MASTER’S THESIS

2003:131 SHU

Managing RepatriationCase Studies of Three International Companies

Social Science and Business Administration Programmes

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS PROGRAMME

ANNA BERGSTEDTTHERESE LUNDSTRÖM

Department of Business Administration and Social SciencesDivision of Industrial Marketing

Supervisor: Tim Foster

2003:131 SHU • ISSN: 1404 – 5508 • ISRN: LTU - SHU - EX - - 03/131 - - SE

Preface

Preface This Master’s thesis is the outcome of ten weeks of work during the fall term of 2002/2003 as a part of the International Business and Economics program at the Division of Industrial Marketing at Luleå University of Technology. This could never have been done without a number of people supporting us through the process and to whom we are grateful. First, many thanks to our supervisor Tim Foster, Ph.D. candidate at the Division of Industrial Marketing at Luleå University of Technology. We would like to give many thanks for the valuable guidance and support throughout this work. We would also like to thank all respondents at Saab, Scania and Pharmacia, who took time out of their busy schedules to help us and provided us with valuable information and insights during the interviews and whenever questions arose. Without their help this thesis would not have been possible. We would also like to thank our opponents who provided us with valuable advice to further improve our work. We also would like to thank our families for their support and our friends for their encouraging words. Luleå University of Technology, 2003-01-09 Anna Bergstedt Therese Lundström

Abstract

Abstract In order to handle the increasing competition internationally, more and more companies are using international assignment as a critical competitive advantage to cope with the international environment. One phase of the international assignment is repatriation, which has been identified as the most difficult phase of the international assignment. In order to best utilize the international experiences the repatriate acquires abroad it is important for the companies to support the repatriate through the re-entry process in order to develop the individual as well as enriches the organization. This Master’s thesis aims to explore and describe and also start to explain factors that affect repatriation, repatriation program, and benefits that can be derived from repatriation, both for the individual and the organization. We have done a qualitative multiple-case study with three international companies; Saab, Scania, and Pharmacia, where we conducted telephone interviews with respondents at each of the companies. Our findings show that the repatriation process is more important for the repatriate than for the organization, and where social factors, such as family adjustment, are very important. The repatriation processes also tend to be more informal within the organizations, where guidelines for handling the entire repatriation process are not always formally outlined. By supporting and utilizing the repatriate and the individual’s experiences through a well developed repatriation program, the main benefit is that it is possible to reduce inaccurate expectations and thereby the re-entry phase will become easier for all parties involved.

Sammanfattning

Sammanfattning För att kunna hantera den ökande internationella konkurrensen, fler och fler företag använder sig av internationella uppdrag som en viktig konkurrensfördel för att klara av den internationella marknaden. En fas av det internationella uppdraget är repatriering, som har identifierats som den svåraste fasen av det internationella uppdraget. För att bäst kunna dra nytta av de internationella kunskaperna repatrioten tillskaffar sig utomlands är det viktigt för företagen att stödja repatrioten genom hela repatrierings processen. Denna uppsats syftar till att utforska och beskriva och också börja förklara faktorer som påverkar repatrieringen, repatrierings program, and fördelar som kan härledas från repatrieringen, både för individen och för företaget. Vi utförde en kvalitativ multipel fallstudie på tre internationella företag; Saab, Scania och Pharmacia, där vi genomförde telefonintervjuer med respondenter på respektive företag. Vi fann att repatrierings processen är mer viktig för repatrioten än för företaget, och där sociala faktorer såsom anpassning av familjen, är väldigt viktigt. Repatrierings processen tenderar vidare att vara mer informell inom företagen, där riktlinjer för att hantera repatrieringen inte alltid är formellt skrivna. Genom att stödja repatrioten och dra nytta av individens erfarenheter genom ett väl utarbetat repatrieringsprogram, är den främsta fördelen är att det leder till minskade felaktiga förväntningar och underlättar därigenom repatrierings fasen för alla parter inblandade.

List of Figures and Tables

List of Figures Figure 1.1: Expatriation Cycle……………………………………………………………2 Figure 1.2: Outline of Thesis……………………………………………………………..7 Figure 2.1: Basic Framework of Repatriation Adjustment……………………………...12 Figure 3.1: Frame of Reference…………………………………………………………28 Figure 4.1: Summary of Research Methodology ……………………………………….38 List of Tables Table 4.1: Relevant Situations for Different Research Strategies………………………31 Table 4.2: Six Sources of Evidence: Strengths and Weaknesses……………………….32 Table 6.1: Cross-case Analysis of Factors Affecting Repatriation……………………...81 Table 6.2: Cross-case Analysis of Differences and/or Similarities Between the

Respondents in Each Case…………………………………………………..84 Table 6.3: Cross-case Analysis of Repatriation Program …………………………..…..91 Table 6.4: Cross-case Analysis of Differences and/or Similarities Between the

Respondent in Each Case……………………………………………………92 Table 6.5: Cross-case Analysis of Benefits of Repatriation for the Individual…………98 Table 6.6: Cross-case Analysis of Benefits of Repatriation for the Organization……..100

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PROBLEM DISCUSSION.......................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................... 6 1.4 OUTLINE OF THESIS............................................................................................................................... 7

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 FACTORS AFFECTING REPATRIATION .................................................................................................... 8 2.2 REPATRIATION PROGRAM ................................................................................................................... 16 2.3 BENEFITS OF REPATRIATION ............................................................................................................... 21

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.......................................................................................................... 25 3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING REPATRIATION .................................................................................................. 25 3.2 REPATRIATION PROGRAM ................................................................................................................... 26 3.3 BENEFITS OF REPATRIATION ............................................................................................................... 26 3.4 EMERGENCE FRAME OF REFERENCE.................................................................................................... 28

4. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................................. 29 4.1 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH....................................................................................................................... 29 4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH ........................................................................................................................ 30 4.3 RESEARCH STRATEGY......................................................................................................................... 30 4.4 DATA COLLECTION METHOD............................................................................................................... 32 4.5 SAMPLE SELECTION ............................................................................................................................ 34 4.6 ANALYSIS OF DATA............................................................................................................................. 34 4.7 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY............................................................................................................... 36

5 DATA PRESENTATION ....................................................................................................................... 39 5.1 SAAB .................................................................................................................................................. 39

5.1.1 Factors affecting repatriation.................................................................................................... 39 5.1.2 Repatriation program ................................................................................................................ 44 5.1.3 Benefits of repatriation .............................................................................................................. 47

5.2 SCANIA ............................................................................................................................................... 49 5.2.1 Factors affecting repatriation.................................................................................................... 49 5.2.2 Repatriation program ................................................................................................................ 55 5.2.3 Benefits of repatriation .............................................................................................................. 57

5.3 PHARMACIA........................................................................................................................................ 59 5.3.1 Factors affecting repatriation.................................................................................................... 60 5.3.2 Repatriation program ................................................................................................................ 64 5.3.3 Benefits of repatriation .............................................................................................................. 67

6 DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................... 70 6.1 FACTORS AFFECTING REPATRIATION .................................................................................................. 70

6.1.1 Within-case analysis .................................................................................................................. 70 6.1.2 Cross-case analysis.................................................................................................................... 80

6.2 REPATRIATION PROGRAM ................................................................................................................... 86 6.2.1 Within-case analysis .................................................................................................................. 86 6.2.1 Cross-case analysis.................................................................................................................... 90

6.3 BENEFITS OF REPATRIATION ............................................................................................................... 93 6.3.1 Within-case analysis .................................................................................................................. 93 6.3.2 Cross-case analysis.................................................................................................................... 98

7 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................... 102 7.1 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................... 102

Table of Contents

7.1.1 How can factors affecting repatriation be described?............................................................. 102 7.1.2 How can repatriation program be described?......................................................................... 103 7.1.3 How can benefits of repatriation be described? ...................................................................... 104 7.1.4 Overall conclusions ................................................................................................................. 105

7.2 IMPLICATIONS................................................................................................................................... 105 7.2.1 Implications for theory............................................................................................................. 105 7.2.2 Implications for future research............................................................................................... 106 7.2.3 Implications for management................................................................................................... 106

LIST OF REFERENCE........................................................................................................................... 107

APPENDIX A – INTERVIEW GUIDE (ENGLISH VERSION) ......................................................... 111

APPENDIX B – INTERVJUGUIDE (SVENSK VERSION)................................................................ 115

Introduction

1 Introduction In this first chapter an introduction is presented to provide an understanding of the research area. The background brings up issues related to the expatriation cycle, followed by a problem discussion concerning the last part of the of the expatriation cycle; repatriation. After this the overall purpose and research questions for the thesis are stated. The chapter ends with an outline of the thesis.

1.1 Background The international arena of business has in the recent decades been faced with changes guiding businesses and industries into a more global setting. New markets for multinational companies (MNCs) have emerged through increased competition and globalization, improved communication technology, as well as converging consumer habits and tastes. (Martinez & Quelch, 1996) To handle the influx of international competition, MNCs have recognized the increased importance of an efficient and effective organization (Pucik, 1998). As an organization consists of people, the interest in human resource management (HRM) has increased and managers have started to consider HRM as a source of sustainable competitive advantage in the global market (Sanz-Valle, Sabater-Sánchez, & Aragón-Sanchez, 1999). There is also an increased recognition of the quality of MNCs human resources to a large extent being “determinants” of success in global business. How effectively these critical resources are managed and developed to cope with the international settings are therefore vital. (Scullion & Brewster, 2001) International experience is becoming a critical competitive advantage for the individuals, as well as the company that employs them, as international assignment experience is rare, valuable, and difficult to imitate (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992). The international human resource management (IHRM) literature has for more than 20 years been focusing on issues concerning expatriation and international assignments (Schneider & Tung, 2001). An expatriate is: “one who works and lives in a foreign country but remains a citizen of the country where the employing organization is head quartered” (Deresky, 2003, p.551). Sent out around the globe, these expatriates function like corporate missionaries, providing technical and managerial expertise, control over operations, and developing opportunities for the individual expatriate to further strengthen themselves as well as their companies. (Schneider & Tung, 2001) Assignment failures occur due to number of factors, such as culture shock and adjustment difficulties, which will lead to premature returns, high financial costs, and in worst case a high employee turnover (Yan, Zhu & Hall, 2002). In order to effectively manage international assignments, it is important to not ignore any parts of the expatriation cycle (Scullion & Brewster, 2001). Many authors have written about different elements included in the expatriate cycle, and how the entire cycle needs to be taken into consideration in order to utilize most of the international assignment, both for the individual as well as the company (Yan et al, 2002). Different authors name the elements differently, but the general aspects included are: selection and recruitment, pre-departure training, expatriate adjustment, compensation, performance, and repatriation. (Dowling,

1

Introduction

Welch & Schuler, 1999; Scullion & Brewster, 2001; Bonache, Brewster & Suutari, 2001; and Tung, 1988) The expatriation cycle can only be successful if companies are committed to the international assignment, support the expatriate and his or her family during the entire cycle, and see it as an opportunity to develop the individual and the global competitive advantage with the company. The international assignment should not be seen as ad hoc actions, but instead follow a logically developed plan with all the phases included and tied together to influence each other. (Harzing & Ruysseveldt, 1995) The expatriation cycle is presented in Figure 1.1 in order to ease the understanding of the entire expatriation process and the connection between the different phases.

Pre-departure

training

Selection and recruitment

Expatriation adjustment

Compensation

Performance

Repatriation

Figure 1.1: Expatriation Cycle Source: Adapted from Dowling et al, 1999; Scullion & Brewster, 2001; Bonache et al, 2001; and Tung, 1988 During the selection and recruitment phase, the company works towards defining and locating the most suitable job candidate to ensure successful overseas performance by looking at both the technical and human relation variables within the individual (Dowling et al, 1999; Tung, 1988). A poor expatriate selection and recruitment will result in expatriate failures and premature return (Scullion & Brewster, 2001). Pre-departure training is considered to be critical for the success of the assignment. The need and extent of pre-departure training for the expatriate is however dependent on the nature of the international operation, the relevant job role, the extent of interaction with

2

Introduction

locals, motivation, the family, cultural differences, and language skills. Therefore the training program must be flexible and possible to change to fit the specific individual and international assignment. The most common training programs for expatriates and the spouses are preparatory visits, informal briefings, and cultural awareness training. (Scullion & Brewster, 2001; Bonache et al, 2001; Dowling et al, 1999) In the next stage, expatriation adjustment, the ease of the phase is strongly affected by the individual’s attitude towards international assignment and cultural sensitivity. The expatriation adjustment ties back to the selection process, in the way that it is important for the companies to chose the right person for the assignment, and as well as a person that have the potential to adjust to a foreign culture with some help from the home country. (Scullion & Brewster, 2001; Harzing & Ruysseveldt, 1995) Bonache et al (2001) state that the compensation element in the expatriation cycle is “a pivotal control and incentive mechanism that can be flexibly used by the management to achieve business objectives” (p.10) Compensation to expatriates is viewed by many companies as an administrative issue rather than a strategic issue. The performance phase of the expatriation cycle involves careful measurement and control of the expatriate’s performance on the international assignment, although research has shown rigorous, formal performance evaluation systems are far from universal. (Ibid) The last phase in the expatriation cycle is the repatriation phase. Deresky (2003) has defined repatriation as: “the process of the reintegration of expatriates into the headquarters organization and career ladder as well as into the social environment” (p.553). There has been considerable research done to understand the issues surrounding the management of expatriates in terms of recruitment, selection, training, and support during their assignment abroad. However, what many tend to overlook is that the whole expatriation process does not end when the expatriate has traveled abroad, but ends with the readjustment of individuals back into the home country and organization. (Dowling et al, 1999) This part of the cycle has been identified to be a major problem for many companies, and also to some degree neglected by MNCs (Bonache et al, 2001). Here the repatriate and his or her family should be given support during the re-entry process to handle changes in the social and organizational environment. There should also be a formal career development plan for the repatriate in order to enable the organization to utilize the new knowledge the repatriate has gained during the international assignment, and how these skills will facilitate the company as well as the individual preferences and needs. (Harzing & Ruysseveldt, 1995; Bonache et al, 2001; Scullion & Brewster, 2001) In order for the individual and the company to fully utilize the competitive advantage of the international assignment, and where the individual is able to develop his or her overall career path and contribute to the advancement of the organization, the re-entry stage back to the home country is a very important element in the expatriation process. (Dowling et al, 1999)

3

Introduction

1.2 Problem Discussion There are numerous factors affecting and influencing repatriation and which can explain why and how repatriates have difficulties in adjusting back to the home organization and social environment (Feldman & Tompson, 1993). The adjustment back to the home country can affect many different elements in the repatriates’ life, such as the work adjustment, interaction with home country co-workers and friends, and the adjustment to the general environment of the home country, and where certain factors either facilitate or inhibit one or more of these adjustment elements. (Black, Gregersen, Mendenhall & Stroh, 1999) When the repatriate returns to the home country, there is a general assumption that the repatriate and his or her family will be able to settle in quickly into the community, and re-establish both social and business contacts without facing any difficulties. But what really face the repatriate and his or her family is often the opposite, and many repatriates and spouses have to cope with what has been termed as re-entry shock or reverse culture shock. Not always taken into consideration is that during an international assignment that have been extended over several years, a lot of changes have occurred in the home organization and in the general home environment. This is a factor that further adds to the difficulties of the readjustment. Also the repatriate’s own values and believes might have changed during the assignment, and the individual’s expectations before repatriation and what he or she actually encounters when returning home is not in accordance, which will further spiral up the confusion and uncertainty the individual feels. (Harzing & Ruysseveldt, 1995; Black et al, 1992; Linehan & Scullion, 2002; Hurn, 1999; and Riusala & Suutari, 2000) An example of this can be demonstrated in the quotation below.

“Coming back home was more difficult than going abroad because I had expected changes when going overseas. During repatriation it was real culture shock. I felt like an alien in my own country. My attitudes had changed so much that it was difficult to understand Finnish custom. Old friends had moved, had children, or just vanished. Others were interested in our experiences, but only sort of. Most simply could no one understand our overseas experience or just envied our way of life” (Finnish expatriate returning from Austria) (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997, p.635)

Several repatriates feel frustrated with the re-entry phase, and the nonchalant attitude from the home organization, where the repatriates are not given the opportunity to put their foreign experiences to work (Hurn, 1999). During the international assignment the repatriates generally have been autonomous, well compensated, and been working as a big fish in a little pond. When returning home, the repatriates often encounter an organization that does not know how to make use of or value the repatriates’ new skills into work, or in worst case scenario does not care. (Solomon, 1995) This lack of understanding and knowledge from companies in how to integrate repatriates into the organization and utilize the experiences gained during the international assignment is a factor that often can lead to that many repatriates leave the firm within a year after returning home. When returning home, repatriates often are offered job positions with

4

Introduction

less authority which is perceived by the repatriates as a demotion compared to their position abroad. (Linehan & Scullion, 2002; and Black & Gregersen, 1999) There are also factors influencing the social problems facing the repatriate and his or her family. The concerns can be related to how the spouse’s career alternatives upon return will develop, friends have moved, and that the children are having difficulties to readapt to school and finding new friends. The repatriate’s expectations and uncertainties also affect how comfortable the repatriate is upon return. (Black & Gregersen, 1999) To facilitate the re-entry stage for the repatriates, their spouses, and capture the repatriates’ international knowledge and skills, the importance of repatriation program is of vital concern. Clear policies and practices from the organizations’ point of view regarding repatriation will reduce uncertainty and inaccurate expectations among the repatriates, and assist the ease of the re-entry. (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997) Companies that recognize that repatriation is a time of confusion for many employees, and provide them with career guidance and enable them to put their international experience to work, are making their human resource investments in international assignments more successful (Black & Gregersen, 1999). The repatriation program has to, in order to be most effective, start before the expatriate has returned home, preferably three to six months before return. For the program to be valuable for both the individual and the company, the repatriation program should relate to both social and organizational aspects. Briefings about the repatriate’s new skills, describe career goals, decide the best available job to fit the repatriate’s new capabilities and organization’s needs should be included. Furthermore, prepare the repatriate for the changes in the social environment are a must in order to retain the employee within the company and utilize the human investment in the best way. (Ibid) Providing better support systems to the repatriates will minimize the risks associated with repatriation. The company should provide some form of mentor-program, or have established a repatriation unit within the company. This department’s or mentor’s primary task and responsibility will be to monitor the expatriate’s career path and offer continuant guidance and counseling before, during, and after the international assignment. Furthermore, it is also very important to maintain a constant communication between the home organization and the expatriate during the whole international assignment. For the individual this conveys a sense of being valued by the company and also minimizes the inaccurate expectations concerning the return home where the individual will be up to date on the changes occurring in the home country. But even though a repatriation program cannot guarantee success of the repatriation, its absence can cause poor performance. (Tung, 1988) By providing clear guidelines and practices to the individual about repatriation and what is facing he or she when returning home, many problems facing today’s repatriates and companies can be turned into benefits where both the individual’s and the organization’s needs are satisfied (Scullion & Brewster, 2001). Black et al (1999) claim that companies that neglect to pay attention to repatriates can have a negative impact on the repatriates’

5

Introduction

performance, meaning that when repatriates adjust effectively to the home environment, they become better performers and hence both the company and the individual will benefit from a successful readjustment. By utilizing and leading the repatriate through the repatriation and where the company has clear guidelines throughout the whole repatriation process, the high percentage of turnover among repatriates, due to poor and even sometimes non existing repatriation program, can be turned into a more successful long-term benefit. In this way the invested human capital is utilized and taken advantage of in a satisfying way for all parties involved. (Varner & Palmer, 2002; Yan et al, 2002; and Deresky, 2003) Research has further shown that supportive repatriation practices provided by companies improve the repatriates’ general perception of the company and resulting in lower turnover (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001). Through communication the repatriates perceive themselves to be valued by the company (Black & Gregersen, 1999), and the career development is handled in a satisfactory way for the individual and career opportunities are spotted (Riusala & Suutari, 2000). Through support and recognition from the organization about repatriation ties the repatriate closer to the organization and lead to higher job loyalty and commitment, which in turn lead to better performance efficiency and higher possibilities to retain a strong pool of employees with international experiences (Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999). Successful repatriation means that the repatriate acquires career and personal payments from the international assignment experiences, and that the company can enriches its organization through the international competencies that the repatriate possesses (Bender & Fish, 2000).

1.3 Purpose and research questions As the problem discussion above has shown, repatriation seems to be a difficult phase for both the organization and the repatriate, and hence the purpose of our thesis is to gain a better understanding of repatriation. There are several factors that will affect the outcome of the readjustment, either in a positive or negative way, where a well-developed repatriation program will facilitate the repatriation phase and provide benefits for all parties involved. Therefore, to reach our purpose we have formulated three research questions presented below.

How can factors affecting repatriation be described? How can repatriation program be described? How can benefits of repatriation be described?

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Introduction

1.4 Outline of thesis This thesis consists of seven chapters shown in Figure 1.2 below.

C h a p te r 1I n t r o d u c t io n

C h a p te r 2L i t e r a tu r e R e v ie w

C h a p te r 3C o n c e p t u a l F r a m e w o r k

C h a p te r 4M e th o d o lo g y

C h a p te r 5D a ta P r e s e n ta t io n

C h a p te r 6D a ta A n a l y s i s

C h a p te r 7C o n c l u s io n s a n d

I m p l ic a t io n s

Figure 1.2: Outline of Thesis

Chapter one, Introduction, presents a background to IHRM, expatriation and repatriation, followed by a problem discussion regarding repatriation. Our purpose and research questions are also stated in chapter one.

Chapter two, Literature Review, consists of literature review of the relevant theories in connection to the purpose and research questions of the thesis.

Chapter three, Conceptual Framework, presents the theories used in the thesis and how they facilitate the answering of stated research questions.

Chapter four, Methodology, deals with the methodology used for this thesis. Chapter five, Data Presentation, presents the companies chosen to study and the

empirical data collected for the study, through the interview guide (see Appendix A and B)

Chapter six, Data Analysis, provides an analysis of the data collected together with the theories presented in the conceptual framework.

Chapter seven, Conclusions and Implications, outlines the conclusions drawn from the previous chapter. This chapter also contains implications to theory, management, and for future research.

7

Literature Review

2 Literature Review The first chapter presented an introduction to the issues concerning repatriation and outlined the research area and purpose. In this chapter studies related to each of the research question from chapter one are presented.

2.1 Factors affecting repatriation Previous literature on repatriation states three adjustment elements affecting repatriates when returning back to the home country and these are; adjustment to work, adjustment to interacting with home nationals, and adjustment to the general environment and culture. These studies also show that some factors may affect all elements of adjustment, while some factors only have an impact on one element. (Black et al, 1992; Gregersen & Stroh, 1997; Black et al, 1999; and Feldman & Tompson, 1993) Earlier studies of repatriation state that key components of readjustment success are to reduce uncertainty and inaccurate expectations, and that these components are central for successful repatriation. By knowing what is acceptable behavior in a country will reduce the uncertainty, but many repatriates seem to lack an up to date understanding of the home country when they return home, and hence their uncertainty on how to address certain issues increase. Furthermore, inaccurate expectations by the individuals about the international assignment and what it can offer, and the gap between the repatriates’ expectations and the reality that is facing them when returning home have a significant impact on the repatriation’s success or failure. Therefore, by limiting and being aware of the factors that might increase uncertainty and inaccurate expectations will help to ease the repatriation and determine the success of the assignment. (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997; Yan et al, 2002; Linehan & Scullion, 2002) Suutari and Välimaa (2002) outlined different factors in their study on Finnish repatriates, which affect diverse elements of the repatriation, either in a positive or a negative way. These factors are divided into individual factors, work and organizational factors, and non-work factors. Suutari & Välimaa (2002) focused on the factors that influence repatriation before the return to the home country and organization, so called antecedent or anticipatory factors, and these findings are presented below. 1. Individual variables are age, length of assignment, keeping up on events, willingness to relocate internationally, and expatriation adjustment problems or satisfaction. Suutari & Välimaa (2002) claim that older expatriates are assumed to possess more information and experiences about the home country and organization and are therefore more able to manage changes occurring in these areas, and consequently a higher age has a positive impact on repatriation adjustment. Length of the international assignment has a negative impact on readjustment since a longer period of time spent abroad, more changes have occurred both within the organization, individual, and general environment that creates more inaccurate expectations and uncertainty. Keeping up on events at home reduces inaccurate expectations and uncertainty, and provide a more realistic picture of the home country when returning home. Being up to date with the home country and where the

8

Literature Review

home organization offers communication in different forms to the repatriate therefore has a positive relation to repatriation. The willingness to relocate internationally where the expatriate has a free choice of rejecting or accepting an international assignment has a positive affect on the expatriate’s behavior and assignment, and as a result the interest in the expatriate experience reflects in a positive way on the readjustment. Dependent of how well the expatriation adjustment preceded spills over on the repatriation. If there were adaptation problems during the international assignment, the individual expresses less satisfaction when returning home and therefore creates pessimistic attitudes and affects repatriation negatively. Contrary, if the international assignment was a success the repatriation is positively affected since the expatriate returns with a more optimistic attitude towards the organization. (Ibid) 2. Organizational and work variables are stated by Suutari and Välimaa (2002) to be role discretion, role conflict, role negotiations and role decisions, and skill utilization, and where these factors will foremost influence the readjustment to work. Role discretion is the extent to which the individual has the opportunity to modify his or her work to create a more familiar and controllable role to aid the readjustment. Higher role discretion affects the work repatriation positively because this facilitates the level of control for the individual. Role conflicts will contrary have a negative impact on repatriation work, interaction and general adjustment. When the individual’s perceptions of what is expected of him or her in the new work role at home conflicts with his or her understandings, the individual is less able to decide which of these perceptions to ignore and which to take notice of, and thus greater role conflict, which gives more obstacles for repatriation. Longer time before ending the international assignment that role negotiations took place and role decisions were made affects work adjustment in a positive way. Without knowing the future work role early enough and knowing what is expected of the individual upon return, it is difficult for the repatriate to start any planning or arrangements, and hence the level of uncertainty will be higher. Finally, Suutari & Välimaa (2002) state that skill utilization deals with the repatriate’s ability to utilize his or her new skills in the new work role upon return. If that is not feasible, the repatriate feels less motivated in performing and might even leave the organization. Hence, skill utilization will be positively related to repatriation work adjustment. (Ibid)

3. Non-work variable is a decrease in social status. During the international assignment, the expatriates generally have higher social status and thereby achieve higher standards of living. But when returning home this social status is most likely to decrease and that creates uncertainty since new social behavioral adjustments are needed after returning home. Repatriation is thereby affected negatively by a downward shift in social status. (Ibid) Feldman & Tompson (1993) outlined in their study five major factors that mostly have an impact on the work adjustment for the repatriate. These five factors are presented below. 1. Demographic variables consist of age and gender. Contrary to Suutari & Välimaa (2002), Feldman & Tompson (1993) state that younger expatriates without extensive family responsibility have an easier time to readjust back to the home organization and

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Literature Review

social milieu, since their low age assume that they to a larger extent are not married or have children, and therefore the concern about spouses and their adjustment is not needed to take into consideration. But Feldman & Tompson (1993) further write that older expatriates are assumed to have larger family responsibility and that provide an advantage for social support, given that the spouses do not encounter too severe problems during their repatriation. The authors mean therefore that it is not clear if only younger repatriates have an easier time to readjust. Finally, gender has an affect on repatriation according to Feldman & Tompson (1993). Most research on repatriation has been on male repatriates and only a few authors have focused on the problems that female repatriates encounter, though research in the area has shown that female repatriates have easier to readjust. (Ibid) 2. International characteristics of the job change. First, this factor has an impact if the repatriate is a native citizen in the country returning to, since previous studies indicate that European and Asian citizens find it easier to adjust back to the home environment, than American repatriates. Some countries are also more “culturally distant” and that will make it harder for employees to readjust. The country the repatriate is returning to and the repatriate’s personality is therefore of importance. Finally, the intent of the repatriate to pursue a career in foreign countries also affects the readjustment since the willingness to readjust is negatively affected by the wish to go abroad again. (Ibid) 3. Job characteristics variables are vital factors influencing the adjustment. Whether or not the job leads to promotion decides the challenge, responsibility and salaries surrounding the work. Also a higher promotion leads to less formal training, social support, and higher expectations on the repatriate. Second, at which organizational level the repatriate enters a new position will influence the work adjustment. Higher up in the organization, it is more likely that the repatriate uses active coping strategies and changes work procedures, while a repatriate at a lower level of the organization tries to seek out information and social support. Furthermore, a transition directly from school to work can cause more difficulties in readjust compared to other early career job changes. Finally, the function of the job is an influencing factor. Employees with technical functions and less interpersonal contact have an easier time readjusting, compared to employees in sales and human management with more interpersonal contact. (Ibid) 4. Degree of differences between job assignments, where a higher degree of differences between role autonomy, co-workers and job duties, generates more uncertainty and loss of daily routines for the employee, and greater difficulties for the employee when readjusting. The changes in corporate structure, production technology, and organizational culture significantly influence the work adjustment. (Ibid) 5. Coping strategies. This factor deals with how the repatriate itself manages his or her organizational re-entry, i.e. self-management. Depending on how proactive the repatriate is and can bring situational problems under own control by being more goal-oriented and responsible for achieving the tasks will positively influence repatriation. Seeking out new information, seeking out social support, and change work procedures are some examples

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of self-management. Active attempts to change the work environment have shown to be of a positive relation with success for the repatriate. (Ibid) Gregersen & Stroh (1997) divide factors that affect repatriation into four categories: individual factors, organizational factors, job factors, and non-work factors. Additionally, Gregersen & Stroh (1997) separate between factors that have an impact on adjustment before the return and are considered anticipatory factors, and factors that are considered in-country factors and influence the repatriate when returning home. Anticipatory factors: Individual factors. Contrary to Feldman & Tompson (1993), Gregersen & Stroh (1997) mean that older repatriates have easier to readjust. Older individuals have more information and experiences about their country and organization. Having this knowledge helps the process of reducing uncertainty and incorrect expectations and facilitates adjustment. Furthermore, longer time abroad for the repatriates and spouses have a negative influence and create more uncertainty upon return, since more changes in the home country, organization and within the individuals have occurred during the longer time away. Organizational factors. Clarity of the repatriation policies and practices has a positive relation to the work adjustment as it reduces uncertainty. Also pre-return training for repatriates and spouses concerning problems encountered upon return reduce the uncertainty and ease the repatriation process for both the repatriate and his family. It has been shown that European companies tend to provide more training and orientation compared to U.S companies. (Ibid)

In-country factors: Individual factors. Longer time since returning to the home country provides the individual with more information about the home country and home organization and thereby reduces uncertainty and contributes to a more successful repatriation. (Ibid) Job factors. Role clarity when returning home reduces the uncertainty concerning the work situation, and also individuals with high role discretion and autonomy work positions can adjust more easily by changing the roles to fit them individually and hence reducing the hesitation with a new job. Contrary, when repatriates return home with practices and attitudes from a foreign country, they are more likely to encounter significant role conflict during repatriation, and that affects negatively on work adjustment. (Ibid) Non-work factors. Higher degree of dissimilarities between the countries affects negatively foremost on the interaction with locals and the general adjustment for both repatriates and spouses. Since the host country has been the most recent behavioral point of reference, greater dissimilarities leads to larger cultural contrasts when readjusting. Also a downward shift in social status when returning home and uncertainty in housing arrangements increases anxiety and difficulties in readjustment at all levels. Finally, there is a relationship between the readjustment of the spouses and the readjustment of the

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repatriates. If one partner is experiencing difficulties in readjusting there is evidence of a “spill over” effect on the other part’s readjustment. (Ibid) Black et al (1992) have formed a framework of the factors that influence the success of repatriation adjustment, which is shown in Figure 2.1.

Anticipatory Adjustment Information Sources

Individual Variables Time Overseas Visits home

Job Variables Task Interdependence

Organizational Variables Sponsor Pre-return Training Comm. Frequency

Nonwork Variables Cultural Distance

Anticipatory Repatriation Expectations1. Work 2. Interaction 3. General

Predictive control

Facets

Predictive control

Fundamental process

In-country Adjustment Variable Categories

Individual Variables Need for control Expatriation Adjustment

Job Variables Role clarity Role Discretion Role Conflict

Organizational Variables Post-return Training Repatriation Career Objectives/Policies

Nonwork Variables Social Status Housing Conditions Spouse Adjustment

In-country Repatriation Adjustment 1. Work 2. Interaction 3. General

Facets

Predictive and Behavioral Control

Fundamental process

Predictive & Behavioral Control

Figure 2.1: Basic Framework of Repatriation Adjustment Source: Black et al, 1992, p.745 These factors are first divided into anticipatory and in-country variables that will affect repatriates’ expectations and adjustment to work, interaction with home nationals, and general environment. Furthermore, the factors are divided into individual, job, organizational, and non-work variables. Black et al (1992) state that when individuals move into new environments and are faced with different levels of uncertainty, they have a need to re-establish a certain level of control. This control primarily takes two forms: predictive control and behavioral control. Predictive control is the ability to predict one’s environment in terms of how to predict on what is expected behavior and understand and predict rewards and punishment associated with a special behavior. Behavioral control means that the individuals have the ability to control one’s behavior that have an important impact on the current milieu, and is an indirect attempt for control. (Ibid) Anticipatory adjustment: Individual variables. Black et al (1992) state that the longer time away from the home country results in that more changes have occurred in the home organization, general environment, and within the individual’s behavior. This significantly inhibits the formation of accurate anticipatory expectations. Longer time of absence from the home

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country and greater rate of change for the repatriate will lead to higher probability that the expectations are inaccurate, and thereby repatriation will become more difficult. Black et al (1992) claim that changes in the home country during the repatriate’s time abroad have a negative affect on the adjustment when returning home since the more changes that have occurred modifies the repatriate’s frame of references so that it is no longer applicable. The possibilities to visit the home country during the international assignment have an impact on accurate anticipatory expectations. These visits provide repatriates and spouses with information and give the possibility to be up to date on the changes in the home country and organization. (Ibid) Job variables. The task’s interdependency has an influence on anticipatory expectations. Greater interdependency between the expatriate and the home organization increases the flow of information through phone, fax, mail, etc., and hence lead to formation of more accurate expectations by the expatriate when returning home. The information is however more likely to affect job-related expectations and therefore mostly influence work adjustment. (Ibid) Organizational variables. A sponsor or a mentor from the home organization during the international assignment that functions as an information source facilitates the anticipatory work expectations for the repatriate. Furthermore, training and orientation prior to the return home are two organizational practices that could facilitate the right expectations within the repatriate. By covering all aspects of work, interaction, and general environment expectations in the training, all elements could be positively influenced and ease repatriation adjustment. Finally, the organization can reduce inaccurate expectations and uncertainty by providing frequent communication between the host organization and the home organization. If the information also focuses on issues in the social home environment, like housing and schooling, there is a greater chance of building right expectations that influence the general adjustment for the repatriates and the spouses in a positive way. (Ibid) Non-work variables. Here Black et al (1992) mention cultural distance as an anticipatory non-work variable. The extent of cultural differences between the countries affects the individual’s frame of references and thereby affect negatively on the adaptability to readjust for the individual. (Ibid) In-country adjustment: Individual variables. Here Black et al (1992) bring up the need for control or belief of control or self-efficacy, and expatriation adjustment. How much control the individual desires determines the attempts to gain control and where higher control facilitates the readjustment. Additionally, the individual’s belief of his or her capability to adjust to such aspects as home organization, job, and country generates stronger possibilities of success in all adjustment elements. The last factor has to do with expatriate adjustment. Greater differences between behavior abroad and future expected behavior when returning home, gives more difficulties in the repatriation stage. (Ibid)

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Job variables. First, role clarity has an impact on repatriation adjustment. When the individual knows what is expected of him or her on the job, and the work role expectations are clear reduces uncertainty and incorrect expectations when returning home. Second, high role discretion or work autonomy allows the individual to alter the work situation by changing the role to fit the individual, and thereby making it easier for the repatriate to adjust. In contrast with the above two job variables mentioned, role conflict instead have a negative impact on the adjustment for the repatriate. Role conflict with colleagues and managers about what is expected by the individual on work instead increase uncertainty. (Ibid) Organizational variables. Black et al (1992) state that post-return training and orientation affects all elements of adjustment if the training is directed to facilitate adjustment to work, interaction, and general environment. Furthermore, the authors mean that clear and congruent organizational and individual career objectives and repatriation policies are important factors in order to reduce uncertainty and incorrect expectations and hence ease the repatriation adjustment. Non-work variables. Like Gregersen & Stroh (1997), Black et al (1992) claim that housing conditions, social status especially a downward shift, and spouses’ repatriation adjustment are factors that affect all of the repatriate’s adjustment elements. A study made by Harvey (1989) state that support and commitment from the organization is a major factor that influences the repatriation process and makes it easier for the individual to readjust. If there is no recognition from the company of the need of take care and support the repatriate and spouse, more difficulties will be present for the individual and spouse to adjust to the home organization and social environment. Furthermore, Harvey (1989) also mentions some additional factors that affect repatriation. Nationality influences the adjustment since research has shown that there exist differences in repatriation training among countries, and how much effort and attention the repatriation receives. The size of organizations and in what businesses they are operating in are further factors affecting the repatriation. Larger organizations are more experienced and more routines exist for handling repatriation adjustment, and larger companies hence have the possibility to offer better support upon return. The nature of industry also affects repatriation adjustment; as a technology and manufacture based industry have a different setting than a consumer-oriented industry. Technology-based industries tend to have less contact with humans giving less opportunity for misunderstandings. (Ibid) Black et al (1999) also divide the factors influencing repatriation into anticipatory and in-country factors. The anticipatory factor that has an impact on successful re-entry is communication in different forms in order to reduce uncertainty and provide the repatriate and spouses with accurate expectations. The authors mean that individuals begin to make adjustment before coming home and these adjustments are primarily mental in nature. Individuals begin to think about how it will be in their home country when returning back. As a result the factor of communication or information in different forms can help modify and shape the repatriates’ and their families’ mental maps of the

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home country before they return home. In-country factors, or post-return factors, that either can ease or inhibit the process of repatriation to work, interaction, and general environment are also divided into individual, job, and organizational and non-work factors. (Ibid) 1. Individual factors. Many of the important individual factors relate to the cross-cultural adjustment within the individual, as how self-oriented, relation-oriented and perceptual-oriented the repatriate and spouses are. The higher the degree of these factors, the more positive impact they have on all stages of readjustment. Black et al (1999) further mean that more successful expatriation adjustment generates a more challenging and difficult repatriation. If the individuals and spouses have adjusted well to another culture very different from the home culture, they are more likely to have changed in behavior and acquired new mental maps and rules creating more difficulties when reverting back to fit the home country. Finally, extensive time abroad also inhibits the repatriation adjustment for both repatriates and spouses since extensive time abroad also influence and change the individual’s mental map. (Ibid) 2. Job factors. For repatriates, one of the most important components of successful repatriation is having a job upon return. Thus, an ill-planned return job has a negative impact on the readjustment. Providing repatriates with clear job descriptions or high role clarity facilitate adjustment to work. Additionally, by providing the repatriate with a high role discretion job also has a positive impact in work adjustment. But often it has been showed that in reality the repatriates are offered a job position that has less autonomy and authority compared to the overseas position. This reduced job autonomy expresses a less valuable feeling with the individual, as if he or she is no longer capable of taking their own work decisions. Many expatriates think that taking an international assignment leads to promotion, but that do not usually match with reality when returning home. In fact, the number of repatriates that receive promotions are very low and the disappointment that the individual feels influence negatively during repatriation. Expatriates often gain unique country knowledge, language and international management skills while working abroad. But after the return these skills are often not utilized in the best way, which lead to low return on the human investment for the company and a sense of not being appreciated for the individual. (Ibid) 3. Organizational factors. The home organization’s overall approach and how much attention it pays to the entire repatriation process is an important factor to facilitate the readjustment. Communicating a clear picture of the repatriation process endows the individual with a more secure feeling concerning what happen related to job positions, taxations etc. Black et al (1999) further state that the organization has to pay certain attention to the financial shock and decrease in social status after returning home through some financial compensation package. As a final factor, the organization often lacks some kind of repatriation training or orientation to enhance repatriation adjustment for both the repatriate and the spouse. (Ibid) 4. Non-work factors. When coming home, the repatriate and his or her family often drop in social status. During an international assignment the expatriate and spouse are feeling

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like “big fishes in a little pond”, but when returning home the picture become the opposite. The demotion, loss of financial perquisites, and absorption into corporate headquarters that typically accompanies repatriation can easily increase the sense of lowered social status and has a negative influence on readjustment. Additionally, the changes in housing conditions influence the return. First, if the repatriate has sublet their house, they most likely spend a couple of days or weeks in hotel until all furniture has arrived or until the house is done to move back to. Secondly, if they have sold the house before the overseas assignment, they have to find a new one, hopefully as soon as possible. Third, the house prices may have been risen which mean an additionally financial burden for the repatriate and spouse. (Ibid)

2.2 Repatriation program On average, the expatriate costs two to three times more than the employee’s base salary if he or she was remaining in the home organization. Due to the high costs involved and the benefit of competitive advantages international assignments can provide the company, the awareness to use employees’ knowledge and international experiences has increased. More organizations have realized the importance of creating value through their employees’ knowledge, skills and areas of expertise. (Black & Gregersen, 1999) In order to facilitate that the valuable skills possessed by the repatriate are not wasted and to ease the repatriation process and career development of their expatriates, MNCs have started to acknowledge the need and the importance of developing better repatriation program and/or support career programs (Riusala & Suutari, 2000). In order to keep the individual commitment to the home organization, the implementation and development of repatriation program is an important mean for retaining a strong pool of employees with valuable international experience (Gregersen, 1991), where clear and congruent organizational and individual career objectives ease the repatriation process (Black et al, 1992). A study made by Harvey (1989) show that the most commonly mentioned reasons for companies for not having any repatriation program are:

Lack of expertise in establishing programs. Costs of programs to train repatriates. No perceived need for repatriation training by top management. (Ibid)

Riusala & Suutari (2000) describe five practices of support to be used by companies in order to smooth the process of repatriation. First a pre-departure career discussion between the company and the individual is needed, where both parties can discuss the influence assignment has on the long-term career development of the expatriate. By doing this, companies help the expatriate to develop realistic expectations about the assignment and what that provides concerning both the work and the non-work lives. Second, the importance of a chain planning by the company is necessary. The idea is that if companies want to attract highly potential employees to international assignment, they must make sure that a completely successful assignment is rewarded in the right way (i.e.

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development rewards). Here the aim is to link the value of the performance and reward system to the expatriate’s experience and expectations. Third, Riusala & Suutari (2000) stress the importance of having a contact person in the home organization that function as a communication channel, and supplies information and news concerning the home organization and the social environment to decrease the possible reverse shock for the future repatriate. Fourth, there is a need of re-entry counseling with the repatriate and the family to offer advice and support, which helps them to deal with many possibly adjustment problems that they might face upon repatriation. Finally, the repatriate should be given the opportunity to present new skills and experiences gained from the international assignment to the representatives from the home organization. This support practice is of significant importance in order to spot the repatriate’s new knowledge and be able to utilize them in the best way that meet both the repatriate’s and the company’s needs. (Ibid) Black & Gregersen (1999) also stress the importance of having a well-defined repatriation program, and where the money spent on these programs is a small price to pay for retaining the people with this global insight and experience. Like Riusala & Suutari (2000), Black & Gregersen (1999) state different steps to take in order to ease the re-entry. The first preparations should be made by the headquarters three to six months before the future repatriate returns in order to start to think about the next assignment or work position that the expatriate has in the home organization. Further, a session with the organization and the repatriate is essential to find out the skills and experiences the repatriate has gained during the assignment, and review potential jobs. By making the repatriate participate in the process, the individual feels valued and more committed to the home organization. Additional, the company also has to make sure that the social and personal changes are included in the repatriation program. Offering the repatriate and the family support and advices upon return, which could include communication with previous repatriates and spouses, aiding with schools for children, and provide opportunity to exchange experiences with others in similar situation, should do this. (Ibid) Bonache et al (2001) state that creating correct expectations play a central role for a successful repatriation. Therefore it is essential to provide better career support programs for the repatriate in order to minimize possible inaccurate expectations, and also include the repatriate’s family in this support program, which help them to easier integrate back into society and organization. (Ibid) Hammer, Hart and Rogan (1998) stress that the key in repatriation program is a flexible communication between the repatriate and the home organization, both before departure and upon return. By having extensive communication concerning expectations about the assignment, and future career opportunities, the amount of uncertainty for the expatriate is decreased. Furthermore, re-entry training is also important, where the company should focus on helping the repatriate and spouse to align with the expectations and the actual situation that they encounter when returning home, both within organizational context as well as in the social environment. (Ibid)

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Tung (1988) stresses the importance of offering better repatriation programs that emphasizes the expatriate’s career issues, and does not focus much on the adjustment to the social milieu or the adjustment of the spouses. First of all, a mentor from the home organization should be selected to have responsibility for monitoring the expatriate’s career path. This action reduces the concern for the expatriate about his or her career development and opportunities back home, and instead lets him or her to fully devote the attention on the assignment itself. Where it is not possible of having one mentor for each expatriate, the company should assign a special unit to have the main responsibility of taking care of the expatriate’s needs. This unit’s primary activities should include three issues:

Career planning with the expatriate before departure to review opportunities the international assignment can offer.

Continuing guidance and counseling to help the expatriate to keep on track with his career while abroad.

Career planning session with the individual upon return to find suitable work within the home organization or about his next assignment. (Ibid)

Furthermore, Tung (1988) points out the importance of maintaining constant communication between the expatriate and the home organization to build commitment between the parties, and make the expatriate feel like a part of the company in spite of the isolation from the home country and organization. This communication could be to deliver newspapers, mails, or other information from the home organization. (Ibid) Harvey (1989) further adds an aspect that should be taken into consideration in the repatriation program, and that is the financial assistance from the company upon return to ease the financial problems that are often occurring for the repatriate and spouse when returning home. Feldman & Tompson (1993) emphasize the importance of developing corporate career development programs in order to facilitate the repatriate’s adjustment. There are seven aspects of formal organizational career development programs that ease the work adjustment: (1) provide the expatriates to freely choose to accept the assignment or not, (2) have mentors back home to provide information and support, (3) make sure that the expatriates career development back home not interferes with the assignment, (4) ensure that the repatriate has a job to return to, (5) utilize the repatriate’s new knowledge when returning back home, (6) give the repatriate realistic job previews, and (7) make sure that the assignment fits in the repatriate’s overall career plan. (Ibid) Gregersen & Stroh (1997) have outlined some implications for MNCs to follow in order to ease the repatriation process based on their study of Finnish repatriates and their spouses. First, visits back home during the assignment are important, especially if the expatriate is working in a country that is very culturally different to the home country. By doing this, the repatriate can stay in touch with the home country’s norms and changes during the assignment and the adjustment when returning home will be easier. Second, having a program that clarify the repatriate’s work role and provide work autonomy when

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returning home can reduce uncertainty and enhance adjustment since that provides space for the repatriate to make changes in his/her work to better fit the individual’s situation and thereby make it easer to readjust. Finally, an increase in companies’ awareness of the importance of repatriation programs is needed. (Ibid) Black et al (1999) describe eleven different parts that have to be considered in order to achieve a successful and effective repatriation: 1. Define and analyze the strategic functions that the repatriate can accomplish when returning home, i.e. form the main purpose for sending the individual abroad, and then follow up that purpose when the person is returning home again. Without a planned purpose, the more likely it is that the money invested will not pay off, and without a strategic purpose for the return there are few reasons for the company to pay significant attention to the problems that the repatriate and spouses might encounter. (Ibid) 2. After the purpose is established, a repatriation team consisting of human resource department and the expatriate’s mentor should be formed. This team should prepare for return at least six months before the actual repatriation. The mentor furthermore is primarily responsibility for locating the appropriate work position upon return for the repatriate. (Ibid) 3. The company should target high-risk repatriates, and put more effort, resources, and support on those who will encounter most problems when returning home again. These are repatriates and spouses who have had a long international assignment, and lived in a country that is very different from the home country. These individuals are most likely to have inaccurate perceptions of the home country and more problems when adjusting. (Ibid) 4. Since there probably have been a number of changes in the home country and home organization, the perceptions of the repatriate could therefore be inaccurate. It is therefore important to manage and shape these inaccurate expectations before the repatriate returns home with accurate and constant information and communication during the whole international assignment. (Ibid) 5. By having constant communication during the whole international assignment and establish home country information sources, like sponsors, home country visits, pre-return training, and provide access to newspapers/magazines are further steps towards a successful repatriation. The sponsor or mentor can provide important information that generally focuses on company-related changes, but can also provide information about changes in the social environment. By providing pre-return training about changes in jobs, how to interact with home-country people and about changes in the general environment further takes away uncertainty and inaccurate expectations of repatriates. This training should also include warnings about how people in the home country might react, and how low the interest of the repatriate’s experiences really might be among people. The training can further involve information about housing, financial compensation, tax laws, school systems, and price levels. Visits back home throughout

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the overseas transfer and especially just before the return, provide the repatriate and spouse with more accurate expectations, and provide the opportunity to stay in touch with friends, family and work in a closer way. (Ibid) 6. The repatriation team together with the repatriate must prepare the home country job environment and explore the repatriates career path and opportunities after repatriation. The aim is to find a work position that fulfills the company’s objective of sending the individual abroad and a work position that complies with the repatriate’s wishes. To create a challenging job with discretion to make things happen is important to assess the match between what the employee learned in the global assignment and how those skills can be utilized after the return home. In some situations it is possible to provide the repatriate with an ideal job due to restructures in the organization or recessions. It is better to communicate the situation to the employee at an early stage than not saying anything at all. To avoid envious and jealousy among co-workers and future managers, the company should also include co-workers and managers in training and orientation about repatriation in order for them to be understanding and supportive during the repatriation process. (Ibid) 7. Many repatriates experience a decrease in compensation after returning home. During the international assignment the company often rewards the expatriate with benefits and incentives, often in monetary form. The company must therefore pay attention to the compensation of the employee also after the international assignment; otherwise the repatriate may not adjust or even leave the company. The first step in developing appropriate compensation and financial packages is to compare the repatriate with employees who stayed at home and evaluate potential inequities. (Ibid) 8. Locating and finding adequate housing can be a major challenge for the repatriate and spouse. The company must for that reason assist with temporary housing, financing, locating houses, and house-hunting trips during the last few months of the overseas assignment. (Ibid) 9. The company should also provide support groups or informal meetings to meet and socialize with other repatriates and their families. These meetings or support groups would provide the opportunity to share and exchange experiences. These meetings are relatively cost-free but offer important benefits for both the company and the individuals. (Ibid) 10. When returning home there are many things to deal with for the repatriates and spouses, and consequently the company should allow repatriates some time off and thus plan for “downtime” and now letting the repatriate start to work at once, in order to arrange the necessary alterations needed. (Ibid) 11. Finally, the company must show interest, appreciation and care about the work that the repatriate has done, and the international experiences he/she has gained. This also includes caring about the spouses. (Ibid)

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Black et al (1999) mention four different sources of information or communication that is the base for a successful repatriation. First, task required communication with home country facilitates the repatriate’s adjustment to work when returning home. Second, a sponsor in the home organization that provides information about changes both in the organization as well as in the social environment. Third, another source of communication is the opportunity for repatriates and spouses to visit the home country during the assignment, and thereby stay in touch with friends, families, and work in a closer way. Finally, pre-return training and orientation provided by the company is the last information source that facilitates the adjustment to work, interaction, and general environment. (Ibid)

2.3 Benefits of repatriation By having successful repatriation companies can turn many problems facing today’s repatriates and companies into benefits where both the individuals’ and the organizations’ needs are satisfied (Scullion & Brewster, 2001). In short, a successful repatriation means that the repatriates acquire career and personal payments from the international assignment experiences and that the company enriches its organization through the international competencies that the repatriates’ possess (Bender & Fish, 2000). There is a high growth among the number of international assignments worldwide and that number is expected to continue to increase since international transfer is a way for companies to achieve corporate objectives, such as opening a new market, transferring skills and building international management experiences (Yan et al, 2002). For the individual a successful repatriation can mean positive career advancement and development (Bonache et al, 2001), or a variation for a certain career direction (Scullion & Brewster, 2001), and an international assignment is also viewed by many companies as a strong tool for promoting the individual (Tung, 1988). When taking on an international assignment, career development is viewed as the most important long-term concern for an individual, which provides a further reason for companies to make sure that they can integrate individuals’ new international skills in their long-term career plans with clear guidelines about the individuals’ career opportunities in order to retain and satisfy the employees (Yan et al, 2002; and Feldman, 1991). Repatriates that believe that they have advanced in their work position as a result of taking an overseas assignment are more likely to feel supported in their career and is therefore more likely to stay within the organization upon return (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001). By providing the repatriate with a position in the home organization as soon as possible upon return, or preferably before the return, makes the individual feel more valued and the repatriate’s self-image increases. This recognition and support from the organization upon return can further result in that the repatriate develops feelings of trust and commitment to the company and the individual is than more likely to stay within the organization. Another positive benefit that stem from this is that the repatriate is more motivated to perform efficiently and thereby increases the effectiveness of the organization. (Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999)

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Furthermore, the individual perceives him or her to be valued by the organization if the repatriation is successful and there is support from the company during the whole repatriation process. Instead of feeling that the international experiences are being undervalued by the company, that the loss of status and autonomy in the new role position, and a loss of career direction is decreasing, the assistance and support from the organization will turn that negative feeling within the individual and instead facilitate and ease readjustment. The possible changes that occur in the individual’s life both socially and professionally when working abroad are therefore easier to deal with and thereby minimize frustration and anxiety. (Linehan & Scullion, 2002; Scullion & Brewster, 2001; and Harvey, 1989) Consequently, a successful readjustment for the individual means a stronger performance, experienced learning and growth, as well as a higher job satisfaction (Yan et al, 2002). Influencing and enhancing the commitment of repatriates to the organization with effective repatriation policies is a critical benefit that provides a higher possibility to retain a strong pool of employees with valuable international experiences (Gregersen, 1991). A satisfied career development for the repatriate therefore also affects the organization’s development in a positive way (Hurn, 1999). After living in another country for a couple of years, several changes have occurred both within the individual and within the home country and organization. Upon return there are therefore a gap between the repatriate’s expectations about coming home and the reality that is facing the individual. Minimizing this gap through aiding and supporting the individual in developing realistic expectations it can lead to fewer surprises for the individual. By providing repatriates with accurate expectations about their job positions and their social environment, the repatriates are more likely to stay within the company, and the organization is also enhancing the repatriate’s commitment to the company. (Stroh, Gregersen & Black, 1998) The move back to the home country can include a time of frustration and anxiety not only for the repatriate, but also for the spouse. If the spouse has a successful repatriation, it greatly impacts the repatriate’s productivity, satisfaction, and level of commitment to the home organization when returning home. (Harvey, 1989; and Fish & Wood, 1994) It has been shown that there is a positive relationship between a repatriate’s overall work performance and readjustment of the spouse. When the spouse has a successful repatriation there is a positive ”spill over” effect in which the performance spills over to work and increases the repatriate’s effectiveness. (Hammer et al, 1998) Hence, the organization support for the family during the repatriation adjustment is of vital concern because of the interrelationship that exists between the spouse and the repatriate (Harvey, 1989; and Fish & Wood, 1994).

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Linehan & Scullion (2002) state from their study on female repatriates several benefits for the individual that can result in successful repatriation.

Success in recognition from home country management for their achievement abroad. Having a suitable re-entry position. Developing sideways with their home organization. Success of social readjustment for themselves and their families. Taken under consideration for promotion opportunities in the home organization.

(Ibid) A fundamental condition for a company to become international is that it possesses international knowledge and experiences that presents the organization with a competitive advantage in the international market place. Taking advantage of and utilizing the repatriate’s and his or her newly gained international skills can gain the company opportunities of innovation and learning through the exposure of new cultures, ideas, and experiences, which then can be used to create new knowledge that complements the already existing knowledge that is possessed. (Bonache et al, 2001) The need for companies to develop global leaders when operating on an international arena has been widely mentioned and recognized in literature and one of the major tools to develop these global managers is through international assignment. Therefore the necessity to take care of these expatriates when they return home is of vital concern in order to enhance future international managers that the company can further base the organization on. International assignment is a main strategy to internationalize a manager and acquire broad management experiences where a foreign assignment is an excellent management development tool. An international assignment is generally holding a higher position compared to a domestic position, which further makes, the assignment a learning opportunity for the individual. (Riusala & Suutari, 2000, Tung, 1988; and Bonache et al, 2001) One problem for many companies is that they seem to lack the awareness of the importance of retaining the valuable skills that are possessed by the repatriates when they return home, and therefore the benefit of this new international knowledge is wasted and not utilized in the best way for both parties. (Ibid) Consequently, effective management of repatriates is a critical factor that determines the success or failure of these international assignments and how the new knowledge is utilized (Scullion & Brewster, 2001). Furthermore, effective management of international transfer and repatriation influence the willingness of future managers to take on foreign assignments, which is a prerequisite for more and more companies to develop their international competitive advantage (Harvey, 1989). Today’s international market is an increasingly knowledge oriented place where national boundaries are of less importance for businesses, where transfer of expertise and knowledge, and the creation of a ”learning” organization are critical factors for companies to succeed and become competitive. Hence the importance of utilizing the international assignment upon return is effective knowledge management that enables the company to develop and retain cross-boarder business experts. (Bender & Fish, 2000)

23

Literature Review

Lazarova & Caligiuri (2001) mean that by allowing the repatriate to utilize his/her new experiences, the repatriate can help establish and expand the organization’s international business, since the individual possess first hand knowledge of particular cultural contexts, including information about specific markets and customs. Repatriates further understand how the home company is viewed in other countries and are a part of a global social network that the company can take advantage of around the world. Furthermore by transferring knowledge from foreign countries to home countries and vice versa the repatriate’s international experiences play important roles in organizational learning. (Ibid) The way in which factors such as international business, repatriate career management, and cross-cultural strategies are integrated is an increasingly important consideration for organizations that wish to succeed internationally. Take care of the repatriates and make use of the valuable international experiences these people possess and connect the organization’s human resource management activities with the organization’s international business, will facilitate the development and achievement of business goals. (Fish & Wood, 1994) Since companies that are operating in an international marketplace are in need of international experiences and global managers, the requirements of a successful repatriation is also important to attract other highly potential employees from other companies that can build up the company in the future with more international input. Paying attention to repatriation can therefore in the long run have an impact on the performance of these organizations since that supplies a surplus of international managers and consequently enhance the implementation of the companies’ international objectives. (Riusala & Suutari, 2000; and Linehan & Scullion, 2002) The average expatriate’s operating expenses range from $300,000 to $ 1 million per year, or the expatriate cost, in general, two or three times more for the company compared to if the expatriate would stay back home (Black & Gregersen, 1999). Poor repatriation therefore can not only lead to low return on the HR investment and a possibly severe loss in actual money, but also losses in experiences and knowledge the employee possess and also the opportunity to develop global managers and global competitive advantage (Peak, 1997). The cost of losing these expatriates can be very considerable, since they are very valuable and possess human resources that make them capable of understanding the work environment of both the corporate headquarters and the overseas operations. These repatriates are capable of transferring important technology and other information from the foreign companies back to the home organization, or providing critical coordination and control functions in the home office out to local operations. (Linehan & Scullion, 2002; and Stroh et al, 1998) In order to benefit from the human investment, effective repatriation is needed where the opportunities to use the skills and experiences acquired abroad must exist, and thereby creating higher productivity and lower turnover among the repatriates (Feldman, 1991). Effective companies have started to realize that money spent on making the repatriation adjustment successful is a small price to pay for retaining these employees with global insight and experiences, compared to the cost of loosing them (Black & Gregersen, 1999).

24

Conceptual Framework

3. Conceptual Framework The previous chapter presented theories related to each research question. In this chapter we will present the theories chosen for each research question that will be used to gather the data. Thereafter, the emerged frame of reference is presented in order to show how the research questions fit together. According to Miles and Huberman (1994) a conceptual framework explains, either graphically or in narrative form the main things to be studied, and further decides which variables that are most important, and what information that should be collected and analyzed.

3.1 Factors affecting repatriation After reviewing the literature in the previous chapter, one can see that the for this research question, factors that influence repatriation are divided by the reviewed authors into different variables or categories, such as individual, work and job, organizational, and non-work factors. Hence, we will separate the factors into similar categories when collecting the data. In order to answer our first research question we will use Suutari & Välimaa (2002), Feldman & Tompson (1993), Gregersen & Stroh (1997), and Harvey (1989) to examine what individual factors, organizational factors, job and work factors, and non-work factors affecting repatriation. Individual factors: age, time abroad, keeping up with the events at home, willingness to relocate international, expatriation adjustment problems or satisfaction (Suutari & Välimaa, 2002), gender, nationality, the repatriate’s intention to continue with international assignment, and self-management (Feldman & Tompson, 1993). Work and job factors: role discretion, role conflict, role negotiations and role decisions, skills utilization (Suutari & Välimaa, 2002), role clarity (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997), job characteristics (functions, directly from school, higher level position), and degree of differences between job assignments (Feldman & Tompson, 1993). Organizational factors: clear policies and practices, pre-return training (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997), organization’s attitude and support towards international assignment, the size of the company, and the industry the company is operating in (Harvey, 1989). Non-work factors: social status (Suutari & Välimaa, 2002), cultural differences between the countries, housing conditions, and spouses’ readjustment (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997). We will use Suutari & Välimaa (2002) mainly because this study is done in a Finnish environment and is more applicable to the Swedish environment that we are going to examine. And secondly, Suutari Välimaa (2002) is the latest article reviewed in the

25

Conceptual Framework

literature chapter. We will further use Feldman & Tompson (1993), Gregersen & Stroh (1997), and Harvey (1989) as a complement because these authors bring up some factors that are not mentioned by the other authors, which we think have relevance for this study. We will not use the factor Gregersen & Stroh (1997) call time back home as it is a factor that has a longer incubation period than the others before any affects can be seen and is therefore not included. The additional factors that Black et al (1992) mention; visits back home, task interdependency, communication, and sponsor, are equal with the factor Suutari & Välimaa (2002) mention about keeping up on events at home and having constant communication between the repatriate and the home country in different forms. The factor of need of control for the repatriate that Black et al (1992) also mention is the same as Feldman & Tompson’s (1993) factor about self-management. This is also the same for the individual factors that Black et al (1999) mention, where the repatriate has a proactive approach and how the individual tries to cope, ease and solve his/her new situation in different ways.

3.2 Repatriation program To be able to examine this research question and study how repatriation program is out formed by organizations we will use Black et al (1999) that outline eleven steps towards a successful repatriation and these are: 1. Forming main purpose and strategic functions before the international assignment. 2. Establish a repatriation team. 3. Target high risk repatriates. 4. Manage expectations with accurate information 5. Constant communication. 6. Prepare for home country job and explore repatriate’s opportunities. 7. Financial compensation. 8. Facilitate housing conditions. 9. Provide support groups. 10. Planning for “downtime”. 11. Appreciate the repatriate and his spouses. By using Black et al (1999) we will be able to cover many aspects of the different parts that should be included in a repatriation program. Black et al (1999) describe a broad spectrum of issues that have to be considered during repatriation that summarizes the other authors’ studies mentioned in the literature review.

3.3 Benefits of repatriation In order to examine and answer our last research question we will use an eclectic list of authors to be able to cover a wide range of potential benefits that can be derived from successful repatriation. Furthermore, the literature reviewed outlined benefits for both the individual and the organization, and hence we will divide these benefits into individual and organizational benefits in order to capture both perspectives.

26

Conceptual Framework

Individual benefits: Career development and opportunities (Bonache & Brewster, 2001; Feldman, 1991;

Fish & Wood, 1994; Linehan & Scullion, 2002; Scullion & Brewster, 2001, and Yan et al, 2002).

Promotion (Linehan & Scullion, 2002; and Tung, 1988). Perceived themselves to be valued by the company (Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999). Make use of the new international skills and knowledge (Feldman, 1991; and Yan et

al, 2002). Faster integration into the home environment, minimizing frustration, and ease the

adjustment (Harvey, 1989; Linehan & Scullion, 2002; and Scullion & Brewster, 2001).

Job satisfaction (Fish & Wood, 1994; Harvey, 1989; and Yan et al, 2002). Closing the gap between expectations and reality (Stroh et al, 1998).

Organizational benefits:

Integrate culturally and organizationally (Fish & Wood, 1994). Closing the gap between expectations and reality (Stroh et al 1998). Developing global manager for competitive advantage (Bonache & Brewster, 2001;

Riusala & Suutari, 2000; and Tung, 1988). Retain and ensure valuable skills (Bender & Fish, 2000; Bonache & Brewster, 2001;

Fish & Wood, 1994; and Riusala & Suutari, 2000). Attracting future potential expatriates (Harvey, 1989; Linehan & Scullion, 2002; and

Riusala & Suutari, 2000). Return on human investment (Black & Gregersen, 1999; Feldman, 1991; and Peak,

1997). Developing a pool of global knowledge (Bonache & Brewster, 2001; Gregersen,

1991; Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001; Stroh et al, 1998; and Linehan & Scullion, 2002). Performance efficiency (Feldman, 1991; Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999). Job loyalty and commitment (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001).

The above selected benefits provide an eclectic picture of what benefits that can be derived from repatriation, both for the repatriate and for the company.

27

Conceptual Framework

3.4 Emergence frame of reference By showing the conceptual framework graphically will specify the ties that hold the area studied together, and map the relationship between the areas examined (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In Figure 3.1 the relationship between factors affecting repatriation, repatriation program, and benefits of repatriation is showed and the connection between our research questions and how they fit together.

Factors

Program Benefits

Figure 3.1: Frame of Reference The factors influencing repatriation form how repatriation program should be outlined, since repatriation program exists and is designed to reduce and handle inaccurate expectations and uncertainties that specific factors can increase. By reducing inaccurate expectations and insecurities by decreasing or trying to minimize certain factors in the repatriation program, several benefits can be obtained, and both the organization and the repatriate will profit from the repatriation.

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Methodology

4. Methodology In the previous chapter the conceptual framework was presented. This chapter will explain the methodologies available to obtain data and where we also select the appropriate methodologies that are used to address the particular research questions of our thesis. The chapter starts with an explanation of the purpose of the research, research approach, and research strategy. Thereafter data collection method, and sample selection are discussed, followed by analysis of data. The chapter ends with a discussion about the validity and reliability of the study, and a graphical summary of the methodology research.

4.1 Purpose of research According to Widersheim-Paul and Eriksson (1997) the purpose of the research can be exploratory, descriptive and/or explanatory. In the exploratory purpose the researcher wants to understand conditions, occurrences, courses of events, behaviors, and phenomenon (Widersheim-Paul & Eriksson, 1997). The exploratory stage is often used to explore a new area and build up theory around it. But it can also be designed to confirm or test an existing theory (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The descriptive purpose of the research process has a purpose of describing different phenomenon, such as the state within an organization with an organizational sheet, events such as a product launch, a course of events such as negotiation process, or an occurrence such as a purchase. To describe something often implies identification and mapping. To describe involves choosing perspectives, aspects, levels, terminology and concepts, observations, registration, systematization, classification, interpretation etc. A good description is often a necessary foundation when explaining, understanding, predicting or deciding. Furthermore, a descriptive research purpose means to make complicated situations that are studied understandable and clear (Ibid).

The explanatory purpose implies analyzing the causes and the effects. In the same way as with the descriptive stage, the explanations are done from different starting points. The researcher has to specify these and also state to what explanation is to be used and to whom it is going to be done. There is not one single correct model in regards to a certain phenomenon. This implies that the researcher has to consider several models. (Ibid)

With these descriptions about exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory stages, the research purpose of our study has been foremost exploratory and descriptive. Our purpose with this study was to gain a deeper understanding of repatriation, and we thereby started to explore our research area. We also described the collected data that involves factors affecting repatriation, repatriation program, and benefits of repatriation from our research questions. Our study is to a small extent explanatory also, since we have begun to explain our research area when answering our research questions and drawing conclusions at the end of the study.

29

Methodology

4.2 Research approach There are two different ways to approach a research area, either quantitative or qualitative according to Miles & Huberman (1994). Quantitative data involves a large number of cases to seek a statistical significance, draw some general conclusions, and involves research of large-scale phenomena. (Miles & Huberman, 1994) Quantitative data is formalized and structured, and where the information is transformed into numbers and quantities, where the researcher is interested in the common and average (Holme & Solvang, 1997). Qualitative data refers to the essences of people, objects, and situation. Qualitative approach means to study things in their natural settings, attempt to make sense of, or interpret, situations in terms of the meaning people bring to them. Qualitative data has the characteristic of revealing complexity since qualitative research works with small samples of the population/target area, and these samples are studied in-depth. Qualitative samples are more purposive than random, since the small numbers of cases handled in qualitative data cannot be used for general conclusions. (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994) Holme & Solvang (1997) mean that the focus of qualitative data is to gather information to obtain a deeper understanding of the problem that is studied. Denzin & Lincoln, (1994) write that qualitative research approach has no right truth and the purpose of qualitative enquiry is to describe a process and observe different viewpoints. (Ibid)

Based on the descriptions above about quantitative and qualitative research approach, we have used a qualitative approach for this thesis. Our purpose was to gain a deeper understanding and knowledge about repatriation and not to draw general conclusions, and therefore a qualitative approach was the most suitable method. Furthermore, we used a qualitative approach since our research was about to describe a process that was studied in-depth, namely influencing factors, repatriation program, and benefits with repatriation.

4.3 Research strategy The researcher must choose a strategy that can provide the researcher with data that is relevant for the hypothesis or stated research questions. The method selected to collect the data will work as a framework or instrument to provide a manageable picture of the reality that is studied. (Backman, 1998) Yin (1994) suggests five different research strategies in social sciences to use in order to examine the area sought after, regardless if the study is exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. The strategies are experiments, surveys, archival analyses, histories, and case studies. These strategies are distinguished by three different kinds of conditions: a) The type of research questions posed. b) The extent of control an investigator has over actual behavioral events. c) The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events.

30

Methodology

Table 4.1 shows the three conditions and how they relate to the five major research strategies to be able to decide what kind of strategy that will suit the study best. Table 4.1 Relevant Situations for Different Research Strategies Strategy Form of research

question Requires control over behavioral events?

Focuses on contemporary events?

Experiment how, why yes yes

Survey who, what, where, how many, how much

no yes

Archival analysis who, what, where, how many, how much

no yes/no

History how, why no no Case study how, why no yes

Source: Yin, 1994, p.6 According to Yin’s (1994) table, case study was the best approach for our research. Our research questions deal with “how” questions and does not require any control over behavior events. Furthermore, our study has focused on contemporary events. A case study does not necessarily have to be limited to just one case, but can instead include several case studies in one research (Backman, 1998). Yin (1994) distinguishes between two types of case studies, single-case study and multiple-case study in order to design the case study. A single case study can be used when the study represents a critical case in testing a well-formulated theory, when the study represents an extreme or unique case, or when the study is a revelatory case, which means the opportunity to analyze and observe a phenomenon where previous access of research has not been allowed. Multiple-case studies involve more than one case study, and the studies should serve multiple experiments, with similar results or contrasting results, or replication. (Ibid) By looking at a range of similar and contrasting cases, the researcher can easier strengthens the precision, the validity, and the stability of the findings by following a replication strategy, and thereby add confidence to the research. One aim of studying multiple cases is to see processes and outcomes across many cases to understand how they are experienced by local conditions, and thereby develop more sophisticated descriptions and more powerful explanations. (Miles & Huberman, 1994) We have used multiple-case study as research strategy, since we wanted to detect similarities and/or differences concerning our research questions between the selected companies and to see processes and develop more sophisticated descriptions and more powerful explanations, and thereby strengthen our study as Miles & Huberman (1994) claim a multiple-case study will do.

31

Methodology

4.4 Data collection method The data collected in a qualitative research focuses on words and is based on observations, interviews or documents (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; and Miles & Huberman, 1994). These data collection methods are typically carried out in closeness to the situation or event for a period of time (Miles & Huberman, 1994). To be able to collect the data wanted for case studies, Yin (1994) describes six important sources of evidence, which are documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant-observation, and physical artifacts. These sources are outlined below in Table 4.2, and listed up with their strengths and weaknesses. Table 4.2: Six Sources of Evidence: Strengths and Weaknesses Source of evidence Strengths Weaknesses Documentation • Stable: can be reviewed repeatedly

• Unobtrusive: not created as a result of the case

• Exact: contains exact names, references, and details of an event

• Broad coverage: long span of time, many events, and many settings

• Retrievability: can be low • Biased selectively: if collection is

incomplete • Reporting bias: reflects (unknown)

bias of author • Access: may be deliberately

blocked Archival records • (Same as above for documentation)

• Precise and quantitative • (Same as above for

documentation) • Accessibility due to privacy

reasons Interviews • Targeted: focuses directly on case

study topic • Insightful: provides perceived causal

inferences

• Bias due to poorly constructed questionnaires

• Response bias • Inaccuracies due to poor recall • Reflexivity: interviewee gives what

interviewer wants to hear Direct observations • Reality: covers events in real time

• Contextual: covers context of event • Time consuming • Selectivity: unless broad coverage • Reflexivity: event may proceed

differently because it is being observed

• Cost: hours needed by human observers

Participant observation • (Same as for direct observations) • Insightful into interpersonal behavior

and motives

• (same as for direct observations) • Bias due to investigator’s

manipulation of events Physical artifacts • Insightful into cultural features

• Insightful into technical operations • Selectivity • Availability

Source: Yin, 1994, p.80 Since we have done a qualitative study and not a quantitative one, archival records were not a source of evidence that was under consideration, since that is a quantitative method. Direct observation and participant-observation were not considered as sources of evidence in this research since they are too cost and time consuming. Physical artifacts are more suitable as source of evidence when the researcher wants to examine cultural

32

Methodology

features and technical operation. Hence, for our study, interviews and documentations have been used as sources of evidence. Yin (1994) writes that an interview may take several forms, such as open-ended nature, focused, and survey, where open-ended nature is the most commonly used one. Here the interviewer do not follow any structured questionnaires, and can ask the respondent for the facts of a matter as well as for the respondent’s opinions about events. In some situations, the interviewer can ask the respondent to suggest his/her own opinion about a certain incident and may use that proposition as the base for further inquiry. A focused interview is where the respondent is interviewed for a short time of period. The interview can still remain open-ended, but it is more likely that the interviewer is following a certain set of questions derived from a case study protocol. The third and last type of interview is a survey. Here the interview have more structured questionnaires and could be designed as part of a case study. (Ibid) By asking open-ended questions that leave room for probing, Travers (2001) means that even from a small number of samples it is still possible to obtain rich and exclusive information for further analysis. According to Yin (1994) interviews are an essential source for case study evidence, since most case studies are about human affairs. These human affairs should be reported and interpreted through the eyes of the interviewer and from the respondent that is well informed and can provide important insights into a situation. Interviews should also be supported by information from other sources. Travers (2001) further claims that there is no permanent rule on how many interviews that is needed to conduct a qualitative case study. The amount of interviews accomplished is dependent on the objective of the research and the level of in-depth and detailed analysis wanted for the study. (Ibid) Yin (1994) further states that documentations are most likely to be relevant to every case study as information tool. Documentations can take many forms, like for example letters, written reports, administrative documents, or other articles, and is an explicit source of evidence to case study. (Ibid) For our research, interviews and documentation were the sources of evidence that have been used as explained above since these are the sources of evidence that were most suitable for our qualitative study. The type of interview that has been used in this research is a focused interview since we used a certain set of questions developed in our conceptual framework, and because the interview was time limited and only proceeded during a short time of period. However, the interviews were to some extent open-ended to give the possibility for probing and follow-up questions. The interviews have been done through telephone, as it was not feasible to conduct a face-to-face interview due to the long distance between the respondents and the interviewers. Documentation such as the companies’ homepages or annual reports have provided a complement to the interviews and provide us with information about the companies, their products, costs and revenues.

33

Methodology

4.5 Sample selection The object for sample selection in a case study can consist of an individual, a group, an organization, a phenomenon, or an event (Backman, 1998). When conducting research, the sampling process is crucial for later analysis, since whom to look at or talk with, where, and why will influence the conclusions and confident of the study (Miles & Huberman 1994). To detect how companies try to utilize their human investment in the repatriate and turn it into a global competitive advantage where the needs of both the individual and the company will be satisfied, we decided to look at the pharmaceutical and transportation industry as we thought these industries would be of interest to look at for our research area. These industries are large and are operating in an international arena with a constant exchange of employees between boarders, which is a pre-requisite for our study. Therefore we wanted to see how these companies are working with repatriation issues. Furthermore, we also wanted to study the perspective from the repatriate’s point of view in order to receive a wider picture of repatriation, and to spot if there where similarities and/or dissimilarities in how to view repatriation. The companies that we have selected are Saab and Scania that are within the transportation industry and as a contrasting case Pharmacia that is operating in the pharmaceutical industry. To reach the right persons to interview, we have called the companies and first talked to the switchboard operator that recommended us to talk with a certain person that would be suitable for our business. In order to reach the repatriate, we had to rely on the manager respondent at each company to select an appropriate person to talk to, after first having outlined some criteria that the repatriate had to fulfill. The criteria were that the person had an executive position abroad for the extent of at least two years so that the repatriate had been exposed to a different culture for a longer time and had been working as an executive during that time since it includes higher authority and responsibility and where the individual has more problems when readjusting stated by Fish & Wood (1994). Finally, the repatriate had to have returned to the home organization within the last year and thereby have the re-entry stage fresher in mind. At Saab we talked to Mr. Roy Andersson and Ms. Johanna Christenson where the former is working as International Personal Administrator and the latter as Recruitment Manager, and Mr. Johan Formgren returning from Switzerland. At Scania we talked to Mr. Björn Lindebrandt who is working as Personal Manager, and Mr. Bo Hermanson returning from Austria. At Pharmacia we talked to Mr. Tommy Gustavsson, who is working as Competition Benefit Manager, and Mr. Lars Ryding returning from USA. The telephone interviews were conducted during the beginning of December 2002, and lasted about one hour for each respondent.

4.6 Analysis of data The data collected from the interviews are not directly accessible for analysis, but require some processing and needs to be corrected and transcribed (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

34

Methodology

According to Yin (1994) data analysis consists of examining, categorized, tabulating, or otherwise combining the evidence to address the initial propositions of the study. Case studies need to have a general analytic strategy to start with to help the researcher to choose among different techniques and complete the analytic phase of the research successfully. Yin (1994) describes two strategies to choose between before analyzing the data:

Relaying on theoretical propositions. This is according to Yin (1994) the most preferred strategy, and where the research is based on previous studies that lead to the research questions. This strategy helps to focus attention on certain data and to ignore relevant data and gives the opportunity to compare the findings with previous studies.

Developing a case description. This strategy is mostly used when there are little previous studies made within the research area, but is a less preferable strategy according to Yin (1994).

For our study we have relied on theoretical propositions since we have based our research questions on previous studies and wanted to compare our data collected with the previous studies done in this area.

Miles & Huberman (1994) state that a qualitative data analysis consists of three current flows of activities: Data reduction, Data display, and Conclusion drawing and verification.

Data reduction helps to select, simplify, and transform the data collected, and is a form of analysis that sorts, organizes, and focuses so that final conclusions may be drawn. Qualitative data can be reduced and transformed in many ways; through selection, through summary or interpretation, or through being included in a larger pattern

Data display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that allows conclusions to be drawn, and this display can be as matrices, graphs, charts, or networks. Data display helps to understand what is happening in a visual form, so that either valid conclusions can be drawn or other needed actions can be taken based on that understanding.

Conclusion drawing and verification is where the qualitative researcher begins to decide what things mean by detecting regularities, patterns, explanations, and propositions from the data display. (Ibid)

Travers (2001) states that the most important procedure in theory research is to categorize the data into themes of codes and make logic sense of the data collected for the study. That is done by first coding the different dimensions of the variables and then finding links between them. Diverse events and situations are then built up in order to create a comprehensive picture of the variations within the categories. Finally, these categories are developed so that a framework is emerging. To be able to present the complex relationships between the categories some form of diagram is appropriate to use. (Ibid) The display format and shape will depend on what the researcher is trying to understand

35

Methodology

(a general situation, the behavior of people, or the interplay of conceptual variables), and if the research include single or multiple case analysis. For multiple case studies, a data display lays the foundations for cross-case analysis. (Miles & Huberman, 1994) A primary reason for cross-case analysis is to deepen the understanding and explanation. Cross-case analysis further helps the researcher to strengthen a theory, by examining similarities and differences across the cases, (Ibid) and give understanding of how, where, when, and why different findings carry on as it does (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). This study has involved the analysis of interviews from three different companies, two from the transport industry and one from the pharmaceutical industry, where the pharmaceutical case functioned as the contrasting case. The data collected from the interviews was therefore analyzed both as data reduction (also called within-case analysis), which means to compare the data collected against the reviewed literature. The data from the interviews was also investigated in a data display (also called cross-case analysis), where the data collected from the interviews was compared with data from the other interviews.

4.7 Validity and Reliability Whom to study or talk with, where, when, about what and why will all place limits to the conclusions drawn and the confidence on the study (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Because a research design is supposed to represent a logical set of statements, one can judge the quality of any given design according to certain logical tests (Yin, 1994). Yin (1994) lists four tests that are commonly used to establish the quality of any empirical social research, and these are construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Yin (1994) means that validity refers to if one has measured what is intended to measure and Miles & Huberman (1994) state that validity has to do with if the findings from the study make sense. Construct validity includes the establishing of correct operational measures for the concepts being studied. Yin (1994) explains three tactics that are available to increase the construct validity. The first is to use multiple sources of evidence during data collection, the second is to establish a chain of evidence during data collection, and the third tactic is to design a case study report that is reviewed by key informants. (Ibid) Internal validity includes establishing a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are shown to lead to other conditions, as distinguished from delusive relationships. Internal validity is only a concern for explanatory or casual studies to determine whether event X led to event Y. (Ibid) External validity deals with establishing the domain to which a study’s findings can be generalized and has been a major barrier in doing case studies. Critics have stated that

36

Methodology

single cases offer poor basis for generalizing. (Ibid) Yin (1994) however explains that this is wrong since case studies rely on analytic generalization, where the investigator is striving to generalize a particular set of results to some broader theory. To increase external validity, Yin (1994) stresses the importance or using replication logic in multiple case studies, where a theory must be tested through replication of the findings in similar surroundings, where the theory has specified that the same results should occur. When a replication has been made, the findings can then be generalized, where external validity has to do with if the conclusions from a study have any larger importance or are transferable to other contexts (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In our study we have used all of above validities to some degree except the internal validity. This is due to the fact that we are not mainly focusing on explanatory or casual studies. To increase the construct validity in our study we established a chain of evidence during the data collection by describing in an exact way the proceedings we have taken and by writing references on everything. Furthermore, our supervisor had reviewed the interview guide that was designed for our case studies. However, we could not use multiple sources of evidence when collecting the data since we did not get access to more information about repatriation than the respondents provided us with through the interviews. To increase the external validity for this research we have studied three international companies and have therefore a larger sample of findings to test the relevant theory and transfer the findings to other context compared to just one or two case studies. However, our samples are too small to draw general conclusions and therefore external validity must be considered rather low in this study. To increase the validity further it is optimal to talk with at least two persons within the organization. By observing or interviewing different sources will provide a repeated verification, and the information collected is more dependable when coming from several independent sources. The validity will be enhanced when the sources confirm the same thing. In the case that the different sources are inconsistent or conflicting with each other can help elaborate the findings or even initiate a new way of thinking. (Miles & Huberman, 1994) To increase this form of validity we interviewed two respective three respondents at each company, one that was the spokesperson for the company and one person that had personally experienced the area studied. To find the right person for the interviews we have through companies’ switchboard operators made efforts to find the most suitable persons to interview. The respondents interviewed are all operating within the personal or international assignment departments of the companies, and were the persons that we got referred to by switchboard operators at all companies. Furthermore, the repatriates all fulfilled our criteria and were therefore considered suitable for interviews. Before the interviews we also sent a short version of the interview guide for the respondents to prepare them for the interview and to avoid possible misunderstandings. After the interview a short summary was sent to the respondents to confirm that the information was correct and avoid misunderstandings. After the interviews the respondents have all been available for further questions through mail or telephone.

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Methodology

Yin (1994) writes that reliability demonstrates that the operations of a study, such as the data collection procedures, can be repeated with the same results. Yin (1994) further writes that reliability refers to minimize the errors and biases of the study. The goal is to be sure that if a later researcher follows the exact same procedures as described and conducted the same case study, the later researcher will conclude the same findings and conclusions. Therefore careful documentation of the case study must be made. Miles & Huberman (1994) write that the core issue about reliability is weather the process of the study is consistent, reasonably stable over time, across researchers, and methods. To increase the reliability of our study we used a tape recorder during the telephone interviews to be able to listen to the interviews again and spot if anything was missed. What might have affected the reliability negatively is that the interviews had to be translated from Swedish to English before starting to analyze it and therefore small errors in the choice of words might occur. To increase reliability, the interview guide was constructed to have as much open questions as possible to not lead the respondents in any particular direction. What might have decreased the reliability of our study was that the company chose the repatriate for us to interview, which can have provided some bias since the company might have selected some person that they thought could supply more positive information and a person that the company knew was satisfied with his or her repatriation, instead of offering a person that could provide negative information. This chapter has presented and outlined the different research methods we have chosen for our study, and this is graphically showed in Figure 4.1 below.

Archival analysis Case study History

Archival records

Documentation

Explanatory DescriptiveExploratory

Quantitative Qualitative

Experiment Survey

Interviews Direct observations

Participant observations

Physical artifacts

Saab Scania Pharmacia

Within case analysis

Cross case analysis

Analysis of data

Sample selection

Data collection method

Research strategy

Research approach

Purpose of research

Figure 4.1: Summary of Research Methodology

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Data Presentation

5 Data Presentation After describing the methodology used for this thesis in the previous chapter, this chapter presents the empirical data from the three selected cases. The data from the cases is based on telephone interviews with two respondents each at Scania and Pharmacia, and three at Saab. The order of research questions and outline of the conceptual framework dictate the order in which the data is presented in this chapter.

5.1 Saab Saab Automobile AB is an international automobile company mainly based in Sweden, and represented in more than 50 countries over the world. Saab Automobile AB was established as an independent company in 1990, following a joint-venture agreement between Saab-Scania AB and General Motors. As from 2000, Saab has been wholly owned by General Motors. Saab Automobile AB headquarters is located in Trollhättan, Sweden, where also product development and production is situated. In the year 2001 Saab produced 123 755 cars, which were sold around the world. The most important markets are in the USA, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, Italy, Australia, France, Netherlands, and Norway. (www.saab.com) The interviews were conducted with Mr. Roy Andersson, working at the International Personnel Administration division, Ms. Johanna Christensen, recruiting manager at the Attract and Recruit division and Mr. Johan Formgren, repatriate from an assignment in Zurich, Switzerland. Ms. Christensen was included through referral from Mr. Andersson during his interview as he thought Ms. Christensen to be more suitable to answer some of the questions. Mr. Andersson worked at the time of the interview as a personnel administrator and assisted during the international assignments. He further explained that in November 2002 Saab had a total number of 68 expatriates that were on an international assignment and that there was a turnover among those of about 50 to 60 percent during the year. The normal length of an international assignment is between two to three years. Saab mainly sends expatriates to Germany and the USA, but also to Australia, France, Switzerland, Japan, and Canada. He further stated that the turnover among repatriates was lower compared to those staying at home. This due to that Saab has invested in their competence and might therefore put more effort in utilizing that upon return. Mr. Johan Formgren had on the time of the interview a position as Director Dealer Networker Development, and globally responsible for the retailer development. He had during1989 been in the USA and Europe during 1993-1996, and finally in Zurich, Switzerland from 2000 to 2002. The Zurich work position was the same as the current position, as it was a matter of relocating the position from Zurich to Sweden. Mr. Johan Formgren went on the Zurich assignment with his wife and child.

5.1.1 Factors affecting repatriation In this section the factors affecting the repatriation adjustment will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how influencing these factors are according to the management and to the repatriate respondent at Saab.

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Data Presentation

Individual factors: Age was a factor that has little affect on the repatriation according to the management respondent, Mr. Andersson, as the maturity and experience of the repatriate that ease the readjustment can to some extent be ascribed to a longer career and in turn a higher age. But he finished by saying that the success of repatriation is more dependent on personality than age. The repatriate respondent did not see age having an affect on the readjustment, and added that other factors has more affect and is of greater importance. Mr. Andersson, stated time abroad as an affecting factor when the assignment laps over an extensive period of time and where the individual is isolated from the world around. But since Saab does not have international assignments lasting for more than three years, he viewed this factor as less influencing. He further added that it is not the length of the assignment itself that can be negative, but whether or not the individual has performed well and how he or she capitalizes on the knowledge acquired abroad. The repatriate respondent ascribed the factor a higher importance to the readjustment and stated that the repatriate must accept that the longer time away from the country, the harder time he or she is going to have when readjusting since many contacts, especially within the business life, have diminished or decreased. Keeping up with events at home was a determining factor according to Mr. Andersson. The company keeps in close contact with the expatriate during the assignment and offers home leaves and access to the intranet. The assignment is based on an exchange of information and knowledge and this factor was according to Mr. Andersson, of single greatest importance to the repatriation. The repatriate respondent did not see the factor as determining but added that it is very important to follow the political and financial events in the home country as well as being updated both socially and work related. Willingness to relocate internationally was stated as always being a very influencing factor by the repatriate respondent. He continued by stating that this is something that always has to be presented within the individual, but that it does not mean that the individual for that sake has to accept changes for the worse. He added that it is important for the repatriate before the return to state current conditions so that the adjustment occurs before returning home and not after the return. Mr. Anderson stated that Saab does not force anyone to take on an international assignment if not the wish is already there. It is therefore assumed that the individual has the willingness to live and work abroad. All potential candidates receive a debriefing about the terms and Saab further recommends thorough considerations concerning the assignment. Even though unusual, it has happened that individuals have rejected the assignment. Mr. Andersson therefore did not see the factor to be of greater influence. Expatriation adjustment problems was a factor that both Mr. Andersson and Mr. Formgren stated as having little affect on the adjustment back into the home country. The repatriate continued by stating it as affecting but that it is no difference between failing abroad and failing at home. He also stated that the readjustment is not hardened because of an unsatisfactory outcome of the international assignment. The management respondent, Mr. Andersson, further stated that having problems during the international

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Data Presentation

assignment can linger when returning home and thereby create smaller repatriation problems. Expatriation adjustment satisfaction was according to the repatriate respondent, a factor with little impact on the readjustment. Success surely eases the readjustment, which the management respondent supported, but that a failure is also an experience and the individual is not likely to do the same mistake twice. Gender was a factor that neither of the respondents stated as having an affect on the readjustment. Mr. Andersson further said that during his four years in his current position he has sent less than five female expatriates and that he has not seen any signs indicating that female repatriates would have other problems with readjusting than male repatriates. He added that he thought that the number of female repatriates will increase as the organization is working towards sending more females on international assignment. Nationality was according to both Mr. Andersson and Mr. Formgren not having any influence on the readjustment. The management respondent stated that all repatriates returning to their country of origin generate few problems with readjustment. The repatriate respondent stated that he had not experienced any problems generated from nationality or that some nationalities might have more problems readjusting than others. Intention to continue with international assignment together with the individual’s expectation will affect the readjustment to a large extent as the efforts put in by the repatriate to ease the adjustment would thereby be increased according to the management respondent, Mr. Andersson. The repatriate respondent stated that the factor is of little importance to the readjustment as the motivation and efforts made to adjust can be derived from the excitement over the international assignment as well as the intention to continue with international assignments. Self-management was a very influencing factor according to Mr. Andersson and the repatriate respondent. The former further added that it is important for the repatriate to take initiatives and seek out information and solutions and not to expect everything to be presented to him or her. The repatriate respondent stated that if not the individual was taking own actions, the individual would be perceived as passive. It is an important characteristic to posses since there are many decisions that have to be dealt with solely by the individual at Saab or otherwise it is a risk that one is to some degree forgotten. Work and job factors: Role discretion was an affecting factor according to the repatriate respondent as returning to something that the individual could influence and control ease the readjustment. The management respondent claimed that having an autonomous work position is important and influence all employees, independent of previous experiences either back home or abroad. Role conflict was a factor that the management respondent, Mr. Andersson and the repatriate respondent saw as having no influence on the readjustment. The former stated

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Data Presentation

that there has to be a mutual adjustment by both the organization and the individual. Both parties have to see the potential conflicts and work towards a common ground. He further stated that he had not seen any occurrences of role conflicts due to international assignment. The repatriate respondent added that without conflicts, independent of its root, little evolution will occur and that the company has much to gain to explore the differences and perhaps discover a better way to execute tasks. Role negotiations and role decisions was considered as a very important factor by both the management respondent, Ms. Christensen and the repatriate respondent. According to the management respondent, it is important as it decreases the inaccurate expectations. She further stated that the company could not guarantee a specific position, but guaranteed employment upon return. The company knew what an international assignment could bring to the individual career and what the great expectation of the return. Therefore is it vital that if the company is not intending to keep the individual within the organization to discuss these issues during the role negotiations. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and added that in his case little discussion was necessary as he kept his position as Director Dealer Networker development and only shifted country. Mr. Andersson viewed role clarity as a less affecting factor. The management respondent explained that the fact that all expatriates as a minimum keeps their original position within the organization and thereby knows what to expect upon return. The repatriate respondent did not see the factor influencing the readjustment on his part. His role position was made clear long before returning to Sweden so there was no discussion about this issue. Skill utilization was a determining factor according to Mr. Andersson and the repatriate respondent and the later stated that a lack of skill utilization can lead to dissatisfaction. Mr. Andersson added that the purpose of the international assignment is to gain new knowledge and have an exchange of skills, so for the company to block these influences would be considered unwise. Job characteristics was a factor that Mr. Andersson stated as having no influence and is not something that Saab has any experience of such problems or has examined further. Mr. Formgren supported the statement, and added that a higher position will always lead to higher expectations on the individual, better performance and motivation but not due to previous international assignment but due to the higher position itself. The degree of differences between job assignments was a factor of greater importance to the repatriate respondent than to Mr. Andersson. The management respondent acknowledged that it can be an influencing factor but that it is nothing that Saab has seen or investigated. The repatriate respondent stated that differences in job assignments are an affecting factor and dependent on the individual’s personality. A different position that is satisfying for the individual upon return can be seen as a challenge and leading to motivation, and thereby also ease the transition and promote the individual’s ambitions to evolve.

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Data Presentation

Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices was a determining factor according to the repatriate respondent as it is vital not to experience uncertainty concerning the return. Mr. Andersson on the other hand stated that clear policies and practices has little affect on the readjustment of the repatriate. The company does not have specific repatriation practices, although Saab guarantee employment upon return and in the best way both financially and knowledge wise tries to capitalize on the competencies of the repatriates. Although the company evaluates the performance of the repatriate, follows the individual’s development and does the same assessments as when recruiting for a local position, there are no stated practices and policies concerning repatriation or special treatment of repatriates. He though further added that this might be something that has been overlooked by Saab and where the full amount of difficulties connected to repatriation has not been realized. Pre-return training had little or no affect on the repatriation adjustment according to Mr. Andersson and the repatriate respondent. The later had some difficulties with seeing a possible layout of such training and how it can ease adjustment. There were other matters prioritized such as the children’s schooling and social life. The management respondent stated that pre-return training is something that is considered abundant when the repatriate has been abroad for two or three years and has been in constant contact with the home organization. The repatriates are usually not surprised as the large adjustment is upon departure and not when returning. He further stated that the problems of repatriation may not be ignored, but that the resources are located where the largest change is, i.e. the departure. Organization’s attitude was seen as more important by the repatriate respondent than by the management respondent. Mr. Formgren stated that when the company engages itself in the repatriates through pre-return discussions, assisting with move housing and children’s schooling conveys an interest for the well-being of the individuals. Mr. Andersson stated that the success of the repatriation is not solely dependent on the attitude of the organization, but also on the individual. The company does not hold back the repatriates but the organization is used to expatriation and repatriation and has thereby already an attitude within the organization that is accepting, and therefore Mr. Andersson did see this an affecting factor, but not to a larger extent. Company size affected the readjustment to a small extent according to the management respondent, Mr. Andersson, as a larger company will have greater potential to retain the repatriates. The repatriate respondent supported this and meant that in a larger company there will be more routines and experiences about repatriation since more people has been exposed to it and thereby could ease the readjustment. Industry type The repatriate saw industry type as having no affect on repatriation adjustment, and the management respondent added that company size will influence more than industry type.

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Data Presentation

Non-work factors: Social status was considered as a very important factor by Mr. Andersson since the individual’s confidence strengthens abroad and the perception of ones importance is enhanced. The repatriate could therefore take too much space where the colleagues abruptly hands the repatriate a reality check. The repatriate respondent stated that social status has little affect on the readjustment and only when being abroad for an extensive period of time. Culture differences were according to Mr. Andersson and the repatriate respondent less important factors affecting the readjustment. The repatriate respondent stated that it is easier to return to one’s home country than arriving in a foreign country as one is returning to the country where one has been brought up and those images and pictures stays within the individual. The management respondent stated that the organization has not experienced any readjustment problems caused by differences in culture, but at the same time as he acknowledges that it can be the organization that has failed to see the possible problem. Once again the company’s main resources are located at the expatriation stage to assist in cultural differences. Housing conditions was seen as a not affecting factor by Mr. Andersson, as 95 per cent of the repatriates keep their property at home during the international assignment. The company designs the international assignment packages in away to enable the individual to keep the house or apartment. The repatriate respondent stated housing conditions as a determining factor for the readjustment, as it is a strong connection to ones home country and having the housing conditions ready before returning eliminates some uncertainty. The repatriate respondent stated that he sublet his house during the family’s stay abroad. Spouse’s adjustment was also a determining factor according to the repatriate respondent as the adjustment of spouse and children affected his own adjustment. His wife worked during the international assignment and got a new job instantly upon return. He concluded saying that it is of great importance that one feel rooted and not hopeless and that the family life is functioning. Mr. Andersson supported this statement but rated the factor as very important and did not stretch it to be determinant.

5.1.2 Repatriation program In this section the nature of Saab’s repatriation program will be presented divided into steps following the conceptual framework. Forming main purpose and strategic functions before the international assignment is not something that the organization does separately for the repatriation as it was seen as a part of the international assignment contract, and Mr. Andersson further stated that the company might have underestimated the repatriation problems as the repatriates return to their home environments. He continued by stating that the main purpose of the repatriation is to locate a satisfactory position to both the individual as well as the organization. Ms. Christensen added that the line manager that initiates the assignment and selects a capable individual will further have a great interest in bringing back the individual to the local line and utilize the knowledge. Although nothing is on paper

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Data Presentation

concerning policies and practices, Saab is aiming to retain and utilize the repatriates knowledge and skills in the best way and has more informal guidelines. The repatriate respondent stated that he did not receive any formal guidelines or purpose from the company as to how to best handle the return, but he had constant communication with the people in charge of the international assignments. He added that he would have appreciated a checklist to go through to see if something is overlooked. Establish a repatriation team in that meaning is not something that is done at Saab, instead the Attract and Recruit division, the line personnel function and the line managers are all involved in the repatriation and the search for a suitable position for the individual according to Mr. Andersson. The repatriate respondent was in contact with these divisions during the international assignment, but according to him much had to be done him, and where he would have appreciated more help from these departments. Target high risk repatriates was not an issue where resources are especially located according to Mr. Andersson, as the management considered the repatriation as a part of the international assignment and did not have a repatriation team. The repatriate respondent did not express any opinion. Manage expectations with accurate information was an issue that the management respondent, Mr. Andersson suggested as possibly underestimated by the organization as the opinion is that the repatriates are returning to a familiar environment and thereby are the potential difficulties small. The expectations of the repatriate respondent were stated as a smooth transition as he had previous experience of international assignments and repatriation but also because he was returning to the same position only shifting location to his home organization. He continued stating that he had no negative experiences upon return. Constant communication was very important to the organization and the company offers home leaves, access to e-mail and intranet as well as constant contact with ones supervisor in the home organization or a mentor, according to Mr. Andersson. He continued stating that the mentors do not have to work within the organization as long as the repatriate had someone to exchange opinions with. The repatriate respondent agreed with it being important to keep up to date about the home country. He stated that he mostly used the Internet for private use, and the work related information was accessed through his colleagues at the home organization. He added that the company offered him a home leave once a year and that his supervisor at his previous line within the home organization functioned as his mentor as a more neutral person generally is not available. Prepare for home country job and explore the repatriate’s opportunities through career planning discussions start at up to six months before the expiration of the international contract according to Mr. Andersson. Here the line manger who has sent the individual on the assignment initiates a debriefing and career planning discussion, but no formal routines are established for this according to Ms. Christensen. She further added that the Attract and Recruit division is only involved when a suitable position has not been located at the repatriate’s division and here the Attract and Recruit division search the

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Data Presentation

suitable Saab operations and functions for a position. She continued stating that concerning the executive repatriates they are generally recalled to home organization to take on a specific position and tasks. The repatriate respondent supported this and added that for him not many new things were discussed as the position was decided prior to his departure and that he only shifted locations. He further stated that generally within Saab is the role position decided before returning and that the career discussions are with the new supervisor and the supervisor that has initiated the international assignment. He further stated that early career discussions can improve the repatriation as all parties have a long-term perspective of the assignment. He ended stating that at Saab a development career plan is developed where an international assignment can be included, but no discussion concerning career plan upon return is conducted before the international assignment. Financial compensation for housing was according to Mr. Andersson not something that Saab offers at the repatriation and most repatriates has kept their housing. The company offers the repatriate an allocation allowance upon departure and return and an international mobility premium paid to the individual in two parts, one half on departures and the other upon return. The second half is not intended to cover the repatriation but the stay abroad. The repatriate respondent supported this statement, and added the financial help offered by the company was a good start when returning. Facilitate housing conditions was something that Saab according to Mr. Andersson aimed to ease before the departure when designing the international assignment packages in a way that enables the repatriate to keep house or apartment during the assignment and thereby having permanent housing available upon return. The repatriate respondent kept his house and therefore did not experience any difficulties related to this issue, but stated that the housing conditions are important since it offers a security when returning home. Provide support groups are not done at Saab in a formal manner according to Mr. Andersson. The repatriates within the organization know each other well and very few of them have been posted abroad alone, which generated a natural network of repatriates. The family is not offered any support groups after returning home. Mr. Andersson acknowledged that Saab could have underestimated this aspect of the repatriation, as the organization has not experienced any problems with adjustment of repatriates. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and added that since his return was not dramatic and included little change he expressed no need for support group activities. Instead he suggested that the company should be more focused on the family, since their well-being would influence the repatriate’s adjustment. Planning for “downtime” was not done by the organization and there were no policies within Saab stating recommended vacation time prior to assuming the new position at the home organization, according to Mr. Andersson. It was up to the individual to decide and most repatriates began right away and other timed their summer vacation to their return. The repatriate respondent supported this statement and added that he started at once after returning to Sweden but that he got a couple of days off during the move.

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Data Presentation

Appreciate the repatriate and spouse was a self written matter within Saab according to Mr. Andersson, as the repatriate did not come in from the cold after the assignment. There is continuous dialog between the individual and organization, decreasing the drama of return. The individual is well known and the organization has followed its development through the years. The repatriate respondent stated that he perceived himself to be valued by the organization and that his international assignment was highly rated. He added that the company should be more attentive to the issues of the family upon returning since it is important to Saab that he performed well, and to be able to do that his family must be balanced and functioning properly.

5.1.3 Benefits of repatriation In this section the benefits of repatriation will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how important each benefit is to the repatriate and to the management at Saab. This will be done by first present the repatriate’s answers regarding the individual benefits, followed by the management’s answers regarding the organizational benefits. Individual benefits: Career development was a very important benefit according to the repatriate interviewee as the discussion during the stay abroad facilitated a deeper understanding of the new knowledge of the individual as well as what changes and opportunities had occurred in the home organization. Promotion was a benefit of little importance to the repatriate respondent since the goal for him when accepting the international assignment was not to get promoted and climb the corporate ladder. Instead he thought it to be challenging and a good experience. Perceives themselves to be valued by the company was according to the repatriate respondent, an important benefit of repatriation as well as prior to the international assignment. Each time that the individual perceives themselves as valued by the company, the repatriate’s self-confidence is strengthened. Make use of the new international skills and knowledge was a very important benefit according to the repatriate respondent as the discussion before returning was aiming to examine the individual’s skills and knowledge and to figure out how to put them to the best use possible for the company, and thereby increasing the individual’s satisfaction. Faster integration and minimize frustration, was stated as a great benefit by the respondent and he added that it is important to eliminate the different factors affecting the readjustment. To minimize the frustration the organization and the individual have to work towards a functioning family and work position.

Job satisfaction was an important benefit derived from a successful repatriation according to the repatriate respondent. He stated that job satisfaction is of course important in all situations independent of previous foreign assignments.

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Data Presentation

Closing the gap between the expectations and reality was the greatest benefit for the individual when the repatriation was successful according to the repatriate respondent as it minimizes the misunderstandings. Organizational benefits: Integrate culturally and organizationally was a less important benefit according to Mr. Andersson as the constant communication and update give little need for examining the differences in culture and organization and how to melt the two together. The management respondent, Mr. Andersson stated closing the gap between expectations and reality as an important benefit. This is done through pre-return discussions where the changes and experiences of both parties are discussed to diminish the potential difficulties of readjusting to the home country. Developing global managers for competitive advantage was another of the benefits that Mr. Andersson stated as one of the more important for the organization as it is the basic idea of international assignments at Saab to develop the company and let it grow. Retain and ensure valuable skills was the greatest benefit for the organization drawn from readjusted repatriates according to Ms. Christensen as that is the main purpose of the repatriation program. Attracting potential expatriates for the future was an important benefit that Ms. Christensen stated to be accurate today as she came across applicants turning to Saab mainly because they are seeking good international experience and a chance to grow. Mr. Andersson stated return on human investment as an important benefit since failing to place the individual in a satisfactory position will lead to a risk of loosing the investment to a competitor. Developing a pool of global knowledge was seen as a less important benefit as the organization is globally oriented with many nationalities in management positions and thereby already masters and constantly renews the pool without any special concern for the repatriates, stated by Mr. Andersson. Performance efficiency was according to Mr. Andersson also a less important benefit as the company does not see the return of a repatriate as something extraordinary and expects all employees to have high performance efficiency. Job loyalty and commitment increases every time the organization cares for its employees according to Ms. Christensen, and as the aim of the repatriation program is to retain the repatriates and tie them closer to the organization, was it a very important benefit according to the management respondent.

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Data Presentation

5.2 Scania Scania is one of the worlds leading manufacturers of heavy trucks, buses and engines, and is today a global corporation, operating in more than 100 countries. Scania goes back until 1891 when Scania was established. Since the late 1940’s, Scania has represented Volkswagen in Sweden. Together with Volkswagen AG, Scania owns the importing company; Volkswagen Sweden, which also markets Audi, Porsche, Seat and Skoda. Today Scania employs 26,900 people and approximately 95 percent of its output is sold outside of Sweden. Production facilities are located in four European countries and at two locations in Latin America. (www.scania.se) At Scania we interviewed Mr. Björn Linderbrandt, Personnel manager responsible for the marketing division at Scania Södertälje. We further interviewed Mr. Bo Hermansson. He had returned from a five-year contract in Austria from 1997 to 2002. Before that he had also been in France for three years between 1991 and 1994. Bo Hermansson was currently the manager for economy and administration at the company’s marketing department. He had the same position during the international assignment in Austria. During both of the international assignments his wife had accompanied him. The management respondent reported that Scania sent 30 to 40 employees on international assignments every year. These assignments usually lasted for two to three years, with the possibility to extend the stay one or two years. The majority of international assignments at Scania were located in Brazil and Argentina. The production-oriented assignments were mainly located in France and Holland, and the market-oriented assignments were more evenly spread over Asia, Africa and Europe. Scania had no assignments in the U.S. The turnover of repatriates at the company was the same as the other employees.

5.2.1 Factors affecting repatriation In this section the factors affecting the repatriation adjustment will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how influencing these factors are according to the management and the repatriate respondents at Scania. Individual factors: The management respondent stated age as an affecting factor as younger repatriates tended to more easily adjust and were more flexible in terms of in what kind of field the new position was located. He further stated that older repatriates had higher expectations, a smaller scope of acceptable potential positions upon return, and were reluctant to try positions in fields new to them. The repatriate respondent stated that age was affecting but not an important factor on repatriation. Time abroad was a factor that was of some importance according to the management respondent as the company acknowledges the differences between being abroad for two years and for five years. More has changed in the home environment and the repatriate’s frame of reference is no longer accurate. The repatriate respondent put more emphasis on the time abroad and viewed it as a determinant factor of the repatriation adjustment since longer time spent abroad will change the individual’s behavior and will make the individual separated from the home country. Longer time abroad and the adjustment to

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the new culture and ways of doing things promote a feeling of not belonging in the home country. He had more difficulties returning from the last assignment abroad as he stayed for a longer period of time. The repatriate stated that what he tends to keep closest to himself is the latest years and experiences in his life, which in his case was five years in Austria, even though he was born and raised in Sweden. Both respondents stated that keeping up with events at home was something that was affecting the repatriation to a high degree but was not a determinant for the adjustment. The management respondent saw it as a positive act to keep up to date and avoiding “coming out of isolation” when returning to the home country and organization. The repatriate respondent viewed this factor as a lower degree of importance than the management respondent and stated the factor to be influencing, but not critical for a successful repatriation. The willingness to relocate internationally was a factor that was considered to influence by the management respondent. If the repatriate is open-minded from the beginning towards an assignment that he or she never has done before, it indicates that the readjustment will be easier. The repatriate respondent meant that the adjustments of all kinds would of course be facilitated if the individual was flexible and adaptable. He further added that it is up to the individual to have the will to adjust to different environments. Expatriation adjustment problems were a factor that both respondents found as affecting to a great degree. Poor performance on the international assignment is noted at head quarters and there are lesser divisions willing to take on such an individual and the repatriate is then offered only leftover positions. Expatriation satisfaction had according to the management respondent a positive correlation with a good performance gaining credits abroad and the possibility to come home and be offered a better position. The repatriate respondent supported the statement, and added that it was not much of how it went on assignment directly, but the position offered as a result of the performance that affected the adjustment and how the company supported the re-entry. Gender was not an affecting factor according to the management respondent although they sent mainly male expatriates on assignments because Scania operate in an engineering industry and the majority of engineers are male. He further explained that the selection of expatriate was not based on gender, whether or not the position was held by Scania or by a company partner. The repatriate respondent stated gender to have some affect on the repatriation adjustment, as he saw females as being more adaptable and therefore could have an easier adjustment than males. Nationality affected the repatriation adjustment to a large extent according to the repatriate respondent. Americans generally has difficulties to adjust to both the new environment on the assignment as well as upon return to home country. They seldom learn the language of the host country. People from smaller countries tend to be more

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adaptable and more open-minded than Americans, and more humble of the task of correctly executing something in a new environment. The management respondent stated that nationality had no affect on the repatriation and no experience of such problems derived from nationality had surfaced within the company. Intention to continue with international assignment had a small affect on the repatriation adjustment according to the management respondent, but he admitted that a repatriate intending to continue with international assignment was more prone to show ambition and interest in the international assignment. The repatriate respondent stated that this factor was very important to the readjustment. If the repatriate intends to be sent on other international assignments he or she must perform well and consequently the repatriate will be more motivated to put more effort into the readjustment. Self-management was seen as a determinant factor by both respondents. The repatriate respondent stated that the will of the repatriate to influence one’s future and whether or not the repatriate stagnate during the assignment eased the repatriation adjustment as it becomes a continuous process. The management respondent added that the repatriates are often passive and expect the company to offer a complete solution. Mr. Lindebrandt felt that more responsibility should be placed on the repatriate. The repatriate has to utilize his or her network and promote the experiences and competitive advantages of him or her to angle for open positions. The repatriates are not benefited at Scania by passiveness and waiting for someone to do their career planning for them. Work and job factors: Role discretion was a factor that was considered by both respondents to be very influencing where the repatriate might find him or herself in a less offensive and independent role in the home organization. The repatriate respondent further stated that he had the right timing and luck when he returned as he was offered a similar position at the home organization and kept much of his independence. The management respondent added that in Sweden the employees to a larger extent generally has to compromise and thereby it might not be enough to be offered a management position. Role conflict was not something that neither of the respondents saw as an affecting factor, but according to the management respondent many of the repatriates could experience some surprises upon return. The repatriate respondent supported this and stated that there are differences between working abroad and at home, but yet again it is something that the individual has to be equipped to handle and is something that is done on departure and on return. Role negotiation and role decisions were factors that were affecting the adjustment according to the management respondent. In connection to a home-leave at least six but no more than twelve months prior to the end of the international assignment, the company initiates a discussion concerning the future of the expatriate in the company. This is done to detect the interests and ambitions of the expatriate and take them into consideration. This could not be done to far ahead as the organization is ever changing and the agreed position might not exist when the repatriate reported for duty. The

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repatriate respondent added that the repatriate forgets the characteristic of the position if it is done to far in advance. The repatriate respondent continued by acknowledging the difficulties when going abroad and not knowing what is going to be offered upon return. In larger companies the international assignment is a big step forward and upon return the repatriate has to stand in line and disappear to some degree. It is difficult and something that each and every one of the repatriates must find a way to cope with. Role clarity was according to the management respondent a positively influencing factor to know what position the repatriate was to fill upon return. It is not realistic to establish the new role more than three months ahead and it is about that time the management views the alternative positions available and selects one, so that the majority of the repatriates at Scania know exactly what their new position involves before they returns home. The management respondent meant that the international assignment has provided the individual with a higher position than the company might be able to offer when the repatriate is returning to the home organization, generating dissatisfaction. The repatriate respondent viewed this factor as having much influence on the success of the repatriation. He stated it to be a problem for the repatriate if the position is unclear before returning home and that the situation will cause uncertainty. But he further admitted that the company cannot create positions only to fit the individual and that is something that the repatriate has to be prepared of. Skill utilization was according to both respondents a critical factor and connected to the offered position upon return to home organization. The repatriate respondent stated that it is always about getting the right assignment upon return and the ability to develop one’s career. This does not have to imply a higher position in the hierarchy, as it is more about having interesting and challenging tasks at hand. The management respondent added that the differences in countries and continents affect the possibilities to use the newly acquired skills. It is easier to apply knowledge gained from an assignment in Europe than in Asia and Africa because of the considerable differences in standards, structure and people. A lot of the repatriates returning outside from Europe may not be able to utilize their knowledge to the same extent and the assignment become an exciting experience inapplicable to the home environment, generating dissatisfaction. Job characteristics were factors that did not have any influence on the repatriation adjustment according to both respondents. All positions have human contact whether or not they are of technical or commercial nature and the probability of sending a too young or newly graduated individual on an international assignment do not exist due to lack of experience. Furthermore, the management respondent added that all promotions lead to more effort and motivation from the employee, and has nothing to do with previous international assignment. Degree of differences between job assignments was a factor that both respondents found highly influencing. There are generally differences between assignments and usually the position abroad has been positive while the position at home is seen as more negative change and thereby has a negative effect on the repatriation and creates dissatisfaction.

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Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices was a factor that the management respondent assigned more importance to than the repatriate respondent. The management respondent stated that clear guidelines ease the repatriation adjustment. All expatriates that are sent out by Scania are informed about what is to be expected upon return, but somehow this information is distorted during the assignment and the repatriate has difficulties with absorbing the guidelines drafted before departure. Although there are clear guidelines some dissatisfaction is generated as the repatriate has developed and changed during the assignment. The management respondent saw to a large extent it to be the reason why almost every repatriate feels some form of disappointment upon return. The repatriate respondent supported this when he stated that Scania has guidelines for repatriation, but did not feel that the nice intentions always were coherent with the reality that faces the repatriates. When the repatriate respondent returned from his latest assignment he got no attention from the personnel department, which he thought was strange as it was a lot discussed about repatriation within the organization but little was done. The colleagues were the ones who asked about the international assignment and his experiences, and he felt that the personnel department was not the right “debrifer” for him. The repatriate respondent only saw pre-return training as a factor that could have a positive affect on the repatriation adjustment as seminars for those returning from a country with a very different culture than the home country. He further stated it as a good intention but unnecessary to put too much time and effort into it. Supporting this, the management respondent stated that the pre-departure training could have positive affects and enhance the understanding of what was happening upon return, but was nothing that was done by Scania. Organization’s attitude was a factor that the management respondent saw as less influencing factor as it was in the company’s interest to capitalize on the investment and thereby was it not necessary to work on organizational attitude. The repatriate respondent stated that the factor was of importance if the company failed to meet the repatriate’s expectations of how he or she should be greeted upon return. If the company failed to communicate the expected level of appreciation, the repatriate will have negative perceptions of the organization and the adjustment will be more difficult. Company size was an uncertain factor according to both respondents. The repatriate respondent acknowledged that in a smaller company an international assignment might be a bigger event, but at the same time could the job functions be restricted. No one of the respondents had experienced it affecting the repatriation adjustment. Industry type: Neither of the respondents have a clear opinion of how industry type will affect the readjustment and how high influence the factor might have. Non-work factors: Social status was a very influencing factor according to both respondents. The management respondent meant that there were great difficulties with social differences in host and home country. The repatriate respondent stated that the standard in the host

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countries he had been in was generally the same as is Sweden, but at the same time he did lose the high position, some responsibilities and authority, together with parking space, company car and personal secretary when he returned to Sweden, and ended by saying that every individual is affected by these status attributes. Cultural differences was a determinant factor according to the repatriate respondent, especially for repatriates returning from a country geographically and culturally far from Sweden such as Latin America, which will have difficulties adjusting back to the home country and organization. This can depend on the way things are done and the loss of housekeeping and chauffeurs. The management respondent stated that the factor definitely affected the adjustment since generally there are more cultural differences between countries the further apart they are geographically. Scania provides one home leave ticket a year to all expatriates, but the expatriates stationed in Korea do not have the same ability to visit the home country outside of the company subsidized home leave as the expatriates stationed in Europe, due to costs and time loss. This leads to the fact that the expatriate becomes a part of the host country culture and appreciate part of the culture and discovers that some aspects are better in the host country than in the home country, and shut him or herself off the home country, probably increasing the difficulties of adjusting back to the home country and organization. Housing conditions could create a big problem according to the repatriate respondent when the expatriate sells their property before departure and saves the money abroad during the assignment, not taking into account the potential increase in property prizes in Sweden during their absence. Realizing that one cannot acquire a house of the same standard with the existing funds can have a negative affect on the adjustment. The management respondent stated that the compensation that is awarded expatriates at Scania enabled him to keep his property in the home country during the assignment. Some sublets their houses, some sell, but the main part keeps their houses as a base in life. What they decide is influenced by their general living situation, the trade conditions, house prices and whether or not any children live at home. Spouses’ adjustment was highly valued by Scania and seen as a determinant factor in the repatriation adjustment by the management respondent. The spouse and family is of importance to the adjustment both outside and inside the home country and functions as social support to the repatriate. The repatriate respondent also stated that the spouse’s adjustment as important to the repatriate’s adjustment. He had his wife with him on the last assignment in Austria and she adjusted well to the new environment much thanks to that she also had employment during the assignment, which eased the adjustment for him and gave him support upon return and someone to share experiences with. This was a luxury that he acknowledged not all expatriates experienced, as some countries do not issue working permits to spouses of arriving expatriates. He also added that sending out single expatriates is not optimal as the risk of isolation in the host country and host organization is higher. Isolation can lead to pre-mature return of the expatriate to the home organization.

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5.2.2 Repatriation program In this section the nature of Scania’s repatriation program will be presented divided into steps following the conceptual framework. Forming main purpose and strategic functions before the international assignment was not something that was established by the company neither for the expatriation nor for the repatriation according to the management respondent. The expatriation program at Scania deal with preparation for culture, language, schools and jobs in the foreign country and the management respondent stated that not all of the same aspects are relevant to the repatriation and therefore does Scania not have an equally developed program for the repatriation as for the expatriation. The management respondent continued declaring that the purpose of the organization is to bring the individual back to a satisfactory position and enable the best adjustment possible for the repatriate to the best of Scania’s abilities even though no formal guidelines for this exist. The repatriate respondent stated that he did not participated in the forming of a purpose and strategic functions of repatriation program, and saw no greater meaning of it. Establishing a repatriation team was done within Scania who have a function consisting of five persons working to uphold the contact with the individual and the practical issues faced upon departure and return. The repatriate stated that he did not perceive any need to contact the repatriation team. Target high risk repatriates was not something that the company allocated resources to according to the management respondent and he added that occasionally repatriates had turned the management’s attention to the readjustment problems and the fact that they needed more company assistance. The management in this situation considered what these difficulties depended on and which were relevant and the management respondent added that much of the dissatisfaction of these repatriates were based on the lower position that they had been offered upon return. The repatriate respondent failed to form an opinion concerning targeting high-risk repatriates. Manage expectations with accurate information was not stated as a task outlined and performed specially by the organization according to the management respondent. The continuous contact with the repatriate kept the individual and organization updated and decreased the inaccurate expectations of the parties. The repatriate respondent meant that his previous experience of international assignments contributed to a smoother transition in the latest readjustment. He was aware of that when returning to the home country, when an individual tends to be full of excitement over the experience of the international assignment, which people in his surroundings at home showed little interest for. Constant communication was very important according to the management respondent and the company offered company newspapers, e-mail, and websites. The company did not offer a formal mentorship program; instead it was up to the individual to get a sponsor to keep contact with during the assignment. He added that the company offers one home leave a year and additional home week twice a year for some expatriates. The management respondent concluded that the best communication tools are face-to-face

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interaction, telephone and letters. The repatriates were not isolated from Scania during the stay abroad and the individual got frequent visits form people within the Scania organization according to the management respondent. All of these sources of information are mainly work related and to supply social update did the company send some newspapers and magazines. The repatriate respondent stated that he occasionally talked to certain individuals and the personnel department at home, and that he had some form of mentor during the assignment. He was back at home once a year and felt that the contact was sufficient. Prepare for home country job and explore repatriate’s opportunities was according to the management respondent that the repatriates were guaranteed employment upon return at the division that the individual belonged to prior to the international assignment and which also is responsible for the repatriate, initiated a career discussion where future position was one of the topics. These career discussions were initiated no longer than twelve months in advance and through these Scania strived to prior to the return locate a satisfactory job position for the repatriate. The new position was already assigned to the repatriate respondent long before the return and added that he had not returned if the position had not been established. The repatriate respondent stated that he had been in contact with the personnel department but did own research to find a satisfactory work, which led to the position he had now. Finally he declared that because he extended his assignment, many great positions might have passed him by, and what position the repatriate is offered upon return is dependent of what vacant positions are available upon the moment of return. Financial compensation is provided by the organization in the form of a “return move package” according to the management respondent, as well as in some cases apartments and that the company pays for the move. He added that generally it is not the monetary compensations that is superior, but the emotional experiences of the repatriate and his or her family. The repatriate respondent stated that he had received a “return move package and that the company could provide assistance for housing if so was necessary, but was nothing that he used. Facilitate housing conditions was according to the management respondent occasionally done by locating apartments but no houses, unless Scania has a development project where the company is selling houses. The repatriate respondent had sublet his house during the international assignment and therefore did he not experience any difficulties concerning housing, but claims that keeping the house during the international assignment will facilitate upon return. He also adds that Scania provided free housing abroad and it was up to the individual to decide what to do with the housing at home. The company advises the individual not to sell as prices can skyrocket and this will put a “bad will” image in Scania according to the repatriate respondent. Provide support groups at Scania is only done through the repatriation seminar held once every six months according to the management respondent and he further stated that the personnel department is available for those repatriates that want more support. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and added that he and his wife was invited

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but they did not see it as necessary to attend. Planning for “down time” differs throughout the organization according to the management respondent as the local division and the individual decide if the repatriate is needed at once or not. He further stated that Scania does not have established guidelines for when it is optimal for the repatriate to start his or her new job. There is no evident adjustment period to consider according to the repatriate respondent and that it is to some extent dependent on the type of position in question. He added that he started working at once without any “down time” and he did not see that as a disadvantage. Appreciate the repatriate and spouse was according to the management respondent difficult but important to convey to all repatriates. Some are satisfied and the company has managed to meet their expectations, but with others, the company has failed to convey their appreciation all the way through, often dependent on the over assessment of ones importance to the company because the individual has been “a larger” person abroad, and when this occurs nothing the company does is enough according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent declared that he felt that his performance abroad was appreciated by Scania and that he has had been lucky. He ended by stating that he experienced good support, but he did not consider too extensive support to be necessary upon return and that Scania did not live up to their intentions.

5.2.3 Benefits of repatriation In this section the benefits of repatriation will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how important the benefit is to the repatriate and to the management at Scania. This will be done by first present the repatriate’s answers regarding the individual benefits, followed by the management’s answers regarding the organizational benefits. Individual benefits: Career development was stated by the repatriate respondent as a very important benefit of the adjustment back to home country as he explained that his current position was offered to him on the merit of the international assignment. Promotion was also a benefit of great importance as he today held a more challenging work position with increased salary and enjoyed a more privileged existence due to his foreign assignment. Perceived to be valued by the company was viewed by the repatriate interviewee as a great benefit and that Scania was attentive towards that the experience was going to be positive. Make use of knowledge and skills is declared by the repatriate respondent to be of high importance. Being exposed to new situations and environments, and utilizing the new experiences increase the individual’s confidence and competitive advantage. Faster integration and minimize frustration was stated as a less important benefit and the

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repatriate respondent expressed little understanding of how a repatriation program would facilitate a faster integration and minimize frustration. The individual should have the capability to adjust to each new situation as they occur. Job satisfaction was according to the respondent a less important benefit withdrawn from repatriation since he saw that a successful repatriation will not necessarily lead to a satisfactory work position. Thereby he meant that the job satisfaction benefit is more dependent on the appointing process of positions than the readjustment to the home country. Closing the gap between expectations and reality was an important benefit according to the repatriate interviewed. He further stated that it is important for the individual to possess realistic expectations of the return. Organizational benefits: Integrate culturally and organizationally was claimed by the management respondent to be of great importance. He explained further that integrating the repatriate's international knowledge into the organization is a way to enhance the company structure by utilizing the new multicultural knowledge and skills in a correct manner. Closing the gap between expectations and reality was suggested as a potential benefit of the successful adjustment back to home country by the management respondent interviewed. He further added that inaccurate expectations by the individual upon return is probably one reason to why the repatriate can express dissatisfaction. The respondent stated developing global managers for competitive advantage as having potentially great importance in general, although he expressed no clear opinion of why it would be a benefit for Scania. Retain and ensure valuable skills were acknowledged by the management as a significantly important benefit depending on the value the company assigned the repatriate’s international skills. He further explained that it is important for the company to retain the knowledge within the organization to promote company and individual growth. Attract future expatriates was an important benefit as a successful repatriation generated a good reputation on the labor market as an appreciative employer. He added that his experience has shown a general satisfaction with Scania’s international assignments among repatriates. Return on investment was claimed by the management interviewee to be an important benefit of the readjustment. He explained that the investment generally is not put in the individual and instead into the assignment and therefore the value generated from the investment is contained in the structure and knowledge at the host country organization. Developing pool of international knowledge was viewed as very important benefit and achieved when the repatriate is debriefed and the organization discovers the obtainable

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skills and knowledge within the individual and utilize that to build the company. Performance efficiency was assigned little importance generated from successful repatriation as the management respondent stated that the company’s approach is not to spoil the repatriates to obtain efficiency and that the individuals generally do have great coping capabilities and strong personalities. By this he meant that the company does not benefit from attempts to manipulate efficiency. Job loyalty and commitment was viewed in the same manner as performance efficiency, meaning that job loyalty and commitment should not be the optimal benefit of repatriation adjustment to strive for according to the management respondent.

5.3 Pharmacia Pharmacia Corporation is one of the world’s ten largest pharmaceutical companies. Pharmacia’s core activities are developing, market, and sell prescription pharmaceuticals, which in year 2001 stood for 86,5 percent of the sales. In 1995, Pharmacia & Upjohn was formed through the merger of Pharmacia AB and The Upjohn Company. In April 2000 Pharmacia & Upjohn merged with Monsanto Company. Pharmacia Corporation has 43,000 employees placed in 100 countries and headquarters are located in New Jersey. In Sweden, 3600 persons are employed and the departments are located in Stockholm, where the headquarters for Sweden are situated, Uppsala, Strängäs, and Helsingborg. In 2001 the total sale in Sweden of prescription pharmaceuticals was around 2.0 billion SEK. On July 15, 2002 Pfizer submitted an offer on Pharmacia of 60 billion US dollars, where, if the shareholders approve the agreement, Pharmacia and Pfizer will together be the largest pharmaceutical company in the world. (www.pharmacia.se & www.pharamcia.com) The interviews were conducted with Mr. Tommy Gustavsson, Competition Benefit Manager, in charge of the international personnel exchange within Pharmacia and with Mr. Lars Ryding, IT manager who has recently returned from a two and a half years assignment in the USA, where he went with his wife and two children between 2000 and 2002. He was working as a project leader before the assignment as well as during the assignment and has no previous international experiences. The management respondent states when sending an individual for a longer international assignment, the tenure is often between two to five years. From 1995 and forward, the number of Pharmacia expatriates sent out has been around 50 individuals per year. But during the last two years the number has dramatically decreased since the R&D-department has moved outside of Sweden. The trend is instead moving toward short-term assignment because it is easier, cheaper, more rational, and implying less changes for the individual. Pharmacia is mostly sending expatriates to the USA (60-70 percent), then Italy, Belgium, Great Britain, South America, France, and Japan, who has grown extensively the last years. The management respondent ends by estimating that the cost of an international assignment per individual is around three to four times more than an equal employment in Sweden.

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5.3.1 Factors affecting repatriation In this section the factors affecting the repatriation adjustment will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how influencing these factors are according to the management and to the repatriate respondent at Pharmacia. Individual factors: Age was something that the respondents did not see as an influencing factor on its own. The repatriate respondent meant that personality is a more affecting factor and also the family conditions related to age. For example if the repatriate’s children are of a younger age or not living at home at all, has an affect on the readjustment and usually the repatriate is correlating with the age of the children. Time abroad was a very important factor according to both respondents, where the management respondent stated that it is more difficult to return after an extensive stay abroad as more adjustment to the country, culture and the changes in Sweden is needed. The repatriate respondent further added that upon return the negative issues are focused on and things that work well are not noticed at all. The management respondent meant that the longer time away from the home country the more changes in the individual’s behavior have occurred and thereby the problems upon return have increased. Keeping up with events at home was of great important to the readjustment according to both respondents. The management respondent declared that to what extent derives from the expatriate’s personality and ambitions. An extrovert individual aiming to become a part of the foreign culture does often not focus on what goes on at home, compared to the more homebound individual that takes in everything that he or she can find concerning current events in Sweden. He further continued by stating that the interest in keeping up with current events in Sweden is deteriorating as the assignment continues. The repatriate respondent also stated that prior to departure Pharmacia strongly recommended at least one home leave a year, and continued contact and dialog with ones superior at home. Willingness to relocate internationally was seen by the repatriate respondent to be necessary to succeed with both the assignment as well as the readjustment back home. The individual must possess flexibility and adaptability in a way that he or she takes initiatives to handle new situations. The management respondent supported the statement to some degree but did not really view this factor as affecting as the repatriate respondent, but acknowledges its influence. Expatriation adjustment problems were stated by both respondents as an affecting factor, but both respondents meant that even if there have been expatriation adjustment problems, these are of minor importance as long as the organization is able to take care of the repatriate when returning home. Expatriation adjustment satisfaction was stated as an affecting factor by both respondents as good intentions for the return is vital. The repatriate respondent stated that not being offered a satisfactory position or any position at all will have a negative affect on the

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readjustment and then it does not matter if one has failed or succeeded abroad. The issue is whether or not the individual feels well taken care of by the company. The management respondent supported this as he stated that Pharmacia aims at a tight process where problems are detected early and false expectations are corrected. Gender did not have any affect on the readjustment according to the management respondent. Pharmacia is a company with a majority of women and the management respondent suggested that gender related difficulties might be more prominent, but nothing that was shown within the company. The repatriate respondent stated that gender has a small affect on the readjustment but that it is more influenced by personality. He continued discussing whether or not feminine or masculine characteristics are a part of the personality, and came to the conclusion that extrovert personality with an extensive social network eases the readjustment. Nationality was a factor the management respondent ascribed to have no affect on the readjustment, as Pharmacia operates in a multicultural environment. The repatriate respondent supported this statement and added that it is dangerous to generalize nationalities in that way as individuals differ. Intention to continue with international assignment was an affecting factor according to both respondents. The repatriate respondent stated that the adjustment is eased since the individual puts more effort into showing his or her interest and commitment to the organization. The management respondent was more leaning towards the fact that the repatriate might be less motivated to readjust if one wants to go abroad again. Both respondents considered self-management as a determinant factor. According to the repatriate respondent much is dependent on the individual’s initiatives and ambitions as the return cannot solemnly be handled by the organization and many things are up to the individual to get done. The management respondent supported the statement and meant that it is important that the individual has his or her own ability to ease the repatriation. Work and job factors: Role discretion was a factor that both respondents’ stated as having an affect on the readjustment. The management respondent stated it to be influencing and where an independent roll within the organization makes it easier for a repatriate who has grown a lot during the assignment and assimilated to the new culture and working environment. The repatriate respondents supported this but consider the factor of having higher influence, and added that as the repatriate return he or she has to register at a number of Swedish institutions, acquirer a car and housing, and everything else to get the life on track. This is time consuming and a flexible and independent position eases this process. He further continued by stating that if the repatriate is uncertain about returning, an independent role might leave him or her questioning the purpose of being in the country instead of working. Uncertainty is best dealt through activity and strict guidelines. Role conflict was an affecting factor and something that one must be aware of according to both respondents. The repatriate respondent stated it as important for the company to

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inform their repatriates of potential conflicts due to altered behavior of both parties. He further stated that he had altered his working behavior during his assignment although he worked closely with Swedes and he had not experienced any conflicts upon return. The management respondent acknowledged that the culture has an affect on the individual’s behavior, but the individual has to assimilate to the local conditions. Role negotiations and role decisions were very important factors according to both respondents. A constant dialog is important and six months prior to the return the discussion concerning future position, division and roles initiated as a form of goal orientation according to the management respondent. He continued by stating that it is important for the company to not neglect the repatriate and his or her expectations and see to the best alternative for both the company as well as the individual. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and added that the factor eliminates uncertainty for the repatriate. He further explained that the extensive discussions with his Swedish and American supervisors once a week made the return much secure for him. Role clarity was stated as a very affecting factor by the management respondent and thereby not putting the repatriate in a “holding pattern”, but the position also has to be a satisfied position for the repatriate. The repatriate respondent supported the statement where role clarity increases the safety for the repatriate and conveys an interest of the individual. Both respondents acknowledged skill utilization as a very important factor. The management respondent had experienced that if the company fails to acknowledge the new skills and knowledge of the repatriate and does not offer a challenging role, the repatriate tends to look elsewhere for some other company to meet his or her expectations. The repatriate respondent also saw this as a form of acknowledgement from the company of the time and effort the individual had spent abroad. Job characteristics had little affects on the readjustment according to the management respondents. The organization mostly operates in a task oriented manner rather than consumer oriented. He further added that being abroad is not a guarantee for promotion and that is something that the repatriates are aware of and is therefore not so affected by that. The repatriate respondent stated no opinion about the issue. The degree of differences between job assignments is not stated as important factors by any of the respondents. The repatriate respondent means that the adjustment is more dependent on what kind of role the repatriate is offered upon return, than the differences between the foreign and domestic roles. The management respondent supports the statement and means that it is not actually the differences in work assignments that matter, but how the work behavior differs between the countries. Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices was stated as a determinant factor by the repatriate respondent as it is of great importance that the company takes good care of the repatriate and to show this he suggested that the company has a checklist presented to the

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individual enabling him or her to more easily see what administrative measures necessary to ease the readjustment and also a structured program to decrease the repatriate’s uncertainties. The management respondent stated that clear policies are less influencing for readjustment, instead it is the conditions of the work position offered to the repatriate that influence more. Pre-departure training was important to the readjustment according to the management respondent and was where the practical issues such as jobs and daycare were involved. The role held by the management respondent is to coordinate these and work with consulting agencies offering services such as taxation advice and daycare. The repatriate respondent stated that neither he nor his wife have experienced any reverse culture shock and therefore would not have benefited from any pre-return training. But he did acknowledge at a repatriate returning from a culture with larger differences might benefit more. Organization’s attitude was a factor that the management respondents ascribed as having less influence upon return. The management respondent stated that since Pharmacia is operating in an international market place there is already an attitude within the organization towards international assignment and working across boarders, so this factor is not something that is reflected on. The repatriate respondent claimed this factor to be of influence since the attitudes conveyed from the company affect the repatriate’s attitude and motivation. Company size was declared by the management respondent as an affecting factor since a larger company has an established administration handling the issues of repatriation. Much of the tax advising and language training before the assignment is outsourced to local consultancies. The repatriate respondent did not support the statement and added that the large amount of experience within the companies is not always derived from the size of the company. The size of the company is inferior to the organization’s attitude and the sent signals to the individuals. Industry type was a factor that neither of the respondent had any opinion or idea about or its influence on repatriation adjustment. Non-work factors: Social status was an important factor according to the management respondent. Some luxury can be experienced through housing, cars and social packages with country clubs and churches. He added that managers have higher status in some countries and other countries might offer better educational systems and the shock of returning can make the individual consider Sweden as a short stop on the way out in the world again. The repatriate respondent did not see social status as an affecting factor as he had not experienced any differences in social status since USA provided him with a similar status at home. He further added that difficulties adjusting to differences in status can depend on the individual’s native origin. The culture differences were a factor of great importance to the readjustment, as a larger

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difference requires a larger adjustment of the repatriate according to both respondents. Unconsciously or consciously, the repatriate respondent had adjusted to the foreign culture. Housing conditions was according to both respondents an important factor as the perception of the return might be negatively affected by the repatriate if he or she returns to a small temporary apartment or hotel when the housing conditions prior to the departure contain a large house. The repatriate respondent had not experienced any difficulties as the family sublet their apartment during the assignment. Spouses’ adjustment was a determinant factor according to both respondents. An international success is to a large extent dependent on a functioning family life according to the management respondent. He further acknowledged that the company today might not have recognized the importance of the family to its full extent. The aspect of the spouse's willingness to relocate internationally and what occurs when the spouse is still unemployed after six months at home, are aspects that the company could benefit from examining further. The family together with housing and social life ties into the well-being of the repatriate. The repatriate respondent stated that the family and its adjustment are very important, since the family could function as support upon return. The spouse's ability to get work is also a further issue that will affect the readjustment for the entire family. For the repatriate respondent there was also another issue to consider upon return. Since his wife had given birth to a child during the international assignment there were many practical family related things to deal with such as day care, and parental coverage.

5.3.2 Repatriation program In this section the nature of Pharmacia’s repatriation program will be presented divided into steps following the conceptual framework. Forming main purpose and strategic functions before the international assignment is something that is done as an entire process at Pharmacia, before, during, and after the international assignment but nothing is established solemnly for the repatriation according to the management respondent. There is not much focus on discussing what the international assignment can generate to the repatriate prior to the individual’s return. Pharmacia is aiming to strengthen the organization with competence as the cost of the international assignments fall on local operations. The repatriate is an attractive employee and one that the company has to retain and keep from straying to the competition. It is stated that to maintain close contact with the home country it is important that a contract is drawn with the home country stating some form of career responsible supervisor at the home organization. He continued stating that these contracts usually work the first year abroad before the home organization is altered so much that the particular supervisor is no longer available. The repatriate is then presented to new names at the home organization and the motivation to keep the communication decreases. The management respondent stated that there are clear guidelines and overall policy describing what can be expected to happen, when, how, and what the individual is entitled to. Repatriation is concerning the softer values and the best way to utilize the individual. He ended by stating that it is not enough to only present a checklist to the repatriate, meaning that it is

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important that the company conveys interest in the repatriate, and one way of doing this is through a formal repatriation program. Pharmacia does not establish a repatriation team that solemnly handles issues concerning repatriation. One of the management respondent's tasks is to introduce new career managers to the individual as the organization is ever changing and together with the local personnel managers his assignment is to supervise these changes. The division at home is the individual's counter part in discussions and if the division is dissolved the local personnel manager's responsibilities to maintain the communication and spot job opportunities. The repatriate respondent added that he got clear indications as to who to turn to with concerns and that the functions within the organization handled the practicalities such as fares and compensation. Pharmacia does not target high-risk repatriates according to the management respondent since they consider the issues as being the same for every one upon return. The repatriate respondent did not know if the company allocates resources among repatriates differently, he does not think it is like that. Manage expectations with accurate information The repatriate respondent’s expectations are exceeded according to him as the company has appreciated him and aimed at utilizing his international experience. The management respondent meant that the expectations are dealt with by constant communication during the international assignment. Constant communication was easy to maintain as both parties have access to the global infrastructure of the company including e-mail and picture telephones according to the management respondent. Additionally, frequent business trips are enabling more face-to-face contact as well as one paid home leave a year. The career manager at home functions as a mentor but not in a formal sponsorship program. The repatriate respondent confirmed that he had been offered paid home leave once a year which he went on and further states that prior to the career discussion initiated six months prior to his return to Sweden, he had little discussions and contact with the home organization except from his home division and that was enough according to the repatriate respondent. On paper he had a sponsor provided by the company, which he did not utilize as he considered the support from his American supervisors to be sufficient enough, and more extensive contact with Sweden was not necessary Prepare for home country job and explore the repatriate’s opportunities is a career discussion initiated by the home division and includes the individual, division manager, and the competition benefit manager according to the management respondent. The organization strives to have a position established before the individual returns to the home organization as experience have shown that it is not beneficial to put the repatriate on temporary positions waiting for a permanent position. He further stated that the management and repatriate have to show humility and accept that changes occur in a rapid pace. The repatriate management’s career discussion involved a dialogue about the new knowledge gained, how he had experienced the international assignment, and how to best utilize his new capabilities in a satisfactory way, which he thought was very good.

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Data Presentation

Financial compensation methods at Pharmacia include a “net worth thinking” meaning that an individual does not gain or loose anything when accepting an international assignment. The expatriate is not awarded double salary, but is compensated for the higher costs for example housing, medical care and education. The net salary is constant and the company does not offer any other financial assistance. According to the management respondent the company puts the repatriate in contact with banks and occasionally assists in the house hunting through putting the repatriate in contact with real-estate agents and consultants. The repatriate respondent added that the company helps with the move, temporary housing, and storage of furniture as well as work for the spouse and daycare and schools for the children. He also received a contribution to buy the small things such as hygiene articles upon return. Facilitate housing conditions was important according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent stated that the repatriation program at Pharmacia also includes two extra home trips prior to the return, so called “house-hunting trips” where the individual is assisted with real state contacts and banking contacts. Provide support groups such as seminars to build networks was something that Pharmacia did before, but the smaller number of repatriates makes it not worth while, according to the management respondent. The current support concerns work related issues such as the taxes, pensions, and banking and include the family to the best of the company’s abilities as the company can assist in bringing animal or cars home. The repatriate respondent supported the statement concerning the consultants and declared that he was not offered any support group activities upon return to discuss the positive and negative sides to the assignment and what could have been done differently. He did not see any indications towards including the family in the readjustment process by the company, which he thought that the company would benefit from including. Planning for “downtime” is not an issue that is regulated universally through the organization with clear policies stating a recommended adjustment period before starting to work at the home organization, according to the management respondent. As the individual generally does recognizes much of the Swedish environment although much might have change in a couple of years. The individual together with the concerned division makes any such decision. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and added that he started working instantly and that can be beneficiary as it provides the repatriate with routines and opportunity to adjust to the new work manner. Appreciate the repatriate and spouse was an aspect that the management respondent claimed that Pharmacia always can improve, at the same time as he was neutral in his answer since he believed that no one would consider the repatriate as being above any other employee. The repatriate is a competence in the organization. The organization has to recognize the repatriates as important coworkers because of the extra experience possessed and make sure to utilize it, not saying that they are put on hold today. He further stated that he did not see any reason to why Pharmacia should allocate more resource to repatriation than already is since the repatriate generally is a self managing and initiating individual that does not sit around and wait for something to happen. He

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concluded that the company could benefit from a better and more long-term oriented career planning to retain the competencies. The repatriate respondent stated that he perceived himself to be appreciated by the company and that the organization had taken good care of him from the beginning of the international assignment to the repatriation.

5.3.3 Benefits of repatriation In this section the benefits of repatriation will be presented one by one following the conceptual framework, and how important the benefit is to the repatriate and to the management at Pharmacia. This will be done by first present the repatriate’s answers regarding the individual benefits, followed by the management’s answers regarding the organizational benefits. Individual benefits: Career development as a benefit was stated by the repatriate respondent as still to come since his return to Sweden was recent and that international assignment is no guarantee for advancements. But if the individual is willing to pursue a career and an internationally oriented vacancy is presented in the company the individual does have an advantage. Promotion was stated as a less important benefit as the repatriate respondent did not wish to make an executive career, but he adds that this benefit can be valued higher by a more ambitious individual. Perceived to be valued by the company was a very important benefit according to the repatriate respondent since each individual needs to perceive themselves as valued by the company, and this is better conveyed when the company gives the repatriate more and better attention. Make use of the new international skills and knowledge was seen as a very important benefit by the respondent. At the same time he acknowledged that companies might have problems with assigning satisfactory work positions to the individuals upon return and only create positions to satisfy a specific individual’s needs, which in the long run generates dissatisfaction with the repatriation. He concluded that it is fewer beneficiaries of trying to utilize all skills of the repatriates, as they have to match the organization’s needs too. Faster integration and minimizing frustration was a very important benefit of the repatriation program according to the respondent where clear guidelines and policies enable a much faster, smoother and less conflict infected readjustment of the repatriate. Job satisfaction was attached importance by the repatriate interviewed concerning all positions and not exclusively the ones held by repatriates, as all employees strive for satisfactory work positions. Closing the gap between the expectations and reality was a very important benefit to the individual according to the respondent. This is further explained as the individual will have less exposure to potential surprises when returning to the home country and thereby

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in turn minimize the frustrations. Organizational benefits: Integrate culturally and organizationally was assigned great importance as a benefit as through the repatriation the company can diminish incorrect expectations, conflicts and in an evolution manner utilize the knowledge in the best way possible for both the company and the individual according the management respondent. The respondent stated closing the gap between expectations and reality as a very important benefit from the repatriation. He meant that the company must be prepared for changes, but at the same time predicting as many alternatives as possible and potential difficulties to be able to meet them as early as possible. Additionally, the trend is showing an increase in the short-term project oriented assignments, as it is less costly and offers a more flexible moveable role of the expatriates. The management respondent mentioned that this is indicating that the gap between expectation and reality is diminishing in the future. Developing global managers for competitive advantage was explained as a vital benefit as the company is functioning in global setting and acquires individuals throughout the organization that possesses international possibilities and capabilities to support the goals of the company. The management respondent also stated retain and ensure valuable skills as a main benefit as the company is striving to maintain a global presence and therefore actively aims to increase the competence and experiences within the organization through international assignments. Attracting potential expatriates for the future was according to the respondent a very important benefit, since Pharmacia then possesses a competitive advantage that attracts individuals to the company. If Pharmacia is able to convey their status as a global company, the local technology companies are easily rejected in favor of Pharmacia. Return on human investment was according to the management respondent probably a more important benefit than he has reflected upon as Pharmacia never has investigate the results of a different approach. Additionally, Pharmacia’s operations are based on long processes with short phases, such as repatriation is a short phase of the international assignment, and therefore it is not resource efficient to have a relocation fleet. Developing a pool of global knowledge was stated and motivated by the management respondent as an equally important benefit as developing global managers and additionally stated the importance of promoting a multicultural characteristics of the organization. The company does not benefit from being based on homogenous individuals. Performance efficiency was important in all aspects of the organization and not only when derived from a successful repatriation and giving the benefit an inferior importance

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Data Presentation

to others. The management respondent saw job loyalty and commitment as a benefit for the company. He further stated that since a successful repatriation, where the company has managed the questions, surprises, and expectations surrounding the return in a satisfactory manner, generates an increased loyalty of the individual.

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Data Analysis

6 Data Analysis In this chapter the empirical data presented in the previous chapter will be analyzed. This is done relying on theoretical propositions and the analytic strategy chosen from methodology chapter, presented by Yin (1994). This implies that we first will compare the empirical data with the theories presented in the conceptual framework in a within-case analysis to be able to discover differences and/or similarities. Furthermore, since we have done three case studies we will also do a cross-case analysis where we will compare the cases against each other to find out divergences as well as similarities.

6.1 Factors affecting repatriation

6.1.1 Within-case analysis In this section we will aim to find similarities and/or dissimilarities between the data that has been collected in the three cases by comparing it with the theories from research question one selected in the conceptual framework. Individual factors: Suutari et al (2002) state that age will have influence on the readjustment. The authors continue to state that especially older individuals readjust easily since they are assumed to have more information and experience about the home country and organization. The management respondent at Saab partly supports the theory since he states that higher age contributes to a higher maturity potential and experience that will ease the readjustment. The repatriate respondent does not support the theory since he states other factors as more affecting. At Scania both respondents support the theory to some extent but the management respondent states that younger repatriates tend to present more flexibility towards their new work environment and older repatriates are more reluctant to try positions in new fields. The repatriate respondent grades the factor as of having less influence on the repatriation adjustment. The respondents at Pharmacia state that age is not an influencing factor and that it is more dependent on personality than age, and thereby do not support the theory. During longer time abroad, more changes have occurred within the home country and individual and will therefore complicate the readjustment (Suutari et al, 2002). At Saab, the management respondent states the factor as less affecting since the possibility to utilize the skills gained are more important for readjustment, and therefore do not fully support the theory. The repatriate respondent at Saab ascribes the factor high importance as he states that the repatriate must accept increased difficulties readjusting in correlation to the time abroad and therefore the repatriate respondent is in accordance with theory. The management respondent at Scania acknowledges the differences in adjustment derived from time spent abroad as influencing, and the repatriate respondent supports this statement and rates the factor as determinant. This due to the longer time spent abroad will change the individual’s behavior and becomes from alienated from the home country. In Scania’s case, both respondents support the theory. According to both respondents at Pharmacia the difficulties when returning increase the longer time spent abroad since there will be more changes in the organization and social environment to

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readjust to, and is therefore in accordance with theory. To reduce uncertainty and inaccurate expectations keeping up with events at home in the home country and organization is beneficial (Suutari et al, 2002). The management respondent at Saab states the factor as determinant since the international assignment is based on an exchange of information and knowledge and has the greatest single importance. The factor is also stated as very influencing by the repatriate respondent and it is important to follow organizational, social and political occurrences, thereby the theory is supported. The repatriate respondent at Scania states the factor as influencing for the readjustment. The management respondent states the factor as very influencing since it is a beneficial approach to be up to date on current events before returning home. Both respondents at Scania thereby agree with the theory. At Pharmacia, both respondents support the theory. The repatriate respondent states that the factor is very influencing factor. The management respondent adds that the factor is much dependent on the individual’s personality, ambition and willingness to assimilate to the foreign culture. Willingness to relocate internationally means that if the expatriate has the freedom of choice to take on an international assignment will have a positive affect on the expatriate’s behavior during the international transfer, and that it will in turn be reflected on the readjustment (Suutari et al, 2002). The repatriate respondent at Saab supports the theory since he states the factor as very influencing and adds that it is something that should be ever present within the individual, but not having to accept changes for the worse. The management respondent supports the theory but states that the factor will not lead to a negative outcome for the repatriate. Since no one is ever sent on an international assignment against their will he thereby means that it is supposed that the individual are willing to live and work in another country and thereby willing to relocate internationally. The theory is supported by the management respondent at Scania since he states the factor as influencing and that the open-mindedness toward new things eases the readjustment. The repatriate respondent also states the factor to be influencing. Adjustments of all kinds will of course be facilitated if the individual is flexible and adaptable. He further adds that it is up to one and each to have the will to adjust to different environments. At Pharmacia both respondents support the theory and the repatriate respondent states the factor to be determinate to the readjustment, and adds that flexibility and adaptability to initiate the handling of new situations is vital for the re-entry stage. The management respondent only states the factor to be influencing. Expatriation adjustment problems and expatriation adjustment satisfaction is defined by Suutari et al, (2002) as how well the expatriation adjustment is preceded and where the outcome, positive or negative, will spill over on the repatriation adjustment. At Saab the repatriate respondent states the expatriate adjustment problems and satisfaction as less influencing factors since a failure can occur at home as well as abroad and could also be seen as a valued experience. The management respondent states that the factor can influence to some extent, since if there have been problems during the international assignment, those problems might follow the individual back to Sweden and thereby be negative for the readjustment. In the case of Saab the theory is not supported. The

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respondents at Scania both supported the theory and declared this as very influencing factors where an inferior performance by the expatriate is noted at headquarters and will be rewarded a position thereafter upon return generating dissatisfaction with the repatriate respondent. At Pharmacia both respondents state the factors as having affect to the readjustment, but add that the repatriation adjustment is more dependent on if the repatriate is being offered a satisfactory position within the home organization and perceived to be valued by the company. Therefore in the case of Pharmacia, the theory is supported, even though the respondents state re-entry position as having a higher importance.. According to Feldman et al (1993) gender could have an impact on repatriation adjustment since it has been shown in research that female repatriates can adjust more easily. At Saab this theory is not supported by any of the respondents and they claim the factor as having no affect on repatriation adjustment. The management respondent adds that the number of female expatriates that Saab is sending out is comparatively low to the number of male expatriates, but has not seen any indications that female repatriates would have it any harder or easier to readjust. The management respondent at Scania did not support the theory, and stated the factor to not affect the re-entry adjustment. The repatriate respondent does however support the theory to some extent and states that gender can have some affect in the repatriation adjustment. According to his experiences, females are more adaptable and would therefore have an easier time in readjusting. At Pharmacia the management respondent does not support the theory and view the factor as having no affect. The repatriate respondent concurs with the theory and states gender to have little influence on repatriation adjustment. He added that successful readjustment is more influenced by personality, and especially an extrovert personality with a wide-ranging social network. Nationality will influence the repatriation adjustment since research has indicated that Europeans and Asian citizens have an easier time to readjust compared to Americans, where research has also shown that some countries are more difficult to return to since they are more “culturally distant” (Feldman et al, 1993). According to the management respondent at Saab the factor has no influence for the readjustment. Every expatriate is returning to his or her home country, Sweden, and no one has to repatriate to another country. The repatriate respondent has no perception or experiences about this factor. The theory is not supported by either of the respondents at Saab. At Scania, the repatriate respondent states the factor to be very influencing and supports the theory. He claims that Americans in general have more difficulties when adjusting both abroad and when returning home. He further adds that individuals from smaller countries are more adjustable and less prejudiced. The management respondent does however not support the theory and states the factor does not influence the readjustment and the company has not experienced any readjustment problems due to nationality. None of the respondents at Pharmacia support the theory and assign the factor of having no influence since Pharmacia is operating in a multicultural environment. The repatriate respondent further adds that it can be dangerous to generalize nationalities since there are always differences between individuals.

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Data Analysis

The intention to continue with international assignment according to Feldman et al (1993) affect readjustment, as the repatriate’s willingness to readjust will be negatively influenced by the wish to go abroad again. The manager respondent at Saab does not support the theory, instead he states that it will have a very positive affect on the readjustment since more efforts are made by the individual to readjust and convey a good image to the company if there is a wish to proceed with overseas assignments. The repatriate respondent state the factor as having less influence to the re-entry adjustment, and further adds that the efforts made to readjust can be withdrawn from the enthusiasm over the international assignment as well as from the desire to carry on further foreign assignments. In Saab’s case, the theory is therefore not supported. At Scania the management respondent states the factor to have little influence, and only concurs with theory to some extent. The individual can be more prone to show ambition and interest in international assignments. The repatriate respondent states the factor to be very affecting to the adjustment. If the individual has intentions to take on other foreign assignment, the individual will be more motivated and perform well and thereby put more effort to readjust. The repatriate respondent does not therefore support the theory, even though he claims it to be of high influence. The respondents at Pharmacia further support this statement by the repatriate respondent at Scania and where both state the factor to be affecting the readjustment. The repatriate respondent claims that the readjustment will be positively affected instead of negatively affected as the theory suggest, whereas the management respondent agrees with theory to a larger extent. Self-management or how the individual cope with their new situation is much influencing for the repatriation adjustment. If the repatriate is proactive, tries to bring problems under control, seeking out information and support it will ease the readjustment face (Feldman et al, 1993). Both respondents at Saab state this factor to be very influencing and they fully support the theory. The respondents further state that it is important for the individual to take own initiative and not expect everything to be served on a silver platter. Not taking own actions can make the company perceive the individual as lazy and passive. The respondents at Scania claim the factor to be determinant and concur with the theory. The repatriate respondent claims that the motivation of the repatriate to influence the work positions and other issues will ease the readjustment. The management respondent further adds that more responsibility should be put on the repatriate to take own actions and not wait for the company to do everything. Being passive does not benefit the individual. Also the respondents at Pharmacia support the theory and position the factor to be determinant for repatriation adjustment. The repatriate respondent means that much is depending on the repatriate’s initiative to get things done and thereby ease the adjustment. Work and job factors: Role discretion is described by Suutari et al (2002) as the extent the individual can adapt his or her work position in order to create a more familiar and controllable work situation. At Saab the repatriate respondent states the factor as influencing to the individual’s readjustment as a control tool, and therefore supports the theory. The management respondent states this factor to be influencing and important for all employees, independent on if the individual has returned from an international assignment or not.

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Data Analysis

The management therefore to some extent support the theory but has a broader definition. Both respondents at Scania agree with the theory and consider the factor to be very influencing as it could create frustration to the repatriate if he or she has lost some degree of independence and been offered a less offensive role. At Pharmacia the management respondent states the factor to be affecting, and state that an autonomous role will make it easier to readjust, whereas the repatriate respondent declares it to be very affecting Depending on the personality of the repatriate the factor can also be of negative nature according to the repatriate respondent, because uncertainty upon return in combination with an independent work position is not an ideal outcome. Both respondents at Pharmacia, however supports the theory about role discretion to have an affect on repatriation. Role conflict is according to Suutari et al (2002) a factor that occurs when the individual’s perception of what is expected of him or her, in the new work role differs from his or her own understandings generating an uncertainty as to what perceptions to ignore or not. The respondents at Saab do not acknowledge the factor as influencing and the management respondent states it to be a reciprocal adjustment and work towards a common goal from both the organization and the repatriate. Thereby, the respondents at Saab do not agree with the theory. At Scania neither of the respondents supports the theory and further state the factor not to be influencing the readjustment. They further acknowledge that there exist differences and surprises upon return, but that the individual has to learn to master these issues. The respondents at Pharmacia support the theory when they state the factor to be affecting. The repatriate respondent adds that it is important for the company to inform the individual about potential conflicts due to altered behavior with both parties. The management respondent concludes that culture is affecting the individual’s behavior but in the end it is up to the individual to adapt to the local environment. Suutari et al (2002) mean that role negotiations and role decisions have to be initiated during the stay abroad and ended before the return. The repatriate will thereby know what is expected of him or her, and the uncertainty will be decreased. The respondents at Saab both support the theory and ascribe the factor as very affecting since it will decrease inaccurate expectations, and that it is important to inform the repatriate at an early stage if the work position is changed in some way. At Scania both respondents agree with the theory and state it to be an influencing factor. The repatriate respondent adds that the timing of these discussions is important. Do they take place to close to the return the uncertainty has time to root itself within the repatriate and to far ahead the characteristics of the agreement are easily forgotten. The role negotiation and decisions is a very influencing factor according to the respondents at Pharmacia, and the respondents are therefore supporting the theory. The management respondent means that it is important not to neglect the repatriate and find the ultimate option for both parties and where the repatriate respondent finds it very influencing since the factor reduces uncertainty for the repatriate. Gregersen et al (1997) state that role clarity, or having a clear role position upon return reduces uncertainty and facilitates the re-entry adjustment. The management respondent

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Data Analysis

at Saab supports the theory to some degree since he states this factor to be less influencing for the readjustment. He states that the repatriate is guaranteed his or her work position when returning home and therefore this factor will have less impact for the repatriate. The repatriate respondent states that for his part the role position was already clear before taking on the international assignment. When he returned home he only transferred the role from Switzerland back to Sweden. However, he acknowledges that the factor could have a higher impact for repatriates who do not have the role position clear before the re-entry, and hence supports the theory even if it was of minor importance for him. According to the management respondent at Scania the factor is affecting and the respondent does therefore support the theory. He further adds that clear roles cannot though be established and guaranteed too far in advanced due to the fast changes in the industry that might alter the company’s situation and departments. The repatriate respondent agrees with the management respondent, but views that factor as having much influence on the readjustment. He further adds that it is very important to have the role clear upon return, but means at the same time that the company cannot create positions only to fit the individual. At Pharmacia the respondents agree and support the theory. The repatriate respondent states this factor to be very influencing and means that how the company takes care of the repatriate upon return is significant for the readjustment, and where providing a clear role position before return is one way of showing that concern. The management respondent also views the factor to be very influencing and that it is important not to put the repatriate in a “holding pattern” about the role position since they will then probably leave the organization. Skills utilization deals with the concerns of the repatriate’s utilization of their newly acquired skills and knowledge, where a failure to challenge the repatriates will lead to decreased motivation and performance (Suutari et al, 2002). Skills utilization is a determinant factor according to the respondents at Saab and thereby supports the theory. The management respondent motivated the statement by adding that the purpose of the international assignments is to gain new knowledge, so for the company to prevent these impulses would be risky. The repatriate respondent states that not utilizing the skills will lead to dissatisfied repatriates. The Scania respondents state the factor as determinant for the readjustment. The repatriate respondent adds that it is more important to have a challenging and interesting assignment upon return than climbing the corporate ladder. The company might though face difficulties utilizing the repatriate’s skills in an optimal way depending on how great the differences are in culture, standards, structures, and people between the countries. At Pharmacia both respondents support the theory, but state the factor to be very influencing for the repatriation adjustment. The management respondent means that not utilizing the gained knowledge can ultimate lead to the repatriate leaving the organization, and the repatriate respondent states it to be a way for the company to appreciate the individual’s time and efforts made abroad. Job characteristics are a factor that can influence repatriation according to Feldman et al (1993). If the job upon return will lead to promotion or a higher position will influence the challenge, responsibility, and salaries around the job and thereby influence the individual’s willingness and effort to readjust. Additionally, a transfer directly from school can cause more difficulties in readjusting, and working in a position with less

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personal contact will make it easier to readjust compared with individuals working with humans. (Feldman et al, 1993) The management respondent at Saab does not concur with the theory and claims the factor of having no influence, and further explains that Saab has not experienced any problems emerging from this factor. The repatriate respondent further adds that when given a new job, the transition to that new job do not have to do with previous international assignment. A higher position will automatically make the individual to put more effort and attempt to manage the new position. None of the respondents at Scania do support the theory either, and claim the factor of having no influence. All positions have human contacts, too young individuals are never sent on an international assignment, and all promotions lead to more effort and motivation from the employee. The management respondent at Pharmacia supports the theory to some degree and states the factor to be of little influence to the repatriation adjustment. The repatriates are aware of that an international assignment does not automatically leading to promotion or career climbing. The repatriate respondent has no clear opinion about this factor and did therefore not want to speculate too much. The degree of differences between job assignments means that a higher degree between the autonomy, co-workers and job duties will increase uncertainty and decrease the daily routines, and thereby make it more difficult for the repatriate to readjust (Feldman et al, 1993). This factor is stated to be very influencing by the repatriate respondent at Saab and concurs with the theory. He further adds that differences in job roles could also in combination with the individual’s personality be seen as challenging and lead to motivation and thereby ease the readjustment. The management respondent at Saab also supports the theory, but only claims the factor to affect the readjustment. The respondents at Scania both concur with theory and find the factor to be very influencing. They further add that there are often differences between the job assignments and the difference regularly have a negative impact due to often more positive positions abroad. The respondents at Pharmacia do not support the theory and state the factor not to affect the repatriation adjustment. Both respondents claim that which work position the individual is offered upon return will influence more than the differences between the job assignments. Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices by the company about repatriation will reduce uncertainty and have a positive relation to work readjustment (Gregersen et al, 1997). This factor is stated as determinant factor by the repatriate respondent at Saab and therefore supports the theory. He further adds that he missed clear policies and practices from the company and that it is a critical factor for the readjustment and eliminates uncertainty as he has experienced it. The management respondent on the other hand states this factor to be less influencing for the readjustment, and only support the theory to some extent. Saab has no formal policies and practices that concern repatriation separately according to the management respondent, but at the same time he admits that this factor is something that the company might have overlooked the importance of. The theory is supported by the respondents at Scania, but the management respondent assigns this factor to be affecting, whereas the repatriate respondent views it as less affecting. The management respondent states that clear policies and practices about the international assignment and repatriation

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are informed to the individual before going abroad, but this information however often becomes vague for the individual during the international assignment, and is a reason why many repatriates are dissatisfied when returning home. The repatriate respondent states that the good intentions of the company are not always coherent with the reality that the repatriate face upon return. The repatriate respondent did not receive much attention from the personnel department and he considered the best debrifer to be the informal channels through colleagues instead of the personnel department. The repatriate respondent at Pharmacia states this factor to be determinant since it is a way for the company to convey appreciation to the repatriate, and supports the theory. He further suggests that the company should have a checklist presented to the repatriate in order to show appreciation and ease the readjustment. The management respondent only supports the theory to some degree and states it to be less influencing for repatriation adjustment, where the satisfaction of the work position offered is more important than having clear policies about repatriation at the company. Pre-return training concerning difficulties faced by the repatriate and his or her family will reduce uncertainty and thereby ease the repatriation adjustment (Gregersen et al, 1997). The management respondent at Saab supports the theory to some extent as he claims it to be less affecting to ease the readjustment process. He further states that this factor is more important when the repatriate has been abroad longer than three years, otherwise it is seen by the management respondent to be abundant as the resources are located where it is most needed, at expatriation. The repatriate respondent disagrees and states that he does not see how the pre-return training would ease the adjustment, and that other issues are more important to the readjustment, like children’s schooling and social life. He states the factor to be of no influence to him and thereby does not agree with the theory. The factor is less affecting and not provided by the company according to the respondents at Scania as they see it as being beneficial only for those posted in extremely different countries from Sweden, and therefore Scania does not support the theory. The repatriate respondent at Pharmacia does not see the necessity of pre-return training for himself and his wife as they returned from USA and none of them experienced any reverse culture shocks. The management respondent at Pharmacia states the factor as influencing where practical issues such as day care and jobs should be included and thereby agrees with the theory unlike the repatriate respondent. The organization’s attitude where the company shows appreciation and support to the repatriate will influence the process and ease the readjustment (Harvey, 1989). At Saab this factor is stated to be more influencing for the repatriate respondents compared to the management respondent, but both support the theory. The former respondent claim that as the company engages in the individual's wellbeing during the repatriation process, an interest and value is conveyed to the repatriate. The management respondent further adds that the success of the readjustment is not solely dependent on the organization’s attitude and approach, but also to some extent to the individual. The management respondent at Scania states the factor to be of less influence and only support theory to some degree. It is in the company’s interest to capitalize the repatriate’s new skills and it is therefore not essential to work on the organization’s attitude. The repatriate respondent also supports the theory and rate the factor to be influencing. The factor is especially important if the

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company fails to meet the repatriate’s expectations and do not take care of the repatriate upon return. The repatriate will then develop negatively attitudes towards the company and readjustment will be more difficult. The management respondent at Pharmacia states the factor to be less influencing due to the already existing international attitude within the company because of their global operations, whereas the repatriate respondent grades it as having influence since the attitude from the company will influence the individual’s attitude and motivation. The theory is fully supported by the repatriate respondent, and to some extend by the management respondent. The size of the company and the industry type will according to Harvey (1989) influence the repatriation adjustment. The larger the company, the more experiences and routines exist in the company about repatriation, and if the company is operating in a technology-based industry there will be less human contact. Both respondents at Saab state that the factor has less influence for repatriation and do not concur with the theory to full extent. However, they both agree that larger companies are assumed to have more experiences about sending individuals abroad and should therefore be better at taking care of the repatriate. Neither of the respondents state that the industry that the company is operating in affect the repatriation and instead the company size is of greater importance. None of the respondents at Scania support the theory, and state they had not experienced that the factor would affect repatriation adjustment. The repatriate respondent further adds that in smaller companies an international assignment could be a bigger event, but at the same time a smaller company might have restrictions in providing suitable and challenging jobs. The management respondent at Pharmacia supports the theory about company size and states the factor to be influencing for repatriation. Larger companies have better developed routines and established administration to handle repatriation issues. The repatriate respondent disagrees and does not support the theory to the same degree. He states that organization’s attitude and support to the repatriate is more important than the company size. Neither of the respondent have any opinion or idea about the industry type and its influence on repatriation adjustment. Non-work factors: Social status often differs between countries, and the needed adjustment to the new social behavior creates uncertainty (Suutari et al, 2002). The theory is supported by the management respondent at Saab, and to some extent also supported by the repatriate respondent. The management respondent states the factor to be very affecting and claims that the individual’s confidence is strengthened during the international assignment generating a higher perception of one’s importance, which leads to a bigger fall back to reality when they return. The repatriate respondent states this factor to be affecting only if the individual has been abroad for a longer time. At Scania the respondents both viewed this factor to be very influencing, where the management respondent claims social differences create great difficulties, and where the repatriate respondents adds that all individuals are affected by status attributes such as high position, responsibility and authority, parking space, company car, and personal secretary. The respondents at Pharmacia state a slightly different view as the management respondent claims the factor to be affecting, and where the repatriate respondent views it as not affecting the readjustment, but adds that depending on the differences in social status between the

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countries and the individual’s nationality this factor can have a higher importance. The degree of cultural differences between the countries will increase the difficulties for the repatriate to readjust more easily (Gregersen et al, 1997). Neither of the respondents at Saab states this factor to have any higher influence and do not support the theory to the full extent. The repatriate respondent claims that since the individual is returning to the home country the images and attitudes about Sweden will still be there even when staying abroad for a couple of years. The management respondent claims that Saab has not experienced any problems upon return caused by cultural differences between the countries. Instead more effort is put on cultural differences before an individual goes abroad. The repatriate respondent at Scania fully supports the theory and states the factor to have determinate importance for the readjustment. The management respondent also supports the theory, but claims the factor to be very affecting. Since cultures very different from the Swedish are often far away this causes problems for repatriates who want to visit Sweden during the international assignment. This can lead to fewer visits and where the repatriate adapts more of the foreign countries values and behavior. The respondents at Pharmacia both support the theory and state the factor to be very affecting. Larger cultural differences lead to larger adjustments when returning home. Housing conditions or arrangements upon return can cause great uncertainty for the repatriate if the housing situation is not managed before return (Gregersen et al, 1997). The management respondent at Saab does not support the theory since 95 percent of all repatriates have kept their houses during the international assignment and does not therefore see the affect of this factor. The repatriate respondent does however support the theory and states the factor to be determinate. It is a strong connection to the home country and having a house upon return will reduce much uncertainty. The management respondent at Scania states this factor as less influencing since Scania offers financial compensation to the repatriates so they will have the possibility to keep their houses in Sweden, and does therefore not see any higher importance of this factor. The theory is therefore not supported to full extent by the management respondent at Scania. The repatriate respondent at Scania differs in his opinion and supports the theory and states the factor as having very influencing impact on readjustment. If the repatriate has sold the house before departure it can cause big problems and increases the anxiety upon return to acquire a new house. Both respondents at Pharmacia agree with theory and state the factor to be affecting. The perception upon return might be negatively influenced by staying at hotels or smaller apartments compared to during the international assignment. Gregersen et al (1997) state that there is a relationship between spouses’ adjustment and the repatriates’ adjustment, and that there will be a “spill-over” affect to the other individual of the readjustment, either in a positive or negative way. The theory is supported by both respondents at Saab, as the repatriate respondent states it to be determinant for readjustment and the management respondent states it to be very affecting. It is significant that the family is readjusted easily and in a positive way upon return in order for the repatriate to function in the organization and the social environment. At Scania the spouse’s adjustment is highly valued and is a determinate factor for repatriation by both respondents and theory is thereby supported by the

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respondents. The adjustment of the family is important both inside and outside of the home country and also function as a support to the repatriate. The repatriate respondent further adds that sending out an individual who is single is not the most favorable situation due to the risk of isolation in the host country and no one to share experiences with upon return. The respondents at Pharmacia also support the theory and state this factor to be determinant for repatriation adjustment. The management respondent further adds that the success of the international assignment is much depending on the family, but agrees that Pharmacia might not have acknowledged the importance of providing support to the families to its full extent. The repatriate respondent also states that the issues around the spouse’s work upon return are very important and that the family can function as support upon return.

6.1.2 Cross-case analysis In the cross case analysis we will use different tables to demonstrate the similarities and/or dissimilarities between the three cases and how factors influence repatriation according to the respondents in each company. We will also look at the transportation industry versus the contrasting case. This is shown in Table 6.1 on the next page. The answers are both from the management and the repatriate at each company. The factors are further divided into individual, work and job, organizational, and non-work factors in order to see each category and its influence. The answers from the data collected, where the respondents have stated how much the factor will influence repatriation, have been coded into numbers, where we will use a rating system to easier calculate the answers, ranging from one to five. The coding is shown below with explanation of what each number stands for. 1 not affecting factor for repatriation 2 less affecting factor for repatriation 3 affecting factor for repatriation 4 very affecting factor for repatriation 5 determinant factor for repatriation The factors that have determinant influence or do not affect repatriation have bold numbers.

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Table 6.1: Cross-case Analysis of Factors Affecting Repatriation

Cases Saab Scania Pharmacia Factors Manager Repatriate Manager Repatriate Manager Repatriate

Individual- factors: Age 2 1 3 2 1 1 Time abroad 2 3 3 5 4 4 Keeping up on events at home 5 4 4 3 4 4 Willingness to relocate internationally 2 4 3 3 3 5 Expatriation adjustment problems 2 2 4 4 3 3 Expatriation adjustment satisfaction 2 2 4 4 3 2 Gender 1 1 1 2 1 2 Nationality 1 1 1 4 1 1 Intention to continue overseas 4 2 2 4 3 3 Self-management 4 4 5 5 5 5 Work & job factors: Role discretion 3 3 4 4 3 4 Role conflict 1 1 1 1 3 3 Role negotiations & role decisions 4 4 3 3 4 4 Role clarity 2 1 3 4 4 4 Skill utilization 5 5 5 5 4 4 Job characteristics 1 1 1 1 2 - Job assignment differences 3 4 4 4 1 1 Organizational factors: Clear policies & practices 2 5 3 2 2 5 Pre-return training 2 1 2 2 3 2 Organization’s attitude 3 4 2 3 2 3 Company size 2 2 1 1 3 2 Industry type 1 1 - - - - Non-work factors: Social status 4 2 4 4 3 1 Culture differences 2 2 4 5 4 4 Housing conditions 1 5 2 4 3 3 Spouses’ adjustment 4 5 5 5 5 5

The table indicates that the respondents at Saab have more variances concerning ascribed importance of separate factors and these differences are not solemnly dependent on one of the respondents as they alternate ascribing high versus low importance to the factors. In Saab’s case the non-work category and the work category are viewed as most influencing for the repatriation adjustment. The individual category at Saab is ascribed more comparative importance than the organizational category by the manager respondent and vice versa for the repatriate interviewed. In Saab’s case all categories have minor deviations of assigned importance of each category.

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In Scania’s case the table shows a larger average importance of the factors and the repatriate respondent generally ascribes the factors in with more influence than the manager respondent. In Scania’s case both respondents ascribe the categories’ comparative importance as follows: non-work, individual, work and job, and organizational. The table also shows that the individual and non-work categories at Scania have the largest differences in assigned importance between the respondents, where the repatriate respondent generally assigns more importance to these factor categories In the transportation industry, the non-work category has the highest comparative significance, followed by work and individual categories. The organizational category is comparatively attributed with a significantly lower status. In Pharmacia’s case both respondents assign non-work category as comparatively most influencing and organizational category as comparatively less influencing. The repatriate interviewee’s respond indicate a greater assigned importance of the individual category than by the manager respondent. In general, Pharmacia states the same order of categories as the transportation industry. Pharmacia’s case shows little divergence concerning the overall answers of the interviewees, and further indicates similarities to Saab, since in both Pharmacia and Saab the respondents are contributing to an evenly distributed pattern of the overall differences between the factors. In Scania’s case the respondents are not showing an evenly distributed pattern of the overall differences between the factors. In the overall pattern, Scania expresses greater influence of the factors for repatriation adjustment compared to Saab, but the average responds from the transportation industry are in accordance to Pharmacia’s responds. Both respondents at Saab assign the most influencing factors to be keeping up with events at home, skill utilization, and spouses’ adjustment. The management respondent stated that communication is vital as the international assignment is based on an exchange of information and knowledge. Skill utilization is stated as the single most influencing factor at Saab since the purpose of the international assignment is to gain new knowledge and not utilizing the repatriate’s skills will lead to dissatisfaction. Finally, the spouses’ adjustment is stated at Saab as very important since the families’ adjustment is reflected in the repatriate’s possibilities to function in the organization and social settings of the home country. At Scania the most influencing factors by both respondents are self-management, skill utilization, culture differences and spouses’ adjustment. The self-management factor is stated determinant by the management respondent since more responsibility should be put on the repatriate to more actively participate and influence the readjustment and not be too dependent on the organization. Skill utilization is also stated to be determinant by both respondents, where the repatriate emphasizes the importance of utilizing the skills in a satisfied way for the individual instead of using it as a way of climbing the corporate ladder. The management respondent adds that utilizing the repatriate’s skills can

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sometimes be difficult due to differences in culture, standard, structure and people. Culture differences is having a high influence since culturally different countries generally are located further away leading to fewer possibilities for visits back home for the repatriate and more adaptation to the foreign culture according to the management respondent. Spouses’ adjustment is viewed as determinant by both respondents since the family functions as a support for the repatriate and sending out single individuals is not a suitable alternative. The most influencing factors for repatriation adjustment within the transportation industry are self-management, skill utilization, and spouses’ adjustment since these factors have an evenly distributed grade of importance across the two cases. The greatest difference between in the transportation industry companies is cultural differences. The respondents at Saab state the factor as having less influence because the individual is returning to the home country and where the images of Sweden stay with the individual through the international assignment. The respondents at Scania means that cultural different countries are in general located further away which lead to fewer possibilities to visit the home country, and therefore the expatriate adapts more of the host country culture and appreciate part of the culture and discovers that some aspects are better in the host country than in the home country and shut him or herself off the home country, probably increasing the difficulties of adjusting back to the home country and organization. The most influencing factors at Pharmacia are self-management and spouses’ adjustment. The respondents at Pharmacia state the self-management factor as being determinant since the repatriate’s initiative and capability to make things happen will positively reflect on the readjustment. The success of the international assignment is furthermore much dependent on the spouses’ adjustment, but where the management respondent acknowledges that Pharmacia might have disregarded the importance of providing support also to the family for a successful repatriation adjustment. Between the transportation industry and the contrasting case of Pharmacia there are minor dissimilarities. All three cases state self-management and spouses’ adjustment as being the most influencing factors. The transportation industry further views skill utilization as very important. But in the contrasting case that factor is also viewed as highly influencing among the respondents since utilizing the repatriate’s skills conveys an appreciation to the repatriates time and effort done abroad, and where utilizing the skills can lead to high turnover. After having analyzed the factors influencing the most and least on repatriation across the cases, we will further show the differences between assigned influences of the factors to provide a clearer picture of the divergences between the respondents. This is shown in table 6.2 on the next page, where the numbers in the table show how much the respondent’s answers differ, and where a high difference between the answers are bolded. A high number indicates higher differences between the respondents in each case. No number indicates any differences between the respondents’ answers.

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Table 6.2: Cross-case Analysis of Differences and/or Similarities Between the Respondents in Each Case

Cases: Factors Saab Scania Pharmacia

Individual- factors: Age 1 1 - Time abroad 1 2 - Keeping up on events at home 1 1 - Willingness to relocate internationally 2 - 2 Expatriation adjustment problems - - - Expatriation adjustment satisfaction - - - Gender - 1 1 Nationality - 3 - Intention to continue overseas 2 2 - Self-management - - - Work & job factors: Role discretion - - 1 Role conflict - - - Role negotiations & role decisions - - - Role clarity 1 1 - Skill utilization - - - Job characteristics - - 2 Job assignment differences 1 - - Organizational factors: Clear policies & practices 3 1 3 Pre-return training 1 - 1 Organization’s attitude 1 1 1 Company size - - 1 Industry type - - - Non-work factors: Social status 2 - 2 Culture differences - 1- - Housing conditions 4 2 - Spouses’ adjustment 1 - -

Clear policies and practices are stated by the repatriate respondent at Saab as determinant for readjustment since it eliminates uncertainty. The management respondent does not agree with this statement since Saab lacks formally stated polices and practices for repatriation, but acknowledges that the importance of this factor might have been overlooked. Housing conditions is the factor with the most obvious difference between the respondents, where the repatriate respondent states housing to be a strong connection to the home country and also reduces uncertainty. The management respondent claims the factor to be of no influence since majority of repatriates have kept their houses during the assignment.

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Furthermore, the greatest deviation between factors at Scania is presented in nationality. The repatriate respondent claims that Americans generally have more difficulties adjusting outside of their country as well as when returning home from an international assignment and that individual from smaller countries are more flexible and unbiased. The management does not see any influence of the factor. The utmost difference within Pharmacia between the respondents is clear policies and practices. The repatriate respondent states the factor as being determinant for the readjustment because its decreases the uncertainty, and where the company should provide some sort of checklist in order to convey appreciation and facilitate the readjustment. The management respondent on the other hand view the factor as less affecting since it has inferior importance compared to satisfactory work position upon return. The greatest divergence between the transportation industry and the contrasting case is role conflict and the degree of differences between job assignments. In the transportation industry role conflict is considered not affecting, while in the contrasting case the factor is viewed as influencing. At Saab it is stated that both the individual and the organization have to jointly work towards a common goal, and at the same time Scania states that existing differences are present and that the individual has the manage these. In the contrasting case of Pharmacia, the repatriate respondent claims the importance of informing the repatriate of possible conflicts due to altered behavior of the individual caused by the stay abroad. The management respondent supports the statement, but push over some responsibility to the repatriate and claims it also up to the individual to adapt to the local situation. Degree of differences between job assignments is viewed as having more influence in the transportation industry compared to the contrasting case. At Saab it is stated that the factor in combination with the individual’s personality generating motivation and in turn ease readjustment. Scania consider that since the position held abroad is often viewed as more positive compared to the position upon return will therefore affect negatively on the readjustment. Opposite to the transportation industry, the contrasting case considers that the position offered upon return will have more influence than the differences between the assignments. The factors least important according to both respondents at Saab are gender, nationality, role conflict, job characteristics and industry type. The factors least influencing according to both respondents at Scania are role conflict, job characteristics, company size. The least influencing factors for the transportation industry are role conflict and job characteristics. None of these factors are considered as having any influence on the repatriation adjustment. In the contrasting case, the factors having least importance for both respondent are age, nationality, job characteristics, degree of differences between job assignments, and industry type. Between the transportation industry and the contrasting case, all three cases ascribe gender, nationality and industry type as having none or less influence on the readjustment.

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6.2 Repatriation program

6.2.1 Within-case analysis In this section we will aim to find similarities and/or dissimilarities between the data that has been collected in the three cases by comparing it with the theories from research question two selected in the conceptual framework. Forming main purpose and strategic functions before the international assignment is described by Black et al (1999) that lacking a planned purpose for the stationing abroad, it is more likely to lose the return of investment in the international assignment and without a strategic purpose the organization sees little advantages through providing extensive attention to potential difficulties concerning the readjustment of the repatriate and family. Management respondent at Saab stated that the company does not form a purpose or strategic functions specific to the repatriation as it is not viewed separate by the organization and admits that the organization can possibly have underestimated the difficulties faced by the individual and his or her family upon return. Additionally, it is explained that although Saab has no written policies and practices the company is aiming to retain and utilize the individual’s knowledge and skills in the best way possible. The repatriate respondent states that no formal guidelines concerning repatriation was not provided by the company and that some form of checklist to go through together with the people responsible for the repatriation to cover the issues that concern the repatriation would have been appreciated. Scania does not have an established purpose and strategic functions separately for the repatriation as the expatriation is viewed as the most affecting adjustment and therefore most resources are allocated to that area according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent stated that he did not receive any guidelines for repatriation and he did not consider the use of it to be of higher importance. The management respondent states that although the organization does not have established guidelines, the purpose is to bring back the repatriate to a satisfactory position and facilitate the best repatriate adjustment possible. Pharmacia has an established policy and clear guidelines concerning the repatriation according to the management respondent, but he also adds that the repatriation preparation should also take into account the softer value of the adjustment and not only handle a simple checklist. The repatriate respondent means that one way of conveying appreciation to the repatriates is through formal repatriation program. After the purpose is established, the repatriation team should be formed. The team’s assignment is to prepare for the return at least six months in advance and should be done by the human resource department and the individual’s mentor in home organization. The mentor is primarily to relocate suitable work positions for the repatriate. (Black et al, 1999b) At Saab the Attract & Retain department, line personnel function and the line manager are involved in the search for a suitable position for the repatriate, according to Mr. Andersson that is initiated six months before. Ms. Christensen, the management respondent clarified that the Attract & Retain department is only involved when a suitable position has been relocated at the repatriate’s home department. The repatriate respondent explains that he would have appreciated more support from these departments. The respondents are supporting the theory. A function consisting of five

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individuals upholding the contact with the repatriate and handling the practical issues concerning the return is present at Scania according to the management respondent and discussions start up in sufficient time before the return. The repatriate respondent expressed no personal need to contact this function. At Pharmacia the repatriation team coordinates functions involved in relocation issues and the home department at Pharmacia is responsible for the relocation for the individual. He adds that the same department initiates the career discussion with the individual prior to return. The repatriate respondent stated that the company provided him with a contact person at home department and administrative assistance. All cases are in accordance to the theory stated by Black et al (1999) Saab does not allocate resources to targeting high risk repatriates according to the management respondent; as repatriation is viewed as of less importance by the organization and the little resources allocated to repatriation only cover equal treatment of repatriates. Scania states to be of the same opinion by the management respondent and he added that the organization encourages the repatriate to make contact if further assistance is needed and that most disappointments of the return are derived from the perceived demotion upon return. In both cases do the respondents falsify the theory presented by Black et al (1999) stating that the company should put more efforts in assisting the repatriates with the most difficulties adjusting and that have been abroad for an extensive time period and thereby are more likely to posses inaccurate perceptions concerning the home country. Pharmacia also stated that the company does not target high-risk repatriates as the issues of readjusting are equal for all and therefore are all cases disagreeing with the theory. Due to the changes that the home country and organization has gone through during the repatriate’s international assignment it is likely that the individual’s perceptions are inaccurate and therefore important for the organization to manage and shape these through accurate and constant information during the assignment. (Black et al, 1999b) The management respondent declares that Saab is in constant communication with the repatriate during the international assignment, but there is no special attention towards this since Saab thinks that the individual is returning to a familiar environment and problems will be smaller. The repatriate respondent at Saab stated that he did not experience any difficulties when readjusting nor expected to since he has previous experience of international assignments and repatriation and that the position was relocated to his home organization. At Scania this is not a formally outlined task performed especially with the repatriates according to the management respondent, but the company work to uphold a constant contact with the individual during the assignment and diminish the inaccurate expectations of both parties. Also the repatriate respondent at Scania mentioned a smoother transition due to previous experiences of repatriation where he had more clear expectations about coming home. At Pharmacia, the repatriate respondent stated that his expectation was over met through the company’s appreciation and utilization of his international experience. Given the statements above, the three cases are in accordance to the theory with smaller deviations.

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Constant communication through establishing home country information sources such as sponsors, home country visits, return training and providing access to newspapers, are according to Black et al (1999) steps to further ease the repatriation. According to the management respondent at Saab, the company provides access to home country visits, e-mail and intranet as well as constant contact with the individual’s superior or mentor in the home organization. The repatriate respondent at Saab stated that he for private matters mainly used the Internet and work related information he got from he former colleges at the home organization. He also added that his superior at his former department functioned as a mentor and that he had one home leave per year, and means that the communication with the home country is important to maintain. The communication is very important to Scania according to the management respondent. It is up to the repatriate to establish a contact with a mentor, but the organization offers access to company newspapers, e-mail, websites, home country visits and social related newspapers and magazines. He also mentioned that the face-to-face contact is the best communication tool and the expatriate gets visits from home organization during the assignment. The repatriate respondent stated that he had little contact with the home organization, a mentor, and one home leave per year and added that it was sufficient. Constant communication is easily accessible at Pharmacia as e-mail, picture telephones, business trips, and mentors are part of the company’s global infrastructure according to both respondents. The repatriate respondent adds that he did have little contact with home organization and did not use the mentor since his American supervisor supplied him with sufficient support. All cases supported the theory. Prepare for home country job and explore repatriate’s opportunity is where the repatriation team together with the repatriate explore the individual’s career path and opportunities and prepare the home country job environment (Black et al, 1999b). At Saab this discussion is initiated by the sending line manager approximately six months prior to the return according to management respondent, Mr. Andersson and Ms. Christensen added that no routines are established for this procedure. The repatriate respondent at Saab stated that little had to be done in this area as the position shifted locations and was established prior to his departure. The Scania repatriate’s previous department responsible for the repatriate initiates career discussions in sufficient time prior to the return aiming to relocate a satisfactory job position before the return of the individual according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent at Scania concurred and added that his current position is a product of his own research throughout the department of Scania. The repatriate’s home department initiates the career discussion to establish the new position prior to the individual’s return according to the management respondent. He further suggested that both management and repatriate have to show humility before the task as the company’ abilities are not endless. The repatriate respondent further adds that he appreciated the career discussion that was done in order to debrief him of his gained knowledge. The theory presented by Black et al (1999) is in accordance to what is stated in all cases. According to Black et al (1999) the company should pay attention to the differences in compensation in- and outside the country, as dissatisfaction with compensation can lead to poor adjustment or repatriates leaving the organization. The authors further stated the

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best way is to evaluate potential inequities between repatriates and home country colleges. Saab is offering two forms of financial contributions to help with such things as the move and fares according to all respondents. At Scania the repatriate is also offered allowance intended to help with the move back to the home country according to both respondents and the management respondent added that the monetary compensations are generally not the root of the difficulties, but the emotional experience of the individual and family. The management respondent at Pharmacia states a “net worth thinking” with international assignments and designing the international assignment packages so that the individual has the same level buying power as in Sweden. The net salary is the same and company does not offer any other financial support. The repatriate respondent added that the company offered assistance with the move, temporary housing, storage of furniture, spouse employment, and daycare and schooling. All cases form financial compensation plans to handle the transition costs as well as differences in buying power and therefore support the theory. Facilitate housing conditions entails the company assisting the repatriate with temporary housing, financing, locating houses, and house-hunting trips during the last months of the assignment abroad to ease a major challenge for the repatriate (Black et al, 1999b) According to both respondents at Saab is this nothing that is aimed at by the organization, as the company tries to design the international assignment package in such manner as the repatriate has been able to keep his or her house. The repatriate respondent means that housing conditions provides a base when returning home and is therefore important. At Scania facilitating housing is occasionally done by locating apartments according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent further explained that as the company offers free housing abroad. It enables the repatriate to keep his or her house and thereby do not have any difficulties concerning housing. At Pharmacia both respondents see it as important and Pharmacia provides “house-hunting” trips before the return home. The cases agree with the theory to some extent. The company should also provide support groups or informal meetings to enable the repatriate and family to share and exchange experiences with other repatriates and families, as it will offer an important for the company (Black et al, 1999b). The repatriate at Saab are seldom posted abroad alone and they have naturally formed a social network according to the management respondent, compensating for the lack of organized support groups for both repatriate and family provided by the company. The repatriate respondent expressed no need for support groups since his return was not dramatic. The management respondent at Scania states that the company offered a repatriation seminar as support activity for both the repatriate and spouse and that the management encourages the repatriate to contact the personnel department if more support is needed. The repatriate respondent stated that he did not see it as necessary to attend. The management respondent at Pharmacia stated that they do not offer seminars anymore as the numbers of repatriates have decreased. The support offered is work and administrative related, such as taxes, pensions, and banking. He further added that the company to the best of its abilities occasionally brought cars or animals home. The repatriate respondent states that he did not receive groups support activities and discussed the international experience with his home department manager. The theory is only supported by Scania to its full

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extent. Upon return many thing need handling by the repatriate and spouse and therefore should the company allow the repatriate time off and, planning for “down time”, and keep the repatriate from working at once (Black et al, 1999b). No policies or guidelines exist at Saab and that it is up to the individual to decide together with the local department according to both respondents and the repatriate stated that he did not see it as necessary. Scania does not provide guidelines for eventual “down time” and such a decision is made by the repatriate and local department according to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent added that he had not experienced any disadvantages from beginning at once. The issues are not regulated at Pharmacia, as the home environment is familiar to the individual according to the management respondent. He further stated that it is up to the individual together with the home department to decide whether or not “down time” is necessary. The repatriate respondent supported the statement and suggested that instant start is beneficiary as it provides routines and opportunity to adjust to the new work environment. None of the cases are in accordance to the theory. To facilitate the adjustment the company has to show appreciation of the work carried out and international experience gained by the repatriate as well as caring for the spouse and family (Black et al, 1999b). According to the management respondent at Saab appreciation a matter of significance and is shown through the continuous dialogue during the assignment decreasing the drama of repatriation. The repatriate respondent stated that he perceived himself to be valued by the company, but expressed a need for increased attention towards the family’s adjustment as him work performance is dependent on the well being of the family. Appreciation can be difficult to convey to all repatriates according to the management respondent at Scania, as the repatriates dissatisfied with the new position and thereby the repatriation are not respectable to the efforts made by the company to show appreciation for those repatriates. The repatriate respondent expressed satisfaction with the appreciation shown by the company and added that he does not consider extensive support at repatriation to be abundant. The management respondent at Pharmacia indicated a neutral opinion of conveying extra attention to repatriates and spouse as all employees within the organization are treated equal. The company must recognize the vital experience of the repatriate together with the often-associated personal characteristics of the individuals as self-managing and resourceful. All cases support the theory.

6.2.1 Cross-case analysis In this section we will use tables do demonstrate the similarities and/or dissimilarities between the three cases. Table 6.3 shows the different steps of repatriation program presented of Black et al (1999) and if the different cases include these steps and view them as important to include. We have coded the words from the data collected in chapter five into symbols to easier visualize the answers and the definition of these symbols is presented below, followed by Table 6.3.

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- - indicates not included step and where the respondent does not see it as important - + indicates not included step and where the respondent sees it as important + + indicates included step and where the respondent sees it as important + - indicates included step and where the respondent does not see it as important 00 indicates no expressed opinion by the respondent

Table 6.3: Cross-case Analysis of Repatriation Program

SAAB Scania Pharmacia Program: Manager Repatriate Manager Repatriate Manager Repatriate Main purpose and strategic functions

- + - + - + - - + + + + Establish a repatriation team

+ + + + + + - - + + + + Target high risk expatriates

- - 00 - - 00 - - 00

Manage expectations with accurate inform.

+ - + + + + + - + + + + Constant communication + + + + + + + - + + + - Prepare for home country job

+ + + + + + + - + + + + Financial compensation package

+ + + + + - + - + + + + Facilitate housing conditions

- - - + + - - + + + + + Provide support groups - + - - + + - - + + - + Planning for “down time”

- - - - - - - - - - - - Appreciate the repatriate and spouse

+ + + + + + + + + + + +

In the transportation industry the management respondents of both cases show an overall similar pattern of responds except for facilitate housing conditions and provide support groups. The management respondents’ state identical importance of the two steps, but Saab does not include them in the repatriation program. The greatest deviations between the transportation industries are promotion and closing the gap between expectations and reality, financial compensation, and manage expectations. The interviewed repatriates in both transportation industry cases have more dissimilarity between them than the manager interviewees. The overall pattern of the two is that the Saab repatriate states a greater positivistic view of the steps than the repatriate at Scania. The largest difference is shown concerning establishing a repatriation team where the repatriate at Saab is stating experience and importance of the step to the readjustment opposite to the repatriate at Scania, who states neither experience or any importance of this step, where he further expressed that he felt no need to contact this department. In the case of Pharmacia, both respondents have a majority of similarities between their responds. Both generally view in general that the steps have been experienced and have

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an importance for the repatriation adjustment. In the stage of constant communication the repatriate respondent states no importance of including the step which is opposite to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent had little contact with the home organization during the international assignment and further did not utilize the mentor provided to him. Between the transportation industry and the contrasting case of Pharmacia, the overall pattern indicates more similarities between the management respondents in all three cases. The repatriate respondents have more divergences between their responses, where the repatriate at Scania claims less importance of each step since the overall attitude is that repatriation is not significant and is not important to put time and efforts into. The greatest deviations between the responds is in the steps facilitate housing conditions and provide support groups, where the contrasting case view these steps as having greater importance by both Scania respondents opposite to the respondents in the transportation industry. After analyzing the repatriation program across the cases, we will further demonstrate in a table the differences between the management respondent and the repatriate respondent in each case to make it easier to see patterns. These differences are shown in Table 6.4 below. The answers from the data collected are coded into symbols described as follows: + expressed the same opinion - expressed different opinions Table 6.4: Cross-case Analysis of Differences and/or Similarities Between the Respondent in Each Case

CaseProgram Saab Scania Pharmacia Main purpose and strategic functions + - + Establish a repatriation team + - + Target high risk expatriates - - - Manage expectations with accurate inform. + - + Constant communication + - - Prepare for home country job + - + Financial compensation package + + + Facilitate housing conditions - - + Provide support groups - - + Planning for “down time” + + + Appreciate the repatriate and spouse + - +

In Saab’s case, a majority of the steps have corresponding answers from both respondents and where the steps are overall positive from both respondents. Facilitate housing conditions is viewed by the repatriate respondent as being important even though he did not need any assistance in this matter. The management respondent did on the opposite

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not view this step as important as the company provide financial compensation facilitating the repatriate to keep their houses. Provide support groups is not included in Saab’s repatriation program, but the management respondents claims it to be of importance as he acknowledge that the informal social network formed by the repatriate will function as a substitute for what the company provides, and where Saab might have underestimated the importance of this step. Further more managing expectations is considered by the management respondent to be done through the constant communication during the international assignment, and thereby the company does not consider it important to manage expectations any further. In Scania’s case, the respondents disagree on the majority of the steps, where the repatriate respondent views fewer steps as important compared to the management respondent. The repatriate respondent is of the opinion that the issues concerning the return to the home country are dispensable. In the step of facilitating housing conditions the repatriate respondent deviates from his overall pattern and state the step to be important although it was not included in his repatriation.

6.3 Benefits of repatriation

6.3.1 Within-case analysis In this section we will aim to find similarities and/or dissimilarities between the data that has been collected in the three cases by comparing it with the theories selected in the conceptual framework. First we will analyze the benefits that can be withdrawn by the individual from a successful repatriation based on the repatriate respondents’ answers, and after that analyzing the benefits that the company can derive from a positive repatriation based on the management respondent’s answers. A positive repatriation adjustment can lead to career development and opportunities for the individual (Bonache et al, 2001; and Linehan & Scullion, 2002), where taking in international assignment is viewed as the most important long-term concern for the individual (Yan et al, 2002; and Feldman, 1991). Further Fish et al (1994) and Scullion & Brewster (2001) state that successful repatriation management leads to broader, more informed and more diversified career path. The repatriate respondent at Saab claims this benefit as being very important since the career discussions provides a deeper understanding for both parties and thereby the possibilities to develop the career path for the individual has a greater potential. The repatriate respondent at Scania states that his current position was offered to him due to his previous international assignment and therefore views this benefit as high. At Pharmacia, the repatriate interviewee cannot express any opinion. Although, he acknowledged that this benefit can be viewed as important since an international assignment provides the individual with a competitive advantage. All three cases support the theory. Promotion is a further reason of taking on international assignment for the individual according to Tung (1988), and international assignments offer greater possibilities for promotion (Linehan, et al, 2002). At Saab the respondent claims it to be a benefit of less importance since the aim is not climbing the ladder, but instead obtain international

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experiences and challenging task. The respondent at Scania views this as having great importance, since his international assignment has provided him with a more challenging work position with increased salary and more privileged existence. The respondent at Pharmacia has no wish of making an executive career and state the benefit as having lower importance, and that acknowledge the importance to relate to the individuals’ career ambitious. All three respondents support the theory but put different emphasis on the benefit. Perceived themselves to be valued by the company, where the company supports and shows commitment to the individual to retain him or her in the organization, and where this benefit will further increase the motivation of the individual (Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999). This benefit is stated as important by the respondent at Saab. This benefit should always be present in the company and should not be specifically tied to repatriation separately. The individual’s confidence will increase every time the company values him or her. The respondent at the Scania states that the company always strives to provide positive experiences to the repatriate and that he claims the benefit of being of great importance. The respondent at Pharmacia view this benefit as very important since each individual has a need of being valued by the company, and where the actions taken by the company at repatriation generates more and better attention to the repatriate. All three cases are in accordance to the theory. Make use of new international skills and knowledge is a benefit as it provides a further reason for the company to integrate the individual’s new international skills and combine it with the individual’s long-term career opportunities and make sure that the repatriate stays within the company, leading to more satisfied individuals (Feldman, 1991; and Yan et al, 2002). This benefit is viewed as very important according to the respondent at Saab where the discussions before the return to the home country is aiming at examine the individual’s new capabilities and how these can be best utilized within the company and provide the individual with satisfied work position. The respondent at Scania means that being exposed to new situations, cultures, and people where the possibilities to utilize those experiences are offered will increase the individual’s confidence, and thereby view the benefit of high importance. The respondent at Pharmacia states that there is a risk that the company is creating positions in order to satisfy the repatriate without considering the importance to the company, and where hastily created positions will in the long run lead to dissatisfied repatriates. He further claims this benefit to have high importance but emphasizes the importance of examining the fit between the individual’s knowledge and the demand within the organization. The theory is supported in the case of Pharmacia. Faster integration and minimize frustration is according to Linehan & Scullion (2002); Harvey (1989); and Scullion & Brewster (2001) a benefit that is obtained through company’s assists and thereby ease the readjustment and minimizing frustration The respondent at Saab claims it to be of great importance as it is important to eliminate the different factors influencing readjustment and the individual as well as the company have to work together to obtain this. At Scania the respondent states it to be of smaller important since the respondent expresses little understanding in how a repatriation program will decrease frustration and facilitate integration for the individual, and where

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the repatriate should possess the capabilities of adapting to new environments. The respondents at Pharmacia and Saab stated that clear guidelines and policies smooth the integration and minimize frustration. All cases support the theory, even though the respondent at Scania views the benefit as having lower importance. Job satisfaction is a benefit that can be derived from the manner in which the company has acknowledged the interrelation between the family’s readjustment and that of the repatriate. The successful readjustment of the family will have a significant impact on the repatriate’s satisfaction when returning to the home country. (Fish et al, 1994; Harvey, 1989; and Yan et al, 2002) At Saab the benefit derived from the repatriation is stated to be important and that job satisfaction is equally important independent of previous assignment experiences. The benefit is acknowledged as less important at Scania since the respondent views job satisfaction not solely dependent on successful repatriation. At Pharmacia the interviewee’s opinion of the benefit is important and concerning all position and not only the repatriates. The cases exhibit support of the theory but each case presents a broader view of the benefit. Closing the gap between expectations and reality will lead to fewer surprises for the individual upon return. By providing repatriates with accurate expectations concerning work positions and general environment will also increase the commitment to the company. (Stroh et al, 1998) This is the greatest benefit stated by the respondent at Saab since it minimizes the misunderstandings and frustrations. The respondent at Scania views it as an important benefit since the individual have to possess realistic expectations of the return. The benefit is considered as very important by the interviewee at Pharmacia and motivates the importance the same way as the respondent at Saab. The cases clearly indicate accordance to the theory. Organizational benefits: Integrate culturally and organizationally is a benefit generated from addressing the issues and paying attention to eliminating or decreasing the repatriation problems of the individual as well as the organization. The benefit includes issues concerning more strategic integration of international cross-cultural, individual, and organizational career theory, planning and management. (Fish et al, 1994) At Saab the respondent states that the benefit is of less importance since constant communication exists within the company the need for cultural and organizational update is not applicable to the company. The respondent at Scania states that the benefit is a way to reinforce the company structure and thereby has the benefit great importance. This benefit is claimed to have great importance by the respondent at Pharmacia, since the repatriation facilitate an optimal utilization of the individual’s knowledge within the organization. All cases concur with the theory. By closing the gap between expectations and reality for the individual through support and assistance, the company enhances the repatriate commitment to the company (Stroh et al, 1998). The interviewee at Saab acknowledges the benefit as important since it decreases the potential difficulties of readjustment. Also at Scania the benefit is important and the respondent adds that inaccurate expectations by the individual upon return are

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potentially cause of dissatisfied repatriates. The respondent at Pharmacia mentions the benefit as very important, and that these inaccurate expectations should be managed at an early state. Given the statement above all cases are in accordance to the theory. Developing global managers for competitive advantage is important for companies operating internationally, where the major tool for obtaining the advantage is through international assignments. It is therefore essential to handle the returning individual in a manner that enhances the company’s competitive advantage. (Riusala et al, 2000; Tung, 1988; and Bonache et al, 2001) The response of the respondents at Saab is in accordance to the theory, since the interviewees consider the benefit to be vital to the growth of the company and also a part of the main purpose of the international assignment. At Scania the benefit is seen as very important but the respondent was not able to motivate the assigned importance of the benefit particularly to Scania. The interviewed manager at Pharmacia states the benefit as vital. Due to the company’s global structure of individuals with international skills to support the company goals is needed. The two later statements from Scania and Pharmacia also concur with theory. Retain and ensure valuable skills are important for the company in today’s increasingly competitive market place. Utilizing the repatriate’s international skills is an effective way to develop and retain cross-border business experts. (Bender et al, 2000) Failing to acknowledge the importance of retaining and ensure valuable skills lead to international knowledge going to waste (Riusala et al, 2000; Fish & Wood, 1994; and Bonache et al 2001). At Saab the benefit is viewed as a part of the main purpose for repatriation programs and therefore the respondent states it as a vital benefit. The case of Scania is compatible to the theory as the respondent declares the benefit as significantly important. He further proclaims retention of knowledge within the organization as an enlarging factor of the individual and company growth. The benefit is stated as critical by the respondent at Pharmacia since the company is attempting to maintain global presence and in turn actively aspire to increase the competences and experiences within the organization. All cases comply with the theory. Attracting potential expatriates for the future is a benefit that companies are dependent on for the continuing enhancement of the company’s international competitive advantage (Harvey, 1989) By paying attention to repatriation the company attracts potential employees from other companies through their positive image as a attentive organization towards their employee (Riusala et al, 2000; and Linehan et al, 2002). The respondent at Saab declares the benefit as important and that today the company does experience applicants turning to Saab to gain a good international experience. The repatriates generally expresses satisfaction concerning the company’s international assignments, according to the manager interviewed at Scania. This promotes the company’s image conveyed to its surroundings and ultimately attracts potential employees. In the case of Pharmacia, the respondent proclaims the benefit as very important, since Pharmacia then possesses a competitive advantage attracting outside individuals when other companies are rejected in favor of Pharmacia. The three cases are in compliance to the theory. Due to the high costs of international assignments (Black & Gregersen, 1999), poor

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repatriation leads to low return on human investment (Peak, 1997). Losing the repatriates involve being deprived of valuable international human resources as well as actual money (Peak, 1997), and therefore effective repatriation is needed to create higher productivity and lower turnover among repatriates (Feldman, 1997) All cases show the benefit to be important and thereby in consistency with the theories. At Saab, the interviewed manager acknowledges that a failure generate risk of loosing the investment to a competitor. The investment at Scania is not put into the individual but in the assignment according to the respondent and that the value generated from the investment is preserved in the host organization’s structure. The respondent at Pharmacia expresses that repatriation is seen as a part of a long process that Pharmacia bases the operations on that therefore Pharmacia has not examined whether or not return on investment is made concerning repatriation. Developing a pool of global knowledge is a fundamental stipulation for becoming international and by utilizing the repatriate’s skills a pool of knowledge will be created (Bonache et al, 2001), which consists of valuable international experiences for the company (Gregersen, 1991). This pool of employees is capable of understanding the work settings of both the company and the overseas operations, where they provide a critical coordination and control functions in the home organization out to local operations (Linehan & Scullion, 2002; Lasarova & Caligiuri, 2001; and Stroh et al, 1998). The respondent at Saab declares this benefit as less important since the company already has a global orientation with many nationalities and positions and is constantly renewing the knowledge pool without any special concern for the repatriate. At Scania the interviewee claims that the benefit of great substance where the benefit will be obtained when the repatriate is debriefed and when the organization detects possible knowledge to utilize for the enhancement of the company. This benefit is equally important for Pharmacia as the benefit of developing global managers for competitive advantage stated by the respondent. Pharmacia wants to endorse multicultural characteristics and is consequently not benefited from a homogenous group of employees. All of the cases above support the theory to some extent. Performance efficiency by the repatriate will lead to increased effectiveness for the organization (Harvey, 1989; and Hurn, 1999), and where the skills and experiences acquired abroad creates a higher productivity and lower turnover (Feldman, 1991). In the case of Saab the respondent does not view this benefit to be of high importance since they consider that all employees within the company should have high performance efficiency. The respondent at Scania means that overly attentive of the repatriates do not endorse performance efficiency. These individuals have further strong personalities where it is not possible to force efficiency. Performance efficiency is not generated from repatriation according to the respondent at Pharmacia, and gives the benefit an inferior importance. There is an inconsistency between the cases and the theory. Job loyalty and commitment is a benefit derived when the repatriate believes that the international assignment has generated a progress in the work position and therefore expresses greater intentions to remain within the organization (Lazarova & Caligiuri, 2001). The respondent at Saab declares the benefit as highly important and the benefit is

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amplified every time the organization shows appreciation and value towards the repatriate. At Scania this benefit is stated to be of equal importance as performance efficiency, and where this benefit should not be the major benefit to strive for in repatriation adjustment. The benefit is seen as important for the interviewed at Pharmacia since successful repatriation generates increased commitment of the individual. The theory is supported by all three cases.

6.3.2 Cross-case analysis In this section we will use two tables to demonstrate the similarities and/or dissimilarities between the three cases concerning the benefits with repatriation. Table 6.5 shows the different individual benefits presented by the authors from the conceptual framework. We have furthermore coded the words into symbols based on the repatriates’ answers from the data collected, and the definitions of these symbols are presented below, followed by Table 6.5. 1- not important benefit of repatriation 2 less important benefit of repatriation 3 important benefit of repatriation 4 very important benefit of repatriation

5 main benefit of repatriation

Table 6.5: Cross-case Analysis of Benefits of Repatriation for the Individual

CasesBenefits Saab Scania Pharmacia Career development 4 4 3 Promotion 2 4 2 Perceived to be valued by the company 3 4 4 Make use of knowledge and skills 4 4 4 Faster integration & minimize frustration 4 2 4 Job satisfaction 3 2 3 Closing gap between expectations & reality 5 3 4

Individual benefits: The repatriate respondent at Saab indicates an unevenly distributed importance of the benefits of readjustment. The largest difference is between the promotion benefit and closing the gap between expectations and reality. The promotion benefit is stated as being the comparatively least important since that is not the aim when accepting the international assignment. Instead he wanted the challenge and experience. The most important benefit is closing the gap between expectations and reality as it reduces the confusion and frustration.

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At Scania the interviewed has a more even distribution of the assigned importance of the benefits putting emphasizes on the career-oriented benefits. He is seeing his current work position as a result of the international assignment that has provided him with more challenging work, higher salary, and more privileged existence. The responses from the repatriates in the transportation industry show an even more leveled distribution of the importance of benefits than shown in the two cases separately. The attention is on career development and opportunities make use of knowledge and skills, and closing the gap between the expectations and reality. The respondent at Saab expresses that career development and opportunities are facilitated by the deeper understanding of repatriate’s knowledge, changes and opportunities within the organization gained through the career discussions during the assignment. The repatriate at Saab acknowledges the importance of make use of knowledge and skills through discussion and locating the best possible manner to utilize the individual’s skills and knowledge. The repatriate respondent at Scania supports the above statement by Saab, and adds that the benefit increases the individual’s competitive advantage and confidence. Scania’s repatriate states closing the gap between expectations and reality in the same way as Saab’s repatriate, but adds that the individual also has to have realistic expectations about coming home. In the case of Pharmacia, the responses indicate an even allocation between the importance of the benefits, but where the promotion benefit is viewed as comparatively least important since he personally had no wish on climbing the corporate ladder when taking on the assignment. The most important benefits of repatriation are perceived to be valued by the company, make use of knowledge and skills, faster integration and minimize frustration, and closing gap between expectations and reality. The importance is dependent on the company’s ability to convey its appreciation to the individual, match and utilize the repatriate’s skills and knowledge, providing clear guidelines to ease the transition, and minimize potential misunderstandings. Between the transportation industry and the contrasting case of Pharmacia, the table exhibits a small difference in assigned importance of the benefits where the contrasting case in average states a higher importance, but slightly larger range of distribution. The benefits viewed equally important are make use of knowledge and skills and closing gap between expectations and reality. The pattern shows small differences between the transportation industry and the contrasting case, but the comparatively largest difference is seen in the promotion benefit, where the contrasting case and Saab view the benefit of less importance due to the repatriate’s inactive search for executive career. In this section we will analyze the similarities and/or differences between the organizational benefits and between the cases based on the management answers. This is shown in Table 6.6 in the same way as with the individual benefits and with the same coding system as for the individual benefits.

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Table 6.6: Cross-case Analysis of Benefits of Repatriation for the Organization

CasesBenefits

Saab Scania Pharmacia

Integrate culturally & organizationally 2 4 4

Closing gap between expectations & reality 3 3 4

Develop global managers for competitive advantage 5 4 5

Retain & ensure valuable skills 5 5 5

Attract future expatriates 3 3 4

Return on investment 3 3 3

Develop pool of global knowledge 2 4 5

Performance efficiency 2 2 2

Job loyalty & commitment 4 2 3

Organizational benefits: The overall pattern of the management respondent at Saab indicates a large range of assigned importance, where the most important benefits are develop global managers for competitive advantage and retain and ensure valuable skills. The basic idea of the international assignment at Saab is to enhance the company’s growth and where the main purpose with repatriation is to retain the individual’s valuable skills. The benefits of having least importance are integrate culturally and organizationally, develop pool of global knowledge, and performance efficiency. Through constant communication, a multicultural company and where all employees have equal expectations from the company, these benefits are of less importance. In the case of Scania the general pattern shows a more even distribution between ascribed importances. The most important benefit is retain and ensure valuable skills where the importance of the benefit is dependent on the value the company assigns the repatriate’s international skills. Furthermore, this benefit is important since it promote the company’s and the individual’s growth. The least important benefits are performance efficiency and job loyalty and commitment. To use repatriation program to promote performance efficiency is not beneficial for the company since repatriates generally have strong personalities. Job loyalty and commitment should not be the optimal benefit of repatriation according to the respondent at Scania. The transportation industry cases indicate on average a high distribution of benefit importance. In both cases developing global managers as competitive advantage and

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retain and ensure valuable skills are seen as most important. The least important benefit of the cases is performance efficiency. The table further shows largest deviation in the response concerning integrate culturally and organizationally, develop pool of global knowledge, and job loyalty and commitment. The management respondent at Scania sees integrate culturally and organizationally as very important as a way to enhance the company’s structure by utilizing the multicultural knowledge and skills in a correct manner. Furthermore, Scania states that develop pool of global knowledge are important and obtained when the company discovers possible skills and knowledge to enhance the company. At Saab the respondent declares job loyalty and commitment as very important since one aim with repatriation program is to tie the repatriate closer to the company. The average pattern in the case of Pharmacia indicates a higher assigned importance of the benefit, where the most important benefits are develop global managers for competitive advantage, retain and ensure valuable skills and develop pool of knowledge. Due to the company’s global presence there is a need of individuals with international skill and capabilities to support the goal of the company, and where repatriation is a part of the long term operations to promote multicultural employees. Performance efficiency is the least important benefit where efficiency should not be exclusive for repatriation but to the whole organization. The contrasting case is generally more positive towards the benefits compared to the transportation industry. All cases state developing global managers for competitive advantage and retain and ensure valuable skills as comparatively most important, and where performance efficiency is the comparatively least important benefit. The comparatively largest difference between the transportation industry and the contrasting case is the benefit develop pool of global knowledge, where the contrasting case sees the benefit of higher importance.

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Conclusions and Implications

7 Conclusions and Implications After analyzing the data collected in the previous chapter, this final chapter will present the main findings and conclusions based on our research concerning repatriation First each research question will be discussed and the conclusions presented. After that the overall conclusions of this research will be presented. Finally, implications for theory, future research, and management are presented.

7.1 Conclusions The purpose of the conclusions is to answer the research questions stated in chapter one and in order to do so each research question is answered separately. Through these conclusions, the research purpose stated in chapter one is being reached since the research purpose was “to gain a better understanding of repatriation”. The conclusions stated in this chapter are only valid on our presented sample.

7.1.1 How can factors affecting repatriation be described? The research shows only small variations between the cases concerning assigned influence of the factors. Instead the response differences lay between the repatriate and the manager within each case where the repatriate generally assigns the factors higher importance. These differences can be assumed to be derived from the fact that the repatriate is the one who has experienced the factors and their influence in real life, and the management is only making an estimation of how highly the factors can influence repatriation. When examining the different factor categories, the cases show factors concerning the aspects of the social environment of the repatriates are generally allocated greater significance. Perhaps this is due to the repatriate’s frame of reference is altered during an extensive stay abroad and when returning home the repatriate’s behavior is no longer correctly applicable to the home country standards, which generates frustration. Furthermore, the research designates adjustment of spouses and family to be the single greatest factor affecting repatriation. The family is functioning as a support for the repatriate both inside and outside the home country and has therefore a strong influence on the readjustment for the repatriate. There is a relationship between the repatriate and the family, and where the family’s readjustment will spill over on the repatriate. Negative readjustment of the family will influence the repatriate negatively. The research also indicates that self-management is important to a successful repatriation. It is important that the individual possesses capabilities to deal with new situations and take control over matters, and where the individuals cannot assume that the company will take care of every aspect of the repatriation. Additionally, skill utilization is the main benefit of repatriation, and the growth of the company as well as in the individual’s self-confidence will generate a successful repatriation. Finally, the research shows that gender does not have influence on the success of repatriation.

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Conclusions and Implications

After the discussion of research question one, we have come to the following conclusions:

Factors that influence repatriation are not related to industry Repatriates assign more importance to the factors than managers Social oriented factors more influencing on the success of repatriation The spouses’ adjustment influences the success of repatriation Self-management generates successful repatriation Skill utilization promotes individual and company growth Gender is not determinant for a successful repatriation

7.1.2 How can repatriation program be described? Based on our research, it is shown that within the transportation industry formal repatriation programs with clear guidelines and practices dealing with repatriation do not exist. Furthermore, no formal main purpose of repatriation is stated. In these cases repatriation is not seen as a separate function, and the expatriation phase has more extensive and developed guidelines and more resources are allocated. Although the cases in the transportation industry have no formal purpose of repatriation, the aim is to retain and utilize the repatriate’s international knowledge with a position that will satisfy and improve both the individual and the company. In the contrasting case where a formal main purpose is developed and policies and guidelines are established, there is an opinion that softer values of repatriation must also be taken into account. The research further shows that the cases have not established special repatriation department to handle all issues concerning the return home. The departments that take care of the different aspects of repatriation at the companies are mostly dealing with the practical questions concerning the move back to the home country and with administrative issues. In many practical concerns related to repatriation, the companies use outside consultants to some extent to take care of certain repatriation questions such as taxation, pensions and banking, since the consultants have more expertise in these areas. The career discussions with the repatriate are done with the respective line manager or department where the aim is to find a satisfactory and fulfilling position for the repatriate before he or she returns. The career discussions cannot begin too early during the international assignment, since there is a large possibility that changes might have occurred in the organization, and therefore such discussions are generally initiated approximately six months before return to the home country. During the international assignment communication with the repatriate is mostly sustained through mail, but since the best communication is face-to-face, home visits are provided to the repatriate as well as visits from the home organization. The research further shows that there is little emphasis on providing support groups or other meetings where the repatriates have the possibility to exchange and share experiences. Instead the research shows the existence of more informal channels of debriefings for the repatriate through supervision and co-workers.

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Conclusions and Implications

From the above findings of research question two, we have concluded the following:

A formal repatriation program is not necessary for successful repatriation There are differences between industries in forming and developing formal main

objectives for repatriation The repatriation program’s layout and design do not differ by industry Increased family attention will increase the success of the repatriation Debriefings about repatriates’ experiences do not have to be formal Constant face to face communication is the best way to manage inaccurate

expectations

7.1.3 How can benefits of repatriation be described? The individual benefits that can be derived from a successful repatriation that are examined in this research, indicate that when accepting an international assignment the individual’s aim is not to be promoted. Instead the international assignment is seen as an experience where the individual will acquire additional knowledge that can be utilized back home in a satisfactory way for the individual. The study further shows that by minimizing misunderstandings through the company’s actions through conveying an accurate picture of the return to the home country is viewed as very important and will facilitate repatriation. From these statements we have come to the following conclusions concerning the individual benefits of repatriation:

The most important benefit for repatriates is to utilize their skills Promotion is not the aim of international assignments for individuals Reduced inaccurate expectations will facilitate the success of repatriation

The organizational benefits examined in this research question show a pattern of equal importance among the cases. All cases examined operate on an international market and hence the importance of maintaining and developing individuals with international skills and knowledge is one way for company growth. Therefore retaining and utilizing the repatriates’ newly gained international knowledge to enhance both the company and the repatriates are parts of the aim with repatriation. Also utilizing this new knowledge to develop global managers is an important benefit and a big part of the purpose of the international assignment. However, the study shows that job loyalty and commitment, and performance efficiency are benefits not only derived from successful repatriation and these benefits have equal importance regardless of prior assignments. As an outcome of the above discussion it can be concluded that:

Job loyalty and commitment as well as performance efficiency are benefits not exclusively derived from successful repatriation

Organizational benefits are not related to industry The most important purpose of repatriation is to retain and ensure valuable skills Development of global managers is an important part of the purpose of

international assignment

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Conclusions and Implications

7.1.4 Overall conclusions The overall purpose of this thesis is “to gain a better understanding of repatriation”. The findings and conclusions from the three research questions above have provided the foundation of better understanding. The research shows that international assignments are used to develop and expand the company and where retaining and utilizing the repatriate’s knowledge and skills is the main purpose of repatriation in order to achieve these company goals. Even though all examined companies attempt to convey appreciation of the repatriate there are clear indications that the expatriation phase is still superior and of more importance and where more resources are allocated. In the same way as the respondents state that repatriation is an important stage of the international assignment, there is an underlying opinion that returning home is not so much to paid attention to, regarding time and resources. None of the repatriates expressed any larger problems when coming home and it is also the repatriates that mainly state the non-important attention to repatriation. Furthermore, the data analyzed shows that the experiences of repatriation are much dependent on the individual and his or her experiences about repatriation. The individuals sent on international assignments possess strong capabilities of self-sufficiency and have the capabilities of taking own initiatives and decisions to master new situations and take them under control. The individuals have further inquisitive personality and want to be exposed to and acquire new experiences of new environments. Our overall conclusions to the study derived from the above discussion are stated as follows:

Companies focus less on the repatriation stage than the expatriation stage of international assignments

To retain and ensure valuable skills is the main purpose of repatriation The outcome of repatriation is dependent on the subjective experience of the

repatriate International assignments are used to improve and strengthen the home company

7.2 Implications In order to conclude and tie our research together, we will in this last section provide some recommendations for theory, future research, and management based on our conclusions.

7.2.1 Implications for theory Our overall purpose with this study was “to gain a deeper understanding of repatriation” by answering our research questions. To be able to reach this purpose and answer the research questions we have examined three international companies, two in the transportation industry and one in the pharmaceutical industry, and how these companies view the issue of repatriation. Our study has been foremost exploratory and descriptive since we have gained a better understanding and knowledge about repatriation. Further, we have through the data collected described factors influencing repatriation, repatriation program, and benefits of repatriation. Finally, our study has been to some extent explanatory since we have started to explain and draw some conclusions on each research question from our findings about repatriation.

105

Conclusions and Implications

7.2.2 Implications for future research During this study of repatriation we have encountered some areas related to repatriation that we think would benefit from further research. These recommendations for future research are based on both the earlier reviewed literature and from the drawn conclusions.

The spouses’ readjustment influence repatriation and should therefore be examined more and how the families’ readjustment can be improved.

Do research on a larger sample to investigate how strong the subjectivity is and how much repatriation differs between individuals.

Investigate how repatriation can be more customized since it has been shown that the experience of repatriation is much dependent on the individual.

The research on benefits that can be derived from repatriation is very limited, and therefore more research is needed to examine and spot these and how they can be better accomplished.

Since this study has examined how executives experience the repatriation phase, it would be of interest to see if the executive role has any impact on repatriation or if repatriation is related to the designed job assignment abroad.

Since our research is based on male respondents, future research on female repatriation would therefore be interesting in order to detect any differences between the genders.

7.2.3 Implications for management From our study concerning the activities surrounding repatriation and issues related to the area it is shown that companies are putting attention to the repatriation stage and try to convey support and appreciation to the repatriates and utilize the repatriates’ knowledge in the best possible way upon return. The study also detects some areas where increased attention would be beneficiary and where managers should focus their resources on and therefore we give the following recommendations to managers dealing with repatriation:

The family is very important for the readjustment since they function as support both in- and outside the company. Including the family in the repatriation will ease the readjustment of the employee since the well being of the family is highly influencing the satisfaction, both socially and professionally.

Utilizing the repatriate’s knowledge gained abroad and follow up the repatriate upon return will enhance both the individual and the company, and thereby tying the repatriates closer to the company by conveying interest and support

The research questions examined indicate that the opinions of repatriation are subjective and where the individual’s experience of the return to the home country has a strong influence. Therefore formal customized repatriation programs would be beneficial, where the individuals’ preferences easier will be satisfied, and thereby creating more satisfaction and motivation to perform, and where the repatriates will appreciate the company more that in turn can lead to higher commitment to the organization

106

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Tommy Gustavsson, Competation Benefit Manager at Pharmacia, 2002-12-04 Lars Ryding, repatriate at Pharmacia, 2002-12-05 Websites: www.saab.com 2003-01-08 www.scania.se 2003-01-08 www.pharmacia.se 2003-01-08 www.pharmacia.com 2003-01-08

Interview guide (English version) Appendix A

Appendix A – Interview guide (English version) Interview guide for the repatriate Name Position during, and after the international assignment Country and time abroad With or without family Time back home Previous international experiences Factors What factors affect the repatriation, why and how much? Individual factors: Age Time abroad Keeping up with events at home Willingness to relocate internationally Expatriation adjustment problems Expatriation adjustment satisfaction Gender Nationality Intention to continue with international assignment Self-management Work and job factors: Role discretion Role conflict Role negotiations and role decisions Role clarity Skill utilization Job characteristics (e.g. function, directly from school, and high level position) Job assignment differences Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices Pre-return training Organization’s attitude Company size Industry type Non-work factors: Social status Culture differences Housing conditions

Interview guide (English version) Appendix A

Spouses’ adjustment Additional factors Program How did the company’s repatriate program offered to you look like? Main purpose and strategic functions Establish a repatriation team Target high risk expatriates Manage expectations with accurate information Constant communication Prepare for home country job Financial compensation package Facilitate housing conditions Provide support groups Planning for “down time” Appreciate the repatriate and spouse Benefits What benefits do you see for the individual with successful repatriation? Career development and opportunities Promotion Perceived themselves to be valued by the company Make use lf the new international skills and knowledge Faster integration into the home environment and minimizing frustration Job satisfaction Closing the gap between the expectation and reality Additional benefits

Interview guide (English version) Appendix A

Interview guide for the manager Name Position in the company Number of expatriates sent abroad the last five years, and to which countries Turnover rate among repatriates compared to those staying at home Factors What factors affect the repatriation, why and how much? Individual factors: Age Time abroad Keeping up with events at home Willingness to relocate internationally Expatriation adjustment problems Expatriation adjustment satisfaction Gender Nationality Intention to continue with international assignment Self-management Work and job factors: Role discretion Role conflict Role negotiations and role decisions Role clarity Skill utilization Job characteristics (e.g. function, directly from school, and high level position) Job assignment differences Organizational factors: Clear policies and practices Pre-departure training Organization’s attitude Company size Industry type Non-work factors: Social status Culture differences Housing conditions Spouses’ adjustment Additional factors

Interview guide (English version) Appendix A

Program How does the company’s repatriate program look like? Main purpose and strategic functions Establish a repatriation team Target high risk expatriates Manage expectations with accurate information Constant communication Prepare for home country job Financial compensation package Facilitate housing conditions Provide support groups Planning for “down time” Appreciate the repatriate and spouse Benefits What benefits do you see for the company with successful repatriation? Integrate culturally and organizationally Closing the gap between expectations and reality Developing global managers for competitive advantage Retain and ensure valuable skills Attracting potential expatriates for the future Return on the human investment Developing a pool of global knowledge Performance efficiency Job loyalty and commitment Additional benefits

Intervjuguide (Svensk version) Appendix B

Appendix B – Intervjuguide (Svensk version) Intervjuguide för repatrioten Namn Befattning under och efter det internationella uppdraget Uppdragslängd Land Med eller utan familj Tid tillbaka i hemland Tidigare internationella erfarenheter Faktorer Vilka faktorer påverkar repatrieringen? Varför och hur mycket? Individ faktorer Ålder Tid utomlands Hålla sig informerad om händelser i hemlandet Viljan att förflytta sig internationellt Anpassnings problem vid expatrieringen Expatrieringstillfredsställelse Kön Nationalitet Intentionen att fortsätta med internationella uppdrag Självgående egenskaper Arbetsfaktorer Rollsjälvständighet Rollkonflikt Rollförhandling och beslut Rollklarhet Kunskapsutnyttjande Arbetskaraktär (ex. funktion, nyexaminerad, hög position) Uppdragsskillnader Organisationsfaktorer Klara riktlinjer och policys Träning inför återkomst Organisationsattityd Företagsstorlek Industri Sociala (icke arbetsrelaterade) faktorer Social status Kulturella skillnader Boende Partner och familjanpassning Övriga faktorer

Intervjuguide (Svensk version) Appendix B

Program Hur såg företagets repatrierings programmet ut som du erbjöds? Huvudsyfte och strategisk funktion Etablerat repatrieringsteam Extra hjälp till högrisk expatrioter Behandla förväntningar på korrekt sätt Konstant kommunikation Förbereda för arbetspositionen i hemlandet Finansiell hjälp Hjälp med boendet Stödaktiviteter Acklimatiseringstid Uppskattning av repatriot och anhöriga Fördelar Vilka fördelar ser du med lyckad repatriering? Karriärutveckling och möjligheter Befordran Uppfattar sig som värderad av företaget Använda nyvunna internationella färdigheter och kunskaper Snabbare integrering till hemlandet och minimera frustration Arbetstillfredsställelse Minska skillnader mellan förväntningar och verklighet Övriga fördelar

Intervjuguide (Svensk version) Appendix B

Intervjuguide för ledningen Namn Position Antalet repatrioter inom företaget Arbetsomsättning bland repatrioter jämfört med andra anställda Faktorer Vilka faktorer påverkar repatrieringen? Varför och hur mycket? Individ faktorer Ålder Tid utomlands Hålla sig informerad om händelser i hemlandet Viljan att förflytta sig internationellt Anpassnings problem vid expatrieringen Expatrieringstillfredsställelse Kön Nationalitet Intentionen att fortsätta med internationella uppdrag Självgående egenskaper Arbetsfaktorer Rollsjälvständighet Rollkonflikt Rollförhandling och beslut Rollklarhet Kunskapsutnyttjande Arbetskaraktär (ex. funktion, nyexaminerad, hög position) Uppdragsskillnader Organisationsfaktorer Klara riktlinjer och policys Träning inför återkomst Organisationsattityd Företagsstorlek Industri Sociala (icke arbetsrelaterade) faktorer Social status Kulturella skillnader Boende Partner och familjanpassning Övriga faktorer

Intervjuguide (Svensk version) Appendix B

Program Hur ser företagets repatrierings program ut? Huvudsyfte och strategisk funktion Etablerat repatrieringsteam Extra hjälp till högrisk expatrioter Behandla förväntningar på korrekt sätt Konstant kommunikation Förbereda för arbetspositionen i hemlandet Finansiell hjälp Hjälp med boendet Stödaktiviteter Acklimatiseringstid Uppskattning av repatriot och anhöriga Fördelar Vilka fördelar ses med lyckad repatriering? Organisationsfördelar Integrera kulturellt och organisationellt Överbygga skillnader mellan förväntningar och verklighet Utveckla globala ledare Behålla och säkra värdefull kunskaper Attrahera framtida expatrioter Återbäring på investering Utveckla en kunskapspool Effektivitet Arbetslojalitet och förbindelse med företaget Övriga fördelar