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Industrial Management & Data SystemsManager's attitude toward environmentAgnieszka Leszczynska

Article information:To cite this document:Agnieszka Leszczynska, (2010),"Manager's attitude toward environment", Industrial Management & DataSystems, Vol. 110 Iss 8 pp. 1234 - 1250Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02635571011077852

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Manager’s attitude towardenvironmentAgnieszka Leszczynska

Faculty of Economics, Maria Sklodowska Curie University, Lublin, Poland

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze corporate environmental awareness in aninternational cross-section and to explore whether attitudes towards environmental issues mirror thedevelopment of an economy. Thus, do more advanced societies represent more progressive attitudes?How significant are differences in perception between countries?

Design/methodology/approach – The empirical research was conducted in three countries. In total,200 managers in public and private corporations nationwide were selected in Australia and Ukraine.In Poland the population of managers was 250. The study instrument was a two-part survey. The firstpart concerned ecological awareness understood as a conglomerate of knowledge, values and attitudes.The second part of the survey concerned convictions and opinions pertaining to ecological issues.Responses were given in an interval response scale, on a 1-5 rating scale for a particular question.

Findings – The research shows that in companies in some countries there are “gaps within awarenesscomponents”, and hence between convictions, ecological values and a readiness to take action.Moreover, an awareness gap has been diagnosed between more and less developed countries. So, thestudies conducted showed that the perception of a kind of environmental threats changes together withsocio-economic development.

Originality/value – Several analyses of attitudes towards various dimensions of the environmentcan be found in the literature. This paper focuses not on a general level of ecological awareness of thepublic but on managers’ attitude towards environment. Issues concerning the ecological awareness ofa selected group (population) are sporadically presented in the literature. Limited research to datehas been undertaken with respect to managerial attitudes towards environmental issues. To the best ofthe author’s knowledge there is no evidence which would enable a comparison of the level of awarenessof Polish and Ukrainian managers and managers from other countries. The contribution of the paperto the literature is twofold: first, it complements the knowledge on managers’ attitude towards environmentin the studied countries. Second, it shows the relations between the level of socio-economic growth andthe attitude.

Keywords Corporate social responsibility, Environmental management, Managers, Poland, Austria,Ukraine

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionLooking a few decades back, it is evident that environmental issues have gainedincreasing attention as a result of a growing number of ecological crises and disasters,an international increase in ecological awareness among politicians and decisionmakers, an interest of the media in environmental protection issues. For manypurposes, including political ones, it is important to diagnose public awareness of theenvironmental issues. It allows a country, among other things, to design an appropriateecological policy and to introduce instruments stimulating desired social behaviours.This paper is based on an assumption that ecological awareness is both the awarenessthat human beings are dependent on other elements of nature, and the awareness thathuman activities affect the surrounding environment. Ecological awareness consists of

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-5577.htm

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Received 12 March 2010Revised 9 April 2010Accepted 12 May 2010

Industrial Management & DataSystemsVol. 110 No. 8, 2010pp. 1234-1250q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0263-5577DOI 10.1108/02635571011077852

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an appropriate amount of knowledge, rationally and emotionally assimilated andtranslated into actions. Its components are knowledge, values, attitudes and a desire toact (Zsoka, 2008).

An attitude towards the environment, from the point of view of organizationmanagement, is one of the main factors affecting behaviours of organizations (Tilley,1999; Patton and Worthington, 2005). Many organizations engaged in environmentalmanagement initiatives to improve their environmental performance and found otherbenefits to the process, such as financial savings and reduced liability risk. Although anumber of companies introduced various environmental instruments, not all of themwere successful. Cohen-Rosenthal (2000), Hale (1995) and Banerjee (2001) argue that astrategy for improved environmental performance is effective when all employees in anorganization are aware of the functioning of natural systems and understand its effect onbusiness performance. Therefore, the level of ecological awareness in managers and theirattitudes to these problems are fundamental factors determining an environmentalstrategy adopted by an organization (Vithessouthi, 2009).

In the literature, there are several analyses of attitudes towards various aspects ofthe environment (Ladd and Bowman, 1995; Sundberg and Soderqvist, 2004; D’Souzaet al., 2007; Boman and Mattsson, 2008; Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2010).The studies concern a general level of ecological awareness in a given country’s public(Kasim, 2009; Tomicevic et al., 2010). This paper focuses not on a general level ofecological awareness in the public, but on the attitudes of managers towards theenvironment. Various aspects of the ecological awareness in a selected group(population) are sporadically presented in the literature. Few studies to date addressedmanagerial attitudes towards environmental issues (Cummings, 2008). Even if they dobecome a subject of research, it is limited to a specific region. There are no comparativestudies among countries; especially the impact of regional factors (i.e. economicdevelopment, environment quality and demographic state) on environmental beliefshas not been analyzed.

The paper presents the results of a study of managers’ ecological awareness in threecountries (Poland, Australia and Ukraine) and explores whether attitudes towardsenvironmental issues reflect the development of an economy. The questions asked arethe following: do more advanced societies represent more progressive attitudes? Howsignificant are the differences in perception among countries?

The current state of knowledgeThe interest in environmental attitudes began in early 1970s (Bord and O’Connor, 1997)led Dunlap and van Liere (1978) with publication of a new environmental paradigm,which sought to measure the degree of pro-environmental orientation through a series of12 environmental items/statements. To date, studies focused, to a large extent, on factorsthat affected environmental attitudes. The usually considered variables included: age,gender and other socio-demographic and socio-economic factors (Whitehead, 1991;Cameron and Englin, 1997; Blomquist and Whitehead, 1998; Engel and Potschke, 1998;Witzke and Urfei, 2001; Dupont, 2004; Israel and Levinson, 2004; Hidano et al., 2005).

Few studies have been devoted to managerial attitudes towards environmentalissues in several countries, although attitudes have been examined in Japan (Pierceet al., 1987), Canada (Edgell and Nowell, 1989), Sweden (Widegren, 1998; Gooch, 1995),Turkey (Furman, 1998) and the Caribbean (Rauwald and Moore, 2002) and China

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(Lee et al., 2005). On an international platform, Rojsek (2001) found that in at least onedeveloping country (Slovenia), there were significant differences as to how managersperceived obstacles to environmental management depending on the size of firm theywork in and their own age. In contrast, Branzei et al. (2002) attributed differences inenvironmental performance in Canada, China and Japan to the knowledge ofenvironmental management on the part of managers. Moreover, cultural differences areof foremost importance (Bechtel et al., 2006). Studies conducted in China show thatcompanies pay less attention to corporate environmental reporting and transparencycompared with some of their Western counterparts, and only report when they are forcedto do so (Peiyuan, 2005). This is confirmed by the latest studies according to whichAustralian respondents were more conscious of supporting a forthright view onenvironmental issues, while Chinese respondents favoured a more centralized approachto decision making regarding the environment (Cummings, 2008).

Studies of ecological awareness in Poland, generally focused on the whole public,were carried out by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS) (1996, 1997, 2000)as well as by other researchers (Wojnarowska, 2009). Taking into account the level ofmanagerial ecological awareness Kardas and Jasinska (2010) showed that there is adiscrepancy between their attitudes towards the environment and actions undertakenin this area. There is no evidence to enable a comparison of the level of awareness inPolish managers to that in managers from other countries.

Economic situation and state of the environment in the studied countriesUkraineUkraine is in a phase of deepening regression after quite a long period of economicdevelopment, at the average annual level of 7 per cent, when no reforms were undertaken.Optimistic macroeconomic assumptions forecasting a 0.4 per cent gross domestic product(GDP) increase in 2010 are widely regarded as unrealistic. The economic situation ofUkraine is characterized by:

. deterioration of an investment climate and conditions of market accessibility;

. high inflation caused, among other things, by a 30 per cent rise in gas prices;

. unemployment increase (a phenomenon of mass layoffs); and

. crisis of the banking system and public finances.

Basic macroeconomic indices for 2008 were as follows:. GDP per capita 20.5 thsd UAH;. exports $78.7 bln;. imports $92 bln;. foreign direct investment $35,723 mln USD;. consumer price index 122 per cent; and. income of population 856 bln UAH.

Ukraine’s economy was originally centralized and characterized by great structuraldisproportions. An inefficient economic system led to non-rational use of resourcesand excessive consumption of energy. The system neither recognized the value ofnatural resources nor stimulated the conservation and sustainable use of resources.

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It was oriented towards production and gross output figures only. As a result oflong-term disproportions in the allocation of productive forces under the conditions ofthe command-administrative economy, the technogenic impact on the naturalenvironment is still four-five times greater in the developed countries. Ukraine hasconsiderable environmental problems, especially resulting from the Chornobyl nuclearpower plant disaster in 1986 and from industrial pollution. In accordance with itsagreement with the G7 and European Commission in 1995, Ukraine permanentlyclosed the last operating reactor at the Chornobyl site on 15 December 2000. Since 1998,the efforts, undertaken at the political level, to resolve the environmental problems inUkraine have concentrated on the following aspects:

. development and improvement of a new environmental policy;

. integration of the environmental policy into the strategy of socio-economicreforms;

. development of nature-protective programs and projects in the priority areas;and

. formation of conditions and potentialities for expanding internal and foreigninvestments in the field of nature protection.

The actions undertaken helped to reduce the amount of emitted harmful substances to4,524 thsd tons in 2008 (by 6 per cent compared to the previous year); emission ofpollutants to atmosphere from stationary sources was lower (33 per cent); dustemission decreased by 5 per cent, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides – by 10 per cent,carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds – by 7 per cent; thewithdrawal of underground water was also reduced (8 per cent), etc.

Moreover, Ukraine is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of mineralresources. Occupying 0.4 per cent of the world’s dry land, it possesses 5 per cent of theworld’s mineral resources worth US$11 trillion. A total of 9,000 mineral deposits aredistributed throughout its territory, and with respect to some types of mineralresources, it has a leading position in the Commonwealth of Independent States,Europe and the world.

PolandPoland avoided recession associated with the world economic crisis. A factorcontributing to a good economic situation was a high-domestic demand, especially alarge share of individual consumption. The macroeconomic situation of this countryshould be estimated as stable and positive:

. the rate of unemployment in the second half of 2009 was 10.7 per cent;

. the budget deficit 5.5 per cent GDP, which is a sign of good control of publicfinances for the euro zone countries; and

. a predicted GDP increase in 2010 to 3 per cent.

Export connected with the EU membership and public investments in the infrastructureare the driving forces of the economy. Among economic weaknesses experts indicate asignificant unemployment and a resulting migration to other countries, a possibleincrease in inflation, a growth of trade and current account deficits.

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The state of the atmospheric air in Poland is determined by the emission of pollutioninto the atmosphere from its territory, by trans-border transport and meteorologicalconditions. Excessive air pollution on over 20 per cent of the area of Poland is a result of:

. energy industry based on coal;

. well-developed but under-invested resource industry;

. shortage of installations purifying exhaust gases;

. problems with law enforcement; and

. increase in emission of nitrogen oxides to 885 gigagr.

Despite this, compared to 2000, one can observe positive trends in the changes of thestate of the environment. The emission of sulphur dioxides, among other gases,decreased by 25 per cent, carbon monoxides – by 25 per cent, dust – by 6 per cent.The general amount of waste fell from 137,710 thsd tons to 124,974 thsd tons, with analmost unchanged level of municipal waste. The amount of sewage produced alsodecreased by 3 per cent and of untreated sewage – by 50 per cent. Over the last tenyears, spending on durable resources for environmental protection has increased byalmost e100 mln. In 2009, spending on information and training in this sphereamounted to e733 thsd.

AustraliaThe proof of Australia’s economic power is the fact that the country has been in a periodof growth for the seventeenth year in a row. The current unemployment rate is 5 per cent,whereas the budget shows a surplus of 1.8 per cent GDP. Real per capita GDP is nowabove the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average (last yearit was $1,197,197 m). Australia is a fully developed, highly urbanized, federal countryand networking with many Asian countries. Over the last ten years the economic growthwas 3.6 per cent; in this period it was the highest among industrialized countries.Forecasts for 2010 assume further growth.

To a significant extent, Australia’s economic development results from theaccessibility and variety of mineral resources. This concerns export of hard coal,bauxites, aluminium, iron ores and wool. Australia is an ecologically unique continentcharacterized by mega-biodiversity. Through a National Environment ProtectionMeasure (NEPM), Australia adopted air quality standards that set ambient concentrationlimits for six conventional pollutants. Ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide,sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and lead are generally below NEPM level, e.g:

. greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector declined by 7 per cent;

. SO2 levels have been reduced over the last 12 years;

. emission from land use, forestry sector declined by 74 per cent; and

. photochemical smog declined significantly – up to 70 per cent, depending on theregion.

Adoption of the National Water Initiative reinvigorated the reform of the watermanagement framework. With the deployment of very large government funds, realprogress was made towards implementing the reforms, in particular, land property rightsand water access entitlements were separated in all states, and institutional arrangements

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for water trading were put in place. In spite of old irrigation schemes and large waterlosses due to leakages and evaporation, water consumption fell by 23 per cent.

Study methodThe research process involved:

. Literature review.

. Semi-structured interviews with industry representatives in order to establishresearch focus and propositions. The results of discussions were cross-checkedwith interviews prior to designing Part I of the questionnaire.

. Piloting the questionnaire, revision.

. Sending questionnaires with cover letter by mail to sample organizations

. Input and analysis of the survey data.

The studies were conducted in 2009. A total of 200 managers in public and privatecorporations nationwide were selected in Australia and Ukraine. In Poland, thepopulation of managers was 250. The survey was directed to middle executives, with theexception of employees of environmental protection departments, on the assumptionthat they present a higher level of ecological awareness and knowledge. Thequestionnaires were mailed to selected organizations in each of the three countries.Organizations were selected in a random way, based on information available instatistical bases. Inclusion criteria included:

. organization size – the organizations selected employ minimum 50 people;

. activity type – we selected industrial plants which function in industriesaffecting the environment in a negative way; and

. location and area of activity – national organizations, conducting regional andnational activities.

The study sample was selected mainly from the organizations active in manufacturingand natural resources industries, including chemicals, machinery, food and mining.All these industries are directly involved with the natural environment, and thereforewere chosen specifically for this study.

The study instrument was a survey consisting of two parts. The questions weretranslated from Polish into English in the Australian version, and from Polish intoRussian in the Ukrainian one. The first part concerned ecological awareness understoodas a conglomerate of knowledge, values and attitudes. This part contained 15 closeddichotomous questions or disjunctive cafeteria-style checklists. The questions used wereformulated on the basis of the Public Opinion Research Center in Poland (CBOS, 1996,1997, 2000) questionnaires. Thus, the instrument was verified in previous studiesconducted by this institution in the years 1996-2009. The studies were of a quantitativecharacter; the per centage of responses given to individual questions was assessed.Questions regarded the respondents’ opinions concerning environmental threats, thestate of the environment in the vicinity of an organization, responsibility for the state ofthe environment, knowledge of ecological organizations and eco-labels, etc. The secondpart of the survey concerned convictions and opinions pertaining to ecological issues.It involved opinions referring to international effects of environmental pollution,

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environmental reports, ecological standards, consideration of public opinion inenvironmental decision taking. The range of questions was shown in Table I. In this part,containing 18 questions, a five-point rating scale suggested by Cummings (2008) wasused. Responses were given on an interval response scale, on a 1-5 rating scale for aparticular question, where 1 – strongly unfavourable to the concept and 5 – stronglyfavourable to the concept. This part was verified in pilot studies conducted in Australia.The whole questionnaire was additionally tested in pilot studies involving a group of80 managers in postgraduate management courses. As a result, we removed threequestions that were a repetition of other ones or went beyond the study subject.

ResultsThe total response rate was 96 (48 per cent) for Australian respondents, 31 (15 per cent)for Ukrainian respondents and 216 (86 per cent) for Polish respondents. Cumulativeresults from the individual questionnaires were obtained directly from the SPSSstatistical software. The survey yielded varied statistical results. The Wilks’ Lambdarevealed significant differences among the three countries with regard to environmentalattitudes in a given country (value ¼ 0.781; F ¼ 4.49). Significant differences wereobtained for all environmental questions.

The assessment of the level of ecological knowledge of Polish respondents showedthat less than a half of them (44 per cent) know what institution to inform in case ofa threat to the environment. The respondents pointed to the fire brigade (35 per cent),police (17 per cent) and emergency management headquarters (12 per cent).

Question Poland Ukraine Australia Mean value Sig.

1. Mandatory ecological education 3.8 3.8 4.4 4.0 0.052. Environmental teams in manufacturing

enterprises 3.8 2.6 4.1 3.5 0.003. Ecological taxes 2.7 3.5 3.7 3.3 0.454. Limitation of use of subsidies 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 0.405. Sanctions for polluting countries 4.2 4.4 3.1 3.9 0.006. Subjecting international problems to domestic

policy 3.2 3.4 3.0 3.2 0.237. Applications of ecological standards 3.3 3.7 3.3 3.4 0.318. Financial profits from ISO 3.3 1.6 2.7 2.5 0.109. Governmental control of environmental

regulations 3.6 4.1 3.6 3.7 0.0010. International effects of pollution 4.7 4.0 4.0 4.2 0.2811. Taking into account opinion of the public 1.9 2.5 4.1 2.8 0.0512. Compromise with stakeholders 3.3 3.5 3.9 3.5 0.0513. Managers’ accountability for environmental

management 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.3 0.0014. Statistical data accumulated by manufacturing

organization 2.8 4.3 3.9 3.6 0.0015. Considering interests of other groups 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.2 0.1516. Publishing a separate environmental report 3.7 4.2 3.6 3.8 0.0017. Verification of environmental performance by

auditors 3.5 3.7 4.0 3.7 0.0018. Identical requirements for all organizations 4.1 4.0 3.7 3.9 0.08

Table I.Results of study ofecological convictions

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Only 4 per cent would contact public administration units responsible for the state ofthe environment. With regard to marking products (labelling), one in four respondentsis able to recognize ecological labels. Whereas, 45 per cent of the questioned managerscan “pride themselves on” knowledge of international organizations, 33 per cent knowall-Polish ones and 10 per cent – local ones. Australian managers show a higherlevel of ecological knowledge. A majority of them (90 per cent) know national andinternational ecological organizations, they also recognize (75 per cent) ecological labels.In the case of local threats (e.g. fires) most of the respondents would report the crisis tothe fire brigade (58 per cent) and/or public administration accountable for the state of theenvironment (40 per cent). Against this background, the state of ecological knowledgein Ukrainian managers looks “dramatic”. They are able to mention only internationalecological organizations. The interviewees in this country would report possibleenvironmental threats to the police (33 per cent), the fire brigade (30 per cent). Only fourrespondents (out of the whole population) were able to indicate examples of eco-labels.

A significant part of the respondents in all the countries studied (.40 per cent)show a considerable concern for the general state of the environment. They considerthe ozone layer and greenhouse effect to be the greatest threats (Figure 1).

Referring to local problems related to the state of the environment in the vicinity of anorganization, managers point to the existence of two and three threats (65 per cent). InUkraine 10 per cent, and in Poland 4 per cent of the respondents do not perceive anythreats. Such an answer does not appear in Australia. According to the respondents, thegreatest problem is air pollution and litter (Figure 2). Apart from that, essentialdifferences among the countries are clearly visible. In Australia, where the environmentprotection system is well-developed and has been functioning for a long time, the currentproblems result from global pollutions that are transferred among countries.

Figure 1.Environmental threats

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Ozone hole

Industrial air pollution

Pollution of rivers

Felling forests

Acid rain

Hothouse effect

Extinction of species

Exploitation of resources Australia

Ukraine

Poland

Notes: In per cent; the sum of responses does not need to be 100 per cent due to a possibility of a choiceof several answers

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The problems that occur in Ukraine are due to negligence on the part of the country’sauthorities and due to its residents’ behaviour.

Nevertheless, the interviewed managers perceive an improvement in the generalstate of the environment. In the opinion of 53 per cent of the respondents, environmentprotection in Poland (compared to 2004) is functioning better (or definitely better6 per cent). The opposite answer was given by 15 per cent. Australian respondentsgave analogous answers (better 49 per cent and worse 12 per cent). As to Ukraine,a general state of the environment over the last five years has not changed (52 per cent).

The managers are convinced that an improvement of the state of the environmentdepends on their activities; there are no significant differences among the countries inthis respect. However, differences can be observed with reference to factors affectingan improvement of the state of the environment (Figure 3). The activity of localauthorities was considered to be an important factor, while responsibility of businessclubs was considered to be of little importance. There are discrepancies with respect tothe remaining factors.

Figure 2.Ecological problemsin the vicinity of anorganization (in per cent)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Littering surroundings

Air pollution

Water pollution

Institutional negligence

No greenery

Industry

No problems Australia

Ukraine

Poland

Figure 3.Factors affectingimprovement of the stateof the environment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

State of finances

Tightening control

Activities of government

Customers' behaviours

Activity of local authorities

Accountability of business clubs Australia

Ukraine

Poland

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As to the values held, attitudes in which nature conservation belong to the most highlyranked values, are becoming increasingly common, in contrast to modernization oflife and progress. Contrary to expectations, such an attitude is mainly typical of theUkrainian managers (50 per cent), and to a lesser extent – of the Polish (38 per cent)and the Australian ones (19 per cent).

The second part of the questionnaire, based on an ordinal scale, focused onconvictions. The results were shown in Table I.

In the opinion of the Polish respondents employees whose tasks significantly affectthe environment ought to participate in ecological training (3.8). The managersinterviewed also believe that:

. trade sanctions should be imposed on countries not complying with internationalecological agreements (4.2);

. environment pollution in one country can have direct effects (financial or social)on other countries (4.7); and

. national and local organizations should be subject to analogous requirements ofcompliance with environmental protection as international organizations in agiven country (4.1).

With reference to ecological standards and norms, the Polish respondents believe that ifthere are no appropriate national standards, organizations should apply internationalones (3.3). Central control over environmental norms and regulations should beexercised by governmental bodies (3.6). The respondents assumed a more conservativeattitude as to the role of the public in decision making concerning the environment.The opinion that only managerial staff is accountable for the implementation ofenvironmental management in an organization was also assessed negatively (2.0). At thesame time, the Polish respondents believe that manufacturing enterprises, and thoseactive in the environmental protection sector, should publish annual environmentalreports, subject to independent verification (3.5). According to the respondents, it isnecessary for all manufacturing enterprises to collect and make available statisticalinformation on the level of pollution (2.8).

The Ukrainian respondents are the most prominent in expressing a desire to havetrade sanctions imposed (4.4), and to have local companies exposed to the same degreeof environmental compliance as foreign companies (4.0). On the questions of negativeconstruct they are, however, more supportive of international environmental concernsbeing subordinate to national concerns (3.4), and they believe that the nationalgovernment should maintain central control over the environmental regulations (4.1).This reflects a more nationalistic and centralized perspective on environmentalaccountability.

The Ukrainian respondents do not perceive any benefits resulting from theimplementation of ISO 14000. It is probably due to a very low popularity of environmentalmanagement schemes in Ukraine, which are implemented only by internationalorganizations. Moreover, the managers interviewed do not consider it necessary to formenvironmental committees in their organizations (2.6); they have a negative perception oftheir own accountability for implementing environmental management (2.3).

The Australian respondents are more prominent in supporting the notion thatenvironmental education should be mandatory (4.4), and that manufacturingorganizations should have a separate environmental committee (4.1). They are also

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more supportive of the view that pollution has trans-border effects, and that thereshould be community involvement in organizational decisions; they also believe thatmanagers should compromise with stakeholder groups. They are more in favour ofkeeping a separate register of statistical data on pollution emissions (3.9) and havingseparate environmental reports (3.6). Concerning the questions posed in the negativeconstruct (6, 8, 9, 13), the Australian respondents are, as anticipated, less supportive ofthe belief that the primary benefit of environmental standards is financially related (2.7)and that the national government should maintain central control over environmentalregulations (3.6). Contrary to expectations, the Australian respondents on the whole arethe least prominent in supporting a progressive attitude towards environmentalmanagement. They are the least prominent in supporting a more regulatory approach tothe environment with respect to carbon taxes (3.7); an interesting outcome given theAustralian Government’s rejection of a carbon tax in 1995.

ConclusionThe study shows that the perception of the kind of environmental threats changesalong with socio-economic development. In the developed countries, the trans-borderproblems are prominent. This concerns especially pollutants that spread in a naturalway (by air and water). In less developed countries, the predominant threats are thosegenerated at a local level, e.g. industrial activity, littering the environment or a lack ofgreen areas. This points to an inefficiency of local self-governing authorities or to lowfines for polluting the environment. A change in this state of affairs requires aninstitutional reform (including improvement of the control system) and legal changes.

Regarding attitudes towards the environment, the results point to a variedgradation of the value of the environment. Nature-centrism is considerably morecharacteristic of the Ukrainian and Polish managers than of the Australian ones. Thisis a consequence of the fact that due to a low income, the forms of relaxation that haveto be paid for (e.g. club relaxation, sports requiring an appropriate infrastructure),which are popular in more well-to-do societies, are not available there. These countriesvalue the natural environment higher because of a limited availability of substitutepastimes and forms of recreation.

Managers from the more developed countries have a higher awareness of needs inthe area of the organization of environmental protection in an enterprise. They are to agreater extent supportive of conducting ecological education, forming ecological teams,of an independent verification of environmental performance. In the poorly developedcountries, there is a dominant conviction that international ecological problems need tobe subjected to a national policy (in contrast to the more developed countries where therespondents were in favour of a global approach). The possibility of applying solutions(i.e. standards) created abroad is taken into account only if appropriate nationalsolutions are not available. Managers in those countries perceive their role inimplementing tasks regarding environmental protection in a more passive way. Theyare to a lesser degree responsible for:

. considering the opinion of the public in taking decisions referring to theenvironment;

. compromise with stakeholders; and

. taking on responsibility for environmental protection in an organization.

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The abovementioned passivity of managers is caused, on the one hand, by a lesseropenness of an organization to its surroundings (e.g. disregarding the impactof customers), on the other one, by a fear of taking on responsibility, which results fromtheir lack of proper knowledge. A certain exception is an approach to ISO 14000 systems.The respondents from those areas where the systems were introduced a relatively shorttime ago perceive the greatest benefits resulting from their implementation. Accordingto statistical data the number of certified organizations is increasing there. In moredeveloped countries, where the systems were popularized earlier, the scale ofcertification remains at a steady level.

With regard to economic instruments of environmental protection, managers in allthe areas have an identical (i.e. negative) approach to the issue of reduction of subsidies.However, there are differences with respect to ecological taxes. The Australianrespondents point to taxes as to solutions stimulating reduction of emissions, whereasthe Polish managers have a negative opinion of taxes since in this country they are thehighest. Summing up, there are some differences between the Australian, Polish andUkrainian respondents. The Ukrainian respondents exhibit a tendency towardscentralization with respect to environmental attitudes, favouring national control overenvironmental regulation. The Australian respondents are the least prominent insupporting most of the environmental attitudes. The differences observed are caused byseveral reasons. One of them is the activity of ecological organizations and “green”parties. In many Western countries there are green political parties, which form a part ofthe national and state political infrastructure, and are sometimes perceived by sectionsof the business community as being an impediment to economic growth. In lessdeveloped countries green parties, if they exist, remain on the fringes of the politicalscene. Their impact is marginal due to scant support of voters. Another factor is culturalconditioning. In spite of the fact that culture was not explicitly examined in the study,this factor should be assumed to play a significant role in the perception ofenvironmental issues. One more aspect to be mentioned is that a state’s ecologicalpolicy, reflected in sector policies, has a positive influence on the level of managerialawareness. Countries in which such a policy does not translate into other spheres(is dead) will show not only a higher level of environmental pollution but also worseunderstanding of the relation between an organization and its surroundings. Attitudestowards the environment are also associated with the perception of the social role of anorganization (Faulkner et al., 2005). In the face of a global competitive struggle,organizations from less developed regions will concentrate on remaining in the market,whereas ecological problems will be treated as minor ones.

In the light of the results obtained, a country’s socio-economic development affectsan attitude towards the environment. This concerns especially positive changes in thesphere of economic, social and political activities. More developed countries arecharacterized by a higher level of ecological awareness and vice versa. Thus, the studyresults confirm a need to raise ecological awareness in less developed areas.

Implications for managersThe key factors that determine an attitude towards the environment are: the level ofknowledge and the access to information. The studies conducted show that the level ofknowledge of managers in the less developed countries is lower. Therefore, it seemsappropriate that they acquire knowledge on environmental protection and the relatedsciences/fields. Such ecological education should be based mainly on self-study and

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involve examining specialist papers, monitoring study results, and participation intraining. This education consists in acquiring information on:

. the state of basic elements of the environment;

. various sources of technogenic strain on the environment;

. costs and effects of running the system of environment management; and

. the way ecological policy instruments function.

The scope of information acquired ought to be varied, depending on the kind ofactivities conducted and a manager’s position (scope of responsibility).

The studies also indicate that an approach towards the environment depends on asense of threat. Managers are aware of threats to the environment. If these threats,however, are not direct health hazards, they are treated as needs of a higher order(according to Maslow’s theory). Therefore, the more clearly the dependence of health onthe state of the environment is perceived, the more significant it is to satisfy the needsconnected with the environment. Managers who are unaware of detrimental effects ofpollution, despite their general positive attitudes towards environmental protection, donot take action in this area.

A change of managerial attitudes in the less developed countries will take place eitheras a result of a more imminent sense of threat (an increased risk) or due to increasedmotivation. Information and promotional campaigns can be a motivation-buildinginstrument. As they influence employees and middle executives by encouraging positivebehaviours, they can bring about a change in the hierarchy of values and attitudes.An example of such a campaign will be fostering models of appropriate behaviourtowards the environment, establishing high ethical standards by well-known managers.The effects of changes in managers’ awareness will be reflected in the fact that theyconsider ecological aspects in decision-making processes in an organization, in theirchoice of new patterns of behaviour, and in planning directions of activities.

Implications for policy makersInformation received by managers significantly depends on the access to informationon a local and national scale. Therefore, it is advisable not only to constantly monitorthe environment, but also to compile statistical reports and to make results available.There is a need, or even a necessity, to improve systems of ecological information.As principles of sustainable development will be implemented, the role of managerswill increase, and along with it, the role of ecological information in management at anorganizational, commune or regional level. An additional problem might be a lack ofinformation on pro-ecological attitudes and behaviours of small social groups.

In a broader context education encourages building ecological awareness.Information connected with the environment ought to be passed on at every level ofeducation. Since attitudes are formed by experience, the ongoing ecological education isneeded. It could be supplemented with such instruments as information and promotionalcampaigns.

The studies conducted show that pro-ecological organizations are of minimalsignificance in the less developed countries. There is no ecological lobbying, whileecological parties do not function in politics. In addition, other unfavourable phenomenaoccur: advisory bodies are of little importance, the public scarcely participates in

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decision-making processes, the country’s ecological policy does not translate into sectorpolicies. Therefore, policy makers ought to promote ecological movement, created byecological institutions, social institutions and experts and strive to make it strong andprofessional. These actions will limit the abovementioned phenomena. On the otherhand, it is necessary to simplify the administrative process by shortening proceedingsor by informal negotiations that will replace procedures and administrative decisionswith a system of agreements of directly concerned parties.

LimitationsThe current research is not free from limitations. First, compared to the Polish andAustralian sample, the Ukrainian one comprised a marginal proportion. To that extent,the results may not be strictly comparable between the countries. Second, the literaturepoints to the role of a collectivist orientation, a cultural value in the formation ofenvironmental beliefs and attitudes. In the present study, the author did not includeculture as a study variable. The study was also limited (as far as its scope is concerned)to the selected determinants, indicative of environmental beliefs. There is a need for anin-depth study of causative factors responsible for the making of environmental beliefsand attitudes, such as a collectivist orientation, and the role of environmental educationin institutions.

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Brody, S.D., Zahran, S., Vedlitz, A. and Grover, H. (2008), “Examining the relationships betweenphysical vulnerability and public perceptions of global climate change in the UnitedStates”, Environment & Behavior, Vol. 40 No. 1, pp. 72-95.

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Madsen, H. and Ulhoi, J.P. (2001), “Greening of human resources: environmental awareness andtraining interests within the workforce”, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 101No. 2, pp. 57-65.

van Liere, K. and Dunlap, R. (1980), “A review of studies that measured environmental attitudesand behaviors”, Environment & Behavior, Vol. 11, pp. 22-38.

Corresponding authorAgnieszka Leszczynska can be contacted at: [email protected]

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