

12 +00

45.875

I;

13+00

Chapter 5 HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

drawn on the upper portion to any scale desired.The bottom portion is composed of grid linesand is used for the road profile.

ROAD PLAN

The road plan, or plan view, shows theactual location and length of the road measuredalong the centerline. The length is determined bythe stations. The beginning of the road is nor-mally given the station number 0 + 00 andwould be noted on the plans in this manner:

sta. 0 + 00 ',NI

Begin construction

The numbers on the left side of the plus sign

(+ ) are station numbers which show the number

of full stations from the beginning of the projectto the point in question. The numbers on theright show the fractional parts of one station.

Example 1:

79sta. 36 + 79 means 36 full stations and 100

of one station. This point would be 3,679feet from the beginning of the road.

Example 2:

119 + 26"

This point is 11,926.80 feet from the begin-ning. A full station represents 100 feet, and aplus station represents any distance between fullstations. Full stations are shown on the plans as

a 1/4-inch hash mark through the centerline.Plus stations are shown by shorter hash markson the upper side of the centerline. The hashmarks are always drawn perpendicular to the

centerline. The station numbers themselves areput on the plan in a horizontal position andcentered on the hash marks.

All manmade and natural objects, such astrees, buildings, fences, wells, and so on, arealso plotted on the plan if they are in the right-

of-way or construction limits. (Right-of-way is

the land acquired for the road construction.)

5-5

These objects and their location are taken fromthe surveyor's notebook. Their location is deter-mined by a station number and their distancefrom ,. All measurements and distances aremade perpendicular to the of the particularstation unless otherwise noted.

Horizontal Curves

The. road centerline consists of straight lines

and curves. The straight lines are r:.alled

tangents, and the curves are called horizontalcurves. These curves are used to change thehorizontal direction of the road. All informationnecessary to draw a curve should be furnished bythe.. engineer or surveyor's notebook. Thenecessary information is known as curve data.Below is the data for a curve and the explanationof the terms.

= 56°13'D = 18°42'T = 163.39'L = 300.62'R = 307.76'

(a) The symbol t (Delta) represents the

deflection angle made by the tangents where

they intersect, and is known as the intersectionangle and may also be represented by the symbol

I (fig. 5-3).(b) D is the degree of curvature, or degree of

curve. It is the angle subtended by a 100-foot arc

or chord (fig. 5-3).(c) T is the tangent length and is measured

from the PI to the point of curvature (PC) andthe point of tangency (PT), The PC is the begin-

ning of the curve, and the PT is the end of the

curve.(d) L is the total length of the curve

measured in feet along the arc.(e) R is the radius of the curve, or arc. The

radius is always perpendicular to the curvetangents at the PC and the PT.

(f) A horizontal curve is generally selected

to fit the terrain. Therefore, some of the curve

data will be known. The following formulae

show definite relationships between elements

and allow the unknown quantities to be com-

puted.

ENGINEERING AID

(g) To find the radius, R, or degree Iif cur-vature, D:

R = 5729'58 5729 58D D

R

(h) For T, the distance between PC and PIand PI and PT:

AT = R Tanr

(i) To find L, the length of curve

L = 1- 00 A (D and A in degrees)

(j) The PC and PT is designated on the planby a partial radius drawn at each point and asmall circle on the centerline. The stationnumber of the PC and PT is noted as in figure5-3. The length of the curve, L, is added to thePC station to obtain the station of the PT. Thecurve data is noted on the inside of the curve itpertains to and is usually between the partialradii.

Since horizontal curves have superelevation(SE), there must be a transition distance inwhich the shape of the road surface changesfrom a normal crown to a superelevated curve.The transition length (TL) is generally 150 feetand starts 75 feet before the PC is reached. Thesame is true in leaving curves. The transitionbegins 75 feet before the PT and ends 75 feetbeyond. The beginning and end of thesuperelevation is noted on the plan.

Control Points

Control points are points from which theof the road may be reestablished when theoriginal points have been destroyed by construc-tion equipment. These points may be a PT, PC,POT (point on tangent) or PI. To relocate them,reference by setting two or more points on acommon line. The angle the line makes with thecenterline and the distance to the points ismeasured and recorded (fig. 5-3). This informa-tion is taken from the surveyor's notebook.Reference the control points by driving iron pins

5-6

3 & 2 VOLUME 2kat right angles to the point on each side of thecenterline and measure the distance. If roomallows, draw the references directly on the planopposite the control point. If not, show the con-trol points and references on a separate sheet,called a reference sheet.

ROAD PROFILE

As stated before, the road profile is drawnon the lower section of the plEin-profile paper.Profile is defined as the representation ofsomething in outline. When applied to roads,this means the outline of the original groundtaken along the centerline. The profile is nothingmore than a side view of the earth made by alongitudinal cutting plane along the centerlineand always viewed perpendicular to. thecenterline (fig. 5-4).

The profile is drawn from information in thesurveyor's notebook. The ground elevations arenornully taken every 50 feet along the centerlineand at major breaks in the terrain. The shotsmay be every 100 feet if the ground slope is con-stant.

The station numbers are lettered across thebottom of the paper in a horizontal position andon a heavy grid line. The heavy grid lines, bothhorizontal and vertical, are usually 2 inches or 21/2 inches apart, and are further subdivided.The horizontal scale normally used is 1 inch =50 feet or 1 inch = 40 feet. The vertical scale isexaggerated, or blown up, and is generally 10times greater than the horizontal scale.Therefore, vertically, 1 inch = 5 feet or 1

inch = 4 feet. After the proper scale is selected,datum elevations arc lettered along the left (andsometimes right) border on the heavy horizontalgrid lines. These elevations range below andabove the lowest and highest profile elevations,respectively, on that sheet. For example, thehighest profile elevation is 537.2 and the lowestis 514.7. The lowest datum elevation would be510.0. On the next heavy grid above would belettered 520.0, the next 530.0. The highest wouldbe 540.0.

The elevations given in the surveyor'snotebook are plotted above their respective sta-tions. To plot an elevation, make a dot and then

Chapter 5_ HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

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lightly circle it. Connect the elevation points

with straight-dashed lines of medium length. Do

not miss a point.A road gradeline is also drawn on the lower

portion of the plan-profile paper and is

represented by a heavy solid line. The gradeline

is also a longitudinal section along the centerline

or side view and shows the elevations to which

the road is built (fig. 5-4). The gradeline is nor-

mally the centerline elevations of the finished

surface, but may be the centerline elevations of

the subgrade. If the subgrade was used, make a

special note of it.The gradelines are a series of straight lines

(tangents) connected by curves, called vertical

curves. The lines may be level or sloped. If the

lines slope upward, the grade is positive; if

downward, the grade is negative. The slopes are

in reference to the direction of increasing sta-

tions. The amount of slope is lettered above the

gradeline and is usually indicated as the percent

of slope. In figure 5-4, the slope from sta. 66 +

00 to 71 + 00 is + 2.00 percent. This means the

centerline grade rises 2 feet in 100 feet horizontaldistance. If the slope is 1.50 percent, the grade

would fall 1.50 feet in 100 feet horizontal

distance.

45.876

The point at which the straight lines intersect

is tne PVI (point of vertical intersection). This

point is comparable to the P1 of horizontal

curves.

Vertical Curves

If the road is to offer safe, comfortable driv-

ing, the point of vertical intersection (PVI) must

not break sharply. The length of the curvedepends upon the steepness of the intersectinggrades. In most cases, a vertical curve is sym-

metrical; its length is the same on both sides of

the PVI. The length is horizontal as opposed to

the length along the curve. The station on which

the curve begins or ends is called the point of

vertical curvature (PVC) or point of vertical

tangency (PVT), respectively. Unlike horizontal

curves, vertical curves are parabolic; they have

no constant radius. Therefore, the curves are

plotted, usually in 50-foot lengths, by com-

puting the offsets from the two tangents. A ver-

tical curve at the crest or top of a hill is called a

SUMMIT CURVE or OVERVERTICAL.; one

at the bottom of a hill or dip is called a SAG

CURVE or UNDERVERTICAL.

5-7


Gradelines

The gradeline is drawn using the samehorizontal and vertical scale as the profile. Thisallows the amount of cut or fill for a particularpoint to be measured. If the gradeline is higherthan the profile, fill is required. If lower, it iscut.

The profile and gradeline drawings also showthe relative locations of drainage structures,such as box culverts and pipe. Only the verticalscale is used to draw these structures. Theheights of the structures are accurately plottedusing the horizontal scale. The widths cannot beaccurately drawn due to the large vertical scale,so the structures are drawn just wide enough toindicate the type structure. A box culvert wouldshow as a high, narrow rectangle and a roundpipe as a high, narrow ellipse.

ROAD DIMENSIONS

The type of dimensioning used for roadplans is a variation of the standard dimension-ing. In road dimensioning, numerical values forelevations, cuts, fills, and stations are considereddimensions also.

a. STATION NUMBERS. Most roaddimensions appear on the profile-gradelinedrawing. The station numbers are letteredhorizontally below the profile-gradeline and arecenteted on the appropriate vertical grid line.

b. ELEVATIONS. At the bottom of thesheet the profile and gradeline elevations foreach station are lettered vertically. The gradelineelevations are lettered just above the profileelevations. Any station numbers other than fullstations are noted as plus stations vertically justoutside the bottom border (fig. 5-5).

c. CUTS AND FILLS. Above the profileand gradeline elevations are lettered the cuts andfills (fig. 5-5). They are also in a vertical posi-tion. The gradepoints, or points where the pro-file crosses the gradeline, are also noted in thisrow. They are designated by the word"GRADE" lettered vertically above the grade-point station.

d. DITCHES. There are two steps in theprocedure for dimensioning ditches.

(1) Extension lines are drawn from theends of a ditch, or any point in the ditch wherethe ditch grade changes. These lines are extendeddownward, and dimension lines drawn, withheavy arrowheads. These extension and dimen-sion lines should be heavier than normal so theymay be distinguished from grid lines.

(2) The information necessary to describethe ditch is lettered above the dimension line. Ifthe lettering is crowded, the space below the linemay also be used. The information furnished isthe percent of grade of the ditch, depth relativeto centerline, type, and width of ditch. Theelevation and station are given at the ends of theditches and at changes of grade (fig. 5-5).

e. VERTICAL CURVES. Each verticalcurve on the gradeline is also dimensioned. Ex-tension lines are drawn upward from the PVCand PVT. A dimension line and arrowheads aredrawn and the length of the curve letteredabove. The station and elevation of the PVC,PVI, and PVT are lettered vertically over thesepoints and above the dimension line.

f. CORRELATION WITH PLAN. Allpoints on the profile-gradeline coincide withcenterline points on the plan. The beginning andending of construction of the plan view are alsoshown on the gradeline as beginning and end ofconstruction. The elevations at these points arealso noted.

g. DRAINAGE STRUCTURES. Alldrainage structures, such as pipes and culverts,are dimensioned by notes. The station number,size of opening, length of pipe, and flow lineelevation are noted.

h. TITLE. The title, "PROFILE ANDGRADELINE" is lettered below the ditchdimensions. Below this are noted the horizontaland vertical scales.

SEQUENCE OF CONSTRUCTION

In constructing a road, there is a sequence tofollow. First, the area through which the roadmust pass is cleared of trees, stumps, brush,

5-81

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EN a INEERING AID 3 & 2 VOLUME 2

boulders, and other debris. The width of theclearing varies greatly but is always at least 12feet greater than the roadway width. That is,there must be a minimum of 6 feet clearedbehind the construction limits of each side of theroad.

The next step is the laying of cross-drainpipes and grading operations. The culverts areplaced at a predetermined location, positioned,and sloped, as shown on the roadway plans. Thegrading operations are carried on until the

subgrade is brought up in layers and compacted.In cuts, the excavation is carried on untilsubgrade elevation is reached; the earth is thencompacted.

After grading is complete, a base course isplaced on the subgrade. This material can begravel, sand, crushed stone, or more expensiveand permanent materials. A surface course isplaced over the base. This material can be sand-asphalt, blacktop, concrete, or similar materials.

FEATHER EDGECONSTRUCTION

SINGLE COURSE FEATHER EDGE CONSTRUCTION

30'

4' II' I'MOULDER

SURFACE COURSE_BASE COURSE

\--BLANKET COURSE

MULTI-COURSE CONSTRUCTION IN FILL

30'. 1.

411N

LDER

SURFACE COURSEBASE COURSE

DOUBLE COURSE TRENCH TYPE CONSTRUCTIONSUPERELEVATED SIDE HILL CUT

Figure 5-6. -- Typical section.

5-10

12j

45.878

Chapter 5-- HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

In some cases, traffic may be allowed totravel over the subgrade itself. In others, trafficmay require only a gravel or stone surface. But abase and a hard durable surface must be builtfor a high -sped road.

SECTIONS

In the construction of a road, there are cer-tain conditions or requirements that must bemet. One requirement is that the shape andfeatures of the road be as uniform as possible.This and other requirements are stipulated in thetypical section for the road, (See figure 5-6.)

To get a clear concept of what atypical sec-tion is, remember the meanings of section andtypical. A section is a view of an object that hasbeen cut by an imaginary plane perpendicular to

the line of sight. Typical means having the essen-

tial characteristics. Here, the section is a view

showing the road cut perpendicular to the line ofsight which is parallel to the road centerline. Tobe typical, the section must show the type andthickness of base and surface material, the

crown, superelevation, ditch slope, cut slope, fill

slope, and all horizontal widths of the road com-ponents, such as surface, shoulders, and ditches.

In other words, the typical section shows what

the road would look like if it were cut at anypoint by a plane. Since in practice there will be

slight discrepancies, a tolerance in constructionis allowed. However, the shape and construction

SHOULDER2'

54

www

of the road should conform to the typical sectionas closely as possible. (For requirements anddesign criteria, refer to DM -5,)

The typical section for a curved road mustalso be shown if there are any curves throughoutthe length of the road. The only change wouldbe the shape of the roadbed. The pavementwould be a plane surface instead of crowned andwould be superelevated to account for the cen-trifugal force encountered in curves. The outsideshoulder slope is the same as the superelevatedpavement slope, but the inside shoulder slope iseither the same or a greater slope. (Insideshoulder refers to the shoulder closer to thecenter of the arc, or curve.)

Curves are also widened on the inside toallow for the "curve straightening" effect oflong wheelbase vehicles. The back wheels of the

trailer in a tractor-trailer rig would not follow inthe tracks of the tractor wheels. They would runcloser to the inside edge on the inside lane andcloser to the centerline on the outside lane. Thispresents a safety hazard when two vehicles meetin curves. Curve widening partially eliminatesthis hazard.

Figure 5-7 is a superelevated section showing

curve widening; table 5-1 lists the widening forvarious degrees of curvature. The angle, indegrees, is subtended by an arc or chord of 100

feet. Notice that the minimum curve widening is

2 feet, but it increases to 3 feet in sharper curves.

23'SHOULDER

c.

Figure 5-7.Curve section.

5-11


Table 5-11Curve Table

Degree of curvature(degrees)

Radius of curvature(feet)

Superelevation(inches per foot)

Widening of two-way-roadson curve (feet)

1°001 4°00' 5,730-1,432 1/4 "/ft 2

5°001 7°00' 1,146 819 3/8"/ft 2

8°001 9°00' 716 637 5/8"/ft 2

10°001-11°00' 572 521 3/4"/ft 2

12°001-13°00' 447 441 7/8"/ft 3

14°001-16°00' 409 359 1 " /ft 3

i 7° 00' 337 1 1/4"/ft 3

CROSS SECTIONS

To determine how closely a road has beenbuilt to conform to the typical section, roadcross sections are taken. Cross sections areusually taken 50 feet apart, on each station andhalf station, and on points which warrant them,such as entrances or side-road approaches.Cross sections, like typical sections, are viewsshowing the road cut by a plane perpendicular tothe line of sight which is parallel to the roadcenterline. Cross sections show the actual shapeof the road, the horizontal width of componentsand their distances from centerline, the con-structed elevations, and the extremities of thecut and fill. They also show the slopes of the sur-face, ditch, shoulders, cut, and fill. Known asFINAL CROSS SECTIONS, they are takenafter the road is completed.

ORIGINAL CROSS SECTIONS are usuallytaken after the roadway has been cleared butmay be taken before. If taken before, thethickness of the sod to be stripped off is nor-mally deducted from the elevations. An originalcross section shows the elevations of the natural,or original ground. They are taken on the samestations as the final cross sections.

The cross sections use the same horizontaland vertical scale in order to eliminate distor-tion. The scale is usually 4 or 5 feet to 1 inch, butit can vary. Distances given in cross section notesare always horizontal, and are plotted horizon-tally. The existing grade elevations given in thesurveyor's notebook are correct to the nearesttenth (0.1) of a foot. (Example: 539.6 may

5-12

actually be anywhere between 539.56 or 539.64.)Final elevations on finished pavement, however,are taken to the nearest hundredth (0.01) of afoot. (Example: 539.60.) The elevations anddistances supplied by the surveyor's notebookshould be plotted as accurately as possible. Theonly data needed for plotting are stationnumbers, elevations of the points, and theirdistances from centerline. The stations are givenin the first column, and the elevations obtainedby subtracting the figures above the horizontalslash in the figures on the right page, from theheight of instrument (HI). The distancesleftand right of the centerline are the numbersbelow the horizontal slashes. Figure 5-8 is anexample of a cross section plotted fromsurveyor's notes.

To designate the point at which the section istaken, the station number of the section is given.If the section is in fill, the station number goesaboye the station and is centered on it. If it iscut, or cut and fill, the station number goesbelow and is centered.

DRAINAGE

Drainage is a major problem in the location,construction, and design of roads. A routeshould never be located where the drainagepresents a problem that cannot be handled orwould be too costly to handle. A route may haveto be relocated because there is not enoughmaterial awilable to build a particular type ofroad. It could be due to a swamp or under-ground spring or high flood waters that can

4 1..)


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Figure 54.Cross section.

cover the road, or flash floods that cancompletely wash out the road. These are some ofthe reasons for planning alternate routes. Dur-ing construction, the problem of drainage ismainly one of preventing standing puddles onthe roadway. This problem is solved by slantingthe worked surface of the road so that water canrun off quickly or by cutting ditches, calledbleeders, so that the water may be carried awayas it accumulates.

Subsurface drainage problems are solved byraising the gradeline of the road or lowering thewater table. In either case, the distance betweenthe water table and the top of the subgradeshould be as great as possible. There are severalways of lowering the water table. In one way,deep open ditches are set back beyond the road-way limits. These ditches intercept the watertable, allowing ground water to seep through thesides. The water then flows along the bottomand out the end of each ditch.

In another way of lowering the water table, adeep trench is dug exactly where the finishedroadway ditch would be. The trench is thenbackfilled to a designated depth with rocks orlarge gravel of varying size, with the larger sizeat the bottom. The rocks are capped with a layer

of branches or straw, and the remainder of thetrench backfilled with soil and compacted. Thistrench is called a French drain (fig. 5-9). A tiledrain is the same as the French drain, except that

a perforated pipe or tile is placed in the bottomof the trench. The trench is then backfilled with

gravel to the desired depth. The minimum pipe

grade is 0.3 percent with the maximum varyingto meet conditions.

5-13

Surface drainage involves water from directprecipitation, surface runoff, rivers, and

streams. (Surface runoff is rainfall that is notabsorbed by the soil, but runs off a surface insheets or rivulets.) Rainfall has an immediateeffect upon a roadway. Obviously, rainwaterwould cause safety hazards or weak spots on theroadway if it were allowed to stand. Water thatfalls upon the surface, or traveled way, isdrained by crowning the surface. That is, con-structing the traveled way so that the middle ishigher than the edges.

The traveled way in curves is drained bysuperelevating the surface. That is, constructingthe traveled way so that the inside edge of the

curve is lower than the outside edge.

The water which drains from the surfacecontinues over the shoulders. The shouldersalways have a slope greater than, or at leastequal to, the surface slope. This slightly in-creases the speed of the draining water and

.therefore increases the rate of drainage. Thewater then flows from the shoulder down theside of the fill, if in a fill section of roadway. Ifthe section is in a cut, the water flows into aroadway ditch. Roadway ditches are not nor-mally in a fill section.

Roadway Ditches

The functioning of a roadway ditch is themost important factor in roadway drainage. Ifthis ditch, which runs alongside the roadway,becomes obstructed or is inadequate for thevolume of water, then the roadbed becomes

NGINEERING AID 3 & 2, VOLUME 2

TOP OF ROAD

ORIGINALWATERTABLE

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LOWERED ).WATERTABLE

COMPACTEDSOIL

COMPACTEDSOIL

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TILE DRAIN

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Figure 54.Subsurface drainage.

flooded. Not only can this block traffic, but itcan also wash away surface and shouldermaterial.

There are several factors to consider in deter-mining the size and type of roadway ditches:volume of water to be carried, the slope of thebackslope, soil types, the "lay of the land," andthe maximum and minimum ditch grades.

The slopes of the surface, shoulders, andbackslopes affect the volume. A steep slopewould increase the RATE of runoff, therebycausing a greater instantaneous volume of waterin the ditch. On the other hand, a lesser slopewould decrease the rate of runoff, but would ex-pose more surface area on the backslope, whichwould increase the AMOUNT of runoff.

The choice of slopes to be used would begoverned by other factors, however. The fore-most are whether the additional excavation isneeded in the roadway construction and the typeof soil. A lesser slope would be required if thecut is in sand instead of clay or rock. TheSTANDARD CUT slope, or backslope, is1 1/2:1 (1 1/2 foot horizontal, 1 foot vertical).This slope may be decreased for sandy soil, orgreatly increased for rock cuts. The STAND-ARD DITCH slope, from the shoulder to the

5-14

FRENCH DRAIN

45.879

bottom of the ditch, is 3:1 (3 foot horizontal, 1foot vertical). All these soil types have differentamounts of runoff. The runoff from a sandy soilis small, but from a clay soil or solid rock, it islarge.

An important design factor is the ditch gradeitself. The minimum grade is 0.5 percent, andthe desirable maximum grade is 4 percent. Agrade greater than 4 percent would cause ex-cessive erosion due to the greater velocity of thewater. In this case, low dams of wood or stones,called check dams, (fig. 5-10), are built acrossthe bottom of the ditch to slow the water down.In general, a moderate velocity is desirable be-cause it prevents excessive erosion and can offsetthe ponding effect of slower moving water.

One factor involving the volume that cannotbe controlled is the rainfall itself. The more in-tense the rainfall and the longer the duration,the greater the volume of water the ditch willhave to carry. Local residents are sometimeshelpful in determining the heaviest rainfall to ex-pect in a particular area, as well as high-watermarks along streams.

Besides the factors involving the volume ofwater, design of the ditch itself must be con-sidered. Two common types of ditches are the

WEIRNOTCHELEVATION

H

Chapter 5HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

S (DESIRED WATER SURFACE GRADE)

SCACf*k

0

ROCK APRON

S t-00 HA-13

SPACING

(S)

Where H r. height of checkdam in feet, measured from

bottom of weir notch to bottom of ditch.

A = % grade of existing ditch.

B = desired % grade of proposed water surface.(H can vary from I to 3 feet. A is usually knownB should be between 0.5% and 4% desirably, 2%).

Figure 5.10. Check dims.

V-bottom ditch and the flat bottom, ortrapezoidal ditch (fig. 5-11). Under similarconditions, water flows faster in a V-bottomthan in a trapezoidal ditch. The side slopefor a shallow V-bottom is 4:1 or greater.

SIDE SLOPES

4:1 OR GREATER

SHALLOW "V"

For a deep V-bottom, the side slope is 3:1,2:1, or 1:1. The side slope for a trapezoidalditch is 3:1, 2:1, or 1:1. The flat bottom is

generally 2 feet wide, but can range from 1 footto 6 feet or more.

3: 12:1: /

3:/2:I:/

DEEP " V" TRAPEZOIDAL

Figure 5-11.Types of ditches.

5-15

12j


Interceptor Ditches

The volume of water draining into a roadwayditch can be decreased by tli. use of shallowditches that extend around the top of the cut andintercept the water draining from the originalground toward the roadway. An interceptorditch (fig. 5-12) is dug 2 or 3 feet behind thebackslope limits. Its size depends on the originalground slope, runoff area, type of soil andvegetation, and other factors relating to runoffvolume.

Diversion Ditches

As it leaves the cut, water from the roadwayditches cannot be allowed to pond in the ditchesor against the roadway fill. Therefore, diversionditches are dug to carry the water away from the

411.

DO NGRADE

44..DITCH- RELIEF

roadway to natural drains. These drains can berivers, streams, gullies, sinkholes, naturaldepressions, or hollows.

Culverts

Sometimes it is necessary to have the waterflow from one side of the road to the other orhave the road cross a small stream. This is donewith cross drains. They are called culverts if 10feet or less in width. Over 10 feet wide, they arecalled bridges. Culverts are made of manymaterials, such as corrugated metal, concretepipe, timber, logs, and open-ended oil drums.

The most desirable, under normal condi-tions, -is the.. corrugated metal-.culvert. _It islightweight, easy to handle and assemble, com-pact for shipping, and relatively economical.The metal pipe comes in 2-foot half sections,

pyt

qr.; .I v.

1

ads -. .46 I

INTERCEPTOR DITCH

4.0,were

fp,

40.or

TURAL DRAINAGECHANNEL _

41.4terfCULVERT. .

41t.,

_CULVERT

r00

..4

HEADWALL

.

W I NGWALLw41

OPEN-TOP CULVERT

R...ttL. Iev.k

45.881

Figure 5-12.Drainage systems.

5-16


with longitudinal flanges for. bolting (view A,fig. 5-13). These sections are assembled to ob-tain the required length ofculvert, so the culvertlength has to be in even feet. In assembly, thetop and bottom half sections are staggered inmuch the same manner as two courses of brick.At one end of the pipe, there will be 1 foot ex-tending from the bottom on the other end, dueto this staggering of sections. The metal is of dif-ferent thicknesses, or gages, ranging from 8 to14, with 8 being the thickest. The sizes rangefrom 8 inches to 84 inches iri diameter.

Concrete pipe is the strongest and mostdurable of the materials used in making culverts.The shell thickness and length depend on the

( A) FLANGE TYPE CULVERT

(C) LOG CULVERT

pipe diameter. (The larger the diameter, thethicker the shell and longer the section.) Pipediameters are nominal dimensions, that is, onlythe inside dimension. They do NOT include thethickness of the walls.

Timber culverts may be box culverts, withrectangular cross sections (view B, fig. 5-13), orlog culverts (view C, fig. 5-13).

Sometimes the walls of a culvert are usedonly to contain the flow of water and supportno load. For nonload supporting walls, sandbags, peat blocks, soapstone, or almost anymaterial available can be used (view D, fig.5-13).

(B) TIMBER BOX CULVERT

(0) PSP CULVERT

Figure 5-13.Types of culverts.

5-17

3u

45.882


AIRFIELDS

An AIRFIELD is a group of facilitiesdesigned for takeoff, landing, servicing, fueling,and parking of fixed-wing and rotary-wing air-craft. Airfields are classified by the mission ofthe activity they support or by the types of air-craft for which facilities are provided.Regardless of the classification, the basic com-ponents of airfields and methods of constructionare the same.

ELEMENTS OF AN AIRFIELD

The elements composing the air_ field includerunways, taxiways, aprons, and hardstands.Each element normally consists of a paved sur-face placed on a stabilized or compactedsubgrade; shoulders and clear zones, normallycomposed of constructed inplace materials; andapproach zones and lateral safety zones, whichrequire only clearing and ;.he removal ofobstructions projecting above the prescribedglide and safety angle. These and other elementsare defines below or shown in figure 5-14.

ANGLE, GLIDE. A small vertical anglemeasured outward and upward from the end ofthe flightstrip, above which no obstructionshould extend within the area of the approachzone. It also indicates the safe descent angle forvarious types of aircraft and is expressed as aratio horizontal distance to rise.

APPROACH ZONE. A trapezoidal area ex-tending outward from each end of a flightstrip,within which no natural or manmade object mayproject above the glide angle.

APRON, PARKING. A prepared area usedin place of hardstands for the parking of air-craft. It is also referred to as a conventionalapron.

APRON, WARMUP. A stabilized or sur-faced area used for the assembly or warming upof aircraft, usually located at both ends of therunway adjacent to and with the long axisparallel to the connecting taxiway.

CLEAR AREA. A rectangular area locatedadjacent to and outside of the runway shoulders,in which tree stumps are cut close to the ground,

boulders removed, and the general area roughlygraded to the extent necessary to reduce damageto aircraft in the event of erratic performance inwhich the aircraft runs off the runway.

CLEAR ZONE. A cleared area located ateach end of the runway.

FLIGHTSTRIP. Includes entire area of therunway, shoulders, clear area, overruns, andclear zones.

FLIGHTWAY. Includes flightstrip areatogether with the two approach zones.

HARDSTAND. A stabilized or surfacedarea provided to support standing aircraft.Hardstands are normally dispersed at intervalsalong each side of a taxiway.

LATERAL SAFETY ZONE. A transitionalsurface located between the runway clear areaor runway edge when no clear area is providedand the clearance lines limiting the placementof building construction and other obstacleswith respect to the runway centerline, Theslope of the transitional surface is 7:1 outwardand upward at right angles to the runway center-line.

OVERRUN. A graded and compacted por-tion of the clear zone, located at the extension ofeach end of the runway to minimize risk of acci-dent to aircraft due to overrun on takeoff orundershooting on landing. Its length is normallyequal to that of the clear zone, and its width isequal to that of the runway and shoulders.

ROAD, ACCESS. A two-way road, nor-mally improved, connecting the airfield with theexisting road system of the vicinity.

ROAD, SERVICE. A road connecting theaccess road and the bomb and fuel storage areaswith all hardstands and aprons for the purposeof refueling, rearming, and servicing aircraft.

RUNWAY. A stabilized or surfaced rec-tangular area located along the centerline of theflightstrip on which aircraft normally land andtake off.

SHOULDER. A graded and compacted areaon either side of the runway to minimize the riskof accident to aircraft running off or landing offthe runway.

rLATERALI SAFETY

ZONE

WONT STRIP

CLEARASIA

,./.

RUNWAY TRANSVERSE SECTION

SHOULDER

...APPROACH ZONE-.LOVEXRUN

(WHERE REQUIRED)

RUNWAY

PLIGHT STRIP

RUNWAY

1

CLEARING

MARSHALING

I WARPAUPI

.....

APRONI

.........

1

...

11=0MIMINlilk ........ ..

I TAXIWAY

L. _ ONO W. Meg

CLEARANCE L INE

4a%4 c.s,

A..*** 11. CLEAR ZONE RUNWAY

eboove

RUNWAY LONGITUDINAL SECTION

TAXIWAY PAVEMENT

RUNWAYPAVEMENT

SMOULDERDRAINAGE DITCH

SURGRADE

1 3 '

TYPICAL SECTIONNOT TO SCALE

Figure 5- 14. Elements of the airfield.

ELEMENTS OF THE AIRFIELD

BEST Cr'

J

45.883

Iii

0

ENGINEERING AID .3 & 2, VOLUME 2

TAXIWAY. A prepared strip for the passageof aircraft on the ground to and from the run-way and parking areas. The width of the taxiwayincludes a stabilized, surfaced, or paved centralstrip.

TOUCHDOWN AREA. That portion of thebeginning of the runway normally used by air-craft for primary contact of wheels on landing.

RUNWAY ORIENTATION

Normally, runways are oriented in accord-ance with the prevailing winds in the area.

Particular attention should be paid to gustywinds of high velocity in determining the runwaylocation. The established runway directionshould insure 95 percent wind coverage. This re-quirement alone, however, should not cause re-jection of a site which is otherwise favorable.'Where dust may be a problem, orient the run-way 4t an angle of about 10° to the prevailingwind so that dust clouds produced by takeoffswill blow, diagonally off the runway. Winddata must be obtained indicating directions,velocity, and frequency of such occurrence.Wind data should normally be based on the

MAGNETIC juNORTHORTH IN

VARIATION2°30'W

NOTEt

TOTAL WIND COVERAGEFOR RUNWAY 14-32 EXCEEDS 95%

THEREFORE A CROSS RUNWAY IS

NOT REQUIRED

45.884

Figure 5-15.Wind rose (15-knot crosswind component).

5-20

Cha ter 5HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

average weather conditions for at least the last 5years.

Such information usually can be found forall populated areas of the world, on bothmilitary and civilian maps, especially thoseprepared by marine or aeronautical agencies. Ifno observations are available for a particularsite, observation of the nearest point should beadjusted to changes that will result locally fromthe topography or other influencing factors.Figure 5-15 shows a typical wind rose diagram(relative frequency and average strength ofwinds from different directions) components,and supporting data. To determine desirablerunway orientations with respect to windcoverage, figure 5-16 shows tabulated windcoverage and the standard procedure. See figure5-17 for allowance variations of wind direction.

Vertical Alinement

Airfield construction normally specifies aminimum length of each gradeline, or aminimum distance between the gradeline in-tersection points. Although the specificationvaries with the type of aircraft involved and thestandard of construction desired, the most com-mon minimum is 400 feet between points of ver-tical intersection. The vertical curve design forairfields is the same as that for roads. The onlypoint of difference may occur where the curve islonger than the runway itself. In this case, therunway will be a segment of the curve and thePVC and PVT will be off the airfield. Care mustbe taken to avoid confusion in the stationing.

Airfield Layout

Figures 5-18 and 5-19 illustrate the typicaldimensions and grade requirements for singleand dual runway systems. Figure 5-20 shows atypical section, detail and grade requirementsfor both runways. Figures 5-21 and 5-22 showprofiles and grade requirements for differenttypes of end zones for fleet support and trainingairfields.

SUBBASE AND BASE COURSES

Pavements (including the surface and under-lying courses) may be divided into two

5-21

classesrigid and flexible. The wearing surfaceof a rigid pavement is constructed of portland-cement concrete. Its flexural strength'qnables itto act as a beam and allows it to bridge overminor irregularities in the base or subgrade up'onwhich it rests. All other pavements are classifiedas flexible. Any distortion or displacement in thesubgrade of a flexible pavement is reflected inthe base course and upward into the surfacecourse. These courses tend to conform to thesame shape under traffic. Flexible pavements areused almost exclusively in the theater of opera-tions for road and airfield construction sincethey adapt to nearly all situations and can bebuilt by any construction battalion unit in theNAVAL CONSTRUCTION FORCE.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTSTRUCTURE

A typical flexible pavement is constructed asshown in figure 5-23, which also defines theparts or layers of pavement. AU layers shown inthe figure are not present in every flexible pave-ment. For example, a two-layer structure con-sists of a compacted subgrade and a base courseonly. Figure 5-24 shows a typical flexible pave-ment utilizing stabilized layers. (The word"pavement" when used by itself refers only tothe leveling, binder, and surface course, whereas"flexible pavement" refers to the entire pgve .ment structtireefrom the subgrade up.) The useof flexible pavements on airfields must belimited to paved areas NOT subjected todetrimental effects of jet fuel spillage and jetblast. In fact, their use is prohibited in areaswhere these effects are severe. Flexiblepavements are generally satisfactory for runwayinteriors, taxiways, shoulders, and overruns.Rigid pavements or special types of flexiblepavement, such as tar rubber, should bespecified in certain critical operational areas.

MATERIALS

Select materials will normally be locallyavailable coarse-grained soils, although fine-grained soils may be used in certain cases.Limerock, coral, shell, ashes, cinders, caliche,disintegrated granite, and other such materialsshould be considered when they are economical.

i3.).7.)

MAGNETIC

VARIATION20 50' W

MAGNETir.NORTH

RUNWAY ORCOMBINATION

WIND COVERAGE TABULATION

PERCENTCOVERED

PERCENT COVERED

0 TO10.4

KNOTS

10.4 TO15

KNOTS.

15 TO: 25

KNOTS

25 TO40

KNOTS

40 IL OVERKNOTS

14 - 32 57.0 26.0 ,1 1.1 0.1 64.2

5 - 23 57.0 16.4 o.s 0.1 - 76.0

14 - 32L§.....12252LL27.7,,____!210=_Ls.s.PROCEDURE

t11

To determine dositsitl runway directions an evade* consisting 0'sn the two outer linos of the overley is egos' to the disomterof Hues pte11.1 linos is used *ft the windwind rose. The diatom. ho-

the innermost circle of the wind res.. The third line is the 111

centerline and represents the tenway centerline.Plot. centerline of overlay across cent./ of wind rasa end roe

tote with sum of porcentatm isppesting limtwssin outer two lines, in

chiding fractional portions of srignionts, becomes a maximum. In

this tiotopl single tunwey direction (solid Greeley lines) pro.

vides only orairturm of 54.2% wind covorese. Since the tote'

wind coverage is less thee the 95% required for on airfield, soc

nasty or crosswind noway is requited.Place evorloy (dished linos) to Iona rho preferred 90' angle tot

with prie), turiwey, 60' is the minionen ellowldm, and total the

wind cverog provielei Ly Loth runways which is 964%. PP

Ahoy. etwnpl vacs the wind rose with crosswind component of twl10.4 linos which is criterse for itholds with conventional powittraft potations. Wino wind rose with IS linte crosswind coospawns, sae Figure 5-15 which is the alloomel for Itcraft wish

tricycle goer,C

tid

10.4-KNOT CROSSWIND COMPONENT WIND ROSE

Figure 5-16.Deterndeation of runway direction using wind rose.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

45.885


o,

0

15.020.524.5°31.544.0°50.050.0

Subbase

10.4 KNOTS(12MPH)

EQUIVALENTS FOR 10.4 KNOT

BEAM WIND COMPONENT

14.5°25.0°30.0°VIA°45.890.0

ec%

is rAoTs (17.3 PM)

EQUIVALENTS FOR 15-KNOT

BEAM WIND COMPONENT

Figure 5-17.Allowable wind variations for 10.4 and 15 -knot beam wind components.

Subbase materials may consist of naturallyoccurring coarse-grained soils or blended andprocessed soils. Materials, such as limerock,coral, shell, ashes, cinders, caliche, anddisintegrated granite may be used as subbaseswhen they meet area specifications or projectspecifications. Materials stabilized with com-mercial admixes may be economical as subbasesin certain instances. Portland cement, cutbackasphalt, emulsified asphalt, and tar are com-monly employed for this purpose.

Base Course

A wide variety of gravels, sands, gravelly andsandy soils, and other natural materials such aslimerock, corals, shells, and some caliches canbe used alone or blended to provide satisfactorybase courses. In some instances, naturalmaterials will require crushing or removal of the

5-23

45.086

oversize fraction to maintain gradation limits.Other natural materials may be controlled bymixing crushed and pit-run materials to form asatisfactory base course material.

Many natural deposits of sandy and gravellymaterials also make satisfactory base materials.Gravel deposits vary widely in the relative pro..portions of coarse and fine material and in thecharacter of the rock fragments. Satisfactorybase materials often can be produced by blend-ing materials from two or more deposits. A basecourse made from sandy and gravelly materialhas a high-bearing value and can be used to sup-port heavy loads. However, uncrushed clean-washed gravel is not satisfactory for a basecourse, because the fine material which acts asthe binder and fills the void between coarser ag-gregate has been washed away.

Sand and clay in a natural mixture may befound in alluvial deposits varying in thicknessfrom 1 to 20 feet. Often there are great varia-tions in the proportions of sand and clay from

1:3,1J

ANGLE A APPROACH ZONE ANGLE7°58' 11" TO 50,000 FT AT 50:1 TO 500' ELEVATION, THEN HORIZO

(5°43' AT 20:1 TO 400' ELEVATION FOR BASIC TRAINING OUTLYING FIELDS,

8/PROPELLER AIRCRAFT)

CrF

I APPROACH/DEPARTURE SLOPER/W CLEARANC

NTAL.

OFUOTRLYBAINSGICrTRAININGSEE NAVFAC

E LINE

PROPELLER AIRCRAFT

.IEL-

END ZONE INTERMEDIATE AREA

SHOULDER

CLEAR

RUNWAY

L

BLAST PROTECTIVEPAVEMENT

IMAKIA F. &J.! 7 Z r.e/r /774 d 70.,1 71

OM /Mr"

icedscro I .4Pr4IFFA eWAIMAIMMAVIZ/A0W/MAIMACIFIWAIWTAXIWAY

250'MIN. INTERMEDIATE AREA

R/W CLEARANCE LINE --5

VARIES-1254 FOR MASTER JET STATION

00' ALL OTHERS

PLAN - SINGLE RUNWAY

NOT TO SCALE

Figure 5-Ill.Planssingle runway.

BET COPY MIMI

45.887 1 i)

00LA

8

OM.

ANGLE A APPROACH ZONE ANGLE 7°58" 11" TO50,000 FT AT 50:1 MAXIMUM GLIDE ANGLETO 500' ELEVATION, THEN HORIZONTAL

+-START APPROACH/DEPARTURE SLOPER/W CLEARANCE LINE

END ZONE00U)

0

9".4.:

!!:

.0. VERRUN AREA

SHOULDER

INTERMEDIATE AREA

- RUNWAY

'SHOULDER

INTERMEDIATE ZONE

1751R.

BLAST PROTECTIVEPAVEMENT

J SHOULDER

--RUNWAY

/SHOULDERS

INTERMEDIATE AREA MEE40505/ ArArdillr MeMinearrn4/02/451PAIr MOO 411/411//1l14ArAir ." Ai A" ./ 401'

250' MIN.

TAXIWAY

2000'

VARIES- 125'FOR MASTER JET STATION

100'ALL OTHERS

B

PL AN- DUAL RUNWAYNOT TO SCALE

Figure 5-19,-Plans--dual runway.

1 4 I

INTERMEDIATE AREA

R/W CLEARANCE LINE

BEST COPY

45.111/1

BLAST PROTECTIVE

PAVEMENT

51311:52:5' 4.4110041,94.....1591L,..,14:,4121121___41,,,s___

i 1 112.5' 10'411 we. 10'

LASEE

ttJCR

2000'MIN.

NORMALT/W TURNOFF

2%

SEE NOTE 2

1712.5'

MAX. CHANGE IN GRADO. 2% PER STATION

SECTION A-A

500'1000'

1% MIN.

1.5% MAX.

150'

DETAIL A SEE DETAIL A

10'

1% MIN. -

1. % MAX.

MAX. CHANGE

IN GRADE:1:6%

PER STATION

RUNWAYPAVEMENT

MAX. CHANGE

GRADE ± 4%PER STATION

SHOULDER

10'

150'

PAVED AREA

GROUND LINE2% MIN.-4t MAX.

1% MIN. -1.5% MAX. MAX. CHANGE IN GRADE ± 4%

1% MIN.-I.5% MAX.

DETAILI'A"

PER STATION

SECTION B -B

NOTES:

1% MIN. 1.5% MAX

1. FOR PLAN, SEE FIG. 5-19

2. DISTANCES BETWEEN POINTS OF GRADE CHANGE IN

SECTION A-A SHALL BE MINIMUM OF 150 FT.

LENGHTS LETWEEN SUCCESSIVE GRADE CHANGES

SHALL VARY BY MINIMUM OF 25 FT.

Figure 5-20.Single and dual runways (sections and details).

OW.f.)".!

45.10N

J

Cha ter 5 HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

50APPROACH

SURFACi-"ft".."

"""-ftfts.

GROUND LINE .Nk

AVTAvix. /AVA.NNIA

141CLEAR ZONE

N;i1..EV. AT R/W END

200'

111".1 RUNWAY

END ZONE..

2000' 1000'

PROFILE-LEVEL TERRAIN

50:1

ft-s"""ft

GROUND LINE

MAX-2% GRADE

STABILIZED OVERRUN(SAME AS R/W GRADE)

ELEV. AT R/W END200'

rill RUNWAY

CLEAR ZONE

4"---noop.

PROFILE-DESCENDING TERRAIN

50:1APPROACH

SURFACE

GROUNDLINE

END ZONE

1000'

STABILIZED OVERRUN(SAME AS R/W GRADE)

ELEV. AT R/W END

200'

r-el RUNWAY

MAX+ 1% GRADE

111:IrMiNEND ZONE

2000' 1000'

PROFILE - ASCENDING TERRAIN

45.890

Figure 5.21. -- Longitudinal end zone grades (fleet support and advanced training airfields).

ENGIIIEERING AID 3 & 2. V LUME 2

20:1 APPROACHSURFACE TO 400' .cLEV.

ELEV.OF R/W END

END OF

RUNWAY

LEVEL TERRAI

END ZONE

500'

M

R/14 END

20:1 APPRO76CSURFACE

TO 400 'ELEV. -----

MAX 4.. 14 GRADEr ELEV. OF

200' END OFRUNWAY

ASCENDING TERRAIN

20:i APPROACHSURFACE ro 400' ELEV.

END ZONE

500'

ELEV.OF R, W ENO

MAX -4/ GRADE 200' ENP OF

RoNWA)

DESCENDING TERRAIN

500'

Ni)T m At I

Figure 5-21.Longitudinal end zone grades (basic training outlying fields, propeller aircraft, only),

5-281 4 6

45.891

Cha s ter HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION

binder or intermediate course wearing course prime coat

surface course

t

, ,e)P.' I"..7113TAT.J.,777,;(.. .7". -.95,i.-5 i'Zf.7''..- '.---4,-,...4 . .. . ,.. : .

. . ..,,. ,.....

- P'',1 ..

., Ur; *64 t:,0.4 1 dt-7 .0.:. s' sk'''et....V.i."

14 .4107,.

. .

.40',.:% .batec course

"10 4 ....'I. oil., '

..f. yz

.9:sh

...

P.

..6.' . .. , .. :

-, 'f . ' .. lo '''.". ": . :P.I I lb

.ad../ ..

qb:4,4° fiii I.

.... :, 4 .% ..11 ;P,.1 II' 'A--,-...)..,.. 4 i

%NA:WI: Nt mi7Stir i 1111:1VIVi\i'XWV1i, i .'material 2 . .... % ,

.. ');%. . zN,N LI t., w)1 t, k.' A

1N \ tt,.,,, te,N% 141Ntv 013:: .*:Alt :::.'.. Mi. \N,X*,,\ 'AV&

'if d, )77,11:4, 1:.. subbase courses .. . :..: ... :: . :00%4. .: ,::.:-.%*".:*.s.:1111405'4.

. . . ,I. 1;17...;

. . ; .......

: . fill" 1f; jail.15fla I/ 57t-44k 40.In Pi 141:h 5

. : . . 4: :" :. ,... '''' :. '.,.. .

\\\\.//f

. 1, .1% . \\.% 00,,,,, \ N. N\ \ 1/,N: /la\ Compacted In-Place Soil or Fill Material ,\

4.10

'Material 2 is of a higher quality than material 1.

PAVEMENT Combination of subbase, base, and surface constructed on subgrade

SURFACE COURSE

PRIME COAT

SEA I. COAT

.A hot mixed bituminous concrete designed as a structural member

with weather and abrasion resisting properties. May consist of

wearing and intermediate court "s.

Application of a low viscosity liquid bitumen to the surface of the

base course. The prime penetrates into the base and helps bind it

to the overlying bituminous course

A thin bituminous surface treatment containing aggregate used to

waterproof and improve the texture of the surface course

COMPACTED SUI3GRADE Upper part of the subgrade which is compacted to a density

greater than the soil below

TACK COAT A light application of liquid or emulsified bitumen on anexisting paved surface to provide a bond with the superimposed bituminous cou rse

SUB(; It A Dlt Natural in-place soil, or till material

Figure 5-23.Typical flexible pavement and terminology.

5 -29

.146

45.892


a.

acement stabilized or bitumenstabilized base

46 &.

4* \/- //i

/,,\\ \/ subbase/ y.

/ / / I -///\// sub;ade

STABILIZED BASE SECTION

a

surface course

W/1,,

r, re-4 ;443 e.

bituminous concrete base courses

subgrade

ALL BITUMINOUS CONCRETE PAVEMENT

/

45.893

Figure 5-24.Typical pavements utilizing stabilized layers.

the top to the bottom of a pit. Deposits of par-tially disintegrated rock consisting of fragmentsof rock, clay, and mica flakes should not be con-

fused with sand-clay soil. Mistaking suchmaterial for sand clay is often a cause of base-coarse failure because of reduced stability due tothe mica content. With proper proportioningand construction methods, satisfactory resultscan be obtained with sand-cla) soil. It is ex-cellent in construction where a higher type ofsurface is to bc added later.

Processed materials are prepared by crushingand screening rock, gravel, or slag. A properly

5-30

graded crushed-rock base produced from sound,durable rock particles makes the highest qualityof any base material. Crushed rock may be pro-duced from almost any type of rock that is hardenough to require drilling, blasting, andcrushing. Existing quarries, ledge rock, cobblesand gravel, talus deposits, coarse mine tailings,and similar hard, durable, rock fragments arethe usual sources of processed materials.Materials which crumble on exposure to air orwater should not be used. Nor should processedmaterials be used when gravel or sand-clay areavailable, except when studies show that the useof processed materials will save time and effortor when they are made necessary by project re-quirements. Bases made from processedmaterials can be divided into three generaltypesstabilized, coarse graded, and macadam.A stabilized base is one in which all the materialranging from coarse to fine is intimately mixedeither before or as the material is laid into place.A coarse-graded base is composed of crushedrock, gravel, or slag. This base may be used toadvantage when it is necessary to producecrushed rock, gravel, or slag on site or whencommercial aggregates are available. Amacadam base is one where a coarse, crushedaggregate is placed in a relatively thin layer androlled into place; then fine aggregate or screen-ings are placed on the surface of the coarse-aggregate layer and rolled and broomed into thecoarse rock until it is thoroughly keyed in place.Water may be used in the compacting and key-ing process. When water is used, the base is awaterbound macadam. The crushed rock usedfor macadam bases should consist of clean,angular, durable particles free .of clay, organicmatter, and other objectionable material orcoating. Any hard, durable crushed aggregatecan be used, provided the coarse aggregate is

primarily one size and the fine aggregate will key

into the coarse aggregate.

Other Materials

In a theater of operations where deposits ofnatural sand and gravel and sources of crushedrock are not available, base courses aredeveloped from materials that normally wouldnot be considered. These include caliche, lime -rock, shells, cinders, coral, iron ore, rubble, and

14


other select materials. Some of these are pri-marily soft rock and are crushed or degradedunder construction traffic to produce compositebase materials. Others develop a cementingaction which results in a satisfactory base.

CORAL.Uncompacted and poorlydrained coral often results in an excessivemoisture content and loss of stability. The bond-ing properties of coral, which are its greatestasset as a construction material, vary with theamount of volcanic impurities, the proportionof fine and coarse material, age, length of expo-sure to the elements, climate, traffic, sprinkling,and method of compaction. Proper moisturecontrol, drainage, and compaction are essentialto obtain satisfactory results.

CALICHE.A variable material which con-sists of sand, silt, or even gravel, when saturatedwith water, compacted, and allowed to settle,can be made into high quality base courses.Especially, caliches which are cemented withlime, iron oxide, or salt. Caliches vary, however,in content (limestone, silt, and clay) and indegree of cementation; therefore, it is importantthat caliche of good uniform quality be obtainedfrom deposits and that it be compacted atoptimum moisture.

TUFF.A porous rock, usually stratified,formed by consolidation of volcanic ashes, dust,etc., and other cementitious materials of

_

5-31

volcanic origin may be used for base courses.Tuff bases are constructed the same as otherbase courses except that after the tuff is dumpedand spread, the oversize pieces are broken andthe base compacted with sheepsfoot rollers. Thesurface is then graded, compacted, and finished.

RUBBLE.It may be advantageous to usethe debris or rubble of destroyed buildings inconstructing base courses. If so, jagged pieces ofmetal and similar objects are removed.

Bituminous Base

Bituminous mixtures frequently are used asbase courses beneath high-type bituminouspavements, particularly for rear-area airfieldswhich carry heavy traffic. Such base coursesmay be used to advantage when aggregateslocally available are relatively soft and otherwiseof relatively poor quality, when mixing plantand bituminous materials are .readily available,and when a relatively thick surface course is re-quired for the traffic. in general, a bituminousbase course may be considered equal on an inch-for-inch basis to other types of high-quality basecourses. When a bituminous base course is used,it will be placed in lifts not exceeding 3 1/2inches in thickness. If a bituminous base is used,the binder course may be omitted and the sur-face course may be laid directly on the basecourse.

CHAPTER 6

CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

The construction of any structure or facilityis described by a set of related drawings whichgives the crew a complete sequential graphicdescription of each phase of the constructionprocess. In most cases, a set of drawings showsthe location of the project, boundaries, contours,and outstanding physical features of the con-struction site and its adjoining areas. Succeedingdrawings give graphic and printed instructionsfor each phase of construction. Generally,construction drawings are categorized accordingto their intended purposes: preliminary drawings,presentation drawings, shop drawings, andworking drawings.

PRELIMINARY DRAWINGS

The preliminary drawings are the initialdrawings prepared by the designer or A and Efirm (architects and engineers) during the earlyplanning or promotional stage of the buildingdevelopment. They provide a means of commu-nication between the designer and the user(customer). These drawings are NOT intendedto be used for construction, but they are used forexploring design concepts, material selection,preliminary cost estimates, approval by thecustomer, and as a basis for the preparation ofthe finished working drawings.

Most of the design work incorporated in thepreliminary drawings includes the majority ofthe architectural, structural, electrical, and me-chanical ideas and concepts. A set of preliminarydrawings will usually contain only a site plan,floor plan, one or two elevations, and a typicalwall section.

Because they are no longer useful after theworking drawings are prepared from them, only

6-1

a few sets of preliminary drawings are normallyprepared.

PRESENTATION DRAWINGS

The purpose of the presentation drawings isto present the proposed building or facility in anattractive setting in its natural surroundingat the proposed site. They usually consist ofperspective views complete with colors andshading. Since presentation drawings are actuallyused to "sell" an idea or design, an EA assignedto the drafting section is rarely required to developthem.

SHOP DRAWINGS

Shop drawings are drawings, schedules,diagrams, and other related data to illustrate someportion of the work prepared by the construc-tion contractor, subcontractor, manufacturer,distributor, or supplier. Samples are physicalexamples which illustrate materials, workmanshipor equipment and establish standards by whichthe work will be judged. Product data, such asbrochures, illustrations, standard schedules,performance charts, and other information arefurnished by the contractor or the manufacturerto illustrate a material, a product, or a systemfor some portion of the work. As an EA, youwill be required to draft shop drawings for minorshop and field projects. They may include shopitems, such as doors, cabinets, and small portablebuildings: (prefabricated berthing quarters, andmodifications of existing structures) or fromportions of design drawings, specifications, orfrom freehand sketches given by the designengineer.


WORKING DRAWINGS

A working drawing is any drawing thatfurnishes the information required by the crafts-men to manufacture a machine part or erect astructure; it i3 prepared from a freehand sketchor a design drawing. Complete informationis presented in a set of working drawings,complete enough so that the builder who usesthem will require no further information. Acomplete set of drawings consists of DETAILDRAWINGS, ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS, andmust include a BILL OF MATERIALS.

A detail drawing shows a particular item ona larger scale than that of the-general drawing inwhich the item appearsor it may show an itemtoo small to appear at all on a general drawing.

P

An assembly drawing is either an exterior ora sectional view of an object showing the detailsin the proper relationship to one another.Usually assembly drawings are drawn to a smallerscale from the dimensions of the detail drawings,which provide a check on the accuracy of thedesign and detail drawings and often discloseserrors.

Depending on the space available on thedraiing sheet, the bill of materials may beincorporated in the drawing; otherwise, it is listedin a separate sheet. The bill of materials liststhe quantities, types, sizes, and units of thematerials required to construct the objectpresented in the drawing.

Actually, working drawings are drawn forthe guidance of the supervisors and contractorswho do the actual construction. Most of themconsist of orthographic projections, thoughsometimes details may be shown in isometric orcavalier projections. "General" drawings consistof "plans" (views from above) and elevations(side or front views) drawn on a relatively small

scale.

In general, working drawings include all ofthe drawings necessary for the different SEABEEratings to complete a building. These are thedrawings that show the size, quantity, location,and relationship of the building parts. Generally,

6-2

working drawings may be divided into threemain categories: architectural, mechanical, andelectrical.

Regardless of the category, working drawingsserve several functions:

they provide a basis for making material,labor, and equipmetit estimates prior to con-struction.

they give instructions for construction,showing the sizes and location of the variousparts.

they provide a means of coordinationbetween the different ratings.

they complement tile specifications; onesource of information is incomplete without theothers.

Since mechanical and electrical plans will bediscussed in chapters 7 and 8, we will only coverthe architectural plans in this section. But,before we discuss these drawings in detail, wewill go over the standard conventions, abbrevi-ations and symbols used in the working drawings.You, as the EA, must be able to recognize andinterpret them in order to draw and understandthe plans.

SITE PLANS

A site (plot) plan (fig. 6-1) is a plan view thatshows the contours, boundaries, roads, utilities,trees, structures, and any other significant physicalfeatures on or near the construction site. Thelocation of the proposed structure is shown inoutline form. The reference lines are shown onthe plot plan which can be located at the site.Thus, the site plan furnishes the essential datafor laying out the building lines. By showingboth existing and finish contours, the Equip-ment Operator (EO) is able to landscape thearea.

Site plans are drawn to scale. In mostinstances, the engineer's scale is used rather thanthe architgct's scale. For buildings on small lots,the scales normally used are 10' or I" 20'.

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This means that 1 inch on the drawing is equalto 10 or 20 feet, whatever the case may be on theground. Since the engineer's scale is the chiefmeans of making scaled site plans, you, as an EA,should be thoroughly familiar with its uses.

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In most cases, when the battalion is taskedwith a construction project, the drawings havebeen prepared by a civilian firm or architects andengineers (A and E) that are under contract withthe government; but in some instances, where the

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45.271(4513)4Figure 6-2.Architectural symbols for plans and elevations recommended 11) the American Standards Association. (Note:

Symbols may vary according to section or le%ation drawings,)

6-4 I 5

Chapter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

government has just acquired a site for a buildingin some remote area, the Engineering Divisionmay be assigned the responsibility of furnishingthe designer (Civil Engineer) with property andtopographic surveys. These surveys, which will bediscussed in detail in a later volume, will show(1) property lines with their lengths obtainedfrom a deed description of the property as if theproperty were perfectly flat; (2) existing utilitiesand their location on or near the property, suchas sanitary sewer, electrical lines, gaslines, watersupply lines, storm sewer, manholes, telephonelines, and all other existing features on theproperty, manmade or natural; and (3) thephysical characteristic of the land by using notes,contour lines, and symbols which includes thedirection of the land slope and whether the landis flat, wooded, hilly, and any other features ofits physical nature.

All of the information stated above isnecessary so that the engineer can place thebuildings in their proper orientation. This infor-mation is also needed by the designer to locateexisting utilities (mechanical, electrical) and toroute new services to the building.

DRAWING SYMBOLS

Standard drawing symbols are the means bywhich you will convey the intended function ofyour drawing. Nonstandard symbols must beexplained by notes or in the legend. Most ofthese symbols you will learn through constantusage, so do not try to memorize them. The mainthing is to know the information source for aparticular symbol. The military drawing standards(MIL -SIDS) are your main source. Consult thembefore you refer to other references. Structuralstandard symbols will be presented in this chapter(mechanical and electrical symbols are presentedin other chapters).

Architectural Symbols

As an EA, you must be prepared to makedrawings of advanced bases and airfield struc-tures and other architectural and structuraldrawings, as assigned. Although NAVFAC has

prepared standard drawings for most of thesestructures, there are times that you may berequired to prepare original drawings or modifythe existing ones. In doing this, you couldbe working from notes and sketches; butgenerally, these notes and sketches would not becomplete as far as the correct final appearanceof the drawing is concerned. You will supplythe correct symbols used to properly depictthe parts of a structure. Your knowledge ofexisting architectural and structural symbolswill greatly assist you in accomplishing the jobcorrectly and promptly, and above all, withconfidence.

Some of the architectural symbols that youmay use are shown in figures 6-2 and 6-3. Youare responsible for researching or devising sym-bols for construction materials not found inthis training manual or found in one of theMIL-STDS.

Welding Symbols

Welding is a method of making a permanentjoint between two metal parts, and its wide usehas brought about a whole language of symbolsfor use on drawings. The symbols and termsused are discussed in American Welding SocietyStandard for Welding Symbols, AWS/A2.4-79.The basic welding symbol, as shown in view A,figure 6-4, is simply a reference line forming anarrow, with one or more angle bends behind thearrow head which points to the location of theweld. All information required to indicate thewelding process to be used, the location and typeof weld, the size, finish, and the like, are locatedin specified positions on or near the weldingsymbol, as shown in view B, figure 6-4.

To provide identification, welds are classifiedas ARROW SIDE (near side) or OTHER SIDE(far side). A weld on the near side of the joint,parallel to the drawing sheet and toward theobserver, is called the ARROW SIDE; it is onthe same side as the symbol, and the arrowpoints to its face. The OTHER SIDE is on theopposite side of the joint away from theobserver, and its face is away from the arrow.(Examine fig. 6-4 closely.)

6-5

154


TYPE

SINGLE.SWING WITH THRESHOLD INEXTERIOR MASONRY WALL

SINGLE DOOR, OPENING IN

DOUBLE DOOR, OPENING OUT

SINGLE.SWING WITH THRESHOLD INEXTERIOR FRAME WALL

SINGLE DOOR, OPENING OUT

DOUBLE DOOR, OPENING IN

REFRIGERATOR DOOR

TYPE

DOUBLE HUNG

CASEMENT

DOUBLE, OPENING OUT

SINGLE, OPENING IN

DOOR SYMBOLSSYMBOL

777WINDOW SYMBC LS

WOOD OR METALSASH IN FRAME

WALL

SYMBOL

METAL SASH IN WOOD SASH INMASONRY WALL MASONRY WALL

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imigiaL-41211

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65.112

Figure 6-3.Arehileeiiiral symbols (doors and windows).

6-6

v

ter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

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Figure 64Welding symbols.11.57

Symbols used to indicate the type of weldare called BASIC WELD SYMBOLS to differen-tiate them from the WELDING SYMBOL, orARROW. (See weld symbols shown in figure6-5.) View A, figure 6-5, shows resistance weldsymbols; view B, shows arc and gas symbols,and view C, some supplementary weld symbols.Figure 6-6 shows the types of welded joints andsome applications of the welding symbols.

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

Architectural drawings consist of all thedrawings which describe the building's structuralmembers and their relationship to each other; thisincludes foundation plans, floor plans, framingplans, elevations, sections, details, schedules,and bill of materials (B.M.)

Foundation Plans

001.1.1.....

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11.57

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11.57

The FOUNDATION PLAN is used mainly Figure 6-6.Application of the welding symbol.

by the building crew who will construct the

6-71 5 6

i


foundation of the structure; and like any otherplan views, it is a horizontal section view cutthrough the walls of the foundation, showing allrelative information. In most SEABEE con-struction, foundations are built with concretemasonry units (CMU's), poured concrete, andsolid brick.

Figure 6-7 illustrates a plan view of astructure as it would look if projected into ahorizontal plane which passed through the struc-ture slightly below the level of the top of thefoundation wall. The plan shows that the main

foundation will consist of 12-inch and 8-inchconcrete masonry unit (CMU's) walls measuring18 feet lengthwise and 22 feet crosswise. Thelower portion of each lengthwise section of wallwill be 12 inches thick, to provide a concreteledge 4 inches wide.

A girder running through the center of thebuilding will be supported at the ends by two4- by 12-inch concrete pilasters which will buttagainst the end foundation walls. Intermediatesupport for the girder will be provided by two12- by 12-inch concrete piers, each supported on

28'-0"

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Figure 6-7.Foundation plan.

6-8 15

45.513

Cha ter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

18- by 18-inch spread footings, 10 inches deep.The dotted lines around the foundation walls.indicate that these walls will also rest on spreadfootings.

Floor Plans

In the building construction trades, the term"plans" are frequently used. To define this termmore accurately, a plan is a horizontal sectionthrough a building showing the outline orarrangements of a floor; hence, it is commonlycalled a floor plan. Figure 6-8 shows the mannerin which a floor plan is developed. Imagine thatafter the building has been constructed, a cuttingplane is used and cuts through the structurepassing through the plane WXYZ (view A) andthat the upper portion has been removed (viewB). You would then be able to look down on thefloor from above, and the drawing of what yousee would be the floor plan (view C).

Figure 6-9 shows a typical masonry construc-tion architectural floor plan. It gives the lengths,thicknesses, and character of the outside wallsand partitions at the particular floor level. Italso shows the number, dimensions, and arrange-ment of the rooms, the widths and locations ofthe doors and windows, and the locations andcharacter of the bathroom, kitchen, and otherutility features. Study figure 6-9 carefully! indimensioning floor plans, it is very important to

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF ATYPICAL T, O. BUILDING SNOWING

CUTTING PLANE WXY

VIEW A

check the overall dimension against the sumof the partial dimensions of each part of thestructure.

Framing Plans

FRAMING PLANS show the size, number,and location of the structural members (steel orwood) constituting the building framework.Separate framing plans may be drawn for thefloors, the walls, and the roof. The floorframing plan must specify the sizes and spacingof joists, girders, and columns used to supportthe floor. Detail drawings must be added, ifnecessary, to show the methods of anchoringjoists and girders to the columns and foundationwalls or footings. Wall framing plans show thelocation and method of framing openings andceiling heights so that studs and posts can be cut.Roof framing plans show the construction of therafters used to span the building and support theroof; the size, spacing, roof slope, and all detailsare shown.

FLOORS.Framing plans for FLOORSare basically plan views of the girders andjoists. The unbroken double-line symbol is usedto indicate joists, which are drawn in thepositions they will occupy in the completedbuilding. Double framing around openings andbeneath bathroom fixtures is shown where used.

PREVIOUS PERSPECTIVE VIEW ATCUTTING PLANE WXYZ,

TOP REMOVED

VIEW B

Figure 6- 8. Floor [dun development.

6-9I 5 3

DEVELOPED FLOOR PLANWXYZ

VIEW C

45.514


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6- 101 5

BEST COPY 117lf,,r"..E

Chapter 6-- CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS,

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Figure 6-10.Floor framing plan.

Figure 6-10 shows the manner of presentingfloor framing plans.

Bridging is also shown by a double-linesymbol which runs perpendicular to the joist.The number of rows of cross bridging is controlledby the span of the joist; they should not beplaced more than 7 or 8 feet apart. A 14-footspan needs only one row of bridging, but a 16-footspan needs two rows.

65.114

Notes identify floor openings, bridging, andgirts or plates. Use nominal sizes in specifyinglumber.

Dimensions need not be given between joists.Such information is given along with notes. Forexample, 2" by 6" joists @ 2"-0" c.c., indicates thatthe joists are to be spaced at intervals of 2 feet0 inches from center. to center. Lengths may notbe indicated in framing plans; the overall building

6-11

1 6 IJ

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2, VCLUME 2

dimensions and the dimensions for each bay ordistances between columns or posts provide suchdata.

ROOFS.Framing plans for ROOFS aredrawn in the same manner as floor framingplans. The draftsman should always visualizethe plan as looking down on the roof beforeany of the roofing material (sheathing) has beenadded. Rafters are shown in the same manner asjoists.

Elevations

ELEVATIONS are the drawings that showthe true exterior appearance of the structure.They are drawn to scale. Usually they are thesame as the plan, but occasionally space require-ments on the drawing sheet restrict the use of thesame scale, and elevations are shown at a smaller

R RIC

scale than the plan. Nevertheless, their relation-ship is the same, so be very careful and observethe scale of the drawings, before orienting variousviews.

Doors, windows, shapes of roof, chimneys,and exterior materials are shown, providing thecontractor with an exterior finished appearance.Few dimensions are given on these views, onlythose vertical dimensions that cannot be shownon the plan.

Basically, four elevations are needed in a setof drawings to complete the exterior descriptionof a structure: the front, rear, and two sides ofa structure, as they would appear projected onvertical planes.

Elevations for a small building are shown infigure 6-11. They show that the wall surfaces ofthis house will consist of brick and roof coveringof composition shingles. The top of the rafterplate will be 8 feet 2 1/4 inches above the level

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6-12

LEFT SIDE ELEVATION0.

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45.518

f.r.,711.!...1ABLE

Cha ter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

of the finished first floor, and the tops of thefinished door. and window openings 7 feet 1 3/4inches above the same level. The roof will be agable roof and will have 4 units of rise for every12 units.

Each window shown in the elevations isidentified by a capital letter. Figure 6-12 shows

a window schedule applying to the same building.The schedule shows the dimensions of thefinished opening and the character and dimen-sions of the lintel for each window. For windowA, for example, the lintel will consist of an anglecombined with a channel; for each of the otherwindows, the lintel will consist of two angles.The schedule indicates that the sash will be metalcasement sash. The dotted lines on the eleva-tions show how each section of sash will

swing.

SCHEDULE FOR METAL CASEMENT SASH

SYMBOL ' SIZE LINTEL

A 1-4 5i6rx4=1441' 31.9't ' WA5 2-34' X 4=241 AZUWX " XAC I -3'-I' X 4=2S/5. it a n

0 I-3 =1" X 3= 2' .II. f,

E '1-1=171eX3I-X. _A - .

45.519

Figure 6-12.Window schedule for building shown infigure 6-11.

Sections

SECTIONS provide important informationas to height, materials, fastening and supportsystems, and concealed features. They showhow a structure looks when cut vertically by acutting plane. The cutting plane is not neces-sarily continuous, but, as with the horizontalcutting plane in building plans, may be staggeredto include as much construction informationas possible. Like elevations, sectional viewsare vertical projections. Being detail drawings,they are drawn to large scale. This facilitatesreading and provides information that cannotbe given on elevation or plan views. Sectionsare classified as TYPICAL and SPECIFIC.Figure 6-13 shows the initial development ofa section. A typical section taken from thefoundation plan is illustrated in figure 6-14 andfigure 6-15.

Typical sections represent the average condi-tion throughout a structure and are used whenconstruction features are repeated many times.Figure 6-14 shows wall section A-A of thefoundation plan in figure 6-7. It shows theconstruction details which are repeated at regularintervals throughout the building. Study figure6-14 very closely. You can see that it gives agreat deal of information that is necessary forthose performing the construction of the buildingfoundation and part of the floor.

PERSPECTIVE VIEW SECTION AA

TYPICAL SMALL. BUILDING SHOWING CUTTING PLANE AA AND SECTIONDEVELOPED FROM THE CUTTING PLANE

45.520

Figure 6-13.Development of it section view.

6-13

16

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BRICK ACING


exiluxI6* BLOCK BACKING

SUB F OOR

GROUNDLI E

2°584 JOISTS

2"x4. PLATE

8"18"x16"CMU

12"x8N16" CMU

2'MINIMUM

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SECTION A-A_

133.420Figure 6-14.Section A-A illustrates a typical section of a

masonry building.

2°1'4°116'BLOCK BACKING

2"x 6"- le O.C.FLOOR JOISTS

FOUNDATION

BRICK FACING

FLORSUB

GIRDE,Rte 3,pCS GROUND LINEn

2%4" PLATE

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MINIMUM

ex8 "s16" BLOCKPILASTER SECTION Infra I6" BLOCK

PILASTER SEC

10"1 20°124" CONCRETEPILASTER FOOTING

SECTION 8-8

133.421Figure 6-15.Wall section B-B shows a pilaster, a specific

section of a concrete masonry unit wall.

The foundation plan shown in figure 6-7shows that the main foundation of this structurewill consist of a 22- by 28-foot concrete blockrectangle. Figure 6-14, which is section A-A ofthe foundation plan, shows that the front andrear portions of the foundation (28 foot measure-ments) are made of 12- by 8- by 16-inch CMU'scentered on a 10- by 24-inch concrete footing toan unspecified height. These are followed by8-inch CMU's which form a 4-inch ledger forfloor joist support on top of the 12-inch units,and serve to form a 4-inch support for the brickfacing which is to begin an unspecified depthbelow ground level. The main wall is then laidwith standard 2 1/2- by 4- by 8-inch face brickbacked by 4- by 8- by 16-inch CMU's.

The foundation plan shown in figure 6-7 alsoshows that both side walls (22-foot measurements)are 8 inches thick centered on a 16-inch concretefooting to an unspecified height. Section B-B(fig. 6-15) illustrates the PILASTER, a specificsection of the wall to be constructed for supportof the girder. It shows that the pilaster isconstructed of 12- by 8- by 16-inch CMU'salternated with 4- by 8- by 16-inch and 8- by8- by 16-inch CMU's. The hidden lines (dashedlines) on the 12-inch wide units indicate that thethickness of the wall beyond the pilaster is8 inches thick. Note how the extra 4-inch thicknessof the pilaster provides a center support for thegirder, which in turn will support the floorjoists.

Figure 6-16 represents a complete wall sec-tion for both masonry and wood frame structures,usually taken from the elevation views. Thissection is necessary for clarity, because theyshow the construction details from the founda-tion to the roof. Construction methods andmaterials may vary, but once you are familiarwith one type of construction drawing, you willbe able to do the othersnotwithstanding what-ever type of construction methods and materialsused.

When a particular construction feature occursonly once, and is not shown clearly in the generaldrawing, a cutting plane is passed through thatportion. (See fig. 6-17.) The cutting plane indica-

is used and identified with the same letter at

6-1416z

Chas ter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS',

A 4Po.,_,0111

12

COMPOSITION SHINGLE

IITAINFAFATAYAYA 140s1114Ya

WOOD SHEATHING

TRUSSED RAFTER

FLASHING

N.

;

FIN -GRADE

CEMENT GROUTBED

rINSULATION

W000 SUB FLOOR

STRAP ANCHORSEVERY TIME/ JOIST

FIN GRADE //

f

4

WOOD SHEATHING

TRUSSED RAFTER

2"INSULATION

COMPOSITION SHINGLES

AU'S!" I AFA44A4ABALIITsai

Ii;PLASTER ONGYPSUM LATH

*000 STUDSIS" OC

CEPAASSSHINGLES

fi BOLTS We RASHERS22" LONG SPACED4.-0" OC

12"CB

WALL SECTION AMASONRY CONSTRUCTIONSCALE V.I.-0"

SHEATHING

WOOD FIN FLOOR

X I

FIBER BOARDSUB FLOOR

is STRAP ANCHORSEVERY THIRD JOIST

EMENT GROUT BED

4" BRICK FACING

ir CINDERBLOCK

WALL SECTION AWOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTIONSCALE I" .0-0"

Figure 6-16.Wall sections.

PLATFORM

2"A 4"8 exe.TREADS

1 N. e 4P

11111114. -

BLOCKS

1111.1111

111111111.11.111111111M111111

yr

2"A If

2" x 4"

Figure 6.17.Outside steps.

6 -15

1 6 gi

SECTION AA

ORACE.2.

2"s 8"MUO SILL

2 E''Y AVAILABLE

45.521

45.733


either arrowhead. These letters then becomepart of the title; for example, Section A Aof the outside steps shown in figure 6-17.The cutting plane line indicates the extentof the portion through which the section istaken. The arrows indicate the direction ofviewing.

Details

DETAILS are large-scale drawings showingthe builders of a structure how its variousparts are to be connected and placed. Detailsdo not use the cutting plane indication, butthey are closely related to sections, becausesections are often used as parts of detaildrawings. The construction of doors, windows,and eaves is customarily shown in detaildrawings of buildings: (See fig. 6-18.) Detaildrawings are used whenever the informationprovided in elevations, plans, and sectionsis not clear enough for the builder on the job.They are usually grouped so that referencesmay be made more easily from the general.drawing.

Schedules

General notes usually are grouped accordingto materials of construction in a tabular formand are called a SCHEDULE. As used in thistraining manual, the category, General Notes,refers to all notes on the drawing not accompaniedby a leader and an arrowhead. Item schedulesfor doors, rooms, footings, and so on are moredetailed. Typical door and window scheduleformats are presented below.

1. Door Schedule. The doors, shown by asymbol in a plan view, may be identified as tosize, type, and style with code numbers placednext to each symbol. This cede number, ormark, is then entered on a line in a door scheduleand the principal characteristics of the door areentered in successive colur along the line. TheNo, column allows a quan, Ly check on doors ofthe same design, as well as the total number ofdoors required. By using a number with a letter,the mark can serve a purpose. The

6-16

or INSIDE WALLCOVERING

SIDING

BUILDING PAPER

DRIP CAP

OUTSIDEHEAD CASING

HEAD JAMB

HEADERS

INSIDE HEADCASING

DOOR

SECTION THROUGH HEAD JAMB .

HEAD JAMBDRIP CAP

CASING

UPPER-LOWER CORNER DETAILSWINDOW FRAME

45.5011.502

Figure 6-18.--Door and window details.

number identifies the floor on which the dooris located, and the letter identifies the designof the door. For example, mark 1-D wouldmean door style D on the first floor. Thesequence of door sizes is written in width byheight by thickness. The description columnallows identification by type (panel, flush),style, and material. The remarks column allowsreference to the appropriwe detail drawing. Theschedule is a convenient way of presentingpertinent data without making the Builder refer

)

Chapter 6CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

to the specifications. A typical door schedulefollows:

No. Mark Size Description Remarks

6

9

1-D

2-D

5 x 7

2 1/2 x 7

Flush

Panel

Double doorhinged

Single doorhinged

2. Window Schedule. A window schedule issimilar to a door schedule. It provides an organ-ized presentation of the significant window char-acteristics. The code mark used in the schedule isplaced next to the window symbol that applies onthe plan view or elevation view. (See figs. 6-11and 6-12.) A similar window schedule follows:

No. Mark Size Description Remarks

16

12

W-1

W-2

5 x 9

4 x 7

DoubleHung

Casement

Slide frombottom totop and topto bottom

Hinged attop

6 -17

Bill ofMaterials (B.M.)

A BILL OF MATERIALS is a tabulatedstatement of material requirements for a givenproject. It contains information, such as stocknumbers, unit of issue, quantity, line itemnumber, description, vendor, and cost. Some-times the bill of materials will be submittedon material estimate sheets, or material takeoffsheets, but each will contain similar informa-tion. Actually, a bill of material is a groupedcompilation based on takeoffs and estimatesof all material needed to complete a structure.The takeoff sheet usually is an actual tallyand checkoff of the items shown, noted, orspecified on the construction drawings andspecifications.

Most NAVFAC drawings will contain abill of materials incorporated within thedrawings. But, there are times when youare directed to tabulate materials needed fora new project that has been designed in-housefor cost estimate and funding. Figure 6-19shows a typical example of a completed formof a B.M.

SILL OF ICITEOIAL1041 CSC 4513/5 II PSI0100 Olt -ION

SNIP APRIL 19-

PRoncriINTERIM WATER SYSTEM REINDEER STAVONNANTONMENT AREA) : 061 Fe% DM,'AUTHORITY

TRODI:7 Li W111="111

SialKDoT RaeSUPPis Erbil

ill IP

= JOS OROS RACCOUNTING DATA

Ile =IAP9b

a "1111%71 1:1 I

T qri 2M9 05II 112 '1

094el

4K6404N 62583,4 Ys Wt 12 ADOC STOCK NUMBER

MINT 'SC NUN7is% QUANTITY DeCgAyagNL:riM e0S ROY Lit MIT

OTICANITION/SPECIFICATIONNINOOPIS UNITCOST

TOTALCOST

LOCATION OZOOATE CITZejt:,T3E

408/7903

790 4

7905

7906

.

'7907

i t C C meI

2

4

5

ADEa. 6,16c

SH

BF

BF

BF

BF

SOIOi., MOIII.69

30

2422

144

1 173

PLYWOOD ,3/4"X081 BB EXTERIORTYPE. SUGGESTED VENDOR%THOMPSON LUMBER CO.LUMBER 'SOFTWOOD, 1"X 6fiX IVSTANDARD CONSTRUCTIONION GRADE 2OR 'BETTER. SUGGESTED VENDOR:THOMPSON LUMBER CO.LUMBER, sorrwooD. 2..x 44X 16'STANDARD CONSTRUCTION GRADE 2OR BETTER. SUGGESTED VENDOR ;THOMPSON LUMBER r-Oi.LUMBER, SOFIVtADODXX6IA161.STANDARDSTANDARD CONSTRUCT ION GRADE 2OR BETTER.SUGGESTED VENDOR:THOMPSON LUMBER CO.LumBER SOFTWOOD 4'X 41( 16'STANDARD CONSTRqCT1ON GRADE 2OR BETTER. SUGGESTED VENDOR%THOMPSON LUMBER CO.

12.00

.18

. 2 8

.28

.33

8E8.00

5.40

678.16

40.32

3870

SUIIMTTIO eVE.B. JA50N........___ 2°SgAR F. nr 'ABE R NATNY 3.5E -

TAPROOT IUMPIOVIO eV

... _

DATE es TOTALLINE ITEMS PTIA)Sel e1938.97 ZTA, 5

Figure 6 -19. Typical bill of materials.

16/

133.422

rr)

2zrriru

CHAPTER 7

MECHANICAL PLANS

Mechanical plans, as used in this chapter, in-clude all drawings and notes which refer to thewater supply, sewage and drainage, heating andair-conditioning, refrigeration, and other likesystems. In the Navy, these systems may vary,depending on whether they are aboard ship orshore based. As an EA, your main concern willbe with shore-based systems,,, which may bepermanent installations with the most modernfixtures, equipment, and appurtenances, or tem-

porary installations at advanced bases. For tem-porary installations, the cheapest materialswhich will serve the purpose are normally used.

This chapter will discuss the purpose and thedevelopment of a mechanical plan in the contextof plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning.

PLUMBING SYSTEMS

In general, plumbing refers to the system ofpipes, fixtures, and other apparatus used inside

a building for supplying water and removingliquid and waterborne wastes. In practice, theterm also includes storm water or roof drainageand exterior system components connecting to asource, such as a water main and a point ofdisposal, such as a domestic septic tank orcesspool.

The purpose of plumbing systems is, basi-

cally, to bring into, and distribute within abuilding a supply of safe water for drinking,washing, and cooking and to carry off thedischarge of waste material from various recep-tacles on the premises to sewers, leech basins,etc. without causing a hazard to the health of theoccupants. Codes, regulations, and trade prac-tices define the plumbing specifications which

7-1

vary from state to state, but the NationalPlumbing Code is widely accepted as a guidelinefor the minimum requirements for plumbingdesigns. As statO earlier in the previouschapter, the Engineering Aid is not expected todesign the system, but the main objective is todraw a workable plumbing plan for use by theplumbing crew or any other interested parties. Inorder to accomplish this, the EA must befamiliar with the terms, symbols, definitions,and the basic concepts of the plumbing trade.

MECHANICAL SYMBOLS

As a rule, the plumbing plans should showthe location of the fixtures and fittings to be in-stalled and the size and the route of the piping.The basic details are left to the plumber (UT)who is responsible for installing a properlyconnected system in accordance with the specifi-cations and good plumbing and constructionpractices. Generally, plumbing plans consist offour types of symbols: piping, fittings, valves,and fixtures. (See fig. 7-1.)

Piping symbols indicate the type and loca-tion of the piping that should be indicated on theplans by using solid or dashed lines. The size ofthe required piping should be noted alongsideeach route of the plan. Piping up to 12 inches indiameter is referred to by its nominal size whichis approximately equal to the inside diameter(ID). The exact inside diameter will depend onthe classification of the pipe. Because their wallthickness is greater, the heavy types of pipinghave smaller inside diameters. Piping over 12inches in diameter is referred to by its outsidediameter (OD).


PIPE FITTINS,VALVES

AND PIPING FLANGE SCREWED

BELL 5

SPIGOT WELDED SOLDERED

PIPE FIT TINGS , VALVES

AND PIPING ICONT I FLANGED SCREWED

BELL B

SPIGOT WELDED SOLDERED

ELBOW

45.DEGREE

90.DEGREE

TURNED DOWN

TURNED UP

BASE

DOUBLE BRANCH

UNION

GATE VALVE

GLOBE VALVE

,

SAFETY VALVE

REDUCER

CONCENTRIC

ECCENTRIC

SLEEVE

f TEE

STRAIGHT SIZE

OUTLET UP

OUTLET DOWN

DOUBLE SWEEP

REDUCING

SINGLE SWEEP

4iIii 4-14:

0 404 -81a0

*494 1 0 } 3-E3E A-494k- -643,40-4 I 0-c-- 14 0-9-00

o 0 0 0 O l'ilif I I1

41;r7.14- T 1j32. ft-1:0 tut°it. 1

-41-- 4if '41/4- -E41!'-' PLUMBING SYMBOLSDRAIN FD

-0411- --D4-- -3><E-- --o044- -4>4W URINAL

WATER CLOSET

CLEANOUT

nie GREASE TRAP

WATER HEATER

HOT WATER TANK

--00- -{)4-- -->z* 44:0* 44:41)- C) 0wn

,

0co IQ4- --1*-- 4>S<* 4*P-

SOIL 5 WASTE PIPINGVENT PIPING

(CW)-C)if- iii -->'). 4(* 44>e''

COLD WATER PIPING

(HW)---jii ---)9- .4(44- C'L.e.---- HOT WATER PIPING

14-- GATE VALVE---N-- CHECK VALVE

-ii---11- -f--}-- 4---E- -*--x. -9--e-cate.1

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

Figure 7- 1. Mechanical symbols.

Fitting symbols are shown by the basic linesymbols for pipes when used in conjunction withthe symbology of pipe fittings or valves. Theywill define not only the size of the pipe and themethod of branching and coupling, but also theuse to which the pipe will be put. This is impor-tant because the type of material from which thepipe is made determines how the pipe should beused.

In regard to valve symbols, the ty,n. ofmaterial and their size are normally NOT notedon drawings, but must be assumed from the sizeand material of the connected pipe. However,when specified on the bill of materials or plumb-ing takeoff, valves are called out by size, type,

7-2

11.330(54)

material, and working pressure; for example,2-inch check valve, brass, 175-pounds workingpressure.

Fixture symbols are known as general appur-tenances, such as .drains and sumps, but otherfixtures, such as sinrs, water closets, and showerstalls are indicated on the plans by pictorial orblock symbols. The extent to which the symbolsare used depends on the nature of the drawing.In many cases, the fixtures will be specified on abill of materials or other schedules keyed to theplumbing plan. When the fixtures are describedon the schedule, the EA can use symbols whichclosely resemble the actual fixtures or obtain

!

Cha ter MECHANICAL PLANS

mechanical symbol templates that are availablecommercially. These templates come in varioussizes (scale). Get the size that will match thecommon scales you use in your architecturaldrawing, such as 1/4 inch equals 1' -0".

PLUMBING LAYOUT

Figure 7-2 shows a typical plumbing layout.You can see how the outlines of walls, parti-tions, and water utilities features were taken

O0U.

1111WMAS=NMNIMIIII:=2zujranu 30.morwrar_411A

;".1:71P.I Var5i. Aril=

MI5 11.tRla BELOW Fl

2"

BATH boizt-R

1.L

WATER PIPING HUNGFROM FLOOR, JOISTS

2" WASTE. BELOW PL.

BATH TUB

BEDROOM

PIIINEE 4 Yt..A4

2" WASTE.WASTE & VENT

Z' VENT ROOF

.2"WASTE IN WALLCHASE ANNE 10L,

tv1 & C RISE TO SINK.

.5/NN

Mb 4: de 410 SO

.4141N6 f:POrst FL, ,TD /STS

KITCHEN

LIVINKi ROOM

Figure 7- 2.-- Typical plumbing layout for a small house,

7-3

1. '7

s6;44.

54.7


from the floor plan. The reproduction is, unfor-tunately, too small to be easily studied, but youcan see that it utilizes the mechanical symbols.Refer to ANSI Y32.4-1977. The cold water serv-ice line (which enters the building near thelaundry trays) is indicated by a broken dash-and-single-dot line, while the waste pipes are in-dicated by solid lines. If you follow the coldwater service line, you will see how it passes,first, a 1-inch main shutoff valve, below thefloor and just inside the building wall. Fromhere, it proceeds to a long pipe, running parallelto the building wall and hung under the floorjoists, which services (beginning at the right-hand end) the cold water spigot in the sink, thecold water spigot in the laundry, the hot waterheater, the boiler for the house heating system,

BATHTUB

LAVATORY

the flushing system in the water closet (W.C.),the cold water spigot in the bathroom wash-basin, and the cold water ,spigot in the bathtub.The below-the-floor line is connected to thespigots by vertical RISERS. Valves at the hotwater heater and boiler are indicated by appro-priate symbols.

From the hot water heater, you can trace thehot water line (broken dash-and-double-dot line)to the hot water spigots in the sink, laundry,bathroom washbasin, and bathtub. This line isalso hung below the floor joists, and connectedto the spigots by risers.

You can see the waste line (solid line) for thebathtub, washbasin, and W.C. (with traps in-dicated by bends), running under the floor fromthe bathtub by way of the washbasin and W.C.

WATER CLOSET

3/4"

3/41'-ov

3/4 WATER I" COLD WATERHEATER SERVICE

eamismoro sm. own elansiyammes

dn.. *Anwar%

BOILER

lis'2

HOT WATER

COLD WATER

SINK

LAUNDRY

Figure 7-3.Hot and cold water risers diagram.

7-4

X.d

3 "

45.894

Chapter 7-- MECHANICAL PLANS

to the 4-inch sanitary sewer. Similarly, you cansee the waste line from the laundry, running tothe same outlet. However, the kitchen sink hasits own, separate waste line. The bathroomutilities waste lines vent through a 4-inch piperunning through the roof; the sink waste linevents through a 2-inch pipe running up throughthe roof.

The figure shows the plan view of the lines,fittings, and fixtures locations. For an experi-enced Utilitiesman (UT), this may be the onlydrawing needed to install the system, but on theother hand, a shortage of personnel may be afactor, and an inexperienced Utilitiesman maybe assigned for the plumbing project. In order toconvey our ideas clearly as to how the system isconnected, an isometric drawing is needed. Thisdrawing is a method of visualizing or showing athree-dimensional picture of the pipes in onedrawing.

CO.

Figure 7-3 shows the risers diagram for hotand cold water service lines and how they areconnected to feed the fixtures.

Figure 7-4 shows the waste and soil pipesdiagram and the associated fitting symbols. Thearrows represent the direction of flow. If younotice, all the pipes are sloping towards thebuilding drain.

Figure 7-5 shows the basic layout of adrainage system. The terminology and functionof each part are defined below:

a. The fixture branches are horizontal drain

pipes connecting several fixtures to the stack.

b. A fixture drain is the drain from the trapof a fixture to the junction of that drain with anyother drainpipe.

c. The soil and waste stacks are fixturebranches which feed into a vertical pipe, referred

BUILDINGDRAIN

VENT

WASTE

CO.SINK

Figure 7 -4. Waste and soji risers diagram,

7-5

1 7 J

45.895


Jj Roos

4" VTR

/1.

WATER 4" II t14.124"CLOSET I/21

2"

a

LAVATORY

FIXTURE DRAIN

BATH

4"SOIL STACK

FIXTUREBRANCH

FLOOR DRAIN-0"

gmb

he'

LAUNDRYN\4TRAY

2"

/ROOF

Lri

1112VIR

'Vele#' Tleo tilef I 7

orsWASTE STACK

211

CLIANOUT

"4.BUILDING

DRAIN

5

BUILDING WALL

HOUSE SEWER

Figure 7-5.Basie layout of a drainage system.

to as a stack. If the waste that is carried by thefixture branches includes human waste (comingfrom water closets or from fixtures that havesimilar functions), the stack is called a SOILSTACK. If a stack carries all waste excepthuman waste, it is referred to as a WASTESTACK. These stacks service all the fixturebranches beginning at the top branch and govertically to the building drain.

d. The building drain (also referred to ashouse drain) is the lowest piping part of thedrainage system. It receives the discharge fromthe soil, waste, and other drainage pipes insidethe building and extends to a point 3 feet outsidethe building wall. (Most local codes require thatthe house drain extend at least 3 feet beyond thebuilding wall, but a few local requirements rangefrom 2 to 10 feet.)

e. The building sewer is that part of thehorizontal piping of a drainage system which

7-6

VENT

WASTE

45.896

extends from the end of the building drain. Itconveys the waste to the community sewer or aprivate disposal tank.

f. The floor drain is a receptacle used toreceive water to be drained from the floors intothe drainage system. Floor drains are usuallylocated near the heating equipment and in thevicinity of the laundry equipment or any unitsubject to overflow or leakage.

g. The cleanout is a unit with a removableplate or plug which provides access into plumb-ing or other drainage pipes for cleaning out ex-traneous material.

HEATING, AIR-CONDITIONING,AND VENTILATING SYSTEMS

As with plumbing system layouts, the layoutsfor heating, air - conditioning, and ventilating

11't.1

== Chapter 7MECHANICAL PLANS

systems are usually done on architectural floorplan outlines, using the appropriate symbolsfrom ANSI Y32.4 -1977. The draftsman makesthe layout of a mechanical system on the basis ofnotes and sketches provided by the designengineer. To do this, the draftsman must knowhow these systems function. Described below aresome of the most common heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating systems.

STEAM

These systems may be one-pipe or two-pipeair-vent (gravity), vapor (gravity), or vacuumsystems, and they may be upfeed or downfeed.One-pipe systems are not used in permanentstructures. Low-pressure steam, circulatingthrough radiators or convectors, is used forheating most office buildings. Medium-pressuresteam from unit heaters is used for heatingbakeries, laundries, hangars, and industrialbuildings. High-pressure steam is used mainlyfor process work and for conveying through adistance from a central heating plant.

BELLOWSPACKLESS VALVES

4E7QUICK VENT VALVE

SCALE POCKET

In a one-pipe air-vent system, air whichcould cause a cushion ahead of the steam andprevent the flow is removed by means of airvalves installed on the radiators. In a one-pipesystem, the radiators may be placed above thepipe (upfeed) or below it (downfeed), and italways employs a gravity return. That is, thecondensate gravity flows back to the boiler,rather than being mechanically forced back.Most of the gravity return systems are one-pipe,and they are seldom used for permanent Navybuildings.

In vapor systems, the design is intended toreduce steam pressure in the boiler and theamount of heat emitted from the radiators inmild weather, and to maintain boiler pressureand increase radiator heat in cold weather. Avapor system of the two-pipe type is shown infigure 7-6. The radiator may be of the hot watertype. It operates with very low-steam pressures.Since air valves on the radiators on the two-pipesystem are eliminated, foul air or water cannotbe discharged into the occupied spaces.

IL" BELLOWSTRAP

to

FLOAT VENT VALVE

QUICK VENT VALVE

REGULATOR

COMPOUND GAUGE

OkAl I71, 0"-r-

11=111

IIPP"r1SWING CHECKS

DIRECT RETURN TRAP

Figure 7.6.- -Vapor heating system.

7-7

1 7; )

82.63


The steam enters at the top tapping of theradiator, through a graduated control valve,rather than at the bottom tapping as in the one-pipe air-vent system. The temperature of theroom may be controlled by the amount of steamadmitted. Condensed steam and air aredischarged through a thermostatic trap, locatedat the lower tapping of the radiator, into the dryreturn piping. One of these traps is designed topass air and water, but not steam. An air ventand check and an automatic return trap thatvent the air from the system, but prevent outsideair from entering, are installed in the returnmain.

In a two-pipe vacuum system, a pump is usedto draw air and condensate from the returnlines. This creates a partial vacuum and helps thecirculation in the system. This type of system isbetter for large buildings than either of the othertwo types because of the pressure drop whichmay be expected in long runs of pipe. Theradiators are equipped with graduated valvesand traps like those in vapor systems. Thevacuum pump on the return contains an airliberating tank with a float-controlled air vent.

HOT WATER

These systems provide for the circulation ofwater from a heater through pipes to radiatorsor convectors and back to the heater. A gravitysystem of return is seldom used today; instead, apump is used to keep the water circulating.

The most common types of hot water heatfor small buildings are the one-pipe and two-pipe systems. A one-pipe system is shown infigure 7-7. Hot water is carried in a single mainaround the system and diverted to each radiatorin turn. A two-pipe system is shown in figure7-8. In this system, the main carries hot water,and the cooled water is returned through aseparate return pipe.

HOT AIR

These systems distribute heated air through aduct system. The air is usually heated in a coal-,gas-, or oil-fired hot air furnace, but it may be

7-8

I dllillilliill

82.65Figure 7-7.One-pipe hot water system.

heated by passing over steam- or hot-water-heated coils. The air circulation is provided byfans/.

/Figure 7-9 shows a hot air system. Note thatfs drawing is an isometric drawing; this is aethod of portrayal often used for design draw-

ings of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioningsystems.

A MIIMINIMMINOD

1111111j---

82.66Figure 7-8. Two-pipe hot water heating systems: A. Di-

rect return; B. Reverse return.

Chanter 7-- MECHANICAL PLAN

WARM AIRBRANCH DUCT

14* ,/,'.' TAK OFFSrtlee..

4"WARM/ 44001, IR40

RETURN AIR

1

taAkt, 40BONNET -

0 WARM AIR CEILINGREGISTER

IN' MAIN DUCT -

./0/°RETURN AIR DUCT

41%11, 0

by

*LE

RETURN AIRREGISTER

MEAT PLANT

WARM AIR SUPPLY DUCTS TO BE INSTALLEDABOVE CEILING JOISTS. RETURN AIR DUCTS

ro BE INSTALLED BELOW OR BETWEEN FLOOR

JOISTS IN CRAWL SPACE.

Figure 7-9.--Hot air heating system.

RADIANT

RADIANT heating (also called PANELheating) is a system in which the heating units(which may be hot air pipes, hot water pipes, orelectric coils) are embedded in walls, floors,and/or ceilings.

7-9

AIR-CONDITIONING

82.66.0

An air-conditioning system maintains thetemperature, moisture content, movement, andthe quality of the enclosed air in a structurewithin desirable limits.

In all systems of air-conditioning, air is theexchange medium that conveys heat to or from

1 7 /

ENGINEERING A!D 3 & 2 VOLUME 2

the space to be kept conditioned and the coolingor heating equipment. Air also has the capacityto absorb and carry water vapor. When air holdsall the water vapor it is capable of absorbing, itis called SATURATED air. This is air of themaximum possible HUMIDITY. Summer air isusually too humid for comfort; therefore, asummer air-conditioning system is designed todehumidify as well as cool the air. Artificiallyheated air, on the other hand, is usually too dryfor comfort; therefore, in artificially heatedpremises, the air-conditioning system both heatsand humidifies the air.

Air-conditioning may be effected by in-dividual room or space units, or by a centralsystem. A schematic drawing of an air-conditioning unit is shown in figure 7-10. TheFAN at the right draws air into the supply duct;this air consists of recirculated air from inside,plus (when desired) a regulated amount of airfrom outside. From the SUPPLY DUCT, the airpasses through a FILTER into the mixing ortreating chamber. There it is first warmed bypassing over a bank of low-pressure (LP) steamcoils called the PREHEATER. This preheating

FILTER

SUPPLY \DUCT

LP

PREHEATERSPRAYER

prevents the moisture in the air from freezingwhen it enters the sprayer.

The SPRAYER, fed with cold water (CW),next cools the preheated air; it also dehumidifiesor humidifies it, depending upon whether theoriginal humidity of the air is above or belowthat desired. The sprayer also functions as an airwasher. After passing through the sprayer, theair passes first a filter and next a second bank ofsteam coils called the REHEATER. Thereheater heats the conditioned air to the desiredtemperature.

The pipe marked CR in figure 7-10 is theCONDENSATE RETURN, carrying steam con-densate from the heater and reheater back to theboiler. That marked CWR is the COLDWATER RETURN, carrying used spray waterback to the tank of the spray pump.

Figure 7-11 (a foldout at the end of thischapter) shows a heating and air-conditioninglayout for a hospital. You can see that the air-conditioning plant consists of four separate self-contained units, three of which are located in themechanical equipment room, and one on theporch of the ward. Note the cooling towers,

FILTER

REHEATER

BYPASS-

C Rw----r

w R

Figure unit.

7-10

FAN

82.67

Cl 12....1111CAL PLANS

which have not previously been mentioned. Thefunction of one of these is to cool the spraywater returned by the cold water return from thesprayer; after cooling in the tower, this watergoes again into the CW line to the sprayer.

You can see the line of air-conditioningducts, running from each of the air-conditioningunits. Note that the section dimensions of eachlength of a specific size are inscribed on thedrawing; note, too, that these dimensionsdecrease as distance away from the unit in-creases.

Note that some spaces are heated, not by theair-conditioning system, but by radiators. Theseare spaces (all the toilets, for example) which

may contain odors or gases which would make it

inadvisable to connect them with the air-conditioning duct system. On each of theradiators, the heating capacity, in British ther-mal units (BTU's), is inscribed. In each spacenot communicating with the air-conditioningsystem, you can see an exhaust fan (for ventila-tion) shown. On each fan the air capacity, incubic feet per minute (CFM), is inscribed.

In each air-conditioned compartment, yousee a circle (or more than one circle) on the duct,indicating an outlet for air-conditioned air.These outlets are called DIFFUSORS, and thecapacity of each diffusor, in CFM, is inscribedthereon. Note that this capacity varies directlywith the size of the space serviced by the outlet.

Steam lines from the boiler in the mechanicalequipment room to the air-conditioning unitsand radiators appear as solid lines. Small

diagonal lines on these indicate that they arelow-pressure steam lines. Returns appear as dash

lines.

In the upper left corner, the details are setdown to show the valve arrangement on thesteam and condensate return lines to each of the

7-1 1

air-conditioners. (Norinally, the fittings, as

shown in the drawing are not numbered. For usein this training manual, the fittings are

numbered to simplify the explanation.)Referring to the symbols specified in ANSI

Y32.4-1977, the detail indicates that in the steamline, the steam headed for the unit passes (A) agate valve, (B) a strainer, and (C) an electricallyoperated modulating valve. This last reduces thepressure to that for which the unit coils aredesigned.

The steam condensate leaving the unit firstpasses (1) a gate valve, (2) a strainer, (3) a union,and (4) a steam trap. This trap is a device whichperforms two funct' c: (I) it provides a recep-tacle in which stea., ..denses into water, and(2) it contains an automatic valve system whichperiodically releases this water into the rest ofthe returr lines.

Beyond the steam trap, there is anotherunion; next comes a check valve, and finallyanother gate valve. A check valve is a one-wayvalve, permitting passage in one direction andpreventing backup in the opposite direction.

VENTILATING

Most VENTILATING SYSTEMS take ad-vantage or the natural environment. The ven-tilating system is designed to use the naturalforces of wind and interior-exterior temperaturedifferences to cause circulation, and maintains acontinuous freshening of the internal air. Ingeneral, air is permitted to enter through open-ings at or near the floor level, and allowed toescape through openings high or the walls or in

ceilings and roof.In mechanical ventilation, .air circulation is

induced by mechanical meansusually by fans,which may be combined with supply and exhaust

duct systems.

1 7 :

.41111111r

STEAr NUN

COND RETURN

r. MODULATING YALYEFLECTRICALLY OPERATED

STEAM COIL.CONNECTIONS

DRN END . STEAMMAIN. SEE DETAILS0 S 5MG NO 51172E

cONCRETE PAU

I"

70 10 F.Ala TIM TER

SA f.FS

..111 .1. II

TYPICAL STEAM & COND RI TURN CONNTO AIR CONDITIONING UNIT

NO SCALE

cook LNG TONFR

1.)Ci(VIIN *IT Al STREAM

1000 CF

40" Is"41111. WO C.61

1111 HI TERt

1,11

SCREEED

,4

.; 0 I

A

PITCH

t- F------ 0m. .,7=1,1'7 ..4

I.

P1-10111.1 CONN-1

[

SECTION A-ASCALE 1."

A 10

10" 70" 2"AIR milt

275 Ef

s 10" 70"GRILLE

SECTION e--8SCALP

S.

SO EF0 WAR,

BEET ON AVAILABLE

SOO C

11.10

Wort 1000014 6F DUCTS 1,1 am

SELF CONTAINED AIR

'''`,..,................CONOITsollusG ugly2000 CFM 60,000 STU

-, NET RIFFIGIERATIONASP CONDENSING WATERENT AIR 113"F DR . 6eF WI

di . IIHEATING COIL CAP., ENT AIR

61^F LEAVING AIR er,,, '

IiILI 111L E cONN

0"

40 IS

DRIP

Elhal ST FAH?C CPEI

I" STEAM

COOLING TOWERMTN PUMP. 60,000ITU MET REFRIGERATION7e1' we KITH RS,

RE I I ENTERING WATER

Gv MO 0Tll

V.

GV

4

E xr4 F ANISO GI' 41

7000 ETU

h"

1I" CW FOR CowlSEE MOTE NO. 3

60OCF

SEP E41.RGiG, 'MgrTHIS SHEET FOR PIPINGCOMMA (IONS

COPLOS10.1/ PROOF PAN

cal' UNDER WINDOW5000 0 Tu

COOL 1,4GTOWER

iR

1

275 CFM

OUT F ORATCH

DRIP

7

_ 7 3 73=72

Ida CFM

sompro 4. 4NENINNIN=.

OD RES Pal

CLEANINGGEAR

10

MEDICAL. STORAGE

Xso c,s1

S. RAY

Mt

RICH EQUIPRN

!1

6 6

24 10100 CR,. 1,CHTP110OF

X4 TAN100 CPR

7" STEAM I'," PUM.'EDRETURN, FOR CONYSEE Y D DWG NO. 513,200

'COOLING TONERWITH PUMP110,000 STU NE TREFRIGERATION111aF 18 WITH 115FENTERING WATER

Ply* 100 TO 10 PSIC $1061 HR

530 GAL NW T ANK COILCAP 550 ON& 10 PSI STEAMTO HEAT set WATER TO 154.FSEE NOTE HO. 1

RETURN AIRFILTERS

42" A IS"GRILLE

1600 CPURET AIR

N..VENTAOVER EL DR

0001 EDIMO PUMPA RECEIVER00 PSIDIRE.PRESS

10'0" 4' 0"cOHC PAD

EL ECTR ANSE

FRESH AIRDUCT

CmCR

4" CFI FOR CONTSEE NOTE NO 1

122 SELF CONTAINED AIR CORD UNITS7000 CFM 60.000 STU NET BEER EACHrp CONDENSING WATERENT AIR 12.0 Db. 6a4, EIE',MATING COIL CAP. ENT AIR OafLEAVING AIR ErF

IV DRAINTO FD

40"GRILLE

IWO CFMRET AIR

HT AIRFIL TENS

SELF CONTAINED AIR COHO UNIT SSA CFR. 3000IITUNII RIM EFFECT. ENT AIR 101,F DD

45" . 70" FRESH AIR.1 Iiihni :

COIL CAP. ENT AIR 3O`F LEAVING AIR WVler vs 1, COND1114$114C WATER. HEATING

r 2LOUVERED 0PE Ai WITH n! MM.a'ss ' WIRE MESH SCREEN

..;;.................

S E E V A O D W G HO S3.1)11 lti-----_t -1 II. II ISO Crag Fitt SPI AA INT AA 0

I/, GRAIN 4 I" . V.. 10'. X 24) r 2. AIR III TER

CW6

DARK R005/

713 CPR

/ \ 7000 419

PL AN OF MECHANICAL ECP..EIPMENT ROTAS

SCALE i'.0"

2000 ATLI

STERILIZING

:HETKITCHEN

!

sal t

t.

STIRSURGERY

27s CFM

F s Tam70: F

73 IS" 1'AIR TIL TER

10 12. 10

Sf E T

r1 75 L F. f JsocTN

aA

/ .. sGull t sm 71,11 1 Rid

01

1. _1 E E. I7000

t . At RA2NAI3w III AN / 0.04S(01411 .1919

S

Figure 7 -11 t ing and air-conditioning

t

Ill C4a/i

AIR tmt FUSERS it visit At I

/ \%)( Ai I

T.

17 I

200 CFR

--)S/ 7 . 7

E

215 GEM I

rED4C 71

RECORDS

ALOFFICER 1\

/1\.TE

7

2SOCFN

Po14111.1A1 r

Sf t 'ITING I" I

11.

tr",I; 1:rti

FR

Tic Vx::

1:

14 s

is s

too CFR

011.1m

1

100 Cr.I

V( A.4

S 1l T

a AR

i .5

A 1#3

DENTAL

Eso

Of AN

BEST cm AVAILABLE

DRIP

I KO

T- C I COOLING THERMOSTAT MERCURY TYPE

1' H HEATING THERMOSTAT MERCURY TYPE(EXCEPT FOR SURGERY RN SEE NOTE m0 Si

S I AIR COND START AND STOP SWITCH

TO MORGUEFOR CONE SEEV' 1 0 ORE, 110. 131,41

NOTE S

I. FOR OE TANS OP DRIP. PRO, HR TAME, RADIATOR A CONO(NI,ATEPUN? CONNECTIONS REFER 10 V A 0 OwG NO. 530,220

7U111 TYPE RASED ON WV ROOM AIR

AND )0 PSI STEAM PRESSURE

5. OR CONTINUATION GO G NM. (-OP COOUNG TOWERS

6 All [NWT) ABOVE CE OK 10 IA 'NSW A I ED

S. HEA TINT. THERMOSTAT I SURGII.T ROOM T9 RE REMOTE EDI IS

POTENTIONET ER TYPE, 1114 166 maximum DIFFERENTIAL

All AIR COND 1.11,:1 I TO OPEFLTIr WITH17S" SP Al UNITS' cant. ET

1RENT AIR INTAKE DUCTS 101AL M AIR COND UNIT IN 14((11 (117011 RN

PROM LOUVERED OPEN

5-DIFFUSER OuTI ITS INC. I et PROVIDED WITH v01. UmE DAMPERS

I ItTATING S IN AC UNITS 10 OPERATE AT )0 PSI STEAM

CHAPTER $

ELECTRICAL PLANS

The electrical information and layouts inconstruction drawings, just like the mechanicalplans are generally super-imposed on thebuilding plan and the plot plan.

In this chapter, we will address electricalplans as the drawings which pertain to the elec-trical distribution system that indicate outsidepowerlines and appurtenances for multibuildinginstallations and the Interior Wiring System (anyelectrical wirings installed inside a building).

As an EA3 or EA2, you will be required todraw electrical drawings and layouts from notes,sketches, and specifications provided by thedesigning engineer. Although you are not re-quired to design the electrical wiring system, youmust be familiar with the electrical drawingmethods, the symbols, arid the nomenclature, aswell as the basic functions of the componentsassociated with the electrical distributionsystems, circuit hookups, and in addition, beable to apply that knowledge in drawing elec-trical plans.

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

The most common types of symbols used inelectrical drawings are shown in figure 8-1. Forspecial or additional symbols, refer to ANSIY32.9-1972. Except for the details which requiremore time, because they are generally shown indifferent views and sections, or in a pictorialform, ordinary electrical drawings for structuresare easy to make.

To draw in electrical symbols in an electricaldrawing, as in drawing a plumbing plan, it isbest to use templates. The wire is generallydrawn as a single line, but with slanting "tickmarks" to indicate the number of wires in anelectrical circuit.

8-1

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS

Electrical distribution is defined as thedelivery of power to building premises, on polesor placed underground, from the powerplant orsubstation through feeders aryl mains.

Within this system, the Construction Electrircian (CE) may refer to it as the power systemwhich is a general term that covers the large-capacity wiring installations and associatedequipment for the delivery of electrical energyfrom the point of generation to the point of use.The power system is generally considered to be acombination of two sections: the transmissionand the distribution. The difference between thetwo sections depends on the function of each. Attimes, in small power systems, which will bediscussed later in this chapter, the differencetends to disappear and the transmission sectionmerges with the distribution section. Thedelivery network, as a whole, is referred to as thedistribution section and is normally used todesignate the outside lines, ar.d frequently con-tinues inside the building to power outlets.

Before proceeding to the study of this sec-tion, you should have a basic understanding ofthe use of the transformer in the electrical powersystem.

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is simply a device for increas-ing or reducing the voltage in an electricalcircuit. It ranges in size from a portable one(those used for appliances inside the building) toheavy ones that are mounted permanently inplatforms or hung with crossarm bracketsattached to an electric pole. Ask one of the CE's

,j


BATTERY,MULTICELtS

SWITCH BREAKER

FIRE-ALARM BOX, SINGLE-POLEWALL TYPE SWITCH

LIGHTINGPANEL

-0 30A AUTOMATIC em POWERRESET BREAKER PANEL

.-.1t10-11.41- BUS

DIE

DO

AC

O

O

VOLTMETER

TOGGLESWITCHDPST

TRANSFORMER,MAGNETICCORE

BELL

BUZZER, AC

Crossing not connected(not necessarily at a40° angle)

JUNCTION

TRANSFORMER,BASIC

l/ROUND

OUTLET,C EI LING

011 I LE ,

WALL.

1=1.111=0

=1111 IS

BRANCH CIRCUIT,CONCEALED INCEILING OR WALL

BRANCH CIRCUIT,CONCEALED IN FLOOR

BRANCH CIRCUIT,EXPOSED

FEEDERS

UNDERFLOORDUCT ANDJUNCTION BOX

0 MOTOR

CONTROLLER

STREETLIGHTINGSTANDARD

4®OUTLET,FLOOR

CONVENIENCEDUPLEX

FAN, WALL

0 FAN, CEILING

() KNIFE;(7 SWITCH

D/SCONN EC TED

Sa

a

DOUBLE-POLESWITCH

PULL SWITCHCEILING

PULL SWITCHWALL

FIXTURE,FLUORESCENT,CEILING

FIXTURE,FLUORESCENT,WALL

JUNCTION BOX,CEILING

JUNCTION BOX,WALL

LAMPHOLDER,CEILING

LAMPHOLDER,WALL

LAMPHOLDERWITH PULLSWITCH, CEILING

LAMPHOLDERWITH PULLSWITCH, WALL

EPECIALPURPOSE

TELEPHONE,SWITCHBOARD

THERMOSTAT

PUSHBUTTON

Figure 8-1.--Electrical s)mbols.

8-2 1 .5

13.5

Chaster 8ELECTRICAL PLANS

to show you a transformer, and it is very prob-able that there is one not far from your bar-racks.

Now, for long-distance power transmission,a voltage higher than that normally generated isrequired. A transformer is used to step thevoltage up to that required for transmission.Then at the service distribution end, the voltagemust be reduced to that required for lights andequipment. Again a transformer is used; thistime to step down the voltage.

The reason for stepping up the voltage in aline lies in the fact that the greater the distance,the more resistance there will be to the currentflow; and a much greater force will be requiredto push the current through the conductor.Perhaps you can best understand this reasoningif you examine Ohm's Law,

I =

(See chapter 3, EA 3 & 2, Vol. 1.)

You can see from the formula above that theCURRENT (I) varies inversely to theRESISTANCE (R). To maintain the requiredcurrent flow as the resistance increases, theVOLTAGE or ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E)must also be increased accordingly, The increasein voltage makes it possible to use smaller wiresor cables, thus minimizing the support for

aboveground transmission lines, and conse-quently minimizing the cost of the system.

POWER DISTRIBUTION S'STEMS

Most land-based power systems use alter-nating current rather than direct current,principally because the use of transformers ispossible only with alternating current. An a.c.distribution system usually contains one or moregenerators (technically known as ALTER-NATORS in an a.c. system), a wiring system ofFEEDERS which carry the generated power to adistribution center, and the DISTRIBUTIONCENTER which distributes the power to wiringsystems Nile(' PRIMARY MAINS and SEC-ONDARY MAINS.

A system may be a THREE-WIRE OR AFOUR - WIRE system, depending upon whethertoe alternators are connected DELTA (1.1) or

8-3

FEEDER

SWITCHBOARD

4041SPEglioR

Figure 8 -2. Delta - connected alternator.

BUSBARS

82.69

WYE (Y). Figure 8-2 is a schematic drawingillustrating a delta connection. The coil markedSTATOR represents the stationary coils of wirein the alternator; the one marked ROTORrepresents the coils whiCh rotate on the ar-mature. You can see that the power is taken offthe stator from three connections, which in thedrawing form a triangle or delta. All three wiresare live (called HOT) wires.

Figure 8-3 shows a Y-connected alternator(3-phase, 4-wire). N represents a common orNEUTRAL point to which the stator coils are allconnected. The current is taken off the stator bythe three lines (wires) 1, 2, and 3, connected tothe stator coil ends; and also by a fourth line N,connected to the neutral point. Lines I, 2, and 3are hot wires; line N is NEUTRAL.

The voltage developed in any pair of wires,or in all three wires, in a delta-connected alter-nator is always the same; therefore, a delta-connected system has only a single voltage rating

(220 volts in fig. 8-2). However, in a

Y-connected system, the voltage developed indifferent combinations of wires is different. Infigure 8-3, you can see that lines I and 2 takepower from 2 stator coils (A and C). The sameapplies to lines 1 and 3 (power from coils B andC), and line numbers 2 and 3 (power from coilA and B). However, the neutral (N) and line 2

1 in 1

I .3 .)


ROTOR

110/220 VOLTALTERNATOR

82.70Figure 8-3.--Y-connected alternator (3-phase, 4-wire).

aGENERAT,NG1

STATION

CEN

FEF11;6

rni$TwiBuroNTER -

P\k%tskuINS

OvAPIf;i5TO LiViri,;

Tc(4fiSF()Ft44f tt

ptuATOhAL1,1 AtQ.,A;i TF;25

takes power from coil A only; neutral N and line1 from coil C only, and neutral (N) and line 3from coil B only.

It follows from this that a Y-connected alter-nator can produce two different voltages: ahigher voltage in any pair of hot wires, or in allthree hot wires, and a lower voltage in any hotwire paired with the neutral wire.

Output taken from a pair of wires isSINGLE-PHASE voltage; output from threewires is THREE-PHASE voltage. The practicalsignificance of this lies in the fact that some elec-trical equipment is designed to operate only onsingle-phase voltage, while other equipment isdesigned to operate only on three-phase voltage.This equipment includes the alternators them-selves, and a system with a three-phase

SECONDARY

I IflY

IC/ /AU rOkPC(1.LIGHTS4Ni, I In',OLTSINGE

Ml T

lo ?sAr r)k

T,

82.71

Figure 8-4.--Three-wire distribution system, pictorial view.

8-4

ChaptRICAL PLANSalternator called a three-phase system. How-ever, even in such a system, single-phase voltagecan be obtained by tapping only two of the wires.

Figure 8-4 illustrates a three-wire distributionsystem. This system has a delta-connected alter-nator, generating 240 volts. From the generatingstation, three-wire feeders carry the poweroverhead to the distribution center, from whichtwo primary mains branch off. One of thesecarries power to a lighting system and single-phase motor in a motor pool, both designed tooperate on 110 volts, and to a three-phase motordesigned to operate on 220 volts. The 220-voltthree-phase motor is connected directly to the

GENERATINGSTATION

(ÌsTRiStT)ONCENTER

220v 7,INGLpiMi PRIMARY

MAIN

220-volt three-phase primary main. For thelighting system and 110-volt motor, however,two wires in the primary main are tapped off to atransformer which reduces the 220-volt primarymain voltage to 110 volts. The use of two wirescreates single-phase voltage in the secondarymain to the motor pool. Similarly, power tosecondary mains running to the operationalheadquarters, living quarters, and .the mess hallis reduced to 110 volts and converted to singlephase.

Figure 8-5 shows how the system illustratedin figure 8-4 is represented in a WIRINGDIAGRAM.

220V 3PHASE FEEDER

220V 3 PHASE PRIMARY MAIN

DISTRIBUTIONTRANSFORMER

T

,roc PATIrINAI.

h ADQUARTLR'i

ME eS

HAL 1

TO

LIVINGQUART FRS

TO 220V3 PHASEMOTOR

at --DISTRIBUTIONTRANSFORMER

110V SECONDARY MAIN

IVY SECONDARY MAINS

Figure hreevire distribution system, wiring diagram.

8-5

TO MOTOR

POOL LIGHTS

82.72


GENERATINGSTATION

FEEDERS

DISTRIBUTIONCENTER

TO OPERATIONALHEADQUARTERS

110 VOLT SECONDARYMAIN

TO MOTOR POOLLIGHTS AND MOTOR

TO LIVINGQUARTERS

TO MESSHALL.

Figure 8.6.totir.vo-ire }stem, ple1orial

Figure 8.6 shows a four-wire system servingthe same facilities. tier(' there is a Y-connectedalternator rated at 110/221) volts. You can seethat to get 110 %ohs single phase for the secondtt mains, no transformers are necessary. Thesemains are simply tapped into pairs of wires, Oneof each pair being a hot wire and the other theneutral wire. -the 220-volt three-phase motor is

tapped into the three hot wires which develop220 %ohs three-phase. You can see that theneutral wire in a 4-wire system exist, to make it

possible to; it Imet oltage to be used in thes% stem.

TO 220 V

3 PHASE_

MOTOR

82,73

Figure 8-7 shows a wiring diagram for thesystem illustrated in figure 8-6.

Exterior Electrical Layout

Figure 8-8 is a plot plan shoxking six buildingswhich are to be supplied with electricity forpower and lighting. The dotted line at the bot-tom of the drawing indicates underground ductscontaining cable already laid. The designengineer has decided to tap the cable at manholeN.H.) 22, and run lines from there oN, ahead todead end at the teat building 126. I ines ate to

BEU CFI'? LIAME

GENERATINGSTATION

DISTRIBUTION!

1'0/220 v

N 2

....4

Chapter 8ELECTRICAL PLANS

2 TO 220 V3 PHASEMOTOR

0

I 1

TO TO TO

OPERATIONAL HESS LIV!hG

!HEADQUARTERS NALL QUARTERS

ILO VOLTSECONomer

MAIN

TO MOTOR POOLLIGHTS a MOTORS

82.74

Figure 8-7.Four-wire system, wiring diagram.

65.65,1

figure 8-8.Plot plan without electrical layout.

8-7

be run underground from M.H. 22 to the firstpole, up the pole to a POTHEAD (See fig. 8-12.)and from the pothead to conductors on the polecrossarms. At building 126, lines are to be car-ried down the pole, re-gathered through apothead into conduit again, and rununderground to a concrete slab, and out throughanother pothead to a transformer bank.

Figure 8-9 shows the same plot plan, with theelectrical layout superimposed. General notesfor the drawing are shown in figure 8-10. Figure8-11 shows the detail A indicated in figure 8-9.Figure 8-12 shows the section A-A indicated infigure 8-11. The term 1-3/C #1/0 VCL means"one three-conductor number 1/0, varnishedcambric lead covered cable." Note the 5-kilovoltpothead shown in figure 8-12.

APPRC1 DISTANCEBETWEEN POLES

1000*

SEE DETAIL '11'

STUB POLE 20'0'

3 1ir.62 wratitotoRoo,WIRE OR EQUAL

Amax DISTANCEBETWEEN POLES

125'(3

SEE NOTE BLDG 50

SEE CVA... A

Vi DO 13?

km22AP PRO, DISTANCE

BETWEEN POLES 00%0'

SEE NOTES AISS

65.65.2

Figure 8-9.Plot plan with electrical layout.


GENERAL NOTESTHEt 5 olistlioc, TING POLE LINE TO BE TRIMMED OR REMOVED AS

BT CONSTRUCTION OFFICER- PROVIDE LIGHTNING ARRESTERS, AT EACH END OF POLE LINE, ON ALL THREE

OVERHEAD WIRES GROUND LIGHTNING ARRESTERS WITH SUITABLE BARE WIRE

CONNECTED TO DRIVEN GROUND ROD3. ' NSULATORS TO BE PORCELAIN, PIN TYPE, INSULATOR PINS TO BE LOCUST

WOOD OR EQUAL4- TERMINAL POLES, AND POLES AT POINT OF CHANGE IN LINE DIRECTION, TO HAVE

DOUBLE CROSSARMS ALL, OTHER POLES, SINGLE CROSS-ARM. CROSS-ARMS TOBE STANDARD 4 PIN, 517's 3 In's 4 I/2", PIN SPACING 3=04 ON CENTERS AND14 In" ON SIDES

S TERMINAL POLES TO HAVE ONE GUY, POLES AT POINT OF CHANGE IN LINEDIRECTION TO BE GUIEO ACCORDING TO STANDARD PRACTICE EACH GUY LINETO HAVE TWO PORCELAIN STRAIN INSULATORS, THE LOCATION AND SPACING OFSTRAIN INSULATORS AND GUY ANCHORS TO BE N ACCORDANCE WITH STANDARDPRACTICE

6-MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP SHALL CONFORM TO ALL STANDARD CODES,.REGULATIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

DIRECTED

82.75Figure 8-10.General notes for layout shown in figure 8-9.

Figure 8-13 shows the detail B indicated infigure 8-9. This represents the installationbehind building 126, where the overhead line ter-minates. The last pole in the system is shown inthe lower left corner. From the pole to thetransformer bank, the underground conduit isindicated by dotted lines. The conduit runs

En51.NG :M

1

' , h 21\ COMPARTMENT

' - EXISTING DUCTSTO MH 23

-

TV". 0

titre

p- HE AD

1

__ - - ^ . -2EXISTING STEEL CONDUITTO BLDG 132 ABOvE DUCT

HEAD GUT-3/8' STEEL CABLESTRAIN INSULATORS-1r SCREW

ANCHOR OR SIMILAR METHOD(TYPICAL WITH ADDITIONAL

GUTS AS NEEDED)

- _ -- _--..-_-_-_-__ ----_.I NC ROAD

...PLAN

OE TAIL A

PORCELAIN INSULATOR(SEE NOTE 3)

LIGHTNING ARRESTER(SEE NOTE 2)

SEE NOTE 4

5)(V POTHEAD, WITHe CONDUIT COUPLING

POLE, 36-0", CLASS 3(TYPICAL)

GROUND LEVEL

SECTION A-A

4" STL. CONDUITINTO MN 221 -3/C 1/0 VCL CONDUIT

65.67

Figure 8-12.Section A-A indicated in figure 8-11,

under the concrete slab on which the trans-formers rest. Section A-A gives constructiondetails of this slab.

The angle-iron symbol with the dimensions 3by 3 inches indicates that the BUS (connectingconductor) running along the transformer pri-maries will be supported on posts made of 3- by3-inch angles. From the transformer second-aries, underground conduits (indicated bydotted lines) will run to the junction box onbuilding 126.

Interior Beetrical Layouts

65.66 Electrical power is brought into a buildingthrough a service entrance by OVERHEAD orFigure &II.- -Detail for layout shtmn in figure 8-9.

8-8BEST t11:?1

rtr,11 Alija!gt.01 vth 1

Cha ter ELECTRICAL PLANS

&ALDO&

APE MESH ea. 5./.'

licTtott_'4=6:TRANSFORMER PLATFORM

- -- -- .

-. ,,DETAIL B

PART pot a FLOOR PLAN SLOG *126

Figure 8-13.Detail B indicated in figure 8-9.

UNDERGROUND SERVICE. Figure 8-14

shows an overhead service entranciwhich bringspower from the service drop to a;panelboard in-

side the building. Naturally, one of the com-ponents of the service entrance is the conductorthrough which the current flows. This conductormay consist of individual wires which runthrough a protective raceway, such as rigid metal

conduit, electrical metallic tubing, or rigidnonmetallic conduit. The raceway provides theconductors with protection from both physicaland weather damage. At other times, service en-trance cable is used. This cable does not needraceway protection unless it is likely to bephysically damaged by abrasion or from beingstruck by passing equipment.

A service head, also called a weather head, isused with a raceway to provide an entrance forthe conductors into the raceway and is designedto prevent the entrance of rain into the racewayand bushed to reduced abrasion on the insula-tion. Figure 8-15 illustrates an UNDER-GROUND SERVICE that brings power into a

8.9

65.69

building. The conductors, corresponding to theservice drop which bring the power to thebuilding, are called the "service lateral." Theseconductors may be tied to an overhead distribu-tion system, and run down the pole into theground before they are run to the building. Inother cases, the entire distribution system, ex-cept for the transformers, is underground. Theservice lateral may be connected to a secondarymain, or, if the building is served by serratetransformers, it is connected to the trans-formers.

The service lateral may be installed ir. rigidconduit, either metal or nonmetallic or it canalso be installed with underground service en-trance cable (USE). The figure shows the layoutof an underground service lateral run from thetransformer to the junction box and to the serv-ice equipment.

Figure 8-16 shows an electrical layout, onceagain superimposed on an outline taken from anarchitectural floor plan. The service entrance

.YtiL


WEATHERHEAD RIGID CONDUIT

SERVICE DROP

PANEL

STUD

FLOOR JOIST

."

Figure 8-I4.Overhead service entrance.45.897

bringing power into the house is a three-wire linein 1 1/4 -inch conduit. However, the fact that theline voltage is 110/220 indicates that these threewires must be two hot wires and a neutral wirefrom a four-wire system, the third hot wire notbeing brought into the building.

The service line runs by way of a serviceswitch to a lighting panel, from which twoBRANCH CIRCUITS run to the lighting fix-tures and convenience outlets in the rooms. The

8-10

TRANSFORMER

TUD SERVICEQUIPMEN T

SERVICENTRANCE

CONDUCTORS

- JUNCTIONBOX

SERVICE LATERAL

45.898Figure 8-15.Underground service to building.

character of these fixtures and outlets, and ofthe service switch and the lighting panel, isshown under "symbols."

Figure 8-17 is a wiring diagram showing theconnections for the layout shown in figure 8-16.After entering the building, the two hot wires(black) in the service lead are connected to a100-amp, 2-pole main circuit breaker, while theneutral wire bypasses the switch and runs to theNEUTRAL BAR in the panel board, with abranch off to a water pipe ground. Beyond.themain circuit breaker, the two hot wires run tovertical BUS BARS in the panel board.

The panel board is equipped to handle eightcircuits, although there are only four shown inthe diagram. Consider branch circuit No. 1. Thiscircuit contains two wires, a hot wire runningout from the bus bar in the panel board, and aneutral (white) wire running back to the neutralbar in the panel board. This circuit contains onlya single switch, which turns all the lights in thecircuit on or off simultaneously, but has noeffect on the flow of power to the convenienceoutlets.

Circuit No. 3 also contains a hot wire outfrom the bus bar and a neutral wire back, andtied into the solid neutral bar. Each of the lightsin this circuit has its own switch, which controlsthe flow of power to the light only. Like circuitNo. I, circuit No. 3 has a hot wire out from thepanel board bus bar, and a neutral wire back tothe neutral bar.

Chapter 8ELECTRICAL PLANS

ÌNCOMING 110/220VSINGLE PHASESERVICE3-NO 3 TYPE THWNIN 14 CONDUIT

SYMBOLS()CEILING LIGHTING FIXTURE.

411DUPLEX CONVENIENCE OUTLET.

MDLIGHTING PANEL- MULTIBREAKER TYPE 8-20 AMP.

SINGLI BREAKER -W/I00A MAIN BREAKER.

S SINGLE POLE W SWITCH,

MOOR OPENING.

--TWO WIRE CIRCUIT.

+ THREE WIRE CIRCUIT.

* NO wIRI CIRCUITdlIMMEN* w=11111

STOREROOM

2,4

OUTEROFFICE

411

439

)OFFICE Ho. 3

d 4

SCALE /a i t o

srNOTE:"UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED ALL CIRCUITS ARE 2

CONDUCTOR b12 AWG THWN IN.12 "CONDUIT".

Figure 8-16.Interior electrical layout.

SERVICE ENTRANCE

HOT 1 N HOT

100 AMP 2 POLEMAIN CIRCUIT BREAKER

45.515(65)

WATER PIPEA= GROUND

82.76

Figure 8-17.Wiring diagram for layout shown in figure 8-16.


As mentioned earlier, the electrical informa-tion on small residential working drawings isgenerally shown in the regular floor plan. How-ever, there are times when more information isneeded to convey the designers ideas that can notbe contained in a single drawing. Therefore, aseparate electrical drawing will be required. Inorder to develop this drawing and be understoodby the electrical contractors, and for the(CE) who will install and plan the local cir-cuits requirements to meet the local code and

specifications, the following basic steps are sug-gested: (a) Show the location of the service paneland its rating (125 amps); (b) Show all wall andceiling outlets; (c) Show all special purpose out-lets, such as telephone, communications, door-bells, etc.; (d) Show all switches and their outletconnections; (e) Show convenience outlets; and(f) If required, complete a schedule of electricalfixtures, symbol legends, and notes necessary toclarify any special requirements in the drawingthat are not stipulated in the specifications.

CHAPTER 9

SPECIFICATIONS

Even well-drawn construction drawings can-not be entirely adequate in revealing all the aspectsof a construction project. There are many featuresthat cannot be shown graphically. For instance,how can anybody show on a drawing the qualityof workmanship required for the installation ofdoors and windows or who is responsible forsupplying the materials, except by extensivehand-lettered notes. The standard procedurethen is to supplemcnt construction drawings withwritten descriptions. These detailed writteninstructions, commonly called SPECIFICA-TIONS (SPECS), define and limit the materialsand fabrication according to the intent of theengineer or the designer. The specifications area. very important. part of the . project, becausethey eliminate possible misinterpretation andinsure positive control of the construction.

This chapter will explain various types ofreferences used by technical specification writersin the preparations of project specifications, theirgeneral format, and the terminology used.

NAVFAC SPECIFICATIONS

NAVFAC SPECIFICATIONS are preparedby the Naval Facilities Engineering Commandwhich sets forth the standards of constructionfor the Naval Construction Force and allwork performed under the jurisdiction of theNaval Facilities Engineering Command. WhenNAVFAC specifications are used in the prepara-tion of project specifications, they must beconsistent with the conditions of usage mentionedin them. Major deviations in these specificationsshould NOT be made without prior NAVFACIleadcluartcr's appro al.

9-1

Design Criteria Used In Contracts For PublicWorks, NAVFAC P-34, is a publication thatlists current NAVFACENGCOM guide speci-fications and Federal, Military, and specialspecifications and standards cited in thoseguide specifications and the Design Manualsand related publications promulgated byNAVFACENGCOM as design criteria.

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS in the TypeSpecifications (TS) series and the design criteriacontained in the NAVFAC design manuals (DM)and NAVFAC P publications (P-) are mandatoryfar use in the. design, of Naval Shore Facilities.These publications and manuals define, describe,and establish the minimum criteria for the designand construction of various specialties. They arethe NAVFAC specifications and references inproject specifications that are most commonlyused by the SEABEES. They may be modifiedby taking exceptions or amplified by additionalrequirements.

EXAMPLE: "Concrete construction shallconform to the appik.41,1e requirements ofthe American Concrete Institute (ACI-301 andACI 318), except as otherwise specified."

EXAMPLE: "Protection and curing of con-crete piles shall he in accordance with AC1-308;however, the side forms can be removed approx-imately 48 hours after the concrete is placed."

TYPE SPECIFICATIONS (TS-SERIES)

TYPE SPECIFICATIONS must not he refereneed in project specifications. 1 hey may he


used as manuscripts for .project specifications.Portions of type specifications that are notapplicable to a project .must not be incorporatedinto the project specifications. When portions ofa project are not covered by a type specification,qmplify, where necessary, using language andform similar to that of the type specification.

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS(S-SERIES)

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS are writtenfor a small group of specialized structures, whichmust have uniform construction to meet rigidoperational requirements. NAVFAC standardspecifications contain references to Federal,Military, other command and bureau, andassociation specifications. NA VFAC standardspecifications are referenced or copied in projectspecifications. When it is necessary to modifyrequirements of a standard specification, it musthe referenced and exceptions taken.

EXAMPLE: "The magazine shall be Arch,Type I, conforming to Specifications S-M8E,except that all concrete shall be Class F-1."

COMMERCIAL SPECIFICATIONSAND STANDARDS

Where the quantity of material is small anddoes not require testing, a suitable standard com-mercial product may be used. Manufacturers'standards, however, cannot be referred to orcopied verbatim in project specifications.

Technical Socieq andAssociation Specifications

These specificationsfor example, thosepublished by the American National StandardsInstitute (ANSI), American Society for Testingand Materials (ASTM), Underwriter's Labora-tories (1il.), and American Iron and Steel Institute(AISI) should be referenced in project specifi-cations, when applicable.

Manufacturers' Standards

Ihese specifications should not he referencedin project specifications, rhey may he used to

9-2

aid in preparing the requirements for projectspecification, but must not be copied verbatim.Do not base requirements on standards of severalt-anufacturers.

FEDERAL ANDMILITARY SPECIFICATIONS

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS cover thecharacteristics of materials and supplies usedjointly by the Navy and other governmentagencies. Federal Specifications do not coverinstallation or workmanship for a particularproject, but specify the technical requirementsand tests for materials, products, and/or services.Figures 9-1, 9-2, and 9-3 are excerpts fromFederal Specifications FF-N-105B (nails, spikes,staples, etc.) which dictate the minimum require-ments, acceptable for use of all Federal agencies.For example, suppose the project specifications,which will be discussed later, states that "forall carpentry, nails shall conform to FederalSpecification FF-N-105B Type 11." To furtheridentify the nails required, it will be necessary torefer to Federal Specification FF- N -105B todefine the different styles under Type 11 beforeproper selection of the nails may be made. Theengineering technical library should contain allof the commonly used Federal Specificationspertinent to SEABEE construction.

MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS are thosespecifications that have been developed by theDepartment of Defense, Like Federal Specifica-tions, they also cover the characteristics of mate-rials. They are identified by "DOD" or."MIL"preceding the first letter and serial number, suchas MIL -L- 191400 (lumber and plywood,fire-retardant treated) and DOD-STD-100C(engineering drawing practices).

PROJEur SPECIFICATIONS

construction drawings arc supplemented bywritten PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS. Projectspecifications give detailed information regardingmaterials and methods of work for a particularconstruction project. They cover various factorsrelating to the project, such as general conditions,scope of work, quality of materials, standards ofworkmanship, and protection of finished work.

Chapter 9SPECIFICATIONS

Fed. Spec. FF-N-105B

FEDERAL SPECIFICATION

NAILS, BRADS, STAPLES AND SPIKES:WIRE, CUT AND WROUGHT

This specification was approved by the Commissioner,Federal Supply Service, General Services Administration,for the use of all Federal agencies.

1. SCOPE AND CLASSIFICATION

1.1 Scope. This specification covers wire and cut. nails and spikes,wir.:J brads and staples, and wrought spikes.

1.2 Classification.

1.2.1 Types and styles. Nails, brads, staples and spikes shall beof the following types and styles, as specified (see 6.2).

Type I - Brads

Type II - NailsStyle 1 - Asbestos Shingle

2 - Barrel3 - Boat4 - Box5 - Broom6 - Casing7 - Coolers8 - Sinkers9 - Corkers10 - Common11 - Concrete12 - Double-Headed13 - Fine14 - Finishing15 - Flooring

FSC 5315

Figure 9-1. Page I from Federal specification.

9-3

82.240


FF-N-105B

Style 16 - Lath17 - Masonry18 - Pallet

19 - Gypsum Wallboard20 - Roofing21 - Shingle22-- Siding23 - Slating24 - Rubber Heel25 = Underlayment26 - Square Barbed27 - Masonry Drive28 - Escutcheon

Type III StaplesStyle 1 - Fence

2 - Poultry Netting3 - Flat Top Crown3a - Round or "V" Crown4 - Preformed

Type IV - Cut NailsStyle 1 - Common

2 - Basket3 - Clout4 - Trunk5 - Cobblers6 - Extra-Iron Clinching7 - Hob

Type V - SpikesStyle 1 - Common (Cut)

2 - Gutter3 - Round

4 - Barge and Boat

1.2.2 Sizes. Hails, brads, staples and spikes shall be of thesizes listed herein or as otherwise specified (see 6.2).

2. APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS

2.1 The following documents of the issue in effect on date ofinvitation for bids or request for proposal, form a part of this speci-fication to the extent specified herein.

Federal Specifications:

NN-P-71 - Pallets; Materials-Handling, Wood (General ConstructionRequirements).

QQ-Z-325 - Zinc Coating, Electrodeposited, Requirements For.MMM-A-250 - Adhesive, Water-Resistant (For Closure of Fiberboard Boxes).PPP-B-566 - Boxes, Folding Paperboard.PPP-B-601 - Boxes, Wood, Cleated-Plywood.PPP-B-621 - Boxes, Wood, Nailed and Lock-Corner.PPP-B-636 - Box, Fiberboard.

82,241Figure 9.2,Page 2 from Federal Specifications FF-N.105B.

9-4

Chapter 9 SPECIFICATIONS

4-

FF -N -105B

Uniform Classification Committee, Agent:

Uniform Freight Classification.

(Application for copies should be addressed to the Uniform ClassificationCommittee, Tariff Publishing Officer, Room 202 Union Station, 516 W. JacksonBlvd., Chicago, IL 60606.)

National Motor Freight Traffic Association) Inc., Agent:

National Motor Freight Classification.

(Application for copies should be addressed to the National Motor FreightTraffic Association, Inc., Agent, 1616 P Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20036.)

(Technical 'society and technical association specifications and standardsare generally available for reference from libraries. They are also distri-

buted among technical groups and using Federal agencies.)

3. REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Material. Nails, brads, staples and spikes shall be of the

following materials, as specified (see 6.2),

3.1.1 Steel wire. Steel wire shall be of good commercial quality,

entirely suitable for the purpose and sufficiently ductile to insure that

the finished product shall withstand, without fracture, cold bending through

180 degrees over a diameter not greater than the diameter of the wire.Except as specified in 3.1.2, the cold bend test will not 154 applied tobarbed nails, or nails having mechanically formed or deformed shanks.

3.1.2 Hardened steel. Hardened steel nails shall be heat treated

to a minimum hardness of Rockwell C37. The finished product shall withstand,without fracture, cold bending through 20 degrees over a diameter not

greater than the diameter of the wire.

3.1.3 Medium-carbon steel sheet. Cut nails (Type IV) and cut spikes

(Type V, style 1) shall be sheared from medium-carbon steel sheet of good

commercial quality, entirely suitable for the purpose. The finished

product shall withstand, without fracture, cold bending through 90 degrees

over a diameter not greater than the thickness of the sheet.

3.1.4 Copper. Copper nails shall contain,a minimum of 98 percent

pure copper. Copper nails shall withstand, without fracture, cold bending

through 180 degrees over a diameter not greater than the diameter or

thickness of the nail.

3.1.5 Copier -clad iise. Copper-clad steel wire shall be not

less than 20 percent copper by weight. The average thickness of the copper

shall be not less than 10 percent of the radius of the finished wire; the

minimum thickness shall be not less than 8 percent of the radius of the

finished wire. The finished product shall withstand cold bending through

180 degrees over a diameter not greater than the diameter of the wire

without fracture and without separation of the copper from the steel.

Figure 9-3.Page 4 from Federal Specifications FF-N-10511.

9-5

82.242


The drawings, together with the project specifi-cations, define the project in detail and showexactly how it is to be constructed. Usually, anyset of drawings for an important project isaccompanied by a set of project specifications.The drawings and project specifications areinseparable. The drawings indicate what theproject specifications do not cover; and theproject specifications indicate what the drawings

-do not portray, or they clarify further detailsthat are not covered amply by the drawings andnotes on the drawings. Whenever there isconflicting information on the drawings andproject specifications, the project specifice ,,stake precedence over the drawings.

The Naval Facilities Engineering Commandhas developed a format for use in the prepa-ration of project specifications. This formatis described in NAVFAC Type SpecificationTS-M129 (latest revision), Format and GeneralParagraphs for the Preparation of Manuscriptsof Specifications for Public Works. The formatis patterned generally after the ConstructionSpecifications Institute's format for ConstructionSpecifications.

The General Requirements are. usually thefirst specifications listed for the structure, statingtype of foundation, character of load-bearingmembers (wood-frame, steel-frame, concrete),type or types of doors and windows, types ofmechanical and electrical installations, and theprincipal function of the building.

The SPECIFIC CONDITIONS come nextwhich must be carried out by the constructors.These are grouped in divisions under headingsapplying to each major phase of construction, asin the following typical list of divisions:

DIVISION

2. SITE WORK3. CONCRETE4. MASONRY5. METALS6. CARPENTRY7. MOISTURE CONTROL8. DOORS, WINDOWS, AND GLASS9. FINISHES

10. SPECIALTIES11. EQUIPMENT

9-6

DIVISION

12. FURNISHINGS13. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION14. CONVEYING SYSTEMS15. MECHANICAL16. ELECTRICAL

Sections under one of these general categoriesgenerally begin with GENERAL REQUIRE-MENTS for that category. For example: underDIVISION 6.CARPENTRY, the first sectionmight read:

6.--01..GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.All framing, rough carpentry, and finishingwoodwork required for the proper completionof the building shall be provided. All wood-work shall be protected from the weather,and the building shall be thoroughly drybefore the finish is placed. All finish shall bedressed, smoothed, and sandpapered at themill, and in addition, shall be hand-smoothedand sandpapered at the building, wherenecessary, to produce proper finish. Nailingshall be done, as far as practicable, -inconcealed places, and all nails in finishingwork shall be set (meaning to drive headsslightly below the surface with a hammer-driven tool called a "nail set").

All lumber shall be S4S; all materials formillwork (doors, window sash, and the like) andfinish shall be kiln-dried (meaning: dried or"cured" in heated kilns, rather than simplyair-dried); all rough and framing lumber shall beair- or kiln-dried (meaning: absolutely no "green"lumber to be used).

Any cutting, fitting, framing, and blockingnecessary for the accommodation of other workshall be provided. All nails, spikes, screws,bolts, plates, clips, and other fastenings andrough hardware (here is a whole list of itemstoo small or too numerous to be shown on thedrawings) shall be provided. All finishing hard-ware shall be installed in accordance withthe manufacturer's instructions. Caulking andflashing (thin sheets of metal or other material,installed around window openings, chimneyopenings, and at other places where leakagemight occur) shall he provided where indicated

Cha, ter 9SPECIFICATIONS

or where necessary to provide weathertightconstruction.

Subsequent sections under division 6.CARPENTRY would specify various qualitycriteria and standards of workmanship for thevarious types of rough and finish carpentry, as,for example:

6.-07.--STUDDING for walls and partitionsshall have doubled plates and doubled caps.Studs shall be set plumb and not to exceed16 inches on centers and in true alinement.They shall be biidged with one row of 2 by 4pieces, set flatwise and fitted tightly, andnailed securely to each stud. Studding shallbe doubled around openings, and the headersfor openings shall rest on the inner studs.Openings more than 4 feet wide in partitionsshall have trussed headers. Studs shall betrebled at corners to form corner posts.

DIVISION 15, under Mechanical the Specsmay read:

15.01. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.Thework consists of a complete plumbing systemincluding the sanitary soil, waste, and ventpiping ; -Cold arid hot water supply piping,watermeter (if required), plumbing ;fixtures,hot water heater, and other necessary appur-tenances. The system shall be inspected,tested, and approved by local governmentplumbing codes before burying, concealing,or covering the various piping systems. Eachsystem shall be complete and ready foroperation except as specified or indicatedotherwise.

15.02. SANITARY SEWER, below groundlevel, shall be of extra heavy cast-iron soilpiping and fitting of the bell-and-spigot type,extending not less than 5 feet beyond thefoundation wall and sloped not less than1/8 inch per foot. The joint shall be madefrom a good grade of twisted oakum uni-formly and well tamped into the joint andwith the 1-inch depth of hot poured lead,made in one pouring, and caulked tight. Allhorizontal soil connections to the systemshall be accomplished by Y-fittings or com-bination Y-and 1/8 bends and all changes indirection greater than I /8-bends shall be ofthe long sweep pattern. Lines shall be well

9-7

supported to eliminate sagging. Backfillingshall be well tamped in 6-inch layers.

15.03. SANITARY SEWER, above ground,shall be as specified for below ground,except wastelines and vent piping abovegrgund shall be of zinc coated, standardweight, screwed-end pipe steel and castiron, recessed, long radius, screwed drainage .fittings, graded not less than 1/8 inch perfoot. The sanitary sewer vent shall extendfull size through the roof for a distance ofnot less than 12 inches, where it shall beflashed with suitable corrosion resistant metalbefore the roofing is installed. A 4-inchcleanout shall be provided just above groundelevation at the base of the soil stack. Allmale screw ends shall be coated with a goodgrade pipe joint compound before enteringinto fittings. The bath tub trap shall beprovided with a 3/4-inch. brass, screw drainplug; all lines shall be properly supportedfrom the floor joints with suitable hangers.Closet-bowl floor connections shall have acast-iron closet-bowl floor flange with provi-sions for anchoring the brass closet-bowl boltsand an approved type of horn gasket. Thefinished joint shall be absolutely leakproofand the bowl shall sit squarely on the finishedfloor.

DIVISION 16, ELECTRICAL, will follow thesame line of thought, except that the requirementswill be those that follow closely the ElectricalCede or sound electrical engineering practices.

The moment your battalion or unit receivesorders to undertake a major construction project,watch for the arrival of sets of drawings andspecifications that are usually provided well

in advance of the deployment period. Thesedrawings and specifications will also be the basisfor the P & E (Planning and Estimating) andscheduling. Take a look at the specifications;once you advance in rate, especially if you are con-cerned with P & E, it will be your responsibilityto study the applicable specifications thoroughly.

NAVFAC has prepared specifications whichcover practically every subject on Naval con-struction. These specifications are the standardsfollowed by the Naval 'Construction Forcesabove all other specifications that may heavailable.

CHAPTER 10

REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

Usually, one draftsman is assigned theresponsibilities of drawing reproduction, main-tenance of reproduction equipment, and main-taining drawing files. However, all EA's shouldbe familiar with the aspects of performing theseduties.

This chapter discusses the typical repro-duction equipment commonly used by theSEABEES and also discusses the 'proceduresused in maintaining engineering drawing files.Each command will have different equipmentand maintain different types of filing systems,depending on their mission and the size of theirengineering division. When you are assignedreproduction and filing responsibilities, you willbe given additional on-the-job training.

DRAWING REPRODUCTIONS

Complete drawings and tracings of drawingsare used only for making reproductions; theseare usually called PRINTS. Prints are exactcopies reproduced on inexpensive, but fairlydurable, paper by the most economical processavailable. Original drawings and tracings areremoved from protected files (discussed later)only by the Engineering Aid, who is working asa draftsman, to make changes or to make repro-ductionc. Therefore, the EA can provide work-able copies or prints to estimators, supervisors,field crews, and others who must work frominformation provided on the original drawings.

This section discusses the various aspects ofoperating and maintaining typical reproductionmachines, as well as the materials associatedwith drawing reproduction.

REPRODUCTION MACHINES

The process most commonly used for repro-ducing construction drawings by the Navy is theDIAZO or AMMONIA VAPOR PROCESS..Basically, this process produces prints with awhite background and blue or black lines afterexposure to light, and then they are dry devel-oped with ammonia vapor. This process usesaqueous ammonia as a developing agent withwater vapor as the carrying agent, causing thepaper exiting from the chamber to carry residualammonia vapor with it. In the diazo process, theammonia chest is saturated with water vapor atall times to help eliminate the toxic ammoniavapors.

Diazo process reproduction machines aremade by several manufacturers, such as BLU-RAY Inc. and General Ana line Film Corp.(GAF). Machines formerly made by GAF werecalled Ozalid. The machines presently made .areno longer called Ozalid, only labeled GAF.However, old Ozalid equipment is still servicedand repaired by the GAF Corp.

The basic difference between the varioustypes of diazo machines is the size of paper thatthey can accommodate. Paper which is 9 incheswide can be used on the smallest machine, andpaper which is 54 inches wide can be used on thelargest machine.

Blu-Ray Rotary Diazo Whiteprint machinesare currently being used in battalion engineeringoffices. Ozalid or GAF machines are usuallyfound in shore activity engineering divisions.

flu-Ray Whiteprinter Model 842

The Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter, shownin figure 10-1, has most of the capabilities of

10-1 2 i),(!


AMMONIA 'WEED TUBE

TOP AMMONIA CHEST COVER

ELECTRONIC HARNESS

P COVER

LAMP WIRING PLUG

GELAROOX

PUMP ASSEMBLY

MOTORNmoirew

L.H. END COVER

TYGON TUBING

AMMONIA BOTTLE CAP

IDLER TIR

MOTOR COVER

1I DIRECTION KNOB

POW ER SWITCH

SPEED ADJUSTMENT KNOB

HEATER SWITCH

DRIVE ROLLBACK CHEST PANEL

PAPER COMBS

a.

DRIVE TIRES

LAMP CARTRIDGE18147 LAMPS)

WIRING PLUG

DRAIN TUBE

°R; END COVER

LAAP CARTRIDGE SCREWS\

PICK OFF, BAR SUPPORT\\STUDS

!MINTER ENTRANCE

PRINTER FEED BELTS

UPPER FACE PLATE

DEVELOPER ENTRANCE

DEVELOPER FEED PLATE

GLASS CYLINDER

TRAY

PICK OFF BAR

Figure 1O-1.--Exploded view of the blu-ray Whiteprinter Model 842.

larger diazo process machines. It is ideally suitedfor use in battalion engineering offices, becauseit is easy to set up and is easily moved. It is verysimple to operate and easy to maintain.

It is important that all EA's thoroughlyunderstand the manufacturer's instructionscovering the operation and maintenance ofthe Blu-Ray reproduction machine beforeattempting to use it. Keep a current file for allreference material available for use by the opera-tors.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.Ammoniavapors produced by the Blu-Ray diazo processmachine are very toxic and may be extremelyuncomfortable to anyone working in the areawhere the machine is located. Therefore, theroom or area used for reproduction must beproperly vented and equipped with exhaust fans.Preferably, the machine should be located in a

10-2

45.866

separate room, used only for reproduction. Themachine should be located as close as possible toan electrical outlet of adequate power supply(electrical specifications are given in the opera-tion manual).

After the machine has been assembled andset up in accordance with the manufacturer'sinstructions, the machine must be placed on alevel surface, such as a table or a desk. This isvery important for proper ammonia drainageand adequate support for the feet on the bottomof the machine.

The ammonia supply bottle must be placedbelow the machine so that there will be a short,direct, and unkinked run of the large ammoniadischarge tube.

Only the proper aqueous ammonia, as rec-ommended in the operation manual, should heused. Use only fresh ammonia and change it at

Chapterter 10REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

least once a month for best operation. NEVERreuse the discharged ammonia.

Room temperature is important. Blu-Raymanufacturers recommend a room temperatureof 70°F be maintained. A drop in room temper-ature will cause condensation in the chest, givingwet prints and may, if excessive, jam the devel-oper.

The Blu-Ray is equipped with an ammoniachest heater which has an independent heaterswitch. The heater is used to activate theammonia vapor to improve development when itis necessary. This may be true especially withlong, continuous machine operation.

The machine twist be kept dust free andclean. Dust is an abrasive material that canwear out the teflon gate strips .in the developersection, as well as other moving parts.

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS.A pilot-lighted switch marked POWER on the instru-ment panel turns the Blu-Ray machine on andoff, actuating the main drive motor, theammonia pump motor and fan, and lights thefluorescent tubes.

A pilot-lighted switch marked HEATER onthe instrument panel manually turns the heater,on and off.

Two knobs on the instrument panel markedSPEED and DIRECTION manually will give astepless speed range from 0 to over 12 feet perminute in both directions.

The knob marked SPEED gives the speedrange by manually turning to a number thatexperience has shown to be proper for the typepaper being printed.

The knob marked DIRECTION has a for-ward and reverse setting. Keep this knob atforward setting at all times. Use the reversesetting only when the paper is jamming and mustbe instantly removed. This knob can be snappedfrom forward to reverse while the machine is

running.The Blu-Ray may be turned on and off AT

ANY TIME. THERE IS NO WARMUP ORCOOL-DOWN PERIOD REQUIRED FORTHIS MACHINE. Just turn on the powerswitch, make your print and turn the machineoff. This is recommended for longer machineand lamp life.

10-3

Making prints is extremely simple. Placeyour original tracing or transparency, face up,on the sensitized reproducing paper, chemicalside up (yellow). Adjust the leading edges ofboth papers so they are even, uncurled, anduncreased. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Place thetwo adjusted sheets on the'feed table and 'gentlyfeed them evenly into the printer entranceWITH THE GRAIN of the sensitized paper (seepackage for grain indication) until they areengaged between the rubber belts and the glasscylinder.

If for any reason the above describedentrance of the paper to the printer is erratic,creased, wrinkled, or uneven, turn the directionknob to reverse and the papers will come out ofthe printer.

As the original and printed sensitized paperexits from the printer over the top of the glasscylinder, manually separate the sensitized paperfrom the original tracing.

Turn the sensitized paper up and into theentrance of the ammonia developing chest. Thefinished print will exit from the top of themachine.

If your print is too light, turn the speed knobto a higher number; if too dark, turn to a lowernumber.

The interior of the ammonia chest of theBlu-Ray machine is readily accessible for inspec-tion or removal of jammed paper. Using fingercatches on the top of the machine, lift up the topcover and the upper chest panel will be exposed.(Before opening SEE WARNING below.) Twosliding door latch type fasteners hold the upperchest panel in its closed position. Slide thesedoor latches toward the center of the machine,and open the upper chest panel up and back,exposing the interior of the ammonia chest.

WARNING: Do NOT open the ammoniachest while the machine is running. Be sure thatall ammonia has drained from the machine.Stand back from the machine when the chest isopen. There is a heavy charge of ammonia in thechamber. Be sure to provide ventilation whilethis is being done.

When removing jammed paper from theammonia chest, do NOT bend or scratch any ofthe mechanical parts in the chest,


It is important, due to described qualities ofthe aqueous ammonia, that a NITE-SHEET berun in the developer-met* when the machine isnot in operation for a period of time. (Nights,week-ends, etc.) This nite-sheet can be a widesheet of sensitized paper long enough to extendfrom both the entrance and exit of the developersection, Stop the machine when this is accom-plished, allowing the sheet to remain. This sheetwill absorb the excess vapor and condensation,leaving a dry chamber when the machine isstarted again.

MAINTENANCE.Periodic maintenanceand inspection of the Blu-Ray machine areessential. Major maintenance and repairs shouldbe performed only by skilled service personnel.

For maximum light exposure, it is veryimportant that the exterior and interior of theglass cylinder be cleaned frequently. When theglass cylinder needs to be cleaned, follow thesteps given below:

1. Disconnect the electrical cord from itspower source.

2. Remove both end panels from theemachine by removing the panel-holding screws.

3. Back off the locking screw and open thedrive - Section cover,

4. Disconnect the lamp cartridge wiring. DONC PULL THE WIRES, grasp the plug.

nfasten the lamp cartridge by removingthe screws at the right-hand end of the lampcartridge frame. Gently remove the lamp car-tridge, insuring that the wires at the left-handend of the cartridge do not snag.

6. Thoroughly clean the glass-printing cylin-der and lamps. Use the manufacturer's recom-mended glass cleaner or an ammonia-watersolution. NEVER use an abrasive cleaner on theglass cylinder,

It is inherent in the nature of fluorescentlamps to lose brilliancy after months of usage.This requires the machine to be slowed down toproduce the desired prints. When this occurs,the lamps should be replaced. Since the lampcartridge must be removed when the glass-printing cylinder interior is being cleaned,burned out or weak lamps should be replacedat the same time. Lamps should be obtained

10-4

through your supply system. This applies to anyother parts needed.

It is recommended that the lamp starters bereplaced when the lamps are being replaced. Thelamp starters are located in the ballast panel inthe back of the machine. For ease of removaland replacement, a portion of the ballast panelcover must be removed to expose the starters.

Printer feed belts may become slack over aperiod of time, causing slippage and blurredprints. A simple adjustment may be made asfollows:

1. Pull the small Tygon tube out of theammonia supply bottle cap.

2. Run the machine until the tube is pumpeddry and no longer feeding the ammonia tank ihthe machine.

3. For complete drainage, raise the motorend of the machine a few inches for a moment.

4. Shut off the machine.5. Tip the machine on its back carefully so

the ammonia tubes and power cord that projectfrom the back will not be crushed or kinked.This will expose the two slotted idler takeupbrackets.

6. Loosen the two screws in both brackets,and press down approximately 1/4 inch beyondthe previous setting to give proper tension to thebelts, and re-secure. Make sure that bothbrackets are set at the same position.

The components in the ammonia chest arereadily accessible and easily removed. The topcover is removed by sliding a door-catch-typepivot and then lifting it off the machine. Theback chest panel can independently be removedfor internal inspection by removing four screwsand sliding the panel out of the machine. Boththe upper and lower paper combs are attached tothe back chest panel, allowing for inspection andreplacement of their combs when the panel isremoved. Take out the ammonia tank first. Theammonia tank is independently removed fromthe ammonia chest by removing the two wingscrews on the right-hand end of the machinewhere the tank drains. Disconnect the Tygonammonia infeed tube in the motor end of themachine, and slide the tank out to the right. Thegrid and drive roll assemblies are easily removedas a unit by unscrewing the plastic drive-roll plug

Cha ter 10REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

at the right end of the drive roll. Slide the driveroll off a pin and slot connector to the driveshaft, and lift the assembly up and out of thechest.

After 600 hours of operation, the plasticTygon tube in the ammonia pump will need tobe replaced. Extra tubing is supplied with themachine for this purpose. To replace a tube,remove the left-hand end panel by removing thescrews from the edge of the panel..Back off thelocking screw holding down the drive-sectiontop cover. This will expose the pump with itsmotor and all the tube connections. Study howthe tube is placed so that when it is removed thenew tube can be properly placed.

There is a tube coupling on the tube supportbracket. Pull the tube lead to the pump from thecoupling.

Jog the machine by snapping the powerswitch ON and OFF. The old tube will move outof the pump by normal rotating pump action.Pull this tube off the ammonia feed pipe leadinginto the machine.

Take a piece of replacement tubing and cutthe end on a bias (slant) so it will feed throughthe pump smoothly. Feed the tubing into thecoupling end of the pump and jog the machine(as before) so the tube will be pulled through thepump.

When this tube is completely in the pump,cut it to length and re-attach as before to theammonia coupling and ammonia feed pipe.

The upper faceplate and the developer feedplate extrusions are removed by removing twoscrews from each and lifting them off themachine. This will expose the lower slidergasket, The lower slider gasket is attached to thegasket retainer angle and is removed as a unit byremoving the fastening screws. A replacementgasket unit can then be inserted.

TROUBLESHOOTING.If the Blu-R.aymachine is to operate at peak efficiency, it mustbe kept in proper working order. Introubleshooting the machine, use the followingsummary as a guide:

Loss of printing speed

I. Glass cylinder dirty.2. Voltage too low.

10-5

3. Fluorescent lamps dirty or past usefullife.

4. Overage sensitized paper.5. Machine not level, causing binding.6. Printer drive belts loose.7. Air entrance blocked causing lamp

heating.8. Flickering or burnt-out lamp, check

starters.

Starting or stalling difficulties

1. Voltage too low.2. Machine not level; causing binding.3. Wiring loosened or disconnected. Call

dealer.

Ammonia leakage

1. Developer chamber top not properlylatched after inspection.

2. Ammonia drain tube blocked,3. Machine not level, preventing proper

drainage.4. Ammonia bottle improperly capped.5. Ruptured pump tubing.

Wrinkled prints from developer jamming

1. Condensation in ammonia chest.2. Did not use nite-sheet3. Sensitized paper damp before using,

due to humid storage.4. Paper placed in developer chamber

against the grain.5. Foreign material in developer cham-

ber,6. Exit not clear.

Lamps burn out prematurely

1. Improper voltage.2. Air entrance blocked causing hot

lamps.3. Improper or defective starters.4. Shorting in wiring.

Prints do not develop

1. Weak or exhausted ammonia-replace.


Figure 10-2.Ozalid machine.

During the reproduction process, the originaland a piece of material, such as paper that hasbeen sensitized (coated with a light, sensitivedye), are inserted into the machine. Sensitizedmaterial is placed with the emulsion side up onthe feedboard, and the original is placed on top.Originals should be of a transparent or trans-lucent nature with an opaque image on one sideonly. Feed belts carry this material around therevolving printing cylinder where the dye of thetreated paper that is NOT covered by the opaqueimage of the original is desensitized by the ultra-violet light rays emitted from the mercury-vaporlamp. After exposure, the original and print arepicked off the printing cylinder by the pickoffassembly, and directed towards the developingsection.

After pickoff, the guide roller directs theoriginal and print between a printer and tracing

45.296 separator belt. These belts cause the print andthe original to be delivered to two separator tankassemblies where the original and print areseparated from each other.

2. Sensitized paper old or exposed.3. Ammonia pump not operating prop-

erlyinfeed tube kinked or pinched.4. Cold ammonia in supply bottle.

Ozalid

The Ozalid machine, shown in figure 10-2,will be discussed in this section. It is normallyused in shore activity engineering divisions and isa part of the battalion's Table of Allowances.

Every EA should have a basic understandingof the various functions of the Ozalid; therefore,printing and developing are discussed, as well asthe operating principles of the cooling andexhaust system. Information is also given onmachine operation, adjustments, andmaintenance.

PRINTING SECTION. Figure 10-3 illus-trates the principles of operation of the printingand developing sections. Of particular interest atthis point is the printing section. This section isdivided into four basic units: light source, re-flector assembly, printing cylinder, and feedbelts.

10-6

The process of separation is unique and istherefore worthy of further discussion. 'Critical'to the operation of separation are perforationsin the walls of the two separator tanks. Duringoperation, air that is drawn through these holescauses a difference in pressure that causes theoriginal to follow the tracing belt and the printto follow the printer belt. Thus, the originaland print are separated and directed in differentdirections. The original moves out of themachine, and the print moves into the develop-ing section where ammonia vapors developthose areas that were not desensitized. It shouldbe noted that it is possible, shotild the need arise,to direct both original and print out of themachine before they go to the developing sec-tion. All that is necessary to accomplishthis is to operate a lever. When the leveris operated, a group of fingers is extendedwhich cause the print to be directed out ofthe machine, along with :the original. Oneinstance in which it is desitable to remove theprint is when the sensitized paper is coated onboth sides. In this instance, the second sidewill be exposed before any developing takesplace.

Chapter 10REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

PRINTER FEED BELTS

HIGH PRESSUREMERCURY VAPOR LAMP

LEGEND

CYLINDER PICKOFF ASSEMBLY

PRINT CYLINDER

LAMP REFLECTOR

I. PRINTING SECTION

GUIDE ROLLER

ORIGINALSENSITIZED PAPER

TO DEVELOPING SECTION

PRINT SEPARATION TANKS

2. SEPARATION PROCESS

DEVELOPING TANK

3. DEVELOPING SECTION

Figure 10.3. Principles of operation.

10-7

20(

HEATER RODS

DRIP TRAY

142.329


DEVELOPING SECTION.The develop-ing section consists of a perforated stainlesssteel developing tank. This tank is con-tinuously supplied with ammonia from anammonia supply tank through a gravity-feedsystem (fig. 10-4). This feed system permitsa smooth, even flow of ammonia, thus mini-mizing the possibility of air or vapor lockingof the feed tubing. The amount of ammoniafed into the developer is controlled by afeed regulator at a rate of approximately50 to 60 drops per minute. The ammoniais directed into evaporating drip trays thatare suspended in the developer tank. Fastenedto these trays are electric heater rods. Theserods, in conjunction with a second thermo-switch controlled heater located in the devel-oping tank, serve to heat the ammonia andthereby accelerate the formation of ammoniavapors. These vapors activate the imageon the print as they escape through thehdles in the upper part of the developing tank.Thus, a semipermanent image of those areasthat were NOT desensitized in the printing sec-tion is `developed on the print as it passes acrossthe vapors.

AMMONIA STORAGE TANKAMMONIA SUPPLY INDICATORAMMONIA FLOW VALVE

FEED TUBE

VENT TUBEAMMONIA FEED REGULATORVENT

To protect the machine from flooding withammonia when the machine is secured, anautomatic shutoff valve is located in theammonia feedline. This valve shuts auto-matically when the machine is secured and isautomatically opened when the machine isturned on, thereby reemitting ammonia to thefeed tray.

A second ammonia supply system being usedin some machines is called the anhydrousammonia system. Cylinders filled withanhydrous ammonia supply the developing sec-tion with an ammonia vapor. This vapor isdirected into the developer tank where it isdistributed with the aid of distilled water that isfed into the drip trays.

For safety reasons, cylinders should bestored away from heat and sunlight. Do notallow the temperature of the cylinders to reach atemperature above 125°F. Position the cylindersupright, and firmly attach them with a chain orstrap to a rigid supporting member, such as awall.

Cylinders are attached to the developing tankthrough a system of piping and fittings. Whenchanging a cylinder, close the valve on the

DRIP GAGE

FEED TUBE

DRIP TUBEHEATER ROD

DRIP TRAY

DRAIN TUBE

RESIDUE BOTTLE

142.330Figure 10I.Ammonia flow sstem.

10-8

Cha ter 10REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

expended cylinder tightly by turning it clock-wise. Bleed off all pressure remaining in thefeedline by turning on the ammonia flow in themachine. Disconnect the fitting or yoke cylinderconnection. Replace the cylinder and remove theprotecting valve cap. Insure that a teflon washeris in place. Connect the fitting or yoke cylinderconnection. Make sure all cohnections are tight.Open the cylinder valve. Check for possibleleaks on all connections by holding a piece ofunexposed and undo eloped diazo paper close tothe connections. If the diazo paper discolors,re-tighten the connections.

A uniform flow of ammonia is maintainedby a pressure gage located between the cylinderand the developing section. In addition, thepressure gage indicates the amount of availableammonia left in the cylinder. A new cylinder willhave a gage reading of 150, while an emptycylinder will indicate a reading of 50.

After passing through the pressure gage, theammonia travels through a flowmeter. Theflowmeter is located on the front of the machinewhich is within easy reach of the operator. Withthis meter, the operator is able to turn on or offthe ammonia flow. Additionally, the operator isable to adjust the flow obtaining maximumdevelopment with a minimum amount ofammonia. Using this type of developmentsystem, the operator is able to turn the ammoniasupply on only when developing, thus savingammonia during warmup and periods of idlingor nonuse.

To aid in the distribution of the ammoniavapor within the developing tank, a water supplyis used. Water is fed into the evaporating driptrays, creating additional vapor which increasesthe ammonia's effectiveness. This water supplyis controlled by a feed regulator (located on thefront of the machine). Also the amount of waterbeing supplied is visible through a tube abovethe feed regulator. Adjust the waterflow to 60drops per minute, anti insure that a constantdripping of water is reaching the machine or thedrip trays may be damaged.

COOLING AND EXHAUST SYSTEM.Excessive amounts of heat or ammonia vaporsshould NOT reach the room in which themachine is located because of the installed

10-9

exhaust and cooling system. The system consistsof twin blowers, driven by a motor whichexhausts fumes and hot air from the machineenclosure through a vent to the outside atmos-phere. Therefore, a partial vacuum is createdwithin the machine covers, thereby causing air toflow into the machine rather than the counter-flow that would otherwise exist. A blower timeswitch operates the blower motor independentlyof the rest of the machine thereby insuring theremoval of vapors and hot air after the mercury-vapor lamp is turned off. The switch may beadjusted to operate for any given length of timeup to 30 minutes.

MACHINE OPERATION.A shortwarmup period is required before 'material canbe fed into the machine. Always follow themanufacturer's instructions during machineoperation. When starting the machine, makesure that the developer drain tube4is inserted inthe residue bottle (fig. 10-4). Then, fill thestorage tank with ammonia. If btibbles areencountered in the feed system due to increasedtemperature or high altitude, the ammoniashould be diluted with cold water. Usually aone-eighth to one-fourth dilution} is sufficient.

After the ammonia storage tank has beenfilled, turn on the main switch, and adjust theammonia feed to 50 to 60 drops per minute. Athigh speeds (30 feet per minute and above),drops per minute can be increased. On virtuallyall modern, large-size diazo machines, ammoniafeed is automatically increased and decreased tocorrespond with variation of machine speed.

CAUTION: During machine operation, theammonia feed regulator should NEVER beturned completely off. If the machine is leftrunning and no moisture is entering the devel-oper section, the evaporation tray and heaterrods are likely to be warped due to excessiveheat.

After a short warmup period, the machinesready for operation. The machine should be runfor \approximately 20 minutes or until the oper-ating temperature is between 180° to 210°F.Time and temperature may vary; therefore,always follow the manufacturer's instructions.Feed the material into the machine with the

C.= t )


original on top, adjusting the speed of themachine so that a clear print is obtained.

Printing speed is dependent on the trans-lucency of the original, the density of the opaqueimage, and the type of sensitized material used.

Running the machine at speeds that are toofast will result in a background on the print.

Running the machine too slow will cause theimage to be weak or missing from the print alto-gether. The only positive method for obtainingthe correct speed for your machine is by runninga test because each machine's light intensitychanges with age.

When stopping the machine, turn the ammo-nia flow off, then feed a sheet of porouswrapping paper, 16 inches wide, into themachine. Stop the machine with the paper inposition around the printing cylinder andbetween the sealing sleeve and the perforatedtank. This will prevent the sleeve from stickingto the perforated tank top and will also protectthe belts from the heat of the cylinder while it iscooling.

ADJUSTMENTS AND MAINTENANCE.Normally, when the machine is first installed, noadjustments are required. Occasionally, how-ever, some readjustment may be necessary dueto atmospheric changes which may cause shrink-age or expansion of some of the belts. Theseadjustments should be performed in accordancewith the manufacturer's instructions and onlythen by qualified personnel.

Maintenance is required on a daily, weekly,monthly, semi-annually, annually, and when-ever necessary basis. The following guide shouldbe followed:

1. Daily requirements:

a. Empty the residue bottle after at leastevery 8 hours of operation. Never re-use residuewater.

b. Replenish the ammonia supply.c. Clean the outside of the cylinder with

glass cleaner. (Operate the machine at slowspeed while cleaning the cylinder.)

d. Clean the feedboard, tracing receivingtray, and print receiving tray. Keep them free offoreign objects.

2. Weekly requirements:

a. Clean the inside of the cylinder whenthe machine is COLD using the followingprocedure:

(1) Open the door at each end of thelamp housing.

(2) Remove the lamp connector fromeach end.

(3) Swing the triangular stop aside andwithdraw the lamp assembly.

(4) Clean the inside of the cylinderwrap a damp clean cloth around aswab and wipe the cylinder whileit is in slow motion. Repeat theprocedure with a dry clothwrapped around the swab until thecylinder is thoroughly clean.

(5) Wipe the lamp assembly with aDAMP cloth.

(6) Re-install the lamp assembly.

IMPORTANT: Handle the lamp assemblywith great care, as it is fragile and expensive. DoNOT attempt to remove the lamp from themachine until it has cooled. Always rest thelamp assembly flat on a table; never stand it onend.

3. Monthly requirements:

a. Lubricate the bearings and drive chainassembly sparingly with No. 10 motor oil.

4. Semi-annual requirements:

a. Clean all suction holes of the rotatingtracing separation drum with pipe stem cleaners.

5. Annual requirements:

a. Lubricate the bearings and drive chainsparingly with No. 10 motor oil.

b. Remove all hoses of the airflow systemand clean out dust and dirt.

10-10

0 5

Chapter 10REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

6. Whenever necessary:

a. If the developer sealing sleeve becomestacky, remove it from the machine; wash boththe inside and the outside thoroughly with soapand water and dry well. NEVER attempt towash the sealing sleeve while it is in the machine.

b. It is advisable to clean the perforatedside of the developing tank at the same time. Useany commercial cleaning fluid. This will preventany smudging of prints due to dirt accumula-tions on the perforated side.

PAPER MATERIAL

Material is available from various sourcesunder different trade names and designations,but basically all diazo products are materialsthat have been coated with a light-sensitive dyethat will develop Nihen exposed to ammonia.The two types of paper commonly used forreproduction drawings are blueprint paper andsepia line intermediates.

Blueprint Paper

Standard weight paper provides a black orblue image on a white background. The printingspeed for paper is described as rapid. Paper isavailable in sheet sizes that range from 8 by 10inches to 34 by 44 inches, or in rolls that range inwidths from 11 to 42 inches with lengths of 50 or100 yards.

Colored paper provides black or blue imageson blue, green, pink, or yellow stock.

Plastic-coated papers are now availablewhich give a slightly glossy print with better linedensity than the standard paper.

Sepia Line Intermediates

Sepia line intermediates are used as duplicateoriginals, These intermediates are prints fromwhich additional prints can be made, savingwear on the original. Using the sepia intermedi-ate, it is possible to keep emulsion-to-emulsioncontact in each generation, resulting in a sharper

10-11

image. In addition, sepia has a greater densityand is capable of delivering a darker image thanthe original, particularly when the original is inpencil. Sepia has a rich, mahogany image colorthat blocks the ultra-violet light rays. Basematerials may be a vellum base treated with aplastic transparentizer which allows the passageof the light rays. Sheet and roll sizes are similarto those of the standard paper. Corrections canbe made on the sepia prints by using a solutionof intermediate corrector to remove the image,then adding the pencil or ink correction.

FILING DRAWINGS

For our purposes here, the term "filing"means (1) the protected stowage of a largenumber of items with the greatest possibleeconomy of space and. in a manner which makesit possible for any single item to be readilylocated; and (2) the maintenance of a file recordin which all items on file are recorded and inwhich the record of any single item (includingits location in the file) may also be readilylocated.

Every important technical drawing is iden-tifiable by a drawing number. The number isassigned by the agency which made the drawing,and the agency insures that there are no duplica-tions of numbers. The first major file break-down for drawings, then, is a breakdown intoseparate files for the different agencies whichhave supplied the drawings. Within each agencyfile, the most convenient way to file drawingsand prints is by the numerical sequence ofdrawing numbers.

ORIGINALS

The following sections discuss the matter offiling under quite ideal conditionsespeciallywith regard to equipment. Therefore, the equip-ment mentioned here may or may not be avail-able.

Original drawings, tracings, and negativesare filed flatNEVER folded. For large items,there are shallow-drawer file cabinets of the type

ENGINEERING AID 3 & 2 VOL

shown in figure 10-5. There is usually a deepdrawer at the bottom in which very largedrawings, tracings, or negatives, rolled andplaced in cylindrical cartons called "mapcartons," may be stowed.

45.298Figure 10-5.Shallow-drawer type cabinet for filing large,

original drawings, tracings, and negatives.

4 STAT UNARY PARTITIONS

ME 2

Smaller items (up to size B, 11 by 17 inches)are stowed on edge in the standard deep-drawertype of cabinet, as shown in figure 10-6. Eachdrawer is divided into compartments by station-ary partitions, and in each compartment there isa "compressor spring" to keep the drawings onedge and in a compressed stack.

PRINTS

Prints, regardless of size, are stowed on edgein the standard deep-drawer type of cabinet.Prints larger than size B must be folded. A printis folded in accordion-pleat type folds in such amanner as to insure that the drawing number isoutside after the print has been folded. Finalfolded size should be 8 1/2 by 11 inches. Youshould make yourself a plastic or plywood8 3/8- by 10 7/8-inch "folding guide," orprocure a ready-made one. The steps in folding alarge print are as follows:

1. Fold the print into 10 7/8-inch length-wise accordion-pleat folds first. Lay theprint facedown, and start by turning upthe edge containing the drawing number,using the folding guide, as shown in figure10-7. Use a small block of wood, like theone shown in the figure, to compress thecrease.

2. Turn the print over and make the nextlengthwise fold, as shown in figure 10-8. Con-tinue turning over and folding until the width ofthe drawing is used up.

Figt.re 10-6.[)rawer of cabinet used for filing small, original draviitiv, tracings, and negatives.

10-12

45.299

Chapter 10--REPRODUCTION AND DRAWING FILES

d.

45.300Figure 10-7.Making first lengthwise fold in a large print.

45.301Figure 10-8.Making second lengthwise fold in a large

print.

3. Place the lengthwise-folded drawing sothat the side on which the drawing numberappears is clown. Begin at the end which con-tains the drawing number, and make the first8 1/2-inch crosswise accordion-pleat fold, usingthe folding guide, as shown in figure 10-9.

4. Turn the print over and make the nextfold. Continue until the length of the drawing isused up.

Folded prints are stowed in the same type ofdeep-drawer cabinet used for stowing smalloriginals. Prints of drawings for active projectsare generally placed on STICK FILES for easyreference.

DATA

Data relating to drawings, such as corre-spondence, should be filed in accordance with

10-13

45.302

Figure 10-9.Making first crosswise fold in a largeprint.

SECNAVINST 5210.11B (described later), or ifa limited number of drawings are affected, theycan be filed by drawing numbers in a separatedrawer or cabinet. If a separate folder for eachproject is maintained, such data must be filed inthat folder.

FILE RECORD

A record of each drawing should be kept onan index card in a suitable file drawer. The dif-ferent agencies which produce drawings preparetheir own types of index cards. A type of cardwhich could be used is shown in figure 10-10. Abrief description of the information whichwould be entered in each of the numbered spacesshown in this card is as follows:

1. The "numerical subject identificationcode" and/or the "name-title subject identifica-tion code." These classification codes areprescribed in the Department of the NavyStandard Subject Identification Codes Manual,SECNAVINST 5210.11B. A copy of thisinstruction is available in the personnel officeand in the technical library. The classificationsystems in this manual are designed to meet theneeds of the entire Department of the Navy for asingle, standard subject scheme to be used innumbering, arranging, filing, and referencingvarious types of Navy and Marine Corpsdocuments by subject.

.21


Figure 10-10.Drawing file index card.

The Standard Subject Identification CodesSystem is generally employed by large shoreactivities, such as Public Works Depart-ments, Naval Construction Battalion Centers, orBrigade Headquarters. For smaller mobile units,such as the Battalion, the EA in charge of thedrafting room or the Operations Chief maydevise their own indexing system for the fileddrawings that suits the volume of recordshandled by the unit.

2. The drawing number. NAVFAC calls itthe "NFEC Drawing Number."

3. The title of the drawing, taken from thetitle block.

4. Cross-index references to any corre-spondence or data which may be on file relatingto the drawing.

5. Number of the Bureau letter, if any,which was forwarded with the drawing.

6 & 7. The number and name of the A & Efirm, contractor, naval shipyard, or otheragency which actually made the drawings.

Again, if a separate folder or drawer file ismaintained for each project, a notation must beplaced in the folder as to where to find thedrawings related to that project. The projectnumber will appear in the cross-index block (4)of the index card.

INDEX

A

Abutments, 2-1Air-conditioning, ventilating, and heating

systems, 7-6 to 7-11Airfields, 5-18 to 5-21Architectural drawings, 6-7 to 6-18

B

Base and subbase courses, 5-21 to 5-31Bearing piles, 2-2Bolts, 1-31, 2-22 to 2-23Brick masonry, 3-28 to 3-32Bridge construction, 2-1 to 2-2Building finish, 1-18 to 1-27

C

Cast-iron water pipe, 4-2Commercial specifications and standards, 9-2Concrete and masonry, 3-1 to 3-32

concrete, 3-1 to 3-20concrete forms, 3-14 to 3-20lightweight concrete, 3-13plain concrete, 3-2 to 3-4precast concrete, 3-8 to 3-12prestressed concrete, 3-12reinforced concrete, 3-4 to 3-8requirements for good concrete, 3-1

to 3-2tilt-up construction, 3-13 to 3-14

masonry, 3-20 to 3-32brick masonry, 3-28 to 3.32concrete masonry, 3-20 to 3-23stone masonry, 3-27 to 3-28structural clay tile masonry, 3-23 to

3-27

Conductors, 4-8 to 4-11Conduit and fittings, 4-12 to 4-14Construction drawings, 6-1 to 6-18

preliminary drawings, 6-1presentation drawings, 6-1shop drawings, 6-1working drawings, 6-2 to 6-18

architectural drawings, 6-7 to 6-18drawing symbols, 6-5 to 6-7site plans, 6-2 to 6-5

Copper tubing, 4-1 to 4-2Cross sections, 5.12

D

Dimensions, road, 5-8Distribution panels, 4-15 to 4-16Distribution systems, electrical, 8-1 to 8-12Drainage, road, 5-12 to 5-17Drainage system, 4-5 to 4-8Drawing files and reproduction, 10-1 to 10-14Drawing reproductions, 10-1 to 10-11Drawing symbols, 6-5 to 6-7Drawings, filing, 10-11 to 10-14

Electrical and mechanical systems (materials),4-1 to 4-6

Electrical plans, 8-1 to 8-12distribution systems, 8-1 to 8-12

exterior electrical layout, 8-6 to 8-8interior electrical layouts, 8-8 to 8-12power distribution systems, 8-3 to

8-12transformers, 8-1 to 8-3

symbols, 8-1

216


Elements of an airfield, 5-18 to 5-20Exterior finish, 1-18 to 1-24

F

Fasteners, 1-28 to 1-31Federal and military specifications, 9-2Filing drawings, 10-11 to 10-14Fittings and conduit, 4-12 to 4-14Flexible pavement structure, 5-21Forms, concrete, 3-14 to 3-20Frame structures, 1-6 to 1-18

G

Galvanized steel pipe, 4-2 to 4-4Guide specifications, 9-1

H

Harbor-shelter structures, 2-3 to 2-12Hardware, 1-27 to 1-28Heating, air-conditioning, and ventilating

systems, 7-6 to 7-11Heavy construction: wood, steel, and steel

frame structures, 2-1 to 2-24bridge construction, 2-1 to 2-2

abutments, 2.1superstructure, 2-1 to 2-2

.trestle and pile bents, 2-1pile construction, 2-2 to 2-3

bearing piles, 2-2sheet piles, 2-2 to 2-3

steel frame structures, 2-18 to 2-21types of structures, 2-18 to 2-21

structural steel connectors, 2-22 to 2-24bolts, 2-22 to 2-23pins, 2-23 to 2-24rivets, 2-24welds, 2-23

structural steel shapes, 2-15 to 2-18timber fasteners arid connectors, 2-12 to

2-15timber connectors, 2-13 to 2-15timber fasteners, 2-12 to 2-13

waterfront structures, 2-3 to 2-12harbor-shelter structures, 2-3 to 2-5stable-shorline structures, 2-5 to 2-9wharfage structures, 2-9 to 2-12

1-2

Horizontal construction, 5-1 to 5-31airfields, 5-18 to 5-21

elements of an airfield, 5-18 to 5-20runway orientation, 5-20 to 5-21

roads, 5-1 to 5-17cross sections, 5-12drainage, 5-12 to 5-17nomenclature, 5-1 to 5-3road dimensions, 5-8road plan, 5-5 to 5-6road profile, 5-6 to 5-8sections, 5-11sequence of construction, 5-8 to 5-11survey, 5-3 to 5-5

Subbase and base courses, 5-21 to 5-31flexible pavement structure, 5-21materials, 5-21 to 5-31

Horizontal wood frame structural members,1-6 to 1-9

Hot air, 7-8Hot water, 7-8

I

Interior finish, 1-24 to 1-27

1.

Lightweight concrete, 3-13Lumber, 1-1 to 1-4

Masonry and concrete, 3-1 to 3-32Mechanical and electrical systems (materials),

4-1 to 4-16electrical systems, 4-8 to 4-16

conductors, 4-8 to 4.11conduit and fittings, 4-12 to 4-14distribution panels, 4-15 to 4-16outlet boxes, 4-11 to 4-12receptacles, 4-14 to 4-15switches, 4-14wire connectors, 4-11

21 /

INDEX

Mechanical and electrical systems(materifils)Continued

mechanical systems, 4-1 to 4-8cast-iron water pipe, 4-2copper tubing, 4-1 to 4-2drainage system, 4-5 to 4-8galvanized 'steel pipe, 4-2 to 4-4plastic pipe, 4-2sanitary drainage system, 4-5 to 4-8water distribution system, 4-1 to 4-4

Mechanical plans, 7-1 to 7-11heating, air conditioning, and ventilating

systems, 7.6 to 7-11air conditioning, 7-9 to 7 -I 1hot air, 7-8hot water, 7-8RADIANT, 7-9steam, 7-7 to 7-8ventilating, 7-11

plumbing systems, 7-1 to 7-60 mechanical symbols, 7-1 to 7-3

plumbing layout, 7-3 to 7-6Mechanical symbols, 7-1 to 7-3Military and federal specifications, 9-2

N

Nails, 1-28 to 1-31NAVFAC specifications, 9-1 to 9-7Nomenclature, roads, 5-1 to 5-3

0

Outlet boxes, 4-11 to 4-12

Paper material, 10-11Pile and trestle bents, 2 -IPile construction, 2-2 to 2-3Pins, 2-23 to 2-24Plain 1/4:oncrete, 3-2 to 3-4Plan, road, 5-5 to 5-6Plastic pipe, 4-2Plumbing layout, 7-3 to 7-6

1-3

Plumbing systems, 7-1 to 7-6Plywood, 1-4 to 1-6Power distribution systems, 8-'3 to 8-12

exterior electrical layout, 8-6 to 8-8interior electrical layouts, 8-8 to 8-12

Precast concrete, 3-8 to 3-12Preliminary drawings, 6-1Presentation drawings, 6-1Prestressed concrete, 3-12Profile, road, 5-6 to 5-8Project specifications, 9-2 to 9-7

R

RADIANT, 7-9Receptacles, 4-14 to 4-15Reinforced concrete, 3-4 to 3-8Reproduction and drawing files, 10-1 to

10-14drawing reproductions, 10-1 to 10-11

paper material, 10-11reproduction machines, 10-1 to

10-11filing drawings, 10-11 to 10-14

data, 10-13file record, 10-13 to 10-14originals, 10-11 to 10-12prints, 10-12 to 10-13

Reproduction machines, 10-1 to 10-11Requirements for good concrete, 3-1 to

3-2Rivets, 2-24Roads, 5-1 to 5-17Roof framing members, 1-12 to 1-18Runway orientation, 5-20 to 5.21

Sanitary drainage system, 4-5 to 4-8Screws, 1-31Sections, road, 5-11Sequence of construction, 5-8 to 5-11Sheet piles, 2-2 to 2-3Shop drawings, 6-1Siil assemblies, 1-9 w 1-12Site plans, 6-2 to 6-5


Specifications, 9-1 to 9-7NAVFAC specifications, 9-1 to 9-7

commercial specifications andstandards, 9-2

federal and military specifications,9-2

guide specifications, 9-1project specifications, 9-2 to 9-7standard specifications (S-series),

9-2type specifications (TS-series), 9-1 to

9-2Stable-shorline structures, 2-5 to 2-9Standard specifications (S-series), 9-2Steam, 7-7 to 7-8Steel frame structures, 2-18 to 2-21Stone masonry, 3-27 to 3-28Structural clay tile masonry, 3-23 to

3-27Structural steel connectors, 7.22 to 2-24Structural steel shapes, 2-15 to 2-18Subbase and base courses, 5-21 to 5-31Superstructure, 2-1 to 2-2Survey, 5.3 to 5-5Switches, 4-14Symbols, electrical, 8-1

Tilt-up construction, 3-13 to 3-14Timber fasteners and connectors, 2-12 to

2-15Transformers, 8-1 to 8-3Treatment, wood, 1-6Trestle and pile bents, 2-1Type specifications (TS-series), 9-1 to 9-2

1-4

V

Ventilating, heating, and air-conditioningsystems, 7-6 to 7-11

Vertical wood frame structural members, 1-9

Water distribution system, 4-1 to 4-4Waterfront structures, 2-3 to 2-12Welds, 2-23Wharfage structures, 2-9 to 2-12Wire connectors, 4-11Wood and lightwood frame structures, 1-1 to

1-31

building finish, 1-18 to 1-27exterior finish, 1-18 to 1-24interior finish, 1-24 to 1-27

fasteners, 1-28 to 1-31bolts, 1-31nails, 1-28 to 1-31screws, 1-31

frame structures, 1-6 to 1-18horizontal wood frame structural

members, 1-6 to 1-9roof framing members, 1-12 to 1-18sill assemblies, 1-9 to 1-12vertical wood frame structural

members, 1-9hardware, 1-27 to 1-28wood, 1-1 to 1-6

lumber, 1-1 to 1-4plywood, 1-4 to 1-6treatment, 1-6

Working drawings, 6-2 to 6-18

Documents

Manual. 219p. - ERIC