May 2012Issue 33

Environment

Managing water demand, reuse and recycling

Science for Environment Policy

THEMATIC ISSUE:

ContentsEditorial 3‘Overcoming troubled waters: a safe and secure supply, now and into the future’, from guest editor Jaroslav Mysiak.

Allocating water resources – a systemic approach 5 A ‘watershed economics approach’ has been developed to help balance competing uses for water.

Balancing river ecosystem protection and human demand for water 6 Researchers present a new method of determining water flow in river basins to balance water users’ rights with ecosystem protection.

Challenges ahead for cities in search of self-sufficient water supply 7 The high energy demands of water treatment are a key challenge for water reuse and recycling, researchers argue.

New model developed to optimise management of irrigation 8 For best balance of income and water efficiency, researchers advise farmers to combine crops that require little water with more profitable crops that need more water.

Water efficient household appliances prove effective 9US rebate and exchange programmes for showerheads, toilets and washing machines lead to six to 14% reduction in household water use, research finds.

Reusing city wastewater in agriculture brings multiple benefits 10Benefits of reusing city wastewater for agricultural purposes can far outweigh costs and reduce overall demand for freshwater, according to a recent study.

Relationship between water and energy consumption calculated 11 5.8% of total electricity consumption in Spain is for water use, study finds, while 25% of water withdrawals are for energy generation.

Related articles 12A selection of recent articles from the Science for Environment Policy News Alert.

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EDITORIAL

Overcoming troubled waters: a safe and secure supply, now and into the future

According to the Chinese Zodiac, 2012 is the year of the Yang Water Dragon; a mighty symbol said to be skilled in making smart decisions based on unbiased assessment of facts. As it happens, 2012 is also the year to thoughtfully assess European Water Policies and climate adaptation, to feed into the Blueprint to Safeguard European Waters1 to be adopted in November 2012. Acknowledging the critical importance of water, the European Commission has declared 2012 the European Year of Water.

We must protect this most valuable of resources, which, through our inefficiency, is becoming more and more scarce. Pressures, including climate change, economic and population growth, further jeopardise our supply of water. This Thematic Issue of Science for Environment Policy presents key pieces of research which address the most pressing policy issues in this field, to help us identify best practices for saving water and, perhaps much like the Yang Water Dragon would, make smart decisions on how to manage water efficiently.

Europe is looking for an effective strategy to deal with water supply and consumption, along with numerous other remaining challenges related to both water quality and quantity. The Blueprint to Safeguard European Waters will seek to identify policy options to deal with these issues, integrate water-efficiency priorities into policy and face up to the challenges presented by climate change.

Additionally, the IPCC published the full special report on Managing the Risk of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation, the ‘SREX report’, in March this year2. Of concern, it found mounting evidence that drought will intensify in the 21st century in southern and central Europe. What are the best ways of managing demand for water in light of these worrying projections?

Demand for water can be partly managed through economic or market based policy instruments, but we must ensure that these instruments are fair and effective. Two studies in this publication consider the issue of water allocation. ‘Allocating water resources – a systemic approach’ and Balancing river ecosystem protection and human demand for water’ take us to Cyprus and Spain where, separately, researchers have demonstrated new economic approaches to balancing competing uses for water – uses by farmers, urban areas, industry and wildlife. At the heart of both studies lies stakeholder engagement; a better understanding of water users’ needs helps managers preserve supply and protect ecosystems within the realistic context of human demand.

To meet demand, more and more water is being abstracted from the land and transported long distances. Cities, along with all other groups of users, need to reduce demand for water, and, ideally, would be able to source their own water locally. ‘Challenges ahead for cities in search of self-sufficient water supply’ assesses projects around the world where urban areas have looked to methods, including rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling, to reduce their reliance on distant and unsustainable sources of water. Progress in self-sufficiency has been noted, but the energy demands of water treatment and our understanding of potential

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health risks associated with these alternative sources need to be resolved if greater self-sufficiency is to become a widespread reality.

Through the EU’s 2020 strategy, Europe has been firmly placed on the path to a resource efficient future for sustainable economic growth. The principles of resource efficiency are explored in two articles here. ‘New model developed to optimise management of irrigation’ presents a new decision support system that finds the right balance between farmers’ income and efficient water use. Optimal results will be achieved if farmers combine crops that require little water with more profitable crops that need more water, researchers suggest. In the home, everyday appliances can be upgraded to use less water whilst achieving the same job. ‘Water efficient household appliances prove effective’ describes a series of programmes in the US to reduce water consumption, whereby a water authority implemented rebates and exchanges for water-efficient showerheads, toilets and washing machines. The programmes were a success, and research shows that they led to a 6 to14% reduction in household water demand.

‘Reusing city wastewater in agriculture brings multiple benefits’ unites the needs of urban populations and farmers. For farmers, the supply of reclaimed water from cities reduces the cost of pumping freshwater, which, in turn, frees up some freshwater for urban areas

and saves extraction and treatment costs. The benefits of water recycling schemes in this case study are estimated to far outweigh costs.

Water and energy are inextricably linked; effective policies cannot consider one without the other. This ‘water-energy nexus’ is illustrated by ‘Relationship between water and energy consumption calculated’ which finds that, in Spain, 5.8% of total electricity consumption is for water-use and 25% of water withdrawals are for energy generation. In future, demand for water and energy will intensify, with repercussive effects for both sectors.

Many may think of Europe as plentiful in water, but, in reality, scarcity and drought are already plaguing many Member States and this situation could very easily become much worse without careful management. Thankfully, the water policy agenda this year is bursting and provides the prime opportunity to use scientific studies, such as those featured in this issue, to take stock of the challenges we face and implement robust plans to meet them.

1. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/blueprint/index_en.htm

2. http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/

Dr Jaroslav Mysiak

Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Italy

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Allocating water resources – a systemic approach

Researchers have developed a ‘watershed economics approach’ which could help water managers balance competing uses for water and understand the impact of different policies. To demonstrate the approach, it was applied to a watershed in Cyprus.

There are many competing uses for water, especially in countries with a dry and hot climate. To balance the uses for this limited resource, integrated and systemic approaches are needed.

The proposed ‘watershed economics approach’ is composed of two stages. The study demonstrates it on the Kouris Watershed in Cyprus, which has a large number of diverse water users; farmers extract groundwater and divert surface water for irrigation, whilst water is diverted to storage dams for distribution to urban areas. It also contains coastal wetlands that provide habitat for wildlife.

The first stage of the approach applies economic techniques to place a value on the different uses of water to help achieve an optimal balance between users. For example, in the case of the Kouris Watershed, the agricultural value of water was estimated by the amount that farmers are willing to pay for irrigation water in order to ensure they will achieve a certain profit from their crops. In this case, farmers were willing to pay approximately one fifth of their expected profit which can inform how much it is possible to charge for irrigation.

Alongside this, the environmental value of water was estimated from the public’s willingness to pay for the provision of water to protect an endangered species (the white headed duck) that uses the area’s natural wetlands. This was elicited from respondents who lived in the region and was estimated at €12 per household per year. By estimating the demand of various users and the value they place on water, it is then possible to allocate and charge for water appropriately.

The second stage of the approach is a policy impact analysis of water management options, which will vary with context. The model suggests considering impacts on inequity for low income groups, effects on producers’ profit and interactive effects between different uses, such as agricultural and environmental uses. For example, when applied to Kouris, it appeared that water pricing policies can be effective in managing water, but can lead to negative effects on low income households, which should be considered when developing allocation strategies.

By predicting the economic value of water to different users, as well as possible impacts of different policies, the model can inform decision makers of the optimal water management strategies for an area. Water allocation needs an integrated approach and an appropriate legislative framework. The EU’s Water Framework Directive1 provides a suitable frame for this approach, whereby the ‘river basin’ is the unit used for water management, and a single authority is responsible for implementing environmental objectives for each basin.

Contact: pkoundouri@aueb.grTheme(s): Environmental economics, Water

“Pricing policies can be effective in managing water, but can lead to negative effects on low income households, which should be considered when developing allocation strategies.”

Source: Groom, B. & Koundouri, P. (2011) The Economics of Water Resource Allocation: Valuation Methods and Policy Implications. Water Resources Allocation. 2011: 89-109. 1 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html

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Balancing river ecosystem protection and human demand for water

A new method of determining water flow in complex river basins has been developed that balances ecosystem protection with the legal rights to use water by hydropower operators, farmers and municipalities. A recent study has applied this method to a new river basin management plan in Spain.

River basin authorities have to balance the protection of freshwater and estuarine ecosystems with human demand for water resources. This study describes a new framework that has been developed to help river water managers assess the water flows in a river, in order to protect the healthy functioning of ecosystems within the realistic context of human demand for water.

The method involves a two-step process and public consultation. In the first step, a range of minimum environmental-flows (‘e-flows’ – the water flow necessary to protect the healthy functioning of an ecosystem) is established for particular sites. These sites may be habitats affected by altered e-flows, for example, by dams that have been constructed upstream. For each of the sites, the minimum e-flows, based on site specific characteristics (e.g. the depth of the river) are determined to ensure satisfactory conditions for selected species that represent the health of the ecosystem, such as the brown trout.

This step is followed by public consultation, where interested stakeholders, including water planners, farmers, hydropower operators and environmental NGOs, are presented with the range of minimum e-flows for the selected sites. Based on these e-flows, the stakeholders propose revised e-flows for the different sites, taking into account the legal rights of hydropower operators, farmers and municipalities to use water resources, in addition to the necessary protection of the different river habitats.

In the second step of the process, the proposed e-flows from the consultation process are optimised to provide the maximum protection possible for the habitats across the river basin. This is achieved by incrementally increasing the e-flows at each of the sites in sequence, until a point is reached where any further increase would compromise the legal use of water for hydropower provision, agriculture and urban demand.

To illustrate this approach, optimal e-flows were established for the Duero River Basin in Spain as part of a new river basin management plan. A range of minimum e-flows based on a representative six native species of fish were established for 32 selected sites that captured most of the physical, biological and habitat variations in the river basin. After consultation, the optimised e-flows established for the river basin did not affect requests for water by users in the majority of cases.

Contact: jparedea@hma.upv.es Theme(s): Water

“The new framework helps river managers assess the water flows in a river, in order to protect the healthy functioning of ecosystems within the realistic context of human demand.”

Source: Paredes-Arquiola, J., Martinez-Capel, F., Solera, A., Aguilella, V. (2011) Implementing Environmental Flows in Complex Water Resources Systems – Case Study: The Duero River Basin, Spain. River Research and Applications. DOI: 10.1002/rra.1617.

M A N A G I N G W A T E R D E M A N D , R E U S E A N D R E C Y C L I N G

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Challenges ahead for cities in search of self-sufficient water supply

Progress towards self-sufficient urban water supply has been observed around the world in a recent study. However, projects that seek to source water locally face some tough challenges, including high levels of energy consumed in water treatment processes and an inadequate scientific understanding of the health risks associated with recycled water.

Population growth is pushing urban water supplies to their limits. To meet demand, more and more water has to be abstracted. In an ideal situation, water would be sourced from the urban environment itself, by collecting rainwater, recycling wastewater, or, in coastal cities, removing salt from seawater (‘desalination’). While there are benefits associated with each of these approaches, there are also challenges. Desalination, for example, requires large amounts of energy.

The researchers carried out in-depth case studies of 15 self-sufficiency projects from around the world. European projects included a rainwater collection and wastewater management project in Berlin, Germany, and a project in London, UK, in which rainwater, groundwater and water used at home for washing and cleaning was re-used in toilet facilities at a major concert hall.

Eleven of the 15 projects achieved self-sufficiency rates of over 15%, when water self-sufficiency was defined as the ratio of locally sourced water to total water demand in a given area. The London and Berlin projects achieved rates of over 50%.

The researchers identified five main factors driving self-sufficiency:

• Directlackofwater(demandoutstripssupply)

• Indirectlackofwater(inappropriateallocation,oftenforpoliticalreasons)

• Limitedinfrastructure

• Demandforahigherqualitywatersupply

• Innovationbyindustryandinstitutes

They also identified key challenges in increasing self-sufficiency. First, the energy cost – and consequences for the climate – of recycling and recovering water must be minimised. Rainwater collection has a lower impact because it only requires treatment processes similar to those used in conventional water treatment.

Health risks are another major concern for the public, since it is difficult to eliminate all traces of pollutants from reclaimed wastewater. For instance, in the Berlin project, pharmaceuticals remained in wastewater after filtering, although risk assessments concluded that these posed no risk to human health. The researchers say scientific understanding of the risks related to reclaimed wastewater need to be improved, and that these risks need to be better communicated.

The study also argues that efforts to increase engagement between decision makers and the public are crucial to reducing public distrust of reclaimed water projects, but add to the financial cost of self-sufficiency – which is likely to be much more than that of a conventional water supply, at least for water recycling projects. Nevertheless, based on evidence from projects outlined in the study, they conclude that progress is already being made towards self-sufficiency goals.

Contact: mryg@env.dtu.dkTheme(s): Resource efficiency, Sustainable consumption and production, Urban environments, Water

“Scientific understanding of the risks related to reclaimed wastewater need to be improved, and these risks need to be better communicated.”

Source: Rygaard, M. Binning, P.J., Albrechtsen, H-J. (2011). Increasing urban water self-sufficiency: New era, new challenges. Journal of Environmental Management. 92:185-194.

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New model developed to optimise management of irrigation

Under water restrictions, farmers will achieve the optimal balance of income and efficient water use if they combine the planting of crops that require little water with the planting of more profitable crops that need more water, according to research.

In areas of irrigated farmland, water supply is becoming increasingly scarce, particularly in regions that suffer droughts and have experienced increased levels of irrigation, such as in the Mediterranean. Decision support systems (DSS), based on scientifically informed models, can help farmers decide which crops to grow and how best to use their limited supply of water to optimise their resources in these conditions. DSSs for irrigation have been widely studied, but few have been built that balance both agronomic and economic aspects.

Co-financed by the European Social Fund, the researchers developed a model to inform farming decisions on water use and crop choice and help improve the sustainability of irrigation at a farm level.

The model optimises economic cost whilst considering estimates on crop yields under different levels of water availability. It was applied to a farm-sized area in Southern Spain to explore the best combination of water use and crop choice that maximised economic profit under four possible scenarios. The scenarios were: the current situation of crop price and Common Agricultural Policy1 (CAP) subsidies; a free market orientated situation with no CAP subsidies; a scenario based on principles of the EU Water Framework Directive2 (WFD), which suggests water price increases, and a scenario with crop price increases.

From the results, it appears that policies which encourage changes in cropping patterns will encourage more water savings than policies that increase water prices. The model indicates that CAP subsidies ensure the profitability of certain crops, such as cotton, which would otherwise phase out under the market-orientated scenario. However, current CAP subsidies tend to favour crops with high water demands, such as maize, which could increase the risk of water shortages under conditions of climatic uncertainty.

According to the model, when water availability is high, increased water prices do not encourage water savings or crop changes. When there are water restrictions, the model suggests that the best economic strategy is to combine crops that use little water, such as sunflower, with more profitable crops with high water use, such as maize.

The study also estimated that communication delays by the local water authority on the level of water allocation could lead to maximum losses by the farm of €300 per hectare. This further emphasises the need for quick, efficient and transparent decision making by water authorities and the potential role for DSSs, such as that considered in this study.

Contact: g82gavim@uco.es Theme(s): Agriculture, Water

“Policies which encourage changes in cropping patterns will encourage more water savings than policies that increase water prices, the results suggest.”

Source: Garcia-Vila, M. & Fereres, E. (2012) Combining the simulation crop model AquaCrop with an economic model for the optimization of irrigation management at farm level. European Journal of Agronomy. 36:21-31.

M A N A G I N G W A T E R D E M A N D , R E U S E A N D R E C Y C L I N G

1 See: http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capexplained/index_en.htm 2 See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/index_en.html

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Water efficient household appliances prove effective

Rebates and exchange programmes for showerheads, toilets and washing machines can produce significant water savings, according to a US study. The study observed a 6 to14% reduction in household water demand for the first two years after these efficiency programmes were introduced by a water authority in Florida.

Residential customers account for the majority of water demand in urban areas, mainly through household appliances, such as showers, toilets and washing machines. The potential water savings of more efficient versions of these appliances is well acknowledged, and householders can be encouraged to switch to these through rebates and exchange programmes. Programmes such as these are seen as more publicly acceptable than other water management policies, such as price increases or water restrictions.

The study aimed to ‘fill the gap’ between estimates and observations of water savings by analysing water demand data from households over a four-year period after rebate and exchange programmes had been implemented by a water authority in an urban area of Florida. The initiatives were: a high-efficiency showerhead exchange, a high-efficiency toilet rebate and a high-efficiency washing machine rebate. 1829 households participated in total.

Impacts on water demand (as measured from household bills) were analysed over the four-year period and subsequent water savings were calculated by comparing the figures to those from householders who had not participated in the programmes.

During the first two years of implementation, customers with these high-efficiency appliances experienced a significant drop in water demand. For the washing machine programme, water savings were 6.5% and 14.2% in the first and second year respectively. The lower water savings in the first year suggest that the participants were getting used to the new appliances.

For the toilet programme, there was no significant change in the first year, but 15.6% savings in the second year. These large changes in the second year may be thanks to increased awareness of water conservation benefits, perhaps causing behavioural changes in water use.

For the showerhead programme, savings were 9% and 8.2% in the first and second year respectively. The low variation between years in showerhead programme, compared to the other programmes, may be because people take showers regularly and there was evidence of offsetting behaviour, for example, participants may take longer showers than before they had the efficient showerhead.

The impact of the high efficiency appliances continued through the third and fourth years of study, but to a lesser extent. The efficient toilet programme had the greatest potential for water savings, followed by the washing machine programme. Around 4.6% of the customers participated in more than one programme and, as a result, this group experienced the highest savings.

Contact: mlee011@fiu.eduTheme(s): Environmental technologies, Resource efficiency, Sustainable consumption and production, Water

“Residential customers account for the majority of water demand in urban areas, mainly through household appliances, such as showers, toilets and washing machines.”

Source: Lee, M., Tansel, B. & Balbin, M. (2011) Influence of residential water use efficiency measures on household water demand: A four year longitudinal study. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 56:1-6.

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Reusing city wastewater in agriculture brings multiple benefits

The benefits of reusing city wastewater for agricultural purposes can far outweigh the costs involved and reduce overall demand for freshwater, according to a recent study. The researchers calculated that the total benefits to agriculture and a city of a reuse project in Spain outweighed the total costs by €9.5million per year.

Increased demand and competition for water is being felt in agriculture, industry and cities. This study weighs up costs and benefits of reusing and exchanging water between farmers and municipalities using an economic framework.

For farmers, the results of the cost-benefit analysis suggests that the added value of using reclaimed water from cities comes from reduced pumping costs of freshwater, for example, from rivers. In addition, farmers can receive a more reliable supply of irrigation water and less fertiliser is needed because wastewater can be rich in nutrients.

For cities, potential benefits arise from the extra availability of freshwater that is not being used by farmers, which saves water extraction, desalination and water treatment costs, in addition to transfer costs from remote water extraction sites.

For the environment, potential benefits include a reduction of contaminants (such as salts and metals) and nutrients released into rivers and coastal waters; reduced freshwater extraction; renewed river flows; conservation of wetlands; and using reclaimed water as a barrier to prevent the intrusion of seawater into aquifers.

Set against these benefits are the costs associated with measures to minimise health risks from reusing wastewater and possible risks to the environment from any contaminants. Other costs include those for building new infrastructure to take the reclaimed water to agricultural areas.

If the potential benefits outweigh the potential costs, the next step is to decide how the costs are to be shared among the different parties involved. If the added value to farmers is low compared with charging them the full costs of the water reclamation, farmers might not want to join the scheme. It might therefore be necessary for the city to pay, as typically, the overall benefits to the city are substantial, especially when cities are faced with water shortages.

To illustrate how water reuse and exchange can be a cost-effective approach to managing water scarcity at the basin level, several schemes were examined by the study. The cost-benefit analysis revealed that one project in the Llobregat Delta in Spain would be feasible with a total water-exchange cost of €5.2million per year. The city would benefit by €14.4million per year from an additional 13 Mm3 (million cubic metres) of freshwater a year released from agricultural use, (saving the same volume of freshwater being extracted from river sources, which also benefits the environment). Farmers’ incomes would collectively rise by €351,000 per year in the area as a result of reduced costs of pumping water and fertiliser use. Overall, the benefits were calculated to outweigh the costs by €9.5million per year.

Contact: ingo.heinz@uni-dortmund.de Theme(s): Resource efficiency, Sustainable consumption and production, Water

“For farmers, the added value of using reclaimed water from cities comes from reduced pumping costs of freshwater, for example, from rivers.”

Source: Heinz, I., Salgot M., Mateo-Sagasta Dávila, J. (2011) Evaluating the costs and benefits of water reuse and exchange projects involving cities and farmers. Water International. 36 (4): 455-466.

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Relationship between water and energy consumption calculated

Energy production uses large quantities of water and, in turn, water provision requires considerable amounts of energy. A new study has investigated the interconnection between water and energy, the ‘water-energy nexus’, in Spain and found that 5.8% of total electricity consumption is for water-use and 25% of water withdrawals are for energy generation.

Understanding the link between water and energy becomes more critical as future demand for both resources intensifies. This study evaluated the electricity consumption associated with all stages of water use, from water extraction to wastewater treatment, in addition to the water withdrawn and consumed to generate energy in Spain.

It was found that, in 2008, total electricity used to manage the 35,000 Mm3 (million cubic metres) of water in the entire water use cycle was 16,323 GWh (gigawatt hours). This represented 5.8% of demand for electricity in Spain in that year.

The most energy consuming stage of the water use cycle was extraction and treatment prior to distribution, which, across all sectors, accounted for 64% of the total water-related electricity demand. For the other two stages of the water use cycle, distribution accounted for 21% of the water-related electricity demand in 2008 and wastewater treatment accounted for 16%.

Water use in agriculture accounted for about 58% of the water withdrawn in Spain in 2008 and, as a sector, irrigated agriculture accounts for 40% of total water-related electricity demand. Irrigation practices were modernised during the last decade and about 40% of the irrigated area changed from conventional flood and gravity irrigation to drip irrigation systems. Drip irrigation uses less water, but has increased energy use in the agricultural sector. However, alternative, less energy intensive water sources may become more preferable as the cost of generating energy rises.

In 2007, 25% of the total water withdrawals were used in the energy sector, although 96% of this amount of water was returned after use (i.e. it was not consumed). Nuclear power accounted for 50% of these energy-related water withdrawals and solar thermal power accounted for 0.03%.

Although renewable energy technologies typically require less water than fossil fuel technologies, some renewables, such as biomass, still require relatively high volumes of water - 31 litres per kWh (L/kWh), compared to 3 L/kWh for solar thermal. The study estimated the water footprint for biofuels in Spain, focusing on first-generation biofuels used in the transport sector. Growing biomass on dry land would increase agricultural demand for water by 10%, and by 26% if irrigated agricultural land was used.

The researchers recommend that water is used more efficiently to reduce energy costs in absolute terms, and must be considered in energy plans. In addition, measures are needed to ensure that a switch to renewable sources of energy is not compromised by future water shortages.

This study focussed on water-related electricity consumption before distributed water is actually used, and so excluded the energy needed to heat household water. However, the researchers note that significant amounts of energy are needed for this purpose: 21% of primary energy consumed in Spanish households is estimated to be associated with domestic hot water.

Contact: laurent.hardy.mail@gmail.comTheme(s): Climate change and energy, Resource efficiency, Sustainable consumption and production, Water

“Understanding the link between water and energy becomes more critical as future demand for both resources intensifies.”

Source: Hardy, L., Garrido, A. & Juana, L. (2012) Evaluation of Spain’s Water-EnergyNexus. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 28: 151-170.

M A N A G I N G W A T E R D E M A N D , R E U S E A N D R E C Y C L I N G

Science for Environment Policy – A Weekly News AlertScience for Environment Policy, a service from the European Commission, brings the latest environmental policy-relevant research findings news in ‘easy to read’ format direct to your email inbox. The free service is designed specifically for policy-makers throughout Europe and includes monthly thematic issues focusing in depth on research findings in key policy areas.

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The contents and views included in Science for Environment Policy are based on independent research and do not necessarily reflect the position of the European Commission.

A selection of articles on Water demand management, recycling and reuse from the Science for Environment Policy news alert.

Urban planning and water management need integrating (15 March 2012)New research has investigated the combined impact of climate change and land cover change on external household water consumption and local night-time temperatures. It estimates that a 3ºC rise in temperature combined with a high degree of urban sprawl would increase water consumption by 4,061 litres per household for the month of August due to increases in evaporation from ground surface. The study recommends full integration of land use planning and water management.

New study reveals Europe’s rivers under pressure (2 February 2012)The largest investigation to date into the extent of human-induced pressure on European rivers concludes that around 80% of rivers are affected by water pollution, water removal for hydropower and irrigation, structural alterations and the impact of dams, with 12% suffering from impacts of all four.

Water for microalgae cultivation has significant energy requirements (17 November 2011)A substantial amount of energy is needed to manage all the water used in the mass cultivation of microalgae for biodiesel. A recent study suggests that seven times more energy is required to manage the water, than is delivered by the biodiesel when it is used as fuel.

Land use and water consumption patterns in urban and tourist areas (13 October 2011)A new Spanish study has highlighted current developments in the tourism sector that have significant implications for water supply and demand, but are barely addressed in recent land use policies. The findings indicate that any tourist destination that is to follow the ‘quality tourist’ model will have an increased water demand in domestic residential areas, which is one of the biggest threats to sustainable water management.

SWITCH – new tool to help sustainable urban water management (21 February 2011)New research has identified 25 variables that influence noise in urban areas. By combining these into an equation, the study produced an accurate tool to describe urban sound environments that could be useful in urban planning.

To view any of these articles in full, please visit: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/index_en.htm and search according to article publication date.