MANAGING NATIVE GRASSLAND - Hotspots Fire Projecthotspotsfireproject.org.au/download/managing-native-grassland1jul... · MANAGING NATIVE GRASSLAND a guide to management for conservation,

MANAGING NATIVE GRASSLANDa guide to management for conservation,production and landscape protection

WWF Australia is working to conserve Australia’s nativevegetation. Our programs aim to reduce excessive

clearing of land and the effects of salinity and introducedspecies on our environment. Together with Australian

communities, we are working to expand protected areasand ensure our land is well managed for the future.

WWF Australia GPO Box 528, Sydney NSW 2001

Ph: 02 9281 5515 Fax: 02 9281 1060Freecall 1800 251 573

www.wwf.org.au

References and further readingBarlow, T. (1998) Grassy guidelines: how to manage native grasslands and grassy woodlandson your property. Trust for Nature (Victoria), Melbourne.

Department of Conservation and Environment (Victoria) and Victorian National Parks Association(undated) Native grassland management in the Melbourne area. Information kit, DCE andVNPA.

Dorrough, J. (1996) Monaro remnant native grasslands management guide. WWF Australia,Sydney.

Dorrough, J. (1999) Managing for biodiversity: conserving individual species. Unpublished paperpresented to Pasture management for production, catchment and biodiversity - a workshop held byFriends of Grasslands, Queanbeyan 1999.

Eddy, D., Mallinson, D., Rehwinkel, R. and Sharp, S. (1998) Grassland flora: a field guide for theSouthern Tablelands (NSW & ACT). WWF Australia, Australian National Botanic Gardens, NSWNational Parks & Wildlife Service and Environment ACT, Canberra.

Eddy, D. (1999) Recommendations for management of remnant native grasslands in travellingstock reserves of the Cooma Rural Lands Protection Board district. Unpublished. WWFAustralia, Sydney.

Kirkpatrick, J., McDougall, K. and Hyde, M. (1995) Australia’s most threatened ecosystems: thesouth-eastern lowland native grasslands. WWF Australia and Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney.

Lunt, I., Barlow, T. and Ross, J. (1998) Plains wandering: exploring the grassy plains of south-eastern Australia. Victorian National Parks Association and Trust for Nature (Victoria), Melbourne.

Marriott, N. and Marriott, J. (1998) Grassland plants of south-eastern Australia. Bloomings books,Melbourne.

McDougall, K. and Kirkpatrick, J. (1993) Conservation of lowland native grasslands in south-eastern Australia. WWF Australia, Sydney.

Rehwinkel, R. (1996) Report on the significant native lowland grasslands on travelling stockreserves in the Cooma Rural Lands Protection Board district. NSW National Parks and WildlifeService, Southern Zone, Threatened Species Unit, Queanbeyan.

Rehwinkel, R. (1997) Grassy ecosystems of the south-eastern highlands. Unpublished technicalreport, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Southern Zone, Threatened Species Unit,Queanbeyan.

Sharp, S. and Rehwinkel, R. (1997) Draft guidelines for the conservation management ofremnant natural temperate grassland sites in the Southern Tablelands. Unpublished.Environment ACT, Canberra

Sharp, S., Dorrough, J., Rehwinkel, R. and Eddy, D. (2002) The Grassy ecosystem managementkit: a guide to developing conservation management plans. Environment ACT, Canberra

TEN TOP TIPS FOR MANAGINGNATIVE GRASSLAND

• allow all native plant species to grow, flower and set seed at least every few years

• develop a sympathetic grazing, mowing and/or burning regime to prevent loss of diversity

• avoid producing windrows or clumps of grass clippings when mowing or slashing

• encourage a dense, vigorous and diverse plantcommunity to minimise weed invasion

• avoid any unnecessary physical disturbance ofthe soil - e.g. ploughing, riplines or trenching

• avoid any unnecessary soil compaction by vehicles or heavy equipment

• avoid any change to the fertility of the soil - e.g.fertiliser or lime

• control self sown exotic trees and don’t plant any new ones in native grassland

• keep feral animals (grazers and predators) under control or out of native grasslands

• write and follow a simple, effective management plan and monitor its progress

Cover - Native grassland of Snowgrass and Kangaroo Grass,sprinkled with Scaly Buttons, looking toward the Boboyan Divide, onthe southern ACT/NSW border.

Above - Snowgrass, Kangaroo Grass and scattered Snow Gums,looking down the valley of Bobundara Creek near Nimmitabel.

Published by WWF Australia

Canberra Office: 15/71 Constitution Ave,Campbell ACT 2612Ph: 02 6257 4010 Fax: 02 6257 4030

Head Office: GPO Box 528, Sydney NSW 2001Ph: 02 9281 5515 Fax: 02 9281 1060

Freecall 1800 032 551

www.wwf.org.au

ISBN number 1-875941-23-1© WWF Australia 2002

Citation: Eddy, D.A. (2002). Managing nativegrassland: a guide to management forconservation, production and landscapeprotection. WWF Australia, Sydney.

Photography: David EddyDesign/layout: MetrographicsPrinting: New Millenium Print

Acknowledgments

This booklet was produced by WWF Australia aspart of its Monaro Remnant Native GrasslandsProject with funding from the National LandcareProgram of the Natural Heritage Trust fund. Theviews expressed are those of the author and donot necessarily reflect views or policies ofEnvironment Australia or the CommonwealthGovernment.

The author would like to thank RainerRehwinkel (NSW NPWS), Sarah Sharp(Environment ACT), Bernadette O’Leary,Marie Waschka, Philippa Walsh and AleciaJones (WWF Australia), Josh Dorrough (ANU)and Janet Koop for their technical, editorialand production assistance.

http://www.wwf.org.au

MANAGINGNATIVEGRASSLANDa guide to management forconservation, production andlandscape protection

David Eddy, WWF AustraliaJuly 2002

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION 2

WHAT IS A NATIVE GRASSLAND ? 3

WHY DO NATIVE GRASSLANDS NEEDCONSERVATION ? 4

WHAT THREATENS NATIVE GRASSLANDS ? 6

WHY MANAGE NATIVE GRASSLANDS ? 10

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS 11

Defoliation management 11

Weed management 14

Soil management 16

Fauna habitat management 17

Tree management 18

Feral animal management 18

MANAGING FOR LONG TERMCONSERVATION 19

Monitoring 19

Community involvement 19

References and further reading

Page 2 Managing Native Grassland, WWF Australia

The aim of this booklet is toprovide backgroundinformation, guidance andencouragement to managers ofnative grasslands.Considerable variety is foundamong the native grasslands oftemperate south-easternAustralia. However, many of theecological concepts andmanagement requirements arecommon to all. This booklet isbased on experience of theNSW Southern Tablelands, butis written in general terms sothat the information might beuseful throughout the NSWTablelands and beyond. Muchof the information should alsobe useful to grassy woodlandmanagers throughout andbeyond the Tablelands.

Many thousands of hectares of native grasslandwith significant conservation value remains onboth private and public rural land on theTablelands. This vegetation remains largelybecause it has not been replaced with sownpastures or crops, nor inadvertently modified bycontinuous or heavy grazing, soil fertility changeor introduction of exotic pasture plants. In recentyears these grasslands have become the envy ofmany people in other parts of temperate Australiawhere native grassland has been almostcompletely lost.

Native grasslands in this part of Australia haveonly recently received significant community andscientific interest. Our understanding of theircomposition and ecology is therefore not asdetailed as that of more treed vegetationcommunities. However, research and fieldmanagement experience in recent years hasyielded enough information to allow thedevelopment of some useful general managementrecommendations.

INTRODUCTION

Hoary Sunray flowering among Snowgrass and KangarooGrass with Weeping Snow Gums scattered on the rise.Weeping Snow Gums are a feature of the shale derivedsoils to the east of Adaminaby.

Opposite page, top: Grass Triggerplant and KangarooGrass at Round Plain near Berridale.

Opposite page, middle: This native buttercup forms densemats in damp depressions within grasslands.

Opposite page, bottom: A tiny green spider on aKangaroo Grass stalk gives some insight into the smallergrassland fauna.

Native grasslands hold great value forconservation, production and landscape healthand function. This booklet is intended toencourage and assist management of the nativegrasslands remaining in our care.

Native Carraway iscommon in grasslands

around Adaminaby.

Managing Native Grassland, WWF Australia Page 3

Vegetation structure

Native grasslands are vegetation communities inwhich grass plants are structurally dominantbecause the groundcover of woody plants (treesand shrubs) is less than 10%. A commonmisconception is that grasslands are completelytreeless; however, grasslands often containscattered trees. When the groundcover of treesexceeds 10% the community is called a grassywoodland. The botanical composition of thegrassy understorey in a grassy woodland is verysimilar to a native grassland because the majorityof the non-woody plants (herbs) grow in bothgrassland and woodland. In practice, thedistinction between grassland and woodland issomewhat arbitrary and these communitiesintergrade, forming a vegetation mosaicthroughout the Tablelands landscape. Thedistribution and density of trees in the landscapetoday is a reflection of natural processes, activeclearing and recolonisation.

More than just grass

In addition to a wide variety of grasses, nativegrasslands in their natural state contain a highdiversity of other herbs including sedges, rushes,orchids, lilies and forbs (broad-leaved herbs).About 700 species of native herbs have beenidentified in the grasslands of South-EasternAustralia, the majority of which are not grasses. Atypical grassland in good condition is comprised ofa wide variety of grass species and a much widervariety of non-grass herbs.

More than just plants

Native grassland communities include a largenumber of other organisms too. Above ground youmight see a wide variety of insects, spiders, frogs,reptiles, birds and mammals. Lichens and fungi livedown among the plants, on the surface and into thesoil. Below ground there is a huge array of soilorganisms including worms, beetles, ants, andmicro-organisms. All these organisms playimportant roles in the function, health and stabilityof native grasslands.

Dynamic and changeable

The appearance of native grasslands can changedramatically during the course of a year. Theherbage mass can fluctuate substantially asfluctuations in soil moisture and temperature,

WHAT IS A NATIVE GRASSLAND?

growth and grazing, reproduction and fire eachtake their course. The grassland can change colourand texture from the new green growth of spring,through the many colours of the flowering season,to the red-browns and straw colours of summerand autumn. Many of the smaller intertussockplants are obvious only during the growing seasonand while flowering; their above ground partsdying-off after flowering and re-appearing only inthe next growing season. For these reasons it canbe difficult to recognise or appreciate the qualityor beauty of a native grassland.


Conservation value

The contribution or value of an area of nativegrassland to the long term conservation of naturaltemperate grasslands is known as its conservationvalue. Conservation value is determined by anumber of qualities including: speciescomposition; species richness (number of species);presence of threatened, rare or regionallyuncommon species; the presence, species anddensity of weeds; the size, shape and location ofthe area; and other aspects of vegetation andlandscape condition and health.

Pastoral value

Native grasslands today vary considerably in theircondition. Some are highly species rich, almostfree of weeds and probably closely resemble theiroriginal state. A much larger area of nativegrassland is more modified, often dominated byone species of native grass, with a much lowerdiversity of other native herb species and oftenincluding a significant population of weeds. Insome areas such modified grasslands are the onlyremaining native grasslands. Much of this servesas valuable and productive native pasture.However, it also offers great value toconservation, enhancing the stability, function andaesthetics of the landscape, which could all beimproved with careful management.

Loss, fragmentation and diminishing quality

Native grasslands once occupied large expanses ofsouth-eastern Australia. Because they wererelatively or completely clear of trees they werevery attractive for pastoral settlement anddevelopment. The land became divided intoproperties and paddocks by fencing and roads, andthe vegetation was subject to new management,which often differed from paddock to paddock.This resulted in changes to the species compositionof much of the area of native grassland andisolation of the remainder into fragments.

The majority of the original grassland area is nowoccupied by agricultural grassland with a muchlower plant species diversity, a lower diversity andreduced population of native fauna, many exoticagricultural plants and weeds, and often lessgroundcover and soil stability. Relativelyunmodified native grasslands now cover only afraction of their original area, and many remnantsare very small and highly vulnerable to change.

Habitat for fauna

Native grassland communities provide shelter andfood for a wide variety of animals. Many of thesmaller mammals such as bandicoots, bettongs,quolls, marsupial mice and the White-footedRabbit Rat, are now either missing from or veryrare in the native grasslands of south-easternAustralia. Even kangaroos, wallabies andwombats have often been relegated to other partsof the landscape. Several other species of animalsincluding insects and reptiles are now threatenedwith extinction because of the dramatic reductionin the area and quality of their habitat.

Harbours of biodiversity

The diversity of species, and genetic variabilityboth between and within species is known asbiodiversity. Conservation of biodiversity iswidely recognised as one of the most importantaspects of nature conservation and is one of theprimary objectives of many governmentconservation programs. Native grassland remnantsharbour many hundreds of species that havelargely disappeared from agricultural grasslands.A number of these species are now either locallyor nationally threatened and a great many morehave become quite uncommon within the region.

Chamomile Sunray and the threatened Monaro GoldenDaisy in a short open structured grassland on shale derivedsoil near Adaminaby.

Native Flax is an uncommonspecies in the Monaro

region, this one is at BlackLake near Bombala.

WHY DO NATIVE GRASSLANDSNEED CONSERVATION ?


Self-supporting systems

Native grasslands conserve species andbiodiversity in relatively intact and naturallyfunctioning communities. This is both the mosteffective and the most appropriate form ofconservation as the species within the communityinteract to provide the conditions that supporteach of them with a minimum of managementeffort and cost. It also conserves the ecologicalprocesses that have led to their evolution andallows for evolutionary processes to continue.

Genetic reservoirs and corridors

Good grassland remnants provide us with livinggenetic ‘reservoirs’ from which we can drawmaterial for a number of worthwhile purposes.Harvesting of seed can help us to reintroduce manynative plant species to areas from which they havedisappeared. This might be extremely useful in thecase of threatened or regionally uncommon species.We may also be able to reintroduce some of thethreatened or regionally uncommon animal speciesto new areas if we protect and enhance remainingareas of suitable habitat.

Even those native grasslands with a relatively lowspecies diversity but retaining native grassdominance are valuable, especially if they arerelatively free of weeds. These areas often act asbuffers around native grassland of higher diversityand corridors for the continuing movement ofgenetic material.

Unexplored potential

Many of the hundreds of plant species in ournative grasslands may offer significant value forpastoral use and in breeding crop plants. Somemay have medicinal value, since most medicinescome from plant sources. Many of our grasslandplants are attractive and they are all hardy andadapted to local conditions, making thempotentially valuable in native gardening andlandscaping, and particularly for the burgeoningcut flower industry. The agricultural, horticulturaland medicinal potential of most of the nativegrassland plants is largely unexplored.

Opportunities to learn

Native grassland remnants also provide us withthe opportunity to study and learn more abouttheir composition, function, environmentalimportance and management requirements.

Recreation and enjoyment

The remaining native grassland areas provideexamples of the landscape appearance, vegetationstructure and composition prior to Europeansettlement. They are a valuable feature for theenjoyment, satisfaction and education of localcommunities and visitors alike. Well managednative grassland areas offer real potential fortourism, just as the display of alpine wildflowersis enjoyed in the mountains each summer.

Wider community expectations

In addition to these biological and socialimperatives for conserving native grasslands, landmanagers are now obliged under various state andfederal laws, to manage native vegetation andplant and animal species responsibly andsustainably on behalf of the community.

Above: Showy Copper-wire Daisies atRound Plain cemetery near Berridale. Many

rural cemeteries retain good examples ofnative grassland.

Right: Antrorse Geranium is also commonin the Round Plain cemetery.


Native grasslands were established and maintainedby natural conditions and processes. Soils,temperature and rainfall regimes, interactionsbetween plants, grazing and digging animals, fireand Aboriginal activity all helped to shape thestructure and species composition of nativegrasslands. Prevention of the establishment oftrees and shrubs, recycling of organic matter andthe creation of openings in the sward forrecruitment of new plants and growth were allnecessary for maintenance of these grasslands.Some of these conditions and processes havechanged with European settlement andmanagement, causing changes in the area,structure, species composition, diversity andfunction of native grasslands. Conservation ofnative grasslands will therefore require activemanagement to reinstate some of these naturalconditions and processes.

Where native grasslands have not been completelyremoved, the principal mechanisms of changesince European settlement have been alteration ofthe grazing regime, from sporadic grazing bynative herbivores to more constant and selectivegrazing by domestic livestock, and the completealteration or removal of the fire regime. Threatsare outlined below.

Grazing by livestock

In grazed areas plants are defoliated mainly bygrazing domestic livestock. All native grasslandplants can withstand some degree of defoliation,but species differ in their ability to recover fromrepeated or heavy defoliation. All plants need tobe allowed periods in which to grow, flower,produce seed, and to recruit new individuals intothe sward, in order to maintain their populations.Therefore, the timing and duration of grazingevents, in relation to the cycles of growth andreproduction, are crucial to the success ofindividual species and the native grasslandcommunity as a whole.

Grazing animals differ in their diet selection andgrazing methods. Under organised agriculture, theintensity of grazing has increased in theunderstandable pursuit of production. Theintensity of grazing at the individual species levelhas probably changed even more becausedomestic livestock have a stronger preference formore succulent species and plant parts.

Unfortunately, this has led to the depletion orremoval of many native plant species andmodification of habitat for native fauna acrossmost of our grassy landscapes. A single grazingevent can substantially modify a grassland’sstructure in the short-term. Structure has animportant influence on the community’scomposition, function and habitat value, all ofwhich are likely to change if the grassland’sstructure is highly altered for extended periods.

Grazing by feral animals

Another source of defoliation is uncontrolledpopulations of feral animals, particularly rabbits.The diet selection of rabbits also puts morepressure on those smaller, more succulent speciesthat are less tolerant of regular or heavy grazing. Itis likely that a significant proportion of the changein native grasslands has been the result of grazingby rabbits, rather than by domestic livestock.

Heavy grazing over long periods can dramatically changegrassland composition. In this photo all the grasses havebeen removed from the foreground - only bare ground andtwo species of forbs remain.

WHAT THREATENSNATIVE GRASSLANDS ?


Mowing and slashing

Mowing and slashing are another form ofdefoliation used to manage herbage mass in somesmall native grassland areas. Like grazing, themain threat of mowing to native grasslands is thatit can prevent flowering and seed production, byoccurring too frequently or at the wrong times.Mowing and slashing equipment can also bringweed seed into native grassland from another site.Some of the most troublesome perennial grassweeds, such as African Lovegrass and ChileanNeedlegrass have been seriously spread in someareas through the regular movement of mowingequipment.

Fire

Fire was a fundamental influence in shaping andmaintaining many Australian vegetationcommunities. Removal of fire or substantiallyaltered fire regimes has caused significant changeto the structure and composition of manyvegetation communities since Europeansettlement. Fire exerts its influence principally bydefoliation, but it also affects some plants andseed through the production of heat and smoke.The timing of fire in relation to the life cycles ofplants, the intensity and the frequency of fires, allhave a strong influence on the long term results ofa fire regime. The primary threats posed to nativegrasslands by fire are that the grassland is burnttoo frequently, too hot or at the wrong time in theplants’ life cycles, and that the whole grassland isburnt at one time, leaving no escape for nativefauna. In the absence of other adequatedefoliation, fire can also be too infrequent,allowing native grassland to become overgrown.Interactions between fire and vegetation arecomplex and it is not yet clear how we mightincorporate fire into the management of nativegrasslands, particularly in smaller areas where off-site spread is a significant danger.

Weeds

Another major mechanism of change has been theinvasion of grasslands by weeds. Weeds canbecome established in native grasslands throughintroduction of weed seed and physicaldisturbance of the soil which encouragesgermination and removes competition for growth.

Many exotic plants, particularly annual and biennialherbs, are widespread though of relatively littleeconomic or environmental concern. However,some have become particularly troublesome bycausing loss to agriculture and conservation throughdepressed production, high control costs, and byinvading and dominating native vegetation. Avariety of large, perennial and highly invasive weedspecies such as Serrated Tussock, ChileanNeedlegrass, African Lovegrass and St John’s Wort,are of particular concern as they have invaded andnow dominate large areas, and once established aredifficult and expensive to control.

St John’s Wort on the Old Cooma Common GrasslandReserve just outside Cooma. St John's Wort has become aserious problem in this and many other grasslands.


Soil disturbance

Physical disturbance of the soil throughcultivation, ripping burrows, laying pipes orcables, fencing, tree clearing or earthworks forwater storage or diversion, removes the existingvegetation and exposes freshly turned soilproviding a favourable environment for weeds toestablish and compete.

Soil fertility change

Changes in soil fertility can alter the competitiverelationships between plants to the point that thespecies composition of the community changes.Fertility can be affected by the application or driftof soil ameliorants (e.g. superphosphate, gypsum,lime), depletion of organic matter throughexcessive defoliation, compaction, physicaldisturbance and alteration of the soil flora andfauna (e.g. fungi, ants, worms, beetles).

Altered drainage

Soil moisture is a major determinant of plantcommunity structure and composition. Soilmoisture can be altered by changes to localdrainage patterns caused by the construction ofdams, roads and other earthworks. Changes in thedensity and structure of soils through compaction,and change in the organic matter content can alsochange their water permeability and retention.Each of these kinds of change to a soil’s moistureregime can cause changes to the speciescomposition of a native grassland.

Above: An example of the influence of managementon native grassland composition. The dominance hasbeen dramatically shifted to Snow Grass on the right

and Tall Speargrass on the left, by grazingmanagement and cultivation, respectively. This photowas taken only a few kilometres from the one on the

opposite page on the same soil type.

Below: Fairies Aprons flowering in a periodically wetarea next to Ginninderra Creek. Wet areas like this arehighly vulnerable to pugging by livestock and changes

in soil drainage patterns.


Traffic and trampling

Frequent traffic will wear tracks in nativegrassland because many plant species cannotsurvive the direct trampling or the associated soilcompaction. Light and well dispersed traffic isunlikely to cause noticeable change, but regulartraffic concentrated along the same route byvehicles, livestock and even people, will result inthe death of plants, leaving bare ground which isvulnerable to erosion and to weed colonisation.

Tree planting

The relative or complete treelessness of a nativegrassland is important in its ecology. Theintroduction of heavy shade will give acompetitive advantage to more shade tolerantspecies. Leaf litter from trees, especially exoticspecies, can significantly effect soil fertility. Theneedles of exotic pine trees for instance, increasesoil acidity and physically blanket the ground.Trees also attract animals and birds, which arevectors of weed seeds, and their droppingsincrease the fertility of the soil under trees.Planting exotic trees in a native grassland is likelyto change its structure and composition. Naturalrecruitment of exotic trees (e.g. pine wildings)from nearby adult trees will lead to the samechanges if this recruitment is not controlled.

Herbicide use

Application of herbicides for weed control withina grassland or spray drift from neighbouring areascould inadvertently kill many native species. Littleis yet known about the tolerance of most nativeherb species, and small native animals, toherbicides.

Stockpiling and dumping

Stockpiling, dumping and spreading of soil orgravel in a native grassland will smother plantsand create bare areas for weed recruitment. Thishas occurred on many native grassland areas onroad verges and other public land sites causing theloss of native grassland from those areas. Inaddition to smothering plants, soil or gravelintroduced from another site is also likely tointroduce weed seed into native grasslands.

Seed collection and introduction

Much interest has emerged recently, in thecollection of wild native plant seed, forpropagation and revegetation work. This is anessential part of harnessing the potential ofnative plants for conservation, revegetation,agriculture and horticulture. However, harvestingseed without considering the recruitmentrequirements of the source community poses athreat to some communities and species. Equally,introducing plants or seed of the same speciesfrom another area carries a risk of introducingincompatible genetic material that could harmthe existing population.

Threats to native fauna

To provide suitable habitat for fauna, nativegrasslands need to provide both shelter from theelements and predators, and food. Shelter andfood are enhanced by the diversity of thestructure and species within the grassland. Anymanagement action, or lack of management, thatsimplifies the structure or composition of nativegrassland will reduce its value as habitat fornative fauna.

A travelling stock reserve south of Cooma with Blue Devilsflowering among the Kangaroo Grass and Snow Grass.


The perennial grasses in native grasslands formthe structural backbone of the community yet thisstructure can fluctuate dramatically with theseasons and in response to soil moisture,temperature, grazing, fire, frost and managementby humans. Though most of the plants in thecommunity are perennials, many of them canreach reproductive maturity in their first growingseason, and produce seed and recruit new plantsreadily under favourable conditions. Thesefeatures allow the community to produce newplants readily if necessary. Because nativegrasslands can show such a high rate of turn-over,of both biomass and individual plants, disturbanceto either the biomass or plant population canchange the structure or composition dramaticallyin a short period. This means that nativegrasslands are highly dynamic by comparison withother vegetation communities in which a higherproportion of biomass is ‘tied up’ in woody tissuewhich can stand for many years.

Because the natural processes and culturalpractices that influenced native grasslands beforeEuropean settlement have been so altered, activemanagement is now essential to maintain andmanipulate their structure and composition andminimise the main threats to their conservation.

The overarching objectives of native grasslandconservation are to:

• retain stable, resilient and productive vegetation for landscape health

• conserve as much biodiversity as possible, including diversity of native grasslands, diversity of species and diversity within species

• retain examples of the original vegetation for enjoyment, recreation and tourism

To achieve these objectives, we need to retain asignificant number of grasslands in a variety oflocations and environments, each with as manyspecies as possible and each large enough tofunction as a viable self sustaining community. Inthe longer term, with good management, weshould also be able to improve the quality of thesenative grasslands, in terms of their speciescomposition, species richness, weediness, animalpopulations and in turn their productivity andecological function.

WHY MANAGENATIVE GRASSLANDS ?

Above: A native buttercup flowering in a dampdepression on Middlingbank Peninsula where alocal Landcare project is conserving the grasslandwith improved long term management.

Left, top: The threatened Creeping Hop Bushflowering on a shale derived soil between Coomaand Dry Plains.

Left, second: Milkmaids are an uncommon lilyspecies shown here at Mulligan’s Flat, CanberraNature Park.

Left, third: Tiger Orchid on O’Connor Ridge,Canberra Nature Park.

Left, bottom: Blue Devils in Ravensworth TravellingStock Reserve south of Cooma.


Defoliation management(grazing, mowing and burning)Some form of defoliation is essential tomaintaining the structure and botanicalcomposition of most native grasslands. Withoutregular removal of some herbage, excess grasswill accumulate and die, and can inhibit thegrowth of many plant species in the sward.Before the introduction of domestic livestock andrabbits, and the displacement of the many speciesof native fauna, this defoliation was performedby the native animals, including both large andsmall mammals and grasshoppers and otherinsects, and by fire, both naturally occurring andthose lit by Aboriginals.

The majority of the non-grass plant species ingrasslands grow in the intertussock spaces. Whenthe grass canopy closes over these spaces, itshades and out competes these smaller plants, andthey can be lost from the sward. Therefore,inadequate defoliation can be as damaging tospecies richness as excessive defoliation. It canalso inhibit the major grass species. For exampleKangaroo Grass, one of the most commonlydominant native perennial grasses, is known tobecome less vigorous and even die when heavygrowth has accumulated after a number of yearswithout defoliation.

Defoliation is only necessary to prevent thegrassland becoming overgrown by the dominantgrasses. The frequency and degree to which it isnecessary depends on the inherent productivityor growth rate of the grassland. On moreproductive areas it will require more frequent orheavier defoliation to maintain open intertussockspaces. On shallow, stony and infertile soils,defoliation management should be much lessfrequent and intense.

Grazing management

Grazing herbivores, whether native or exotic, havea profound influence on the structure, speciescomposition and species richness of a grassland.Until European settlement, native grasslands hadevolved under and reflected the diet selection andgrazing pressure exerted by the native fauna.Since European settlement commercial grazing bydomestic livestock has been and is likely tocontinue to be, the primary use and the mainmethod of defoliation in native grasslands.Conservation management of grazed native

MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONSgrasslands will require a good understanding ofdefoliation requirements and how we can bestsatisfy these requirements with domestic livestock.

Several factors need to be considered in designinga suitable grazing management regime. Thetiming, selectivity, intensity and duration ofgrazing each influence its impact on the individualplants and the whole community. Goodmanagement of the grazing pressure on agrassland will require sound stock proof fencing.

Timing

Native grassland must be allowed to grow freelyenough to replenish root reserves, flower and setseed, or it will inevitably deteriorate. Plant speciesdiffer in their ability to withstand repeateddefoliation. The taller and more succulent plantspecies, such as orchids and lilies, are even morevulnerable to grazing which is probably why theyhave been lost from a large proportion of nativegrasslands. Native grasslands should therefore begrazed very lightly (e.g. no more than one sheepper hectare) or preferably completely rested,during flowering and seed production. Most plantsin our temperate grasslands do this from late springto early summer.

Native Buttercups flower on the Adaminaby golf course,managed under a community based Trust, using acombination of grazing, slashing and burning.


Selectivity

All grazing animals have preferences for grazingsome plant species and parts, over others. Forinstance, sheep tend to graze younger growth andmore succulent species than do cattle, while goatstend to graze drier and rougher herbs and browseon shrubs. Native animals have different grazinghabits again. These differences in diet selectionhave changed the species composition of nativegrasslands because the relative grazing pressure onthe various species has changed markedly with theintroduction of exotic animals. Grazing animalsare most selective under continuous light set-stocking. This effect can be reduced by increasingthe stocking rate and reducing the time a mob ofstock is in a particular paddock. However, higherstocking rates and more frequent stock movementsrequire more intensive management, and reducethe room for error, so this should only beundertaken with great care.

Intensity and duration

A fundamental objective of commercial grazing isto maximise the harvest of herbage by animals inorder to maximise production. However,maximising the harvest of pasture in the short tomedium term, will lead to a shorter and more evengrassland structure. A taller and more diversestructure will allow plants to recover from grazingmore quickly, help resist weed invasion bymaintaining higher groundcover and competition,and provide food and shelter for a wider variety ofnative fauna. When herbage quantity or qualitybecome too low to maintain livestock condition,the stock should be moved, rather than beingsupplementarily fed, to protect the grassland fromover-grazing and excessive trampling.

Mowing and slashing management

Timing, height and frequency

Mowing and slashing are used as the main methodof defoliation in many small native grassland areaswhere grazing is not wanted. Timing, height andfrequency of mowing influence native grasslandspecies composition and structure and potentialfor weed invasion in the same ways as grazingand burning. A mowing or slashing regime shouldallow for periods of good growth betweenmowings and should allow the grassland to flowerand set seed at least every few years.

Grass clippings

Management of the grass clippings produced bymowing or slashing in native grassland is animportant consideration. Mowing and slashingequipment often leave windrows or clumps ofgrass clippings on the grassland. These windrowsand clumps of clippings can sit for months,shading and smothering the plants below andsometimes killing them. The death of these plantsleaves the soil bare and vulnerable to both erosionand weed invasion. The decomposition of thegrass clippings and dead plants also releasesnutrients into the soil creating an even morefavourable environment for weed growth.

Production of windrows or clumps of clippingscan be avoided by using flail type mowers whichdistribute the grass clippings more thinly andevenly. Where flail type mowers are not availableor very heavy growth is being cut, the clippingscould either be caught in a catcher or raked andremoved from the site.

Weed seed spread

Weed seed is often spread from one site toanother by mowing machinery. To avoidintroducing weed seed from another site, mowingequipment should be reasonably clean ofclippings and seed before use in a nativegrassland, particularly if this equipment has beenused in an area with serious weeds.

Native grassland managedby mowing - Bibbenlukecemetery near Bombala.


Fire management

Fire may be a powerful tool in the management ofnative grasslands, either in the absence of, or inconjunction with grazing or mowing. Fires can be liteither by people or natural causes, both of whichoccurred before European settlement and both arepossibilities under modern day grassland management.

Potential advantages

Fire may have some advantages over other formsof defoliation. All the native plant species in anative grassland can accommodate fire, but manyof the exotic weed species may not have evolvedin such an environment. It is possible that a fireregime which is sympathetic to the native speciesbut inhospitable to the weeds may help inreducing the weediness of many native grasslands.At the very least, fire has the advantages of notintroducing weed seed, as both livestock andmowing equipment can, and being less selectivethan livestock in the species it burns.

Timing

The timing of fire should accommodate the needof a native grassland to flower and produce seed.Native grassland could be burnt between the endof seed set (mid to late summer) until the plantsbegin to produce flowers again in spring. This willalso often be the only time the grassland hasenough dry herbage to carry a fire and not enoughgreen herbage to preclude a fire.

Intensity

Hot weather, high wind, lots of dry grass and lowsoil moisture all increase the risk of a grass firebeing too hot. Under these conditions the heat ofthe fire can kill plants and their seeds in the soiland can even burn down into the soil, reducing thesoil organic matter and changing the soil structure.Fires should only be lit when the soil is reasonablymoist and the temperature and wind conditionswill allow the fire to be kept under control. Thistiming will also help managers comply with fireregulations and reduce the risk of wildfires.

Frequency

The frequency of burning poses the same threat tonative grassland as does grazing or mowing toofrequently. Fire will only be necessary when agrassland becomes overgrown by the dominantgrasses. On more productive areas and in theabsence of grazing or mowing, this may be onceevery few years. In areas with shallower or lessfertile soil or lower rainfall, burning may never oronly occasionally be necessary.

Patch burning

Fire can threaten the small native fauna withinnative grassland. One of the most importantconsiderations when using fire as a grasslandmanagement tool is to use patch burning, ratherthan burning the whole grassland area at once.Patch burning involves burning only in patches,leaving substantial areas unburnt to act as firerefuges for small fauna. In grasslands whereburning is used regularly as one of the mainmethods of defoliation, a pattern of rotationshould be used, in which one or more discretepatches is burnt on each occasion. The next burnshould be in different patches, again leaving goodrefuge for small fauna. By using a pattern of patchburning, the whole grassland area might be burntover a number of years without a large proportionof the area being burnt in any one year.

Fire breaks

If the accidental spread of a fire into or from anative grassland is felt to be a real risk, a firebreakcould be mown or slashed around its perimeter - itshould never be ploughed or sprayed. Ploughingor spraying a fire break will remove competitionby native plants and encourage germination ofweeds, creating a strip of weedy vegetation rightat the edge of the grassland.

Defoliation management in summary

• in most grasslands, herbage mass must be managed by grazing, mowing or burning

• timing, frequency, degree and selectivity of defoliation must be managed to suit the grassland

• allow grassland to accumulate substantial growth between defoliation events

• allow all native plant species to flower, set seed and recruit new individuals

• avoid grazing grassland or graze only very lightly from the onset of flowering until seed set

• destock grassland when feed quantity or quality become inadequate for livestock maintenance

• avoid mowing or burning grassland from the onset of flowering until seed set


• burn grassland only when soil moisture, herbage mass, weather and fire regulations allow

• burn only in patches, burning a different patch each time

• maintain fences in sound stock proof condition

Lobe-seed Daisy atBibbenluke cemeterynear Bombala


Weed management

A large number and variety of weed species arenow found in native grasslands. The majority areannual or biennial grasses or forbs and are notparticularly troublesome as long as theirpopulations are kept low. These types of weedsare nearly impossible to completely removebecause they can germinate, develop and set seedquickly and the soil already harbours largenumbers of their seeds. The best way to keep theirpopulations low is to maintain a densegroundcover of native plants, particularly duringlate autumn and winter when most weed speciesare germinating and establishing.

Common perennial weeds

The perennial weeds are usually moretroublesome, particularly when their populationsbecome high. These weeds are usually largerplants which can physically dominate acommunity, but in some ways they are moreeasily managed because their populations growmore slowly. They include several species of largetussocky grasses, some exotic shrubs and someinvasive exotic trees. Serrated Tussock (Nassellatrichotoma), Chilean Needle Grass (Nassellaneesiana) and African Lovegrass (Eragrostiscurvula) can invade and dominate disturbednative grassland, as has already occurred oversubstantial areas. The two Nassella species havebeen listed among the 20 Weeds of NationalSignificance. Two other exotic perennial grasses,Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus) and SweetVernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) arecommon in wetter areas and frequently coloniseand dominate in damp positions. St Johns Wort(Hypericum perforatum) is an exotic perennialforb gaining a strong foothold on the Tablelandsand should be removed from grassy vegetationbefore it becomes well established. Exotic shrubssuch as Sweet Briar (Rubus rubiginosa) andHawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) can be quiteinvasive over long periods, but are readilyremoved from small areas. All these perennialweed species are controllable with earlyrecognition of the problem and diligent actionbefore their populations become too dense.

Weed seed introduction

Weeds can be introduced to native grasslandsthrough a variety of processes beyond our controlsuch as wind, water and animal movement. Weedscan also be introduced to native grassland byhumans through any of several mechanismsincluding the movement of livestock, horses,vehicles or machinery, and the introduction oforganic material (such as hay), soil or gravel.Ideally, livestock and horses should bequarantined in weed free native pasture or yardsbefore being moved into native grassland.Vehicles entering grassland for managementpurposes should be as free as possible from weedseed. Machinery being used for weed spraying,earthworks or other purposes should be cleaned ofweed material before entering native grassland.Supplementary feeding of livestock in grassland islikely to introduce weed seed in grain andparticularly hay. Introduction of organic material,soil or gravel from outside a grassland should beavoided. Vehicular traffic, either for managementpurposes or visitation, should be limited to what isreasonably necessary, to avoid the spread of weedseed. On public land sites this might involveerecting fences or other barriers to prevent accessand signs to highlight the value of the area.

Volunteers spot spraying AfricanLovegrass in native grassland on

private land near Bredbo.


Volunteers working to control Hawthorn on the newlyestablished Old Cooma Common Grassland Reserve.

Control methods

Although conventional pasture and weedmanagement has tended to rely heavily on the useof herbicides, there are a number of other methodswhich can be effective, either on their own or inconjunction with other methods and withherbicides. Strategic use of grazing, mowing orburning can be used to reduce seed set by weedspecies and favour growth of preferred nativespecies. Encouraging and maintaining a dense andvigorous groundcover of native plants and litter isthe best and cheapest method of resisting weedestablishment in native grasslands. A combinationof several of these techniques is likely to be moreeffective than any of one method on its own.

Weed management in summary

• maintain high groundcover, especially during autumn and winter to resist weed establishment

• quarantine livestock and horses in a weed free area before moving them onto native grassland

• do not supplementarily feed (hay or grain) livestock in native grassland

• do not introduce soil or gravel (e.g. stockpile, dump or spread ) from outside the grassland area

• ensure vehicles and machinery are reasonably clean of weed seed before entering native grassland

• control perennial weed species by spot spraying before populations become dense

• encourage a dense, vigorous and diverse plant community to minimise weed invasion


Soil management

Physical disturbance

Physical disturbance of the soil can kill existingplants and bring buried weed seed to the surface.By removing native plants and exposing freshlyturned soil, competition is reduced andgermination and growth of weeds is encouraged.Disturbing the soil may be necessary in landmanagement; for example, in construction ormaintenance of dams, ripping rabbit burrows andrepairing eroded areas. However, disturbance tonative grassland may be avoided or minimisedwith care.

If the soil is disturbed for necessary works, the areashould be rehabilitated. Rehabilitation might includelevelling the soil, removing weed species thatgerminate on the area and sowing, or encouragingnatural recruitment of, at least the native plantspecies that dominate the adjacent vegetation.

Soil structure

Any activity that might change the organic matter,porosity, water permeability or moisture retentionof the soil, such as compaction by vehicles orearthworks that alter water drainage patterns,should also be avoided.

Chemical disturbance

Any temptation to enhance the sward withfertiliser, or other soil ameliorants, should beresisted. An increase in the level of phosphate ornitrogen, or a change in pH may give acompetitive advantage to exotic plants. The soilsunder native grasslands have evolved with theplant and animal community. Any substantialchange to their chemical fertility is likely tochange the composition of the grassland.

Stockpiling, dumping and spreading

Many areas of native grassland on public landhave been used for quarrying or stockpiling soil orgravel for construction purposes. Some gravel pitsare quite large and have been dug within areas ofgood native vegetation. These would involvesubstantial cost and effort to rehabilitate. Soil andgravel stockpiles provide a place for weeds tocolonise and produce seed, which can then spreadinto adjacent vegetation. No new gravel pits orstockpiles should be established within areas ofsignificant native grassland.

Soil management in summary

• avoid or minimise any physical disturbance of the soil

• control weeds and revegetate if disturbance becomes necessary

• do not modify the chemical fertility of the soil

• avoid soil compaction by regular traffic along the same route by vehicles or heavy equipment

• avoid or minimise earthworks and other development which alters drainage patterns

• do not establish new gravel pits, or soil or gravel stockpiles in native grassland

Soil disturbance removes competition and encouragesweeds to germinate and grow. In this case near Cooma,native grassland has been converted to a very weedypaddock by repeated cultivation.


Fauna habitat management

Native grassland can provide shelter for smallanimals in the form of grass tussocks and inter-tussock spaces, soil cracks and holes, rocks,shrubs, trees and their bark, fallen timber andlitter. Each of these niches provide places forsmall native fauna to shelter from the elements,predators and fire. In turn, the more niches thereare and the more species of fauna shelter withinthe grassland the greater the abundance andvariety of food for other species of fauna. A usefulgeneral principle is that to maximise the habitatvalue of a native grassland for a wide variety offauna, the grassland should be managed tomaintain or enhance the diversity of its structureand species composition.

Structural diversity and shelter

Structural diversity can be provided not onlyuniformly across a paddock, but also by providingdifferent types of structure in different parts of apaddock or landscape. This should be readilyachievable, even difficult to avoid, in largerpaddocks that contain different landscape unitssuch as different slope angles and aspects, soildepths and even vegetation types. Managinggrassland structure for maximum structuraldiversity may sometimes conflict with maximumshort term pasture utilisation, but will provideother benefits such as provision of a dry feedreserve and a healthier grassland.

High grazing pressure resulting in lower herbagemass, clearing trees and shrubs, removing fallentimber and rocks, burning grassland in warmermonths when small fauna are most active andvulnerable, or burning the whole area at once, willdramatically reduce the shelter value of a grassland.

Species diversity and food

The fauna habitat value of a native grassland willalso be enhanced by management that providesthe biggest variety and supply of food for animals.The backbone of this food chain is the plants andthe greater the diversity of plant species, thegreater the variety of food types available tosupport fauna.

Native grassland can provide food for birds,reptiles, frogs, mammals, a wide variety of insects(both above and below ground) and an even widervariety of other soil organisms, each of whicheventually become food for others.

A short, open structured grassland with a rocky surface,good structure and high species diversity.

Twin-flowered Knawelmaking use of moisturein a rock crevice.

The web of life

Enhancing the variety of shelter and food forfauna, and thus the diversity and activity of faunaspecies in a native grassland, will enhance thegrowing conditions for plants and the health of thegrassland. The habitat value of native grasslandwill be even greater when it contains or is adjacentto other healthy ecosystems, such as woodland,forest or wetland. Many animal species use nativegrassland for only some of their needs and need tospend some of their time in other ecosystems.

Fauna habitat management in summary

• retain trees, fallen timber, rocks, plant litter, tussocks and inter-tussock spaces

• avoid cultivation which will destroy soil structure, cracks and holes

• enhance structural diversity at a range of scales from individual tussock to landscape level

• enhance species diversity to maximise the variety of food sources for fauna


Tree management

Native grasslands often include ascattered population of trees. Manypaddocks on the Tablelands contain bothtreeless or lightly treed grassland, andmore heavily treed plant communities ofwoodland or open forest.

Native trees

Trees can have a strong influence ongrassland structure and speciescomposition through competition forlight, moisture and nutrition. Trees alsoprovide nutrition to the plants undertheir canopy through litter fall and byattracting birds and other animals thatleave droppings under the tree. Thenatural populations of native treeswithin grasslands should be retainedand managed as an integral part of thevegetation and have evolved with andcontinue to interact with the groundlayer plants.

Exotic and other non-local trees

Planting exotic trees, can have an evenstronger influence on native grassland.Typically, grass species affected byshade are replaced by more shade tolerantgrasses and the number of intertussockforb species is greatly reduced. Goodexamples of this can be seen in manyrural cemeteries. Many exotic tree speciesalso set seed which results in self sownexotic trees nearby. Exotic trees shouldnot be planted in native grasslands andself sown exotic trees should be removedwhile they are still young.

Tree management in summary

• retain native trees as integral components of native grasslands

• do not plant exotic or non-local tree or shrub species in native grassland

• remove self sown exotic trees (such as pine wildings) while they are still young

• consider removing older exotic trees (if present) and replacing with local native species

Feral animal management

Rabbits

Feral animals can have a strong impact on nativegrassland. Rabbits have a strong dietary preference forsmaller and more succulent plants and plant parts. Theseare often the more vulnerable native forb, lily and orchidspecies. Diligent management of rabbit populations isimportant in the continuing conservation management ofnative grasslands. In rabbit prone country, exclusion ofrabbits from native grasslands with boundary netting canbe very valuable. In larger grassland areas, where the costof rabbit netting has become prohibitive, a more popularapproach is to manage the rabbit population at the locallandscape level, fumigating and ripping burrows. Rippingburrows involves major soil disturbance and should befollowed by the rehabilitation measures discussed undersoil management.

Cats and foxes

Feral predatory animals such as foxes and cats may alsohave an impact on grasslands, principally by hunting thesmaller native animals such as small mammals, birds,lizards, snakes, frogs, spiders and insects. Predation byfoxes and cats could cause local extinction or at least alterthe balance of native fauna populations which could effectthe ecology of the whole community. Feral cat and foxpopulations should be controlled in conjunction withneighbouring landholders and local authorities such as rurallands protection boards and shire councils.

Pigs

Feral pigs can also have a strong impact on nativegrassland. A significant area can be severely dug up by pigsin a single night, doing as much damage as cultivation bymachinery. Pigs have a preference for digging in the lowerparts of the landscape, where the soil is deeper and moreoften moist. These areas contain the more sensitive and lesswell conserved types of native grassland. Grasslandsadjacent to the shelter of timbered areas are more prone tothis type of damage. Only diligent pig control incooperation with adjacent landholders is likely to achieveeffective control of feral pigs.

Feral animal management in summary

• control rabbit populations and revegetate disturbed soil with suitable local grassland species

• control feral cat, fox and pig populations in conjunction with neighbours and local authorities

These Snow Gums in areserve near Berridale

are typical of scatteredtree populations within

native grasslands.


Native vegetation management andconservation only becomes really meaningfuland achievable when viewed in the long term.Vegetation composition and structure,particularly in grasslands, is highly responsiveto external influences, and can readily bealtered by management. A native grasslanddominated by one species of native grass can besubstantially altered and become dominated bya very different species (native or weed) eitherthrough intentional or inadvertent management.

Planning for management

Good management of native grasslands forconservation in the long term requires adequateknowledge and continuing input of resourcesand commitment by managers, the community,governments and funding agencies. Amanagement plan is essential to supportconsidered management actions, seek assistanceand as a basis for monitoring success.

Native grassland enhancement

With appropriate and sensitive management it ispossible to improve the quality of nativegrasslands. Through assisted rehabilitation, thestructure and composition of the grasslandcommunity may be returned to a state that moreclosely resembles its natural condition. Interest inharvesting seed from wild populations, producingseed in seed orchards and nurseries, andpurchasing seed for revegetation and landscapinghas burgeoned in recent years. Specialisedequipment and techniques are being developed,produced and promoted. However, great careshould be used in collecting or harvesting seedfrom wild populations and in introducing seed toexisting native grasslands. Wild populations ofplants differ in their genetic make-up. Movinggenetic material from one population to anothercan cause harm to the local population. Ingeneral, when introducing seed to a grassland itis safer to use the most locally sourced seedpracticable to avoid this problem. When this isnot possible expert advice on the likely riskshould be sought. Collection of plants and seedin the wild is also subject to legal restrictionswhich vary from state to state.

In a more natural condition, native grasslandsare likely to improve the stability of thelandscape and enhance its capacity to supportindustries and communities. Populations of theless common native species of plants andanimals might also be increased and becomeboth more visible and sustainable.

Monitoring Adaptive management

Careful monitoring of native grassland management canbe invaluable in revealing the grassland’s responses toboth management and natural events and theirinteractions. This information can then be used to directand improve management in response to any undesirablechange. This process of monitoring the results ofmanagement actions and adjusting or adaptingmanagement accordingly is called adaptive management.A good place to start is with a survey of the condition ofthe grassland and the species present. This will provide abenchmark for monitoring and comparison.

Photopoints

Changes in the species composition and structure ofnative grassland often take place without beingrecorded. Simply taking photographs in the samedirection from the same reference point (like the topof a strainer post) can record useful information whencompiled over a number of years. General trends,such as changes in the prevalence of major species(e.g. Kangaroo Grass, Poa Tussock, African Lovegrassor Sweet Briar), or outstanding seasons or floweringevents can be revealed.

Detailed measurement

Another technique is to measure botanical compositionat some regular interval. This can reveal more subtlechanges, particularly in the less obvious species. Thismore detailed method requires more specialist skills,experience and resources. Managers can obtain adviceor assistance in monitoring through local or stategovernment agencies, the various threatened speciesand ecological community Recovery Teams and specialinterest community groups.

Community involvementMany individuals and community groups are interestedin being involved in and contributing to natureconservation. These people are a potentially valuableresource in the conservation management of nativegrasslands. Neighbours and local community groupsare likely to better understand and appreciate nativegrasslands and their value if they are actively involvedin their management and enhancement. Some of theknowledge of native grasslands gained in this work islikely to be taken away and applied in other grasslandson both private and public land. Such communityinvolvement is likely to be of benefit to the local andbroader communities and to long-term conservation ofgrasslands across the region. Contacts provided under‘Public assistance’ overleaf can help you with ideas,including what has worked elsewhere. The types ofassistance include: survey, monitoring, weeding,fencing, seed collection and propagation, replanting.

Monitoring grasslandcomposition as part of aLandcare project onMiddlingbank Peninsula,Lake Eucumbene.

MANAGING FORLONG TERM CONSERVATION


Tourism

Growing awareness and appreciation of ournatural environment and native vegetation hasopened new opportunities, such asenvironmental tourism, for rural communities. Ifremnant native grasslands become recognised asgood quality, well managed examples of theoriginal native vegetation, they could becomesignificant drawcards in a region’s portfolio oftourist attractions.

Public assistance

A number of organisations can provideassistance in conservation management ofsignificant native grasslands, grassy woodlandsand their component species. Managers shouldconsider seeking assistance in managing nativegrassland areas with conservation values,through these organisations:

- WWF Australia

- Greening Australia

- South-East Australia Grassy Ecosystems Networker

- shire councils

- rural lands protection boards

- NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation

- NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service

- Environment ACT

- Environment Australia

- Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia

and similar agencies in other states

More work needed

Much work has now been done to identify,classify and protect native grasslands. However,considerably more work is needed before wecan be confident that we have succeeded inconserving the most significant native grasslandareas. Beyond this, conservation managementof native grasslands will require on-going activemanagement in the long term.

Helpful publications

A kit called the Grassy EcosystemManagement Kit: a guide to developingconservation management plans (Sharp et al2002), has been produced to help grassyecosystem managers develop their ownconservation management plan. This and otheruseful publications are listed at the back of thisbooklet (see Further Reading and Resources).

Top Hut Travelling Stock Reserve at Dry Plains - an example of howtemperate natural grassland in full flower can rival our famed alpinewildflower displays and could become a drawcard for regional tourism.

Long-term conservation and enhancementin summary

• make a commitment to on-going active management of your native grassland

• develop and implement a suitable management plan to reduce threats and enhance potential for recovery

• do not over harvest when collecting seed from native grasslands

• use the most local seed available when introducing seed to a grassland

• conduct a survey or inventory of the condition and species present in your grassland

• incorporate a suitable monitoring program into your management plan

• use adaptive management to incorporate the results of this monitoring into your management

• seek advice and help in conducting your survey, management planning and monitoring

• consider how you could involve the community in the management of your native grassland

• consider participating in native grassland activities in your region to broaden your experience

• consider seeking advice and funding assistance from community and government organisations

References and further readingBarlow, T. (1998) Grassy guidelines: how to manage native grasslands and grassy woodlandson your property. Trust for Nature (Victoria), Melbourne.

Department of Conservation and Environment (Victoria) and Victorian National Parks Association(undated) Native grassland management in the Melbourne area. Information kit, DCE andVNPA.

Dorrough, J. (1996) Monaro remnant native grasslands management guide. WWF Australia,Sydney.

Dorrough, J. (1999) Managing for biodiversity: conserving individual species. Unpublished paperpresented to Pasture management for production, catchment and biodiversity - a workshop held byFriends of Grasslands, Queanbeyan 1999.

Eddy, D., Mallinson, D., Rehwinkel, R. and Sharp, S. (1998) Grassland flora: a field guide for theSouthern Tablelands (NSW & ACT). WWF Australia, Australian National Botanic Gardens, NSWNational Parks & Wildlife Service and Environment ACT, Canberra.

Eddy, D. (1999) Recommendations for management of remnant native grasslands in travellingstock reserves of the Cooma Rural Lands Protection Board district. Unpublished. WWFAustralia, Sydney.

Kirkpatrick, J., McDougall, K. and Hyde, M. (1995) Australia’s most threatened ecosystems: thesouth-eastern lowland native grasslands. WWF Australia and Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney.

Lunt, I., Barlow, T. and Ross, J. (1998) Plains wandering: exploring the grassy plains of south-eastern Australia. Victorian National Parks Association and Trust for Nature (Victoria), Melbourne.

Marriott, N. and Marriott, J. (1998) Grassland plants of south-eastern Australia. Bloomings books,Melbourne.

McDougall, K. and Kirkpatrick, J. (1993) Conservation of lowland native grasslands in south-eastern Australia. WWF Australia, Sydney.

Rehwinkel, R. (1996) Report on the significant native lowland grasslands on travelling stockreserves in the Cooma Rural Lands Protection Board district. NSW National Parks and WildlifeService, Southern Zone, Threatened Species Unit, Queanbeyan.

Rehwinkel, R. (1997) Grassy ecosystems of the south-eastern highlands. Unpublished technicalreport, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Southern Zone, Threatened Species Unit,Queanbeyan.

Sharp, S. and Rehwinkel, R. (1997) Draft guidelines for the conservation management ofremnant natural temperate grassland sites in the Southern Tablelands. Unpublished.Environment ACT, Canberra

Sharp, S., Dorrough, J., Rehwinkel, R. and Eddy, D. (2002) The Grassy ecosystem managementkit: a guide to developing conservation management plans. Environment ACT, Canberra

TEN TOP TIPS FOR MANAGINGNATIVE GRASSLAND

• allow all native plant species to grow, flower and set seed at least every few years

• develop a sympathetic grazing, mowing and/or burning regime to prevent loss of diversity


• encourage a dense, vigorous and diverse plantcommunity to minimise weed invasion

• avoid any unnecessary physical disturbance ofthe soil - e.g. ploughing, riplines or trenching

• avoid any unnecessary soil compaction by vehicles or heavy equipment

• avoid any change to the fertility of the soil - e.g.fertiliser or lime

• control self sown exotic trees and don’t plant any new ones in native grassland

• keep feral animals (grazers and predators) under control or out of native grasslands

• write and follow a simple, effective management plan and monitor its progress

Cover - Native grassland of Snowgrass and Kangaroo Grass,sprinkled with Scaly Buttons, looking toward the Boboyan Divide, onthe southern ACT/NSW border.

Above - Snowgrass, Kangaroo Grass and scattered Snow Gums,looking down the valley of Bobundara Creek near Nimmitabel.

Published by WWF Australia

Canberra Office: 15/71 Constitution Ave,Campbell ACT 2612Ph: 02 6257 4010 Fax: 02 6257 4030

Head Office: GPO Box 528, Sydney NSW 2001Ph: 02 9281 5515 Fax: 02 9281 1060

Freecall 1800 254 573

www.wwf.org.au

ISBN number 1-875941-23-1© WWF Australia 2002

Citation: Eddy, D.A. (2002). Managing nativegrassland: a guide to management forconservation, production and landscapeprotection. WWF Australia, Sydney.

Photography: David EddyDesign/layout: MetrographicsPrinting: New Millenium Print

Acknowledgments

This booklet was produced by WWF Australia aspart of its Monaro Remnant Native GrasslandsProject with funding from the National LandcareProgram of the Natural Heritage Trust fund. Theviews expressed are those of the author and donot necessarily reflect views or policies ofEnvironment Australia or the CommonwealthGovernment.

The author would like to thank RainerRehwinkel (NSW NPWS), Sarah Sharp(Environment ACT), Bernadette O’Leary,Marie Waschka, Philippa Walsh and AleciaJones (WWF Australia), Josh Dorrough (ANU)and Janet Koop for their technical, editorialand production assistance.

MANAGING NATIVE GRASSLANDa guide to management for conservation,production and landscape protection

WWF Australia is working to conserve Australia’s nativevegetation. Our programs aim to reduce excessive

clearing of land and the effects of salinity and introducedspecies on our environment. Together with Australian

communities, we are working to expand protected areasand ensure our land is well managed for the future.

WWF Australia GPO Box 528, Sydney NSW 2001

Ph: 02 9281 5515 Fax: 02 9281 1060Freecall 1800 032 551

www.wwf.org.au

http://www.wwf.org.au

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