Managerial Skill Deveopment

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Managerial Skill Development

Kolhan University or Ranchi University Semiester -1

Sandeep Ghatuary

Managerial Skill Development 2

Communication Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share" is the activity of conveying information through the

exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful

exchange of information between two or more living creatures. Pragmatics defines communication as any sign-mediated

interaction that follows combinatorial, context-specific, and content-coherent rules. Communication is an inherently

social interaction, and communicative competence is the ability to engage in intersubjective interactions.

Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver doesn't have to be present or

aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast

distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative

commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver understands the sender's message.

Communication involves an exchange of facts, feelings information by two or more persons and provides the means of

putting the personnel into action in an organization People are to be informed, guided and directed as to what should

be done by them every now and then.

Definition -

� Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode)

information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. In general, communication is a means

of connecting people or places. In business, it is a key function of management--an organization cannot operate

without communication between levels, departments and employees. See also communications

� Alien Louis A.: Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create

understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and

understanding.

� Ordway Tead: Communicating is a composite of information given and received, of a learning experience in

which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change, carving with them alterations of behaviour, of listening

effort by all involved, of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by the communicator himself, of a sensitive

interacting points of view, leading to a higher level of shared understanding and common intention.

� Theo Haiemann: Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to

another. It is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others.

Communicating with others involves three primary steps: � Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or feelings.

� Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.

� Decoding: Lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information that a person can

understand.

OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION 1. STRONGER DECISION MAKING - Your ability to communicate effectively increases productivity, both yours and

your organization.

2. INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY - With good communication skills, you can anticipate problems, make decisions, co-

ordinate work flow, supervise others, develop relationships and promote products and services.

3. STEADIER WORK FLOW - Communication acts as tool for the effective work related flow of information.

4. STRONG BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS & ENHANCED PROFESSIONAL IMAGE - You can shape the impressions you

and your company make on colleagues , employees ,supervisors , investors ,and customers in addition to

perceiving and responding to the needs of these stakeholders(the various group you interact with ) without

effective communication , people misunderstand each other and misinterpret information. Ideas misfire or fail

to gain attention and people and companies flounder.

5. CLEARER PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS - Your organizations need for effective reach of company name and public

promotions are based on effective promotional material such as advertisements , bill boards , online add ,

posters etc are all communicated for effective message delivery and meaning.

6. PROVIDE ADVICE - Giving advice is based on individual-oriented and work-oriented ,advice should not given to

the person for pinpointing his mistakes rather it should be helpful for his improvement. Effective advice

promotes understanding and it can be a two way process if the subordinate staff given freedom.


7. PROVIDE ORDER - Order is an authoritative communication pattern and it is directive to somebody always a

subordinate to do something. Orders will be written and oral orders, general and specific orders, procedural and

operational orders, mandatory and discretionary order. Order should be clear and complete, execution should

be possible and given in a friendly way.

8. SUGGESTION - Suggestion is supposed to be very mild and subtle form of communication. Suggestions are

welcomed for it is not obligatory to accept them, it can be voluntary and anonymous and submitted through

suggestion boxes.

9. EDUCATION - Education is a very conscious process of communication, it involves both teaching and learning by

which organizations provide to their employees in the form of training. Education is given for management,

employees and outside public.

10. WARNING - If the employees do not abide by the norms of the organization warning is a power communication

tool and it can be general and specific. Specific warning should be administered in private and after thorough

investigation. The aim of the warning should be the organization betterment.

11. RAISING MORALE AND MOTIVATION - Morale stands for mental health and it is a sum of several qualities like

courage, resolution, confidence .High morale and effective performance go hand to hand. Motivation is a

process that account for an individual intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

12. TO GIVE AND RECEIVE INFORMATION - Communication’s main idea is to give and receive information because

managers need complete, accurate and precise information to plan and organize employee need it to translate

planning in to reality. Information will cover all aspects of the business.

13. TO PROVIDE COUNSELLING - Counseling is given to solve employee’s mental stress and improve the employee’s

productivity.

14. TO IMPROVE DISCIPLINE - Finally discipline is the foremost part of any business communication. The various

disciplinary codes are effectively communicated to employees through disciplinary codes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS MESSAGES ---- Effective business messages have common basic

characteristics

1. Provide practical information: Business messages usually describe how to do something, explain why a

procedure was changed, highlight the cause of a problem or a possible solution, discuss the status of a project,

or explain why a new piece of equipment should be purchased.

2. Give facts rather than impression: Business messages use concrete language and specific details. Information

must be clear, convincing, accurate and ethical. You must present hard evidence (not just opinion) and present

all sides of an argument before you commit to a conclusion.

3. Clarify and condense information: Business messages frequently use tables, charts, photos, or diagrams to

clarify or condense information, to explain a process, or to emphasize important information.

4. State precise responsibilities: Business messages are directed to a specific audience. Therefore, you must clearly

state what is expected of, or what you can do for, that particular audience.

5. Persuade others and offer recommendations: Business messages frequently persuade employers, customers, or

clients to purchase a product or service or adopt a plan of action. To be effective, persuasive messages must

show readers just how a product, service or idea will benefit them specifically.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION ---- Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization:

Control; Motivation; Emotional expression and Information.

• Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways. Organizations have authority hierarchies and

formal guidelines that employees are required to follow. When employees, for instance, are required to first

communicate any job related grievance to their immediate boss, to follow their job description, or to comply

with company policies, communication is performing a control function. But informal communication also

controls behavior. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much and makes the rest of

the group look bad, they are informally communicating with, and controlling, the member’s behavior.

• Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and

what can be done to improve performance if it’s subpar. We saw this operating in our review of goal setting and

reinforcement theories. The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and


reinforcement of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication. For many employees,

their work group is a primary source for social interaction. The communication that takes place within the group

is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction.

• Communication, therefore, provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of

social needs. The final function that communication performs relates to its role in facilitating decision making.

• It provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data to

identify and evaluate alternative choices.

Importance of Communication

1. Promotion of managerial efficiency. As management is a task of getting the week accomplished through efforts

of other personnel, it is communications that can deep personnel working in accordance with desires of

managers. Management members deal work personnel in giving orders and instructions, in allocating jobs and

duties, in approving work and recognizing performance, in explaining objectives and policies, and in seeking

their effective co-operation. In all positive it and negative actions, managers have to move with the help of

communication in their dealing with human beings. Accordingly, the efficiency of a manager lies in his ability to

communicate with other personnel.

2. Co-operation through understanding. Good communication induces human beings to put efforts in their work

performance. The importance of the work is required to be mentally accepted before the doing of such work.

That is, the will-to-do must precede the actual doing. To provide this will-to-do, communication creates

understanding and acceptance on the part of employees. As there can be no faith in an activity without

understanding it clearly, communication results in satisfactory performance through creating this faith. In short,

effective communication increases understanding of employees, gains their willing acceptance and leads them

to greater efforts

3. Basic for leadership action. Leadership action is impossible without communication between the leader and his

followers. The leader can exert his influence only through conveying ideas, feelings, suggestions and decisions to

his followers. The followers too can convey their responses, feelings, attitudes and problems to the leader

through the medium of communication. The two-way personal communication is essential for maintaining man-

to-man relationship in leadership accordingly; effectiveness of leadership is greatly determined by the adequacy

and clarity of communication.

4. Means of co-ordination. Communication helps in securing desired co-ordination of enterprise operations by

communication network throughout the organization. As teamwork is essential for the accomplishment of jobs

in many cases, co-ordination appears to be of paramount importance. For the purpose of co-ordination,

managers keep the group fully informed of all facts and situations relating to the work. Secrecy creates suspicion

and separates people; common understanding of common problems units them for showing a better record of

their performance.

5. Provision of job satisfaction. Mutual trust and confidence between management and operatives can be

increased by the communication of what the manager wants and what the employees perform. A clear-cut

understanding provides job satisfaction to employees, creates their confidence in the ability of managers and

promotes their loyalty towards the enterprise. That is to say, effective communication satisfies personal and

social needs of human beings and stimulates their job interest and enthusiasm.

Why Is Communication Important - It is important to communicate well. It can help you to understand what another

person is saying. It also means that they can express their own needs and concerns. When you are seriously ill, there will

be many things that need to be discussed. Some of these discussions may be difficult and emotional.


Process of Communication - Communication is a cyclic process that starts when the sender feels that there is a need

to communicate with the receiver for a particular reason (purpose). The sender creates a message either in the written

or in verbal or nonverbal form. The message is dispatched to the receiver with the help of channels of communication.

The receiver takes the delivery of the message and provides feedback to the sender. The sender gets the feedback and

determines whether the receiver has received the same message and meaning that the sender had intended to

communicate with him; if the sender feels that the receiver has not received the same message and meaning, he/she

again initiates the cycle of communication

1. Source or sender: – the first step in the communication process is source or sender. The source is also called

communicator. Communication begins when someone has some idea, information, view, feeling to transmit.

The communicator may be a person, group or an organization. When the communicator intends to

communicate to somebody communicator prepares the message

2. Encoding: – the idea or feeling the sender has to be translated into some language or symbols. This process is

called encoding. The sender must choose appropriate words, symbols, pictures etc to express his/her idea..

While selecting the symbols, the sender has to pay attention about the receiver understanding the message.

3. Message or medium: – the medium is simply the pathway for transmission of the message. Some medium must

be selected. This channel is chosen by the sender. They can be formal or informal. Examples are face to face ,

email, letters, fax. Telephone etc

4. Decoding to the receiver: – the receiver assigns some meaning to the symbol transmitted by the source, so the

receiver interprets the message and the process is known as decoding. It is not an easy task because words have

different meaning for different people. Problems of communication break down frequently.

5. Feedback: – this is the final phase. Feedback is the reaction of the receiver. The receiver has to confirm whether

or not the message has been received or not. It is only taken in two-way communication.

6. Noise: – it is interference with the normal flow of information. It disturbs the communication system. No matter

how well designed is the communication system; if noise exists the message received is different from message

sent. Example: – noise of machines, vehicles, loud voice etc.

Elements of Communication 1. Sender: The sender is the person who initiates the process of communication. Whenever the sender feels that

there is a need to communicate some information to the other person (receiver), he/she starts the process of

communication. The sender must be aware of the purpose of the communication and the receiver's abilities to

understand the message in terms of language, interest, etc.

2. Message: The message is created by the sender to convey the information, facts or opinion to the receiver. The

message should be clear and simple so that the receiver can understand it in the same way as the sender

desires. While creating a message, the sender should take care of words, language, and meaning of the message

if the message is to be communicated in verbal or written form or he/she should take care of body language and

facial expression if the message is to be communicated in nonverbal form, along with the abilities and

professional competencies of the receiver.

3. Channels of communication: Communication channels are the medium through which the message is

communicated to the receiver. Channels of communication play an important role in the process of

communication. If the sender selects an appropriate medium or channel of communication, there are more

chances that the receiver will receive the same message; or else, there are chances that the message may get


distorted. In this hi-tech era, there are a number of channels that can be used to communicate message, e.g.,

mobile, e-mail, voice mail, person, radio, TV, Internet, blogs, etc. “Through proper channel” is a common phrase

used among the nurse administrators/managers that signifies the importance of communication channels. For

example, a student of B.Sc nursing, II year, wants to communicate hostel problems to the director of the

institute. In order to reach to the intended receiver first, he/she should communicate his/her message in the

form of written application to the class teacher; the class teacher will forward the application (message) to the

principal and finally the principal will forward the application to the director. That is how communication

through proper channel takes place. In this case, the class teacher and principal were the channels of

communication through which the message was communicated to the receiver (director).

4. Receiver: The receiver is the person who receives the message. The receiver may be a single person or a group

of persons. The receiver understands the meaning of the message and provides feedback to the sender. The

receiver should have the same language ability, comprehension, and cultural background as the sender. If not, it

may lead to distorted understanding of the meaning of the message by the receiver.

5. Feedback: It is the most crucial element of communication. It is provided by the receiver to the sender.

Receiving feedback is important for the sender to know that the receiver has received the message and

interpreted the meaning of the message in the desired way. Without feedback, the process of communication

cannot be complete. For example, when you send a mobile SMS to your friend, you get feedback in the form of

delivery report that informs you whether your message has been delivered or not to the intended receiver; it

also happens in the same way in the case of e-mail.

Flow of communication - In an organization, communication flows in various directions:

1. Downward communication: Downward communication flows from people at higher level to those at lower

levels in the organization hierarchy. This kind of communication exists especially in organizations with an

authoritarian leadership style. Examples of written downwards communication are memo, letters, handbooks,

policy statements and procedures.

2. Upward communication: This communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the

organizational hierarchy. This type of communication is found in participative and democratic organizational

environments. Typical means of upward communication are suggestion systems, appeal and grievance

procedures, complaint systems, counseling sessions, grapevine, group meetings, morale questionnaires and the

exit interview.

3. Crosswise communication: It includes the horizontal flow of information between people on the same or similar

organizational levels and diagonal flow between persons at different levels who have no direct reporting

relationships. This kind of communication is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding and to

coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational objectives. It may include oral communication ranging

from informal meetings, or more formal conferences and board meetings. Written forms include company

newspapers or magazine and bulletin boards.

Methods of Communication - The standard methods of communication are speaking or writing by a sender and

listening or reading the receiver. Most communication is oral, with one party speaking and others listening. However,

some forms of communication do not directly involve spoken or written language. Nonverbal communication (body

language) consists of actions, gestures, and other aspects of physical appearance that, combined with facial expressions

(such as smiling or frowning), can be powerful means of transmitting messages. At times, a person's body may be

“talking” even as he or she maintains silence. And when people do speak, their bodies may sometimes say different

things than their words convey. A mixed message occurs when a person's words communicate one message, while

nonverbally; he or she is communicating something else. Although technology such as e-mail has lessened the

importance of nonverbal communication, the majority of organizational communication still takes place through

face-to-face interaction. Every verbal message comes with a nonverbal component. Receivers interpret messages by

taking in meaning from everything available. When nonverbal cues are consistent with verbal messages, they act to

reinforce the messages. But when these verbal and nonverbal messages are inconsistent, they create confusion for the

receiver. The actions of management are especially significant because subordinates place more confidence in what


managers do than what they say. Unless actions are consistent with communication, a feeling of distrust will undermine

the effectiveness of any future social exchange.

1. Oral communication skills - Because a large part of a manager's day is spent conversing with other managers and

employees, the abilities to speak and listen are critical to success. For example, oral communication skills are used

when a manager must make sales presentations, conduct interviews, perform employee evaluations, and hold press

conferences. In general, managers prefer to rely on oral communication because communication tends to be more

complete and thorough when talking in person. In face‐to‐face interactions, a person can judge how the other party is reacting, get immediate feedback, and answer questions. In general, people tend to assume that talking to someone

directly is more credible than receiving a written message. Face‐to‐face communication permits not only the exchange of words, but also the opportunity to see the nonverbal communication. However, verbal communicating

has its drawbacks. It can be inconsistent, unless all parties hear the same message. And although oral

communication is useful for conveying the viewpoints of others and fostering an openness that encourages people

to communicate, it is a weak tool for implementing a policy or issuing directives where many specifics are involved. Here are two of the most important abilities for effective oral communication:

� Active listening. Listening is making sense of what is heard and requires paying attention, interpreting, and

remembering sound stimuli. Effective listening is active, requiring the hearer to “get inside the head” of the

speaker so that he or she can understand the communication from the speaker's point of view. Effective

listeners do the following:

• Make eye contact.

• Schedule sufficient, uninterrupted time for meetings.

• Genuinely seek information.

• Avoid being emotional or attacking others.

• Paraphrase the message you heard, especially to clarify the speaker's intentions.

• Keep silent. Don't talk to fill pauses, or respond to statements in a point-counterpoint fashion.

• Ask clarifying questions.

• Avoid making distracting gestures.

� Constructive feedback. Managers often do poor jobs of providing employees with performance feedback.

When providing feedback, managers should do the following:

• Focus on specific behaviors rather than making general statements

• Keep feedback impersonal and goal-oriented

• Offer feedback as soon after the action as possible

• Ask questions to ensure understanding of the feedback

• Direct negative feedback toward behavior that the recipient can control

2. Written communication skills - Written communication has several advantages. First, it provides a record for

referral and follow-up. Second, written communication is an inexpensive means of providing identical messages to a

large number of people. The major limitation of written communication is that the sender does not know how or if

the communication is received unless a reply is required. Unfortunately, writing skills are often difficult to develop,

and many individuals have problems writing simple, clear, and direct documents. And believe it or not, poorly

written documents cost money. How much does bad writing cost a company annually? According to a Canadian

consulting and training firm, one employee who writes just one poorly worded memo per week over the course of a

year can cost a company $4,258.60. Managers must be able to write clearly. The ability to prepare letters, memos,

sales reports, and other written documents may spell the difference between success and failure. The following are

some guidelines for effective written communication:

� Use the P.O.W.E.R. Plan for preparing each message: plan, organize, write, edit, and revise

� Draft the message with the readers in mind

� Give the message a concise title and use subheadings where appropriate

� Use simple words and short, clear, sentences and paragraphs

� Back up opinions with facts

� Avoid “flowery” language, euphemisms, and trite expressions

� Summarize main points at the end and let the reader know what he must do next


Kinds (Types) of Communication employed by Business Organisations - In a business context, all communication

can be divided into two categories namely, External Communication and Internal Communication.

1. External Communication - An organization, when it communicates with Governmental agencies, oth organizations,

customers, clients and Public it is called external communication The media employed may be written media like

letters, reports, proposals or visual media like posters, advertisements video tapes or electronic media like faxes,

telegrams, e-mails, telexes. The communication might also be through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings, panel

discussions or presentations, exhibitions and such events.

Advantages of External Communication - External communication helps an organization to keep its outsourcing

agencies like distributors, wholesalers, retailers and clientele well informed about the company’s products, services,

progress and goals. The information gets continuously updated and accurate. All organizations have to maintain

cordial relationships with government agencies, licensing authorities, suppliers of raw materials, ancillary industries

and financial institutions. Continual and updated information without any communication gap is essential for

business houses.

2. Internal Communication - Every organization has the necessity to maintain appropriate communication with its

branches, staff and employees. This is generally called internal communication. Internal communication is an

essential feature of an organization’s administrative structure. In modern times, the Human Resource Department

plays an important role in maintaining internal communication. In the new millennium, particularly in the context of

globalization, business has become highly competitive. Business houses have the need to maintain good channels of

internal communication. The central organization or corporate office should keep its branches well informed of new

policies and policy changes. The growth in business, the future projections for business, increased specializations

make a great demand on the central office to maintain an uninterrupted flow of internal communication. Employees

need to be motivated and exposed to the business objectives and ethical ideas of a company so that they get an

involvement in the work they do. Employees on production line should be aware of the targets so that they

overcome obstacles. Even the shifting of the canteen and a re-adjustment of the lunch-breaks and tea-breaks has to

be informed well in advance to the employees. In turn, employees should be able to tell people at higher levels their

grievances, expectations and difficulties. Effective internal communication forges a strong bond between the

employees and management, promotes co-operation among different sections in an establishment. It remove’s

misunderstanding and aids the growth of the organization at a desirable and optimum level. Internal communication

in short, ensures involvement of all the people without alienating any section.

� Directions of Communication - In olden days communication was unidirectional. The boss gave the order and

the employees executed it. In fact, uni-directional communication has its origin in the feudal system. The lord

directed the vassal (a slave or bondman) to carry out a job. Business and industry continued the age old tradition

of the feudal system even after the industrial revolution. But soon areas of conflict got promoted by sectarian

interests (of homogenous groups) within an organization. The barrier between the management and employees

became an iron curtain. It has been discovered that a multidirectional communication system demolishes the

barriers and removes friction. Business depends on such anew communication paradigm (pattern or model) to

ensure the success of business and the realization of even difficult objectives.


� Downward Communication - Downward communication means the flow of communication from the top

echelon (level or rank) of an organization to the lower levels of employees. Downward communication not only

recognizes and accepts a hierarchical structure but also is based on the assumption that people at the higher

level have the ability and authority to direct the employees on all do’s and don’ts. Downward communication

has its own shortcomings, if it is not complemented by other directional communications. The shortcomings will

be pronounced if an organization adopts only unidirectional communication namely downward communication.

Downward communication, if practiced without complementing it with upward communication, will fail because

it accepts the premise” The boss is always right”. Moreover, it may get delayed or distorted as it goes down

through the various levels of the hierarchical set up as all decisions are taken without any proper feedback. But

it helps in creating awareness among employees of the objectives, targets and goals. It also helps in establishing

a certain authority in the organization and discipline. In the armed forces and police department, mostly, only

downward communication exists.

� Upward Communication - Communication maintained from lower level of employees to higher-ups is called

upward communication. Upward communication gives scope for the employees to offer their suggestions,

opinions, make complaints and seek redressal of their grievances. Upward communication helps an organization

to receive and reset its objectives at realistic levels. Upward communication may cause ego problems to persons

in higher hierarchical positions. It may also lead to meaningless criticisms of the policies by disgruntled

employees. But on the whole, modern management recognizes the need for healthy upward communication to

make the organization responsive to suggestions and ideas. Some organizations invite the opinions of personnel

at the lower level. Just personnel department, the HRD section and the Swedish type of ‘Ombudsman Office’

(Official appointed by a government to investigate and report on complaints made by citizens on Public

authorities) take steps to see that a healthy and acceptable upward communication system is adopted by

organizations.

� Horizontal / Lateral Communication - The interaction among peer groups is called horizontal communication.

Inter departmental communication is also horizontal communication. Sales department, production

department, quality control department and the stores department have to constantly interact and coordinate

among themselves. Horizontal communication leads to a better understanding among individuals and

departments, cooperation and coordination.

� Diagonal or multi-directional Communication - Diagonal communication means the use of upward, downward

and horizontal communication. It is a healthy practice not to depend on any one mode. Diagonal communication

leads to better feedback at all levels. It promotes understanding, motivates employees and gives a sense of

belonging and involvement to all people at all levels. But such communication should not be allowed to

degenerate to a meaningless criss-cross communication which will lead to chaos and confusion. All modes have

to be maintained at the appropriate and optimum level.

Formal and Informal Channels of Communication - Every business organization adopts some formal channels of

communication which may be upward, downward, or horizontal or all the three. They are usually in the form of notices,

announcements, reports, official or demit-official letters, advertisements, etc. Formal channels are officially recognized

and organized. They make the working of the organization transparent. They motivate the employees. They provide the

necessary feedback. But formal channels operate with some limitations. A continuous maintenance of a formal channel

is time and resource consuming. At ordinary times, they exist for their own sake without any objective, as a formality

and routine. Sometimes, free flow of information gets affected by personal factors.

Grapevine - Large organizations, where there are a large number of people working closely, generate certain informal

or unofficial channels of communication. These channels exist with or without official patronage. Even if they are

officially and secretly patronized, they are not authentic. This type of communication is generally called “Grapevine”

communication. Grapevine communication is an informal, unofficial, horizontal channel of communication because

generally peer groups participate in it.

Types of Grapevine Communication - Grapevine communication is of four different types.

� It can seep from individual to individual in a strictly linear fashion. Information takes time to spread in this

fashion. It is called Single Strand Chain.


� In some situations, an individual goes around communicating the message / information he thinks he has

obtained. This is called Gossip Chain. The listeners are a chosen few only.

� In some other situation, an individual passes an information without any restriction to all those with whom he

comes into contact. This is called Probability Chain and the information / message passed on may be interesting

but not important.

� In yet another situation, one person communicates to a few chosen associates who in turn communicate the

same to yet another group. This is called Cluster Chain

Advantages of Grapevine Communication - Grapevine communication brings about a strong bond among peer

groups. It develops because of the involvement of the persons connected with an organization. It gives mental

satisfaction to the participants and gradually reduces emotional outbursts and reactions. It keeps the employees

anticipating and acts as a buffer against Shockwaves. It is fast and can supplement formal channels. It provides informal

feedback on the changes contemplated by the Management.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication - Grapevine is definitely dangerous to the health of an organization if

allowed to grow without monitoring. Grapevine channel distorts or exaggerates the content of a message. It has the

potential to spread unnecessary gossip. It may result in character assassination and personal vilification of individuals. It

may provoke sudden unwanted and unexpected reactions from emotionally unstable people.

Grapevine channels can be moderated but not eliminated. A transparent administration policy, employee-friendly

attitude, fruitful peer group meetings, inter-action sessions, parties and outings where all those connected with the

organization participate are some of the strategies to monitor grapevine and use it to the advantage of the organization.

Business houses and industries adopt one or several of these strategies to keep grapevine under reasonable control so

that it does not degenerate into a rumour mill and promote unwanted gossip sessions among the employees.

Direction of communication - Communication can flow vertically or laterally.

1. The vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward directions. � Downward: Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level is downward

communication. When we think of managers communicating with employees, the downward pattern is the one

we are usually thinking of. It’s used by group leaders and managers to assign goal, provide job instructions,

inform employees of policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback about

performance. But downward communication doesn’t have to be oral or face-to-face contact. When

management sends letters to employees’ homes to advise them of the organization’s new sick leave policy it’s

using downward communication. So is an e-mail from a team leader to the member of her team, reminding

them of an upcoming deadline. � Upward: Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. It’s used to provide

feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress towards goals, and relay current problems. Upward

communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, coworkers, and the organization

in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for ideas on how things can be improved. Some

organizational examples of upward communication are performance reports prepared by lower management or

review by middle and top management suggestion boxes employee attitude surveys, grievance procedures,

superior subordinate discussions and informal ‘group’ sessions in which employees have the opportunity to

identify and discuss problems with their boss or representation of higher management. For example, FedEx


prides itself on its computerized upward communication program. All its employees annually complete climate

surveys and reviews of management. This program was cited as a key human strengthen by the Malcolm

Baldrige National quality Award examiners when FedEx win the honor. 2. Lateral: When communication takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work

groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or among any horizontally equivalent personnel, we

describe it as lateral communications. Why would there be a need for horizontal communications if a group or organization’s vertical communications

are effective? - The answer is that horizontal communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate

coordination. In some cases, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. More often, they are informally

created to short circuit the vertical hierarchy ad expedite action. So lateral communications can from management’s

viewpoint, be good or bad. Because strict adherence to the formal vertical structure for all communications can

impede the efficient and accurate transfer of information, lateral communications can be beneficial. In such cases,

they occur with the knowledge and support of superiors. But they can create dysfunctional conflicts when the

formal vertical channels are breached when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, or

when bosses find out that actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge.

GATEWAYS TO COMMUNICATION 1. Overcoming barriers and achieving effective communication: Developing and maintaining a system of good

communication is the primary job of any executive. But it should be kept in view that mere transmission of

information does not, in any way, ensure effective communication. Effectiveness largely depends on reciprocal

understanding; mutual exchange of ideas, facts and information for it is not one sided game or the executive

affair of the transmitter of the message.

2. TWO-WAY CHANNEL: In communication, two parties is involved, namely the sender or transmitter and the

receiver of the message. Naturally, mere transmission of facts, ideas, opinions, etc. does not make any

communication effective and meaningful. The imperative needs are to keep the channel open is to send the

receiver’s views, understanding an opinion about the event informed. A good communication system is like a

two-way traffic.

3. MUTUAL TRUST: a communication system may be considered good when mutual understanding exists

between the sender and the receiver of the message, no matter the communication takes place among

the executives or subordinates. Existence of good and healthy relationship is also an indicator of a

good system of communication existing in any department of organization.


4. CLARITY OF MESSAGE: The message must be as clear as possible. No ambiguity should be creep in to it.

The message can be conveyed properly only if it is clearly formulated in the mind of communicator.

The message should be encoded in direct and simple language so that the receiver able to understand

it without much difficulty

5. TIMELY MESSAGE: Considerable attention should be given to the timeliness of communication. Old

information is worse than none at all.

6. CONSISTENCY OF MESSAGE: The message to be communicated should always be consistent with the

objective, policies and programs of the enterprise. It should not be conflicting with the previous

communication, otherwise it would create confusion and chaos in the organization

7. GOOD RELATION: The mode of communication should be chosen in such a manner that it does not hurt

the feelings of the receiver. It should create proper understanding in their minds if it is to achieve good

human relations in the enterprise. It is equally essential that the communicator also attempts to

understand the receiver.

8. FEEDBACK: Feedback provision in the communication process calls for making it a two-way process. The

sender must try to ascertain through some signals whether or not he is properly understood. He should

also try to know the reaction of the receiver of the message.

9. EMPATHETIC LISTENING: Manager should resist the temptation of making premature evaluation of a

subordinate’s communication or interrupting him in course of communication. Empathetic listening

also allows smooth flow of information.

10. FLEXIBILITY: The communication system should be flexible enough to adjust to the changing

environments. It should be able to carry extra loads of information without much strain. It should

absorb new techniques of communication with little resistance.

Barriers to communication There are many barriers in communication. Language can be a barrier. If the receiver does not understand the language

of the sender, it is a barrier. In electronic communications, such as radio or television, static or a weak signal can be a

barrier. A bad receiver antenna can be a barrier as well. Emotions can cause people to not be receptive to the words of

another person, even if the words are understood. That is a barrier. In short, anything that interferes with a signal sent

to a receiver is a barrier to communication.

Definition - Obstacle in a workplace that prevent effective exchange of ideas or thoughts. Such barriers include (1)

status differences, (2) gender differences, (3) cultural differences, (4) prejudices, and (5) the organizational environment.

Different types of communication barriers - There are some common barriers exist against effective

communication. Communication is straightforward. But it becomes complex and difficult when barriers are there. Here

are some types of barriers that negatively affect to effective communications.

1. Language Barriers – this is one of the most common barriers that can be found. Many communication issues can

be occurred because of the language and vocabulary differences. If the sender and the receiver cannot

understand the languages of each others, the communication will not give the intended effect. Use of unclear

and inappropriate words also can make confusions and misunderstandings during a particular communication

process.

2. Cultural Barriers – there are many communication issues comes through cultural differences. Age differences,

gender differences, economic positions, political beliefs and cultural backgrounds are some of them. Effective

communication between people of different cultures is really difficult. Same word can make different meaning

to people who have cultural differences.

3. Organization Barriers – most of the communication barriers exist in workplaces can be included into this

category. Poor organization structures, some rules and regulations, poor employee relationships, physical

separations, outdated equipments and noisy environment can badly affect to communication processes within

the organization.


4. Personal barriers – individual discomfort and perceptions can also make negative impact on effective

communication. If people are not in the same level in terms of their perceptions, knowledge and attitudes; the

communications between them are not very much successful.

5. Interpersonal barriers – misunderstanding, lack of trust on each other, fear of losing power and control, poor

relationships are some of interpersonal communication barriers. These can make lack of attentions, listening

and poor responses during a communication.

6. Channel barriers – if the communication media is inappropriate or the communication is too long; it might break

up the process. Poor communication channels can badly affect to the clarity, clearness and accuracy of the

communication process.

Barriers to Effective Communication - When communication happens there may be 'noise' which is called as barriers

to communication. A barrier to communication causes different misunderstanding, misconceptions, confusion and

overall miscommunication. That's why we should know about those well to recognize well in the purpose of trying to

avoid those from communication to make communication effective. Different types of barriers to communication are

described below:

1. Organizational Barriers: It arises for the following reasons:

� Complex Organizational Structure: The more complex structure that an organization has, the more problem it

face in communication.

� Excessive Layering of Administration: In modern business, the administrative level has more layers which

creates communication gap between employee and management.

� Lack of Policies: How management will function is reflected through its policies. Lack of proper organizational

or managerial policy causes dispassion among the employees.

� Conservativeness of Supervisors: Sometimes supervisors are very conservative and ignore to communicate with

the employees. This causes barrier to communication.

� Improper Delegation of Authority & Responsibility: For improper delegation of authority and responsibility in

an organization, the employees and workers are not conscious about their task which acts as a barrier to

communication.

2. Individual Barriers:

� Personality: Sometimes higher officials do not maintain any discussion with the subordinates due to their high

personality. This hampers in communication.

� Wrong Explanation: Both receiver and sender can explain the received message or information in a wrong way

which causes problem to communication.

� Individual Conflict: If individual conflict exists between sender and receiver then communication can happen

whimsically. This acts as a barrier to communication.

� Fear: Lack of proper knowledge, fear of capability, fear of explaining properly, threat for failure and others are

also reasons for causing problems to communication.

� Pre-Idea: Sometimes, We bear pre-idea regarding any person in our mind. And when we communicate, we try

to apply what is kept in our mind. Difference between perception and reality may hamper communication.

� Insincerity and Lack of Confidence: Sender may not give importance to the thinking and decision of receiver. In

such a case, receiver may lose confidence which will lead to worthless communication.

3. Language/Semantic Barrier:

� Vague Word: Use of vague word in communication causes problem because such word creates different

meaning and therefore the message loses its appeal.

� Use of Local Dialect: The tone of different region is different and therefore using local dialect in communication

will obviously create adverse impression. This acts as barrier to communication.

� Use of Different Languages: Communication may be done in different languages and receiver may not be expert

in different languages. This causes barrier to communication.

� Use of Technical Words: Receiver may fail to understand the meaning of technical words and therefore use of

such words in communication hampers the whole communication.

4. Barriers due to Status: It occurs due to following reasons:


� Status/ Position: Each and every person in different layers of organization wants to maintain individual status.

He or she may not want to exchange any message or information which may hit to his or her status or prestige.

Here, in this case, communication gets barriers to be effective.

� Mental State: Sometimes, Receiver suspects the sender of message and does not rely on the message sent. Such

mental state acts as a barrier to communication.

5. Barriers due to Resistance to Change:

� Following the 'Old One': There are traditional people in every organization who always prefer the old customs

and avoid any change because change involves flexibility. So, people who follow the 'Old One' act as a barrier to

communication.

� Lack of Attention: Sometimes, officers and subordinates of an organization do not pay attention enough to the

message or information what is received. This is one of barriers to communication.

� Own interpretation or Assumption: It happens that receiver of the message makes his own explanation or

assumption regarding the message received. This leads to problem for communication.

6. Other Barriers: There are some other barriers to communication which are as follows:

� Geographical Barrier: Geographical distance creates communication gap. For example, communication between

Washington and California.

� Lack of Harmony: If mutual understanding that exists between sender and receiver of communication is absent

then communication is barred.

� Faulty Expression: If communication fails to communicate the message in a correct way then receiver faces

problem. So, faulty expression creates miscommunication or confusion.

� Cultural Difference: Difference nations have different cultures. Lack of proper knowledge and wisdom to the

culture of receiver may be a reason of communication problem.

� Absence of Feedback: When there is a feedback from receiver, Communication becomes effective. Feedback

creates awareness in the mind of sender regarding the communication and aids him to modify the quality of

communication.

How can we break these barriers? We need to overcome above barriers to do an effective communication. Here are some things you should follow when

communicating with other. You can easily overcome organization barriers through the establishment of proper

communication network within the organization. By allowing employees to access organization’s resources and by

facilitating for idea generations, most of these organizational barriers can be removed. Also flexible and transparent

organization structure will also help to improve the communication process. Be a good listener. You can solve lots of

interpersonal barriers through this. Remember to filter any information you received before pass it to someone else.

Also use clear expressions, accurate words and avoid using absolute words. Make sure to ask questions from the

receiver to clarify the degree of understanding of the message you pass. Repeat the message if necessary. Always take

feedbacks. It will help you to determine the effectiveness of the communication you did. Try to keep eye contacts when

you are talking to someone or listening to someone. These will help you to resolve many communication barriers.

Chanel barriers can overcome through using proper communication channels. Always try to avoid intermediaries exist in

the communication channel you use.

Importance of listening - Listening plays a vital role in communication. Many barriers can be avoided through

effective listening. Use below tips to improve your listening capabilities.

� Use face-to-face communication and eye contacts

� Listen to ideas not just words

� Do not interrupt when someone speaks

� Ask questions to clarify unclear points of the conversation

� Always give feedbacks

Eliminating barriers completely is not possible. But by knowing the barriers you have for effective communication, you

can take necessary actions to avoid them or lower them.


Non-Verbal Communications

Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly

visual) cues between people. It is also seen as the nonlinguistic transmission of information through visual, auditory,

tactile, and kinesthetic channels. Mistakenly referred to as body language (kinesthetic), nonverbal communication

encompasses much more, such as use of voice (paralanguage), gaze (oculesics), touch (haptics), distance (proxemics),

time (chronemics), and physical environments/appearance. Only a small percentage of our total brain processes verbal

communication, as an infant we learn nonverbal communication from our social-emotional communication, making our

face, not our words the major organ of communication. As we become verbal communicators, we begin to look at facial

expressions, vocal tones, and other nonverbal elements subconsciously.

Definitions

1. Behavior and elements of speech aside from the words themselves that transmit meaning. Non-verbal

communication includes pitch, speed, tone and volume of voice, gestures and facial expressions, body posture,

stance, and proximity to the listener, eye movements and contact, and dress and appearance. Research suggests

that only 5 percent effect is produced by the spoken word, 45 percent by the tone, inflexion, and other elements

of voice, and 50 percent by body language, movements, eye contact, etc.

2. Transmission of messages by a medium other than speech or writing.

3. Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed

through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the communicators (proxemics). These non-

verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal)

communication

4. Communication without words; a process by which an individual stimulates meaning in the mind of another

person through intentional and unintentional messages through use of the body and voice

What is non-verbal communication? Definition “nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated

by both the source [speaker] and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the

source or receiver [listener] (Samovar et al). Basically it is sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without

the use of verbal codes (words). It is both intentional and unintentional. Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of

this. It includes — but is not limited to: Common types of nonverbal communication:

� Facial expressions. Unlike most communication, facial expressions are universal. � Body movements and posture. The way we move and carry ourselves can tell a lot about us. � Gestures. We often use gestures without thinking about it. Since gestures are so different across cultures it is

important to be careful when interpreting someone's gesture to avoid misinterpretation. � Eye contact. This is a very important piece of nonverbal communication since the visual sense is dominant for

many of us. � Touch. A firm handshake during an interview goes a long way. � Space. Personal space has to do with how close we like to be when communicating with people. This varies

greatly by culture. Broadly speaking, there are two basic categories of non-verbal language:

� Nonverbal messages produced by the body; � Nonverbal messages produced by the broad setting (time, space, silence)

Why is non-verbal communication important? Basically, it is one of the key aspects of communication (and especially important in a high-context culture). It has

multiple functions: � Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating directions. � Often used to accent a verbal message. (E.g. verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of the specific words). � Often complement the verbal message but also may contradict. E.g.: a nod reinforces a positive message

(among Americans); a “wink” may contradict a stated positive message.


� Regulate interactions (non-verbal cues covey when the other person should speak or not speak). � May substitute for the verbal message (especially if it is blocked by noise, interruption, etc) — i.e. gestures

(finger to lips to indicate need for quiet), facial expressions (i.e. a nod instead of a yes). Note the implications of the proverb: “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this underscores the importance

of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural situations. Probably

non-verbal differences account for typical difficulties in communicating.

Cultural Differences in Non-verbal Communication

1. General Appearance and Dress - All cultures are concerned for how they look and make judgements based on

looks and dress. Americans, for instance, appear almost obsessed with dress and personal attractiveness.

Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what constitutes modesty. Note ways

dress is used as a sign of status?

2. Body Movement - We send information on attitude toward person (facing or leaning towards another),

emotional statue (tapping fingers, jiggling coins), and desire to control the environment (moving towards or

away from a person). More than 700,000 possible motions we can make — so impossible to categorize them

all! But just need to be aware the body movement and position is a key ingredient in sending messages.

3. Posture - Consider the following actions and note cultural differences: � Bowing (not done, criticized, or affected in US; shows rank in Japan) � Slouching (rude in most Northern European areas) � Hands in pocket (disrespectful in Turkey) � Sitting with legs crossed (offensive in Ghana, Turkey) � Showing soles of feet. (Offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia) � Even in US, there is a gender difference on acceptable posture?

4. Gestures - Impossible to catalog them all. But need to recognize: � Incredible possibility and variety and

� That an acceptable in one’s own culture may be offensive in another.

In addition, amount of gesturing varies from culture to culture. Some cultures are animated; other restrained.

Restrained cultures often feel animated cultures lack manners and overall restraint. Animated cultures often

feel restrained cultures lack emotion or interest. Even simple things like using hands to point and count differ. � Pointing : US with index finger; Germany with little finger; Japanese with entire hand (in fact most Asians

consider pointing with index finger to be rude) � Counting: Thumb = 1 in Germany, 5 in Japan, middle finger for 1 in Indonesia.

5. Facial Expressions - While some say that facial expressions are identical, meaning attached to them differs.

Majority opinion is that these do have similar meanings world-wide with respect to smiling, crying, or showing

anger, sorrow, or disgust. However, the intensity varies from culture to culture. Note the following:

� Many Asian cultures suppress facial expression as much as possible. � Many Mediterranean (Latino / Arabic) cultures exaggerate grief or sadness while most American men hide

grief or sorrow. � Some see “animated” expressions as a sign of a lack of control. � Too much smiling is viewed in as a sign of shallowness. � Women smile more than men.

6. Eye Contact and Gaze - In USA, eye contact indicates: degree of attention or interest, influences attitude change

or persuasion, regulates interaction, communicates emotion, defines power and status, and has a central role in

managing impressions of others. � Western cultures — see direct eye to eye contact as positive (advise children to look a person in the eyes).

But within USA, African-Americans use more eye contact when talking and less when listening with reverse

true for Anglo Americans. This is a possible cause for some sense of unease between races in US. A

prolonged gaze is often seen as a sign of sexual interest.


� Arabic cultures make prolonged eye-contact. — believe it shows interest and helps them understand

truthfulness of the other person. (A person who doesn’t reciprocate is seen as untrustworthy) � Japan, Africa, Latin American, Caribbean — avoid eye contact to show respect.

7. Touch – Question: Why do we touch, where do we touch, and what meanings do we assign when someone else touches

us? Illustration: An African-American male goes into a convenience store recently taken over by new Korean

immigrants. He gives a $20 bill for his purchase to Mrs. Cho who is cashier and waits for his change. He is upset

when his change is put down on the counter in front of him. What is the problem? Traditional Korean (and many other Asian countries) doesn’t touch strangers, especially

between members of the opposite sex. But the African-American sees this as another example of

discrimination (not touching him because he is black).

Basic answer: Touch is culturally determined! But each culture has a clear concept of what parts of the body

one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control — protect, support, disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss,

hit, kick). � USA — handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs, kisses for those of opposite gender or of family

(usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis. Note differences between African-Americans and Anglos in

USA. Most African Americans touch on greeting but are annoyed if touched on the head (good boy, good

girl overtones). � Islamic and Hindu: typically don’t touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet

functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand (sometimes difficult for non-

Indians) � Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching between genders (even handshakes). But consider

such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate. � Many Asians don’t touch the head (Head houses the soul and a touch puts it in jeopardy). Basic patterns: Cultures (English, German, Scandinavian, Chinese, and Japanese) with high emotional restraint

concepts have little public touch; those which encourage emotion (Latino, Middle-East, Jewish) accept frequent

touches. 8. Smell

� USA — fear of offensive natural smells (billion dollar industry to mask objectionable odors with what is

perceived to be pleasant) — again connected with “attractiveness” concept. � Many other cultures consider natural body odors as normal (Arabic). � Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, and Indian) stress frequent bathing — and often criticize

USA of not bathing often enough! 9. Paralanguage

� Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn). These send different messages in different

cultures (Japan — giggling indicates embarrassment; India – belch indicates satisfaction) � Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo, and tone). Loudness indicates strength in Arabic cultures

and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the Germans,; indicates impoliteness

to the Thais; indicates loss of control to the Japanese. (Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly

any reason!). Gender based as well: women tend to speak higher and more softly than men. � Vocal segregates (un-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, humm, eh, mah, lah). Segregates indicate formality,

acceptance, assent, uncertainty.

There are five characteristics of nonverbal communication that help explain why it is so important in our

daily lives 1. Nonverbal communication is present in most interpersonal conversations, including cyberspace communication

with the use of emoticons.

2. Nonverbal communication often conveys more information than verbal communication. It is possible that up to

93% of what we say is translated by nonverbal clues. However, it is more realistic that only 65-70% of translation

is due to nonverbal communication. (That is still a lot higher than I would have ever thought!)


3. Nonverbal communication is usually believed over verbal communication. This could be due to the fact that it is

harder to hide or fake our nonverbal clues such as our facial expressions.

4. Nonverbal communication is the primary means of communicating emotion. Think of what someone's facial

expressions look like when they are overjoyed or extremely sad. You can usually tell how they are feeling

without them saying a word.

5. Nonverbal communication is meta communicative, for example, a wink for sarcasm or covering

CLASSIFICATION OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION - KINESICS; PROXEMICS; TIME LANGUAGE;

PARALANGUAGE AND PHYSICAL CONTEXT 1. KINESICS: Kinesics is the study of body physical movements. It is the way our body communicates without words

and it’s occupying a major aspect of non verbal communication process. When we communicate our thought

process and attitude is transmitted in the form of body movements by which our inner state of mind is reflected in

our movements. Thus you can realize these expressions by face and eyes, gestures, posture and physical

appearance.

� Facial expression is the first way to communicate particularly eyes and eye movement. We can express

happiness, surprise, fear, anger and sadness everything through our eyes.

� The gesture is our body parts especially arms, legs, hands and head convey meaning. All these movements are

made rationally along with our speaking and not made with any intention.

� Body shape is related to our biological factor and it is natural but poster is how we stretch our body in different

styles. Body shapes are classified in to three they are ectomorph which is thin, youthful, and tall then the

mesomorph is muscular fit body and finally endomorph which is fat, round, and soft.

� Appearance includes clothes, hair style, jewelry, cosmetics and such styles which we include in our daily life by

which we communicate how we want to project our self.

2. PROXEMICS: It involves how we arrange personal space and what we arrange in it. They create meaning in your

mind and others mind as well. They are also called personal space language which involves how we are maintaining

relationship with a person with intimate space, personal space, social space and finally public space. All this things

are typical example of our relationship space with our father, friend, boss and a stranger.

3. TIME LANGUAGE: Time language is all about the meaning we convey through time. In western countries time

equates money because their business culture is like that. The same thing apply may differ for other cultures.

Therefore time language is associated with culture as well.

4. PARALANGUAGE: It involves how we say something in different pitch, tone and voice modulation such as slow or

fast. Based on voice language we infer people background and personality.

5. PHYSICAL CONTEXT: It refers to our surroundings, colour, layout and design of our physical environment. For

example colour of the building and room, design of table and chairs etc. All these things communicate a lot to our

feelings and emotions.

To conclude Non verbal communication is an art as well a skill. We communicate through letters, reports, mails but they

are all one way communication but daily we communicate with people which is a two way process. This interpersonal

communication requires a lot of care in non verbal cues through which we can improve our relationship better and

increase a chance of good business dealings which again is an essential ingredient in face to face communication.

Functions of Nonverbal Behavior: 1. Repeat: Nonverbal message conveys the same idea as the verbal; can take either verbal or nonverbal message

away and it still gives the same message Examples: saying “Hello” while waving or saying “Be quiet” while

holding index finger up to your mouth

2. Substitute: Nonverbal message replaces verbal message Examples: waving to say hello, thumbs up for “good

job,” clapping at a concert, hitchhiker thumb

3. Contradict: Nonverbal goes against verbal; they do not match up Examples: Nodding yes while shaking head no,

saying “I’m fine” when your head is hanging down with slumped shoulders, etc.

4. Complement: Nonverbal supports verbal; used to show how to do something, show sizes, or emphasize

emotional feelings; we complement the verbal message with the nonverbal message when demonstrating


something or giving directions & pointing Examples: “The fish was this big” while holding hands out to indicate

size or “I’m so frustrated!” while shaking fists

5. Accent: Use of gestures & facial expressions to emphasize or punctuate spoken words Examples: yelling “That’s

it!” while pounding fist, emphasizing words through tone of voice, saying “My first point…” while holding up one

finger

6. Regulate: Nonverbal cues that control or regulate the interaction of flow of communication between ourselves

and another person Examples: nodding head and saying “uh huh,” giving eye contact, opening mouth to speak,

leaning forward, raising eyebrows, or raising index finger

Areas of Study in Nonverbal Communication: 1. Vocalics- Communication through voice (vocal cues other than words = paralanguage) such as…

� Tone of voice/ pitch

� Volume

� Rate

� Accent/ dialect

2. Kinesics- The study of human movement and gesture, including facial expression & eye contact

3. Affect displays - Nonverbal behaviors used to communicate emotions Examples: hugging someone to express love

or shaking fist at someone to show anger

4. Adaptors - Nonverbal behaviors that help us to satisfy a personal need and adapt to the immediate situation; not

really intending to communicate meaning Examples: scratching mosquito bite, adjusting glasses, combing hair,

pulling hanging thread of clothing, etc.

5. Proxemics- Communication through the use of space

� Territoriality- fixed area that is occupied, controlled and defended by a person or group as their exclusive

domain; regulates social interaction; can be source of conflict; indicates ownership (permanent or temporary)

� Zones of Space:

� Intimate: 0- 1 and ½ feet

� Personal: 1 and ½ - 4 feet

� Social: 4-12 feet

� Public: Beyond 12 feet

Advantages of non-verbal communication: 1. You can communicate with someone who cannot hear.

2. You can communicate in places where you have to avoid talking audibly.

3. You can communicate without others around you hearing what is being communicated.

4. You can communicate when a person is too far away from you to hear you (for example, by gesturing)

5. Non-verbal communication is brief.

6. You can communicate with someone who is hard of hearing of deaf.

7. You can communicate at place where you are supposed to maintain silence.

8. You can communicate something which you don't want others to hear or listen to.

9. You can communicate if you are far away from a person. The person can see but not hear you.

10. Non-verbal communication makes conversation short and brief.

11. You can save on time and use it as a tool to communicate with people who don't understand your language.

Disadvantages of non-verbal communication: 1. Long conversations using non-verbal communication are usually not possible.

2. Non-verbal communication varies from culture to culture.

3. Particulars of messages using non-verbal communication cannot be discussed in detail.

4. It is not useful as a public tool for communication

5. It cannot be used everywhere and is less influential than verbal communication.

6. You cannot have long conversation.

7. Cannot discuss the particulars of your message


8. Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions.

9. Cannot be used as a public tool for communication.

10. Less influential and cannot be used everywhere.

11. Not everybody prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication.

12. Cannot create an impression upon people/listeners.

Well non verbal communication is as important as verbal communication because there is a famous proverb saying that

“Actions Speak louder than words", so your gestures, postures, eye contact....each play a major role

Corporate communication Corporate communication is the set of activities involved in managing and orchestrating all internal and external

communications aimed at creating favorable point-of-view among stakeholders on which the company depends.

Definition - The sharing of information within a business. Corporate communication elements of a corporation To

facilitate corporate communication, a business manager will usually need to have or develop considerable interpersonal

skills - such as effective speaking, writing and listening - in order to best assist information sharing within their

department Also called organizational communication.

Role of Corporate Communications in an organization - Planning and analyzing forms an important part of the

organizations’ growth. Without proper planning and allocation of duties, to each and every employee, the confusions

and communication gaps can prove to be a great hindrance towards the achievement of a goal. Therefore, a proper flow

of information from top to bottom is very much required to maintain a balance in the communication processes. Today

almost every organization has a separate department for corporate communications, which does the planning, strategy

development and many other initial activities to start the business, the management of projects and its allocation is also

done by this team. One can also say that, all the internal and the external communication processes are handled by this

department.

Some of the career opportunities in the field of corporate planning and counseling are:

Business Development Executives/ Managers; Business Analysts; Marketing Managers; Strategy Managers; Research

Associates; Corporate Planning; Public Relations; Counselors; Communication planners; Communication specialists;

Event planners and Corporate trainer

Qualities required for a person to get employed as a corporate communicator:

1. Jack of all trades and master of some

2. Punctuality or delivering before deadline

3. An eye for details

4. Quality consciousness

5. Ability to coordinate

6. Strong understanding of the advertising process

7. Strong communication skills

8. Team spirit and leadership

9. A sense of urgency

10. Excellent organizational skills

11. Ability to handle many things at one time

12. Ability to remain calm under pressure


The various responsibilities which one has to fulfill being a part of corporate communications department are:

1. In organizing public relation functions for a corporate body, the head of corporate communications or PRO, in

smaller traditional companies must work out the best way of introducing his company usefully to the media, this

may be means of handouts, circulars, sent through the post or printed publicity material or by special events

such as press conferences or receptions or on a more personal level by introducing the company’s executives to

journalists, sometimes over lunch.

2. To plan and strategize the communication processes with the internal and external audience

3. To maintain a communication balance between the internal audiences i.e. the organization’s employees, to

decrease the communication gap.

4. Marketing research, the need of the hour and what is the demand of the audience

5. To keep an eye on the industry developments

6. To handle shows like, exhibitions, road shows, etc.

7. To handle public relations and media relations department of the organization

8. Periodical research and evaluation to determine the actions or adjustments needed for social harmony

(between the organization and its publics).

9. It is for each corporate communication head to determine what the best is and most cost- effective method of

communicating his companies’ interest. This presupposes that the initiative comes from him.

10. To answer queries from the press and TV. If a corporate communication department earns a reputation for,

finding the answers to press queries swiftly, effectively and accurately and presenting them in a form that is

usable by the media, hen what that department says is likely to be believed, trusted and used.

Formal and Informal Channels of Communication

Every business organization adopts some formal channels of communication which may be upward, downward, or

horizontal or all the three. They are usually in the form of notices, announcements, reports, official or demit-official

letters, advertisements, etc. Formal channels are officially recognized and organized. They make the working of the

organization transparent. They motivate the employees. They provide the necessary feedback. But formal channels

operate with some limitations. A continuous maintenance of a formal channel is time and resource consuming. At

ordinary times, they exist for their own sake without any objective, as a formality and routine. Sometimes, free flow of

information gets affected by personal factors. In an organization, there are basically two ways of COMMUNICATION

namely: Formal and Informal communication

Formal and Informal Communication Networks

1. Networks--structural means (patterns of interaction) that allow messages to flow within organizations. May

include two people, small groups of people, or large numbers that flow outside the organization. We typically

find ourselves involved with multiple organizational networks.

2. Message Flow Directions--Upward--subordinates to managers. Watch out for the tendency of “positive

distortion” from employees. No one wants to make a bad impression on their supervisory and it is very human

to put a positive spin in issues even when there is little to offer in that light. Downward--managers to

subordinates. Try to provide “rationale for decisions” when possible. Studies show over and over that

employees feel better about the organization when they know “why” they are doing things or “why” change is

occurring. Horizontal—communication between employees or departments of the same status. This may

become overly competitive for organizational resources like budgets, awards, recognition, etc. May not be a

problem but it is top managements’ job to ensure the competition does not become counter-productive.

3. Formal Networks--Officially sanctioned; the organizational flow chart; company newsletters; memos; managers’

meetings; etc.

4. Informal Networks--arise due to the situation employees are in; emerge out of a need; no permanent structure;

may be faster than formal networks; a spontaneous flow of information that may or may not be correct.


Formal communications - Formal communications within an organization are those that take place through well-

known channels. For example, the expansion of policy at UNISON comes from a formal procedure where it is dictated

from the members upwards. Members discuss policy issues in their branches. Delegates from the branches then meet at

the Annual Conference and debate and agree policy. Formal communications would also include all of the paper-based

and electronic communications that are available to members as well as the meetings that take place. The expansion of

policy at UNISON comes from a formal procedure where it is dictated from the members upwards.

� Formal communication is that which devices support from the organisation structure. It is associated with the

particular positions of the communicator and the recipient in the structure.

� Formal communications are mostly of the written type such as company manuals, handbooks magazines,

bulletins annual reports and are designed to meet the specific need s of the organisation.

� Communication takes place through the formal channels of the organization structure along the lines of

authority established by the management. � Such communications are generally in writing and may take any of the forms; policy; manuals: procedures and

rule books; memoranda; official meetings; reports, etc. What Is Formal Communication - The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization

are creating the formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s activity, to

the work and to anything which is related to those. The formal communication can consist in verbal messages,

nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone messages, radio messages, and printed, internal

notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal communication. The messages are transmitted by the authorized ones:

on official channels, these arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines which need to know the content

of these messages. Usually, all formal communications are recorded and kept in the organization’s evidence. Are

retained copies of these by the transmitter, by the receiver, by all of the desks from the organization which need to

know and keep the information? Examples of formal communications are given by work commands, reports and

financial evidence, reports over sells / inventory, statements referring to the company’s policies, post descriptions, etc.

The formal communication can sometimes take place on the horizontal, along the parallel directions of authority. The

formal communication network from an organization along with the keeping spaces of these communications, are

serving to more purposes. It defines the channel on which will be sent important messages. It will be created a

transmitting plan of this information, both for the transmitter and for the receivers. It will be indicated the direction

towards the persons who will react and to the persons who need to be informed about these actions, their steps and

result. It offers an information storage space which will be necessary on planning the operations and control. It is

created an ordered system for the superiors and subordinates, in order to keep each other informed constantly.

The formal communication network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal system of

responsibilities according to the hierarchical structure of the organization. The perfect network is the one which

contains communication channel from bottom up, downwards and horizontally. Often the direction of horizontal

communication is missing or it is inefficient and in this way the accuracy of the information decreases. The situation is

appearing because of the lack of permanent circulation of the information between departments, although this is vital

for the organization in conditions of existent competition, or the lack of specialists in organizational communication. The

downwards communications, from top to bottom, is performed by the manager to the subordinates. There are

transmitted provisions and instructions, are identified the employees responsibilities. In an efficient organization, this

type of communication has its purpose in motivating the employees, their continuous information about policy, goals

and organization strategy. The periodicity is important because it ensures the constant communication. Sometimes this

type of communication is gaining a preferred tempt, moving only towards the employees, considered as having priority

responsibilities. It can have place even when only the manager is transmitting orders and instructions to the employees,

without being too preoccupied about their information. If the organization is in changing, the downwards

communication must be used to change opinions, attitudes, to waste restrictions and fear towards misinformation in

order to support the employees to comply with these changes. This type of communication requires a feedback. That is

why it is completed with bottom up communication, from the employees to the manager. These, as they understand the

downwards communication, can communicate their answers. The manager must pay attention to the information he

receives, thanks to the employees tendency to say only good stuff to the boss: it may appear the deliberate

misinformation.


The advantages of formal communication are:

� They help in the fixation of responsibility and

� Maintaining of the authority relationship in an organization.

The disadvantages of formal communication are:

� Generally time consuming, cumbersome and � Leads to a good deal of distortion at times.

FORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS –

The blue print of how communication flows within any organization. What would happen if this didn’t exist?

� Carries task-oriented messages (specific job instructions; performance reviews)

� Carries maintenance-oriented messages (more generally-based policies and procedures on how to accomplish

tasks)

� Carries human messages (keys on employee needs like new health care benefits; vacation schedules; etc.)

1. Network Structures--decentralized networks tend to be more efficient when involved in complex tasks; centralized

ones often create higher worker dissatisfaction (feeling only marginally involved in the communication process)

� The Circle network--no single employee is key to the communication; decentralized; morale often high in such

networks; better employee access to each other; fewer organizational roadblocks.

� The Chain network--step-by-step transmission of a message until it reaches its final designation.

� The Y network--short branches off the main trunk; still focuses on a centralized structure through one

employee.

� The Wheel network--centralized flow outward from supervisor to small number of employees.

2. Network Roles--parts we perform within organizations.

� Liaisons--employees who connect two groups without belonging to either one of them. Often an influential,

experienced person.

� Bridges--employees who belong to at least two groups and connect each group to clique to the other. Distortion

may occur.

� Gatekeepers--employees who control the information flow. Secretaries are often key gatekeepers; may be

others who have power to give or withhold information.


� Isolates--employees who have minimal contact with others; either by choice or because others try to avoid

them.

� Boundary Spanners--sometimes called “cosmopolites”; those who connect the organization to its relevant

environment. Common roles are sales and customer service reps, public relations workers, etc.

3. Network Descriptors--patterns of behavior that help reveal how communication flows within the organization

networks.

� Dominance--how equal employees are to one another. High versus Low dominance. High dominance requires

communication be directed to a single or few key members who then disseminate information to others. Low

dominance suggests that employees are roughly equal to one another.

� Centrality--centralized networks (wheel, Y, chain) require this; is there a key employee through whom

communication flows...or not?

� Flexibility--how strictly organizations follow rules for communicating with others. High flex--allow variations;

low flex would be very strict on how to communicate.

� Reach ability--(don’t try to look this up in your dictionaries at home!)

How many people must the message pass through before reaching its final destination? Low reach ability has

fewer intermediaries; high reach ability has potential for greater distortion since many people in the process. By

the way, don’t try to find the word “reach ability” in your dictionaries---another of those made-up words that

academics like to use!

� Strength--frequency and duration of communication are the keys. Strong network would be frequent and

thorough communication with employees; weak network would be rare and brief communication.

� Reciprocity--the degree to which employees and bosses agree on the nature of their relationship. High

reciprocity would exist when both see their relationship essentially the same; low reciprocity would exist when

one perceives the relationship quite differently than the other.

� Symmetry--the degree of sharing information between bosses and workers. When communication flows

upward and downward you have a symmetrical relationship; just downward would be asymmetrical.

� Openness--how open or connected the organization is to the outside environment. Some businesses are very

dependent to the outside environment; others less so.

Informal communications - Informal communication is based on the informal relationships that grow up in an

organisation and is commonly referred to as "the grapevine". It may be conveyed by a nod, a glance, a gesture, a smile,

and even silence. Informal communications are those that are not based upon any set measures. This does not mean

that such relations are outside the networks of the organisation. They allow people to take the initiative into their own

hands. This enables them to come up with ideas and plans. For example, UNISON helps to share facts and skills through

the publication of a communications catalogue this is a system of formal relations. These formal communications help to

empower members who are dealing day-to-day with problems and issues in the branches. This then leads to a new

process. Through informal communications with employers and their representatives, members feel that they are being

supported. This helps them to take ownership of many problems as they work towards resolving them.

� Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall outside the formal channels is

known as informal communication.

� Built around the social relationships of members of the organization.

� Informal communication does not flow lines of authority as is the case of formal communication.

� It arises due to the personal needs of the members of n organization.

� At times, in informal communication, it is difficult to fix responsibility about accuracy of information. Such

communication is usually oral and may be covered even by simple glance, gesture or smile or silence.


What Is Informal Communication? Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels and it is also known as

grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of the organization. Informal communication does

not follow authority lines as in the case of formal communication. Informal communication takes place due to the

individual needs of the members of an organization and subsists in every organization. Normally, such communication is

oral and may be expressed even by simple glance, sign or silence. Informal communication, is implicit, spontaneous

multidimensional and diverse. It often works in group of people, i.e. when one person has some information of interest;

he passes it on to his informal group and so on. An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify

the formal channels of communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be

channeled via the official channels. It satisfies the people desires to identify what is happening in the organization and

offers an opportunity to express dreads, worries and complaints. Informal communication also facilitates to ameliorate

managerial decisions as more people are involved in the process of decision-making. In spite on many advantages,

informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal communication contains facts, deceptions, rumors and

unclear data. The informal channels of communication may transmit completely imprecise information that may harm

rather than help an organization. In addition, it is impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of information.

However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal communications are required.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS - “The Grapevine” “People” networks; unpredictable in how they operate;

the communication is often spontaneous and situation ally derived; employees may choose to use these or not.

Whether we do or not is often dependent upon

� Our proximity to the sender; and

� Whether we think the person is reliable and knowledgeable (do we trust them?).

Management may use the grapevine (even though we tend to think of it as being an “employees network”) to tap into

employee sentiment; to send up “trail balloons” and then either distance themselves or embrace the ideas depending

upon employee reactions. Gerald Goldhaber’s research findings on “grapevine” communication:

� It is fast....very fast!!

� It is generally accurate...though varies from company to company.

� It is an indicator of employee attitudes or sentiment

� It usually travels by clusters (more later)


1. Grapevine participants--No real gender differences regarding who uses it more often. Secretaries are often key

players in the grapevine--being bridges between workers and management. Managers may use the grapevine for

“trial balloon” messages as mentioned earlier.

2. Effects of grapevine activity on the organization--if formal networks don’t provide employees with information; the

grapevine will step in and rumors persist. Morale can be affected adversely.

3. Factors involved in rumor dispersion--why do rumors exist? What keeps them alive? Such reasons are

� The importance of the message;

� The ambiguity of the message;

� The need for information in crisis times;

� Credibility of the person sending the rumor;

� Who is the focus of the rumor; and

� The age of the rumor.

4. Factors that contribute the grapevine message distortion—

� Messages get condensed or shortened; stuff gets left out

� Certain information gets highlighted; other gets less attention; depends of the needs of the sender

� Messages may be added to; have gaps filled in as they move along

� Selective perceptive--we may only “hear what we want to hear” and disregard the rest

5. Grapevine transmission patterns—

� Single-strand chain--I tell you a rumor and then you pass it along to another person, who then tells another, and

on-and-on.... (pretty rare)

� Gossip chain--I tell the class a rumor and you pass it along to others

� Cluster transmission--most common; I tell two or more employees and you repeat this transmission process to

others.

6. Types of Organizational Rumors—

� Anxiety rumors--reflect an uneasiness in employees (impending bad news on the horizon)

� Wish-fulfillment rumors--good news may be on the horizon (as a group or for an individual)

� Wedge-driving rumors--creates dissension; an “us vs. them” attitude in an organization.

� Social rumors--juicy gossip about people; no direct company link.

7. Suggestions for how an organization can manage or control the grapevine-- Managers should or could -

� Be sensitive to employee reactions; respond to high anxiety cases.

� Be open, honest and quick to respond (when possible) with employees.

� Seek out key “gatekeepers” in employee ranks for information dissemination.

� Take a proactive stance; keep employees updates via bulletins, meetings, newsletters, etc.

METHODS OF ANALYZING FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS 1. Residential analysis-- goes to the organization and observes activity over an extended period of time. What’s good

and bad about this?

2. Distribute questionnaires to employees--(how honest do you think employees will be here?)

3. Communication Diary--(same comment as above...do you speak the truth or tell the researchers what they want to

hear?)

4. ECCO--requires employee assistance in looking for patterns of transmitted messages (how they learned and from

whom)

Grapevine - A grapevine communication is a form of informal communication by which people communicates each

other without any formal line of communication. It’s called Grapevine because like that of a grape vine it’s impossible to

find the origin of information which results in spread of rumours. Large organizations, where there are a large number of

people working closely, generate certain informal or unofficial channels of communication. These channels exist with or

without official patronage. Even if they are officially and secretly patronized, they are not authentic. This type of

communication is generally called “Grapevine” communication. Grapevine communication is an informal, unofficial,

horizontal channel of communication because generally peer groups participate in it. The reason Grapevine


communication is called ‘grapevine’ is because of its similarity to a grape vine. If you know grape vines then you’d know

one interesting thing about them, which is the fact that it is extremely difficult to find its origin. Same can be said about

grapevine communication because it is all based on rumors. The origin of the information might never be known. A

typical example of grapevine communication in an organization or establishment is conversations that go on between

co-workers during lunch breaks, on their way home from work or even in company parking lots.

Types of Grapevine Communication - Grapevine communication is of four different types.

� It can seep from individual to individual in a strictly linear fashion. Information takes time to spread in this fashion. It

is called Single Strand Chain.

� In some situations, an individual goes around communicating the message / information he thinks he has obtained.

This is called Gossip Chain. The listeners are a chosen few only.

� In some other situation, an individual passes an information without any restriction to all those with whom he

comes into contact. This is called Probability Chain and the information / message passed on may be interesting but

not important.

� In yet another situation, one person communicates to a few chosen associates who in turn communicate the same

to yet another group. This is called Cluster Chain

Advantages of grapevine communication

� The first advantage of a grapevine communication is the fact that information through this channel is extremely

fast. Many have said of grapevine communication to be one of the fastest forms of communication. It spreads

faster than wild fire.

� Another advantage of grapevine communication is that it tends to bring a sense of unity among employees of an

organization when they meet to share and discuss certain issues. Experts say that because of the nature of

grapevine communication, it enhances group cohesiveness in many organizations all over the world.

� Grapevine communication is an informal mode of communication but it plays an instrumental role in aiding the

formal methods of communication in every organization.

� In organizations or establishments where formal communications do not function properly, grapevine

communication comes to the rescue. Information through grapevine ends up being the only way employees can

get any information about things going on around them.

Disadvantages of Grapevine communication

� Grapevine information since it is largely based on rumors tends to carry along with it partial information which

ends up not giving the real state of affairs in an organization.

� Information received through grapevine might not be true.

� Another great disadvantage of grapevine communication is the fact that it can damage an organization’s

goodwill. For instance imagine a situation where lower ranking employees of an organization begin peddling

false information about people at the top. This action can gradually destroy the goodwill of the organization.

� Grapevine communication is one that is common in many organizations all over the world. This is when

employees become unproductive thanks to grapevine. Grapevine communication can make organizations lose a

lot of money because thanks to grapevine employees spend work hours talking about the latest rumor

circulating around them. The organization pays dearly for this.

� Grapevine communication cannot be relied on because it is not trustworthy. If not managed properly, it can

have serious implications.


Group Discussions What is an effective group discussion? The literal definition of a group discussion is obvious: a critical conversation about a particular topic, or perhaps a range

of topics, conducted in a group of a size that allows participation by all members. A group of two or three generally

doesn’t need a leader to have a good discussion, but once the number reaches five or six, a leader or facilitator can

often be helpful. When the group numbers eight or more, a leader or facilitator, whether formal or informal, is almost

always helpful in ensuring an effective discussion.

A group discussion is a type of meeting, but it differs from the formal meetings in a number of ways:

� It may not have a specific goal – many group discussions are just that: a group kicking around ideas on a

particular topic. That may lead to a goal ultimately...but it may not.

� It’s less formal, and may have no time constraints, or structured order, or agenda.

� Its leadership is usually less directive than that of a meeting.

� It emphasizes process (the consideration of ideas) over product (specific tasks to be accomplished within the

confines of the meeting itself.

� Leading a discussion group is not the same as running a meeting. It’s much closer to acting as a facilitator, but

not exactly the same as that either.

An effective group discussion generally has a number of elements:

� All members of the group have a chance to speak, expressing their own ideas and feelings freely, and to pursue

and finish out their thoughts

� All members of the group can hear others’ ideas and feelings stated openly

� Group members can safely test out ideas that are not yet fully formed

� Group members can receive and respond to respectful but honest and constructive feedback. Feedback could

be positive, negative, or merely clarifying or correcting factual questions or errors, but is in all cases delivered

respectfully.

� A variety of points of view are put forward and discussed

� The discussion is not dominated by any one person

� Arguments, while they may be spirited, are based on the content of ideas and opinions, not on personalities

� Even in disagreement, there’s an understanding that the group is working together to resolve a dispute, solve a

problem, create a plan, make a decision, find principles all can agree on, or come to a conclusion from which it

can move on to further discussion

Many group discussions have no specific purpose except the exchange of ideas and opinions. Ultimately, an effective

group discussion is one in which many different ideas and viewpoints are heard and considered. This allows the group

to accomplish its purpose if it has one, or to establish a basis either for ongoing discussion or for further contact and

collaboration among its members.

There are many possible purposes for a group discussion, such as:

� Create a new situation – form a coalition, start an initiative, etc.

� Explore cooperative or collaborative arrangements among groups or organizations

� Discuss and/or analyze an issue, with no specific goal in mind but understanding

� Create a strategic plan – for an initiative, an advocacy campaign, an intervention, etc.

� Discuss policy and policy change

� Air concerns and differences among individuals or groups

� Hold public hearings on proposed laws or regulations, development, etc.

� Decide on an action

� Provide mutual support

� Solve a problem

� Resolve a conflict

� Plan your work or an event

Possible leadership styles of a group discussion also vary. A group leader or facilitator might be directive or non-

directive; that is, she might try to control what goes on to a large extent; or she might assume that the group should be

in control, and that her job is to facilitate the process. In most group discussions, leaders who are relatively non-

directive make for a more broad-ranging outlay of ideas and a more satisfying experience for participants.


Why would you lead a group discussion? There are two ways to look at this question: “What’s the point of group discussion?” and “Why would you, as opposed

to someone else, lead a group discussion?” Let’s examine both.

What’s the point of group discussion? - As explained in the opening paragraphs of this section, group discussions are

common in a democratic society. There are a number of reasons for this, some practical and some philosophical.

A group discussion:

� Gives everyone involved a voice. Whether the discussion is meant to form a basis for action, or just to play with

ideas, it gives all members of the group a chance to speak their opinions, to agree or disagree with others, and

to have their thoughts heard. In many community-building situations, the members of the group might be

chosen specifically because they represent a cross-section of the community, or a diversity of points of view.

� Allows for a variety of ideas to be expressed and discussed. A group is much more likely to come to a good

conclusion if a mix of ideas is on the table, and if all members have the opportunity to think about and respond

to them.

� Is generally a democratic, egalitarian process. It reflects the ideals of most grassroots and community groups,

and encourages a diversity of views.

� Leads to group ownership of whatever conclusions, plans, or action the group decides upon. Because

everyone has a chance to contribute to the discussion and to be heard, the final result feels like it was arrived at

by and belongs to everyone.

� Encourages those who might normally be reluctant to speak their minds. Often, quiet people have important

things to contribute, but aren’t assertive enough to make themselves heard. A good group discussion will bring

them out and support them.

� Can often open communication channels among people who might not communicate in any other way.

People from very different backgrounds, from opposite ends of the political spectrum, from different cultures,

who may, under most circumstances, either never make contact or never trust one another enough to try to

communicate, might, in a group discussion, find more common ground than they expected.

� Is sometimes simply the obvious, or even the only, way to proceed? Several of the examples given at the

beginning of the section – the group of parents concerned about their school system, for instance, or the college

class – fall into this category, as do public hearings and similar gatherings.

Why would you specifically lead a group discussion? You might choose to lead a group discussion, or you might find yourself drafted for the task. Some of the most common

reasons that you might be in that situation:

� It’s part of your job. As a mental health counselor, a youth worker, a coalition coordinator, a teacher, the

president of a board of directors, etc. you might be expected to lead group discussions regularly.

� You’ve been asked to. Because of your reputation for objectivity or integrity, because of your position in the

community, or because of your skill at leading group discussions, you might be the obvious choice to lead a

particular discussion.

� A discussion is necessary, and you’re the logical choice to lead it. If you’re the chair of a task force to address

substance abuse in the community, for instance, it’s likely that you’ll be expected to conduct that task force’s

meetings, and to lead discussion of the issue.

� It was your idea in the first place. The group discussion, or its purpose, was your idea, and the organization of

the process falls to you.

You might find yourself in one of these situations if you fall into one of the categories of people who are often tapped to

lead group discussions. These categories include (but aren’t limited to):

� Directors of organizations

� Public officials

� Coalition coordinators

� Professionals with group-leading skills – counselors, social workers, therapists, etc.

� Teachers

� Health professionals and health educators


� Respected community members. These folks may be respected for their leadership – president of the Rotary

Club, spokesperson for an environmental movement – for their positions in the community – bank president,

clergyman – or simply for their personal qualities – integrity, fairness, ability to communicate with all sectors of

the community.

� Community activists. This category could include anyone from “professional” community organizers to average

citizens who care about an issue or have an idea they want to pursue.

Mock interview

A Mock interview is an emulation of an interview used for training purposes. The interview tries to resemble a real

interview as close as possible, and provide experience for the candidate. The mock interview helps the job applicant

learn what is expected in a job interview, and improve the applicant's self-presentation. Mock interviews are often

videotaped, and the candidate is shown the tape after the session, along with feedback from the interviewer. The mock

interview coach will provide constructive feedback on all aspects of the interview process. Mock interviews are most

common for job interviews, but may also be used to train people to handle journalists. The mock interview coach will try

to make the interview as realistic as possible. Many of the questions asked are interview questions from actual

employers. The mock interview and critique will last approximately one hour. The mock interview takes about 20

minutes, and then the job seeker and coach watch the interview and discuss the job seeker's performance. The mock

interview coach's level of direct experience in the industry or field of interest for the job seeker can make the mock

interview more or less effective. This is the case because mock interview coaches can best help job seekers when they

have insights into what hiring managers are looking for and can gauge how well job seekers are answering the questions.

While there are many career coaches who provide a full suite of services to help job seekers figure out their career path,

niche websites exist that focus on helping job seekers with their interviewing skills. Examples of these sites include Prept

and Evisors. The mock interview focuses on self-knowledge, past experiences, knowledge of the industry the applicant

wishes to enter, and how well the applicant can convey that information. The job seeker gains the most experience from

the mock interview if it is treated as an actual interview. The mock interview is a safe place to practice interview skills

and gain feedback. It is also an area to gain the confidence and experience of giving an actual employment interview.

This is also conducted in companies to address the clients with confidence and learn certain things which are required

for the meeting.

What is a Mock Interview? The Mock Interview provides a professional one-on-one opportunity for all CHS juniors to practice their interview and

resume writing skills with a member of the business community. In the past we’ve had over 40 members from the

business community help out with Mock Interviews. The mock interview questions are skill/behavioral centered and are

general interview type questions. The students are given immediate verbal and written feedback from the business

member regarding their interview performance, resume, and their professional dress. Mock Interviews take place during

the second semester and preparation for the Mock Interview takes place in advisory. The lessons for the preparation can

be located in the Advisory Curriculum or from the Academic Facilitator.

Sample Questions

� What are your strengths?

� What are your weaknesses?

� Where do you see yourself in 10 years?

� What type of skills can you offer an employer?

� What are some key points on your resume you’d like to share?

� What type of classes have you taken that will help you in a career?

� List 5 traits you believe a successful employee should have

� Describe how you handle conflict in a work environment?


HOW TO CONDUCT A MOCK INTERVIEW Step 1: Greet the Client - Get to know the student. Determine the date of the interview, the type of interview (phone

interview, screening interview, second round interview, etc.), the type of career or industry, and whether or not the

student has anything specific that s/he would like for you to cover.

Step 2: Choose Interview Questions - Choose the appropriate interview handout. We have handouts available for

general employment, medical school, academic job interviews, and Fulbright scholarship interviews. You may also

choose or modify questions to suit the client’s needs.

Step 3: Conduct the Mock Interview - As the interviewer:

� Get into character. Be engaging but somewhat straight-faced. Avoiding saying “Wonderful!” or “How

interesting!”

� Simulate a defined beginning of the actual interview. Leave the room and enter as the mock employer.

� Greet the interviewee. Shake hands, and ask for a copy of the client’s resume. Start with, “Tell me about

yourself.”

� Ask your questions. Whenever possible, try to keep the interview flowing like a conversation. Feel free to ask

follow-up questions about a response given by your interviewee.

� At the end of the interview, ask the interviewee, “Do you have any questions for me [the employer]?” You may

not know the answers, but this will give the client a chance to think about what to ask. Stay in character and let

the student know that the answers would be discussed in a real interview but that you will simply need to move

on.

� Conclude the interview. Thank the interviewee for his time and let him know that you will be contacting him

regarding the next steps of the interview process.

As the OCT:

� Take detailed notes. Notes will help you to provide detailed feedback. See the attached worksheet for tips.

� Look for strengths as well as areas for improvement. Pay attention to both content and delivery.

� “Tell me about yourself…” When asked, “Tell me about yourself,” an interviewee should focus on

autobiographical details that give the interviewer a sense of who s/he is and that also suggest her/his suitability

for the job (the school, the scholarship, etc.).

� Assess the effectiveness of the client’s examples. The interviewee will be providing you with examples to

support answers to questions. The STAR method (Situation, Task, Action, and Result) can help student’s

structure concise, effective responses. Students have a tendency to talk too much about the situation and omit

the result. Instead, the student should touch briefly on all four areas.

Step 4: Discuss - What went well? What needs improvement? First, ask the client what s/he thinks. Go over your notes

together.

� Practice. After discussing how the mock interview went, pose troublesome questions to the client again so that

s/he can practice new techniques.

� Discourage memorization of answers to sample questions. It is better to prepare by thinking in terms of

themes that you will highlight in the interview: Background, Skills & Abilities, Examples, etc.

� Discuss how the student can prepare for the real interview. Refer the student to the Oral Communication

Program’s “Interviewing 101” handout for other advice. For example: Dress appropriately, ask for the

employer’s business card, send a thank-you note, etc.

Special Cases � Case Studies: Some students will want to practice case study interviews. While we do not offer thorough case

study mock interviews, we can do our best to help the client with general interview preparation.

� Phone Interviews: To simulate a phone interview, turn your chair backs to each other. Recognize an increased

need to pay attention to volume (speak louder), speed (speak slower), conveying emotion (still smile; they will

be able to tell), and using signposts (“In summary that is my view about…”). Subtle body language ways of

communicating will be lost.


Common Advice for Interviewees � Convey strong Knowledge of Self, Knowledge of Industry, and Knowledge of Company. Interviewees should

know how to articulate their strengths, experience, and goals. They should be informed about industry

standards and issues. They should have done research on the organization’s mission, history, and people.

� Don’t use vague labels. Don’t say, “I’m a perfectionist” or “I’m a people-person.” Instead, interviewees should

focus on specific examples and anecdotes that highlight their skills and make them stand out from other

applicants.

� For questions about weaknesses: If asked, “What are your weaknesses?” be honest, but put a positive spin on

the response. For example: Don’t say, “I’m always late.” Say, “I tend to take on a lot of projects at once and

sometimes I have trouble balancing everything. I recently bought a Palm Pilot to help me stay organized and on

time, and it has been working really well to help me with time management.” (This follows the STAR method.)

� For questions about strengths: If asked, “What is your greatest accomplishment?” be honest and don’t worry

about sounding arrogant. A lot of people have trouble with talking about their strengths. Don’t dilute your

response to be humble and don’t start with a shaky, “Well… I think my greatest strength might be…” If worried

about sounding arrogant, remember that actual arrogant people probably wouldn’t bother to be worried.

� Be yourself! If you are trying to say what you think the employer wants to hear, you will probably be wrong!

Focus on presenting your best self.

Seminar

A seminar is, generally, a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial

or professional organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each

time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. This is often

accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal

presentation of research. Normally, participants must not be beginners in the field under discussion (at US and Canadian

universities, seminar classes are generally reserved for upper-class students, although at UK and Australian universities

seminars are often used for all years). The idea behind the seminar system is to familiarize students more extensively

with the methodology of their chosen subject and also to allow them to interact with examples of the practical problems

that always occur during research work. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be

raised and debates can be conducted.[2] It is relatively informal, at least compared to the lecture system of academic

instruction. The word seminar is derived from the Latin word seminarium, meaning "seed plot".

What are seminars and why are they important? Seminars are forums in which issues are raised and explored, but not necessarily resolved; they require you to think, to

practice the skills of analysis and synthesis, and by doing so, possibly leave with more and better ideas than the ones

with which you came. Seminars are integral to most academic programs at Evergreen. They are the pistons which drive

the intellectual heart of the college. Seminars are not intended as a mechanism for transmitting information; they serve

as a means for groups of students to obtain a set of common experiences, usually based on a text, piece of art, film, etc.

Seminars are not a place for the transmission of data. Ideally they go beyond the sharing of facts and probe the depths

of the subject matter at hand.

Evergreen faculty member David Marr describes the seminar process: Seminars do closely resemble orchestral rehearsals. They are working sessions, full of false starts, much practice, and

some extended flights of analysis and synthesis. But the analogy with the orchestra breaks down in one interesting and

crucial respect: seminars operate with no equivalent to a musical score. Indeed, it is precisely something like a musical

score that gets "composed" in the course of the seminar. The success of the seminar is dependent on the group's ability

to work together and, through intelligent discussion, develop an understanding of the material that you wouldn't have

thought of on your own.


What to do and not do in seminar 1. Be Prepared - Here are some tips on how to prepare:

• Always complete assigned reading prior to the seminar

• Take notes on the assigned reading, and bring those notes, along with assigned texts, to each meeting of the

seminar. Such notes are of two kinds: paraphrases (glosses), and reflective comments or questions.

• Read specifically for ideas and for key concepts. Make your own index to them in back of the book.

2. Get a study partner, or become part of a study group. Exchange papers or discuss the book before seminar.

3. Bring questions. There are two kinds of questions you can bring to seminar: logistical questions that have

answers, and the really important, open-ended questions that foster intelligent discussion.

4. Be on time. If you must be late, do not join in the discussion until you are certain that you know exactly what is

being discussed.

5. Quote from the book and make references to specific passages. This helps to focus the discussion where it

should be - on the text.

6. At the center is the subject matter of the text, not personal opinion.

7. Listen attentively to what is said by others and take notes on the general discussion. Taking notes in seminar is

even more important, sometimes, than taking notes in lectures.

8. Speak in turn and don't interrupt another person.

9. Respond actively to what another has said before you contribute your own thoughts.

10. Don't be afraid to try out ideas. Nobody expects you to have fully-formed ideas when you come to seminar.

11. Remember to address the entire seminar, not just the faculty member.

12. Avoid name calling or putting others down.

13. Specifics from your own experience may be relevant. But place a DANGER sign here, because this is where too

many seminars founder. Just talking about your own experience has little educational value. Your personal

experience is relevant only insofar as you can show how it amplifies the point of the discussion.

14. Be respectful of each person's culture, race, gender and sexual orientation. Don't expect that someone will be

an expert on a subject simply because of their race, culture, etc.

15. Don't engage in extended arguments. Seminars are for learning and listening, not for winning a debate.

16. If you didn't read the book, don't talk. Instead, take notes.

17. Don't engage in side conversations.

18. Have Fun!!

A good way to keep focused on the text is to respond to the following three questions: � What does the text say? Point to the exact page and paragraph so everyone can read.

� What does the text mean? Explain or interpret the passage in your own words.

� Why is this important? Discuss the passage's importance to the entire text or program themes.

Tips for creating successful seminars � Seminars are collaborative adventures that require everyone's participation and ideas.

� Everyone is responsible for the creation of a good learning environment.

� Constructive roles in seminar include people who ask questions, people who summarize, people who refer to

material, and people who clarify. Try out each of these roles.

� Take advantage of pauses to ask if people who haven't spoken have anything to add.

� Attempt to give space for others to speak.

� Take personal responsibility for making the seminar a good one!

� If the seminar is not going well, address the group at the end of one of your meetings to discuss what each

person can do to improve the seminar or how your seminar format could be changed to facilitate more

meaningful conversation.

� If problems persist, talk with your faculty member.


Seminars in Universities In American universities, the term seminar refers to a course of intense study relating to the student's major. Seminars

typically have significantly fewer students per professor than normal courses, and are generally more specific in topic of

study. Seminars can revolve around term papers, exams, presentations, and several other assignments. Seminars are

almost always required for university graduation. In some European universities, a seminar may be a large lecture

course, especially when conducted by a renowned thinker (regardless of the size of the audience or the scope of student

participation in discussion). Some non-English speaking countries in Europe use the word seminar (e.g., German

Seminar, Slovenian seminar, Polish seminarium, etc.) to refer to a university class that includes a term paper or project,

as opposed to a lecture class (i.e., German Vorlesung, Slovenian predavanje, Polish wykład, etc.). This does not

correspond to English use of the term. In some academic institutions, the term "preceptorial" is used interchangeably

with seminar, although this is typically utilized in the scientific fields

Seminars In business Increasingly, the term "seminar" is used to describe a commercial event (though sometimes free to attend) where

delegates are given information and instruction in a subject such as property investing, other types of investing, Internet

marketing, self-improvement or a wide range of topics, by experts in that field. Seminar presentations are also intended

for the improvement of technical knowledge of people. The presentations may also be uploaded in the internet for

further reference by people.


BUSINESS LETTERS Business letters are letters written in the context of business transactions between individual business personnel or

between business organizations. It is essential to familiarize yourself with business letter formats and styles in different

business situations and to gain some practice in writing a letter in a given business context. The other formats covering

letters of inquiry, request, replies, orders and business reports. Different forms of layout like the indented form, hanging

indention, block form, modified block and semi-block are also explained.

A visitor to a certain college paused to admire the new Hemingway Hall that had been built on campus.

“It's a pleasure to see a building named for Ernest Hemingway,” he said.

Business Letters - A business letter is more formal than a personal letter. It should have a margin of at least one inch

on all four edges. It is always written on 8½"x11" (or metric equivalent) unlined stationery. There are six parts to a

business letter.

1. The Heading. This contains the return address (usually two or three lines) with the date on the last line.

� Sometimes it may be necessary to include a line after the address and before the date for a phone number, fax

number, E-mail address, or something similar.

� Often a line is skipped between the address and date. That should always be done if the heading is next to the

left margin.

� It is not necessary to type the return address if you are using stationery with the return address already

imprinted. Always include the date.

2. The Inside Address. This is the address you are sending your letter to. Make it as complete as possible. Include titles

and names if you know them.

� This is always on the left margin. If an 8½" x 11" paper is folded in thirds to fit in a standard 9" business

envelope, the inside address can appear through the window in the envelope.

� An inside address also helps the recipient route the letter properly and can help should the envelope be

damaged and the address become unreadable.

� Skip a line after the heading before the inside address. Skip another line after the inside address before the

greeting.

3. The Greeting. Also called the salutation. The greeting in a business letter is always formal. It normally begins with

the word "Dear" and always includes the person's last name.

� It normally has a title. Use a first name only if the title is unclear--for example, you are writing to someone

named "Leslie," but do not know whether the person is male or female. For more on the form of titles, see Titles

with Names.

� The greeting in a business letter always ends in a colon. (You know you are in trouble if you get a letter from a

boyfriend or girlfriend and the greeting ends in a colon--it is not going to be friendly.)

4. The Body. The body is written as text. A business letter is never hand written. Depending on the letter style you

choose, paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skip a line between paragraphs.

� Skip a line between the greeting and the body. Skip a line between the body and the close.

5. The Complimentary Close. This short, polite closing ends with a comma. It is either at the left margin or its left edge

is in the center, depending on the Business Letter Style that you use. It begins at the same column the heading does.

� The block style is becoming more widely used because there is no indenting to bother with in the whole letter.

6. The Signature Line. Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow lines) and type out the name to be

signed. This customarily includes a middle initial, but does not have to. Women may indicate how they wish to be

addressed by placing Miss, Mrs., Ms. or similar title in parentheses before their name.

� The signature line may include a second line for a title, if appropriate. The term "By direction" in the second line

means that a superior is authorizing the signer.

� The signature should start directly above the first letter of the signature line in the space between the close and

the signature line. Use blue or black ink.

� Business letters should not contain postscripts.

� Some organizations and companies may have formats that vary slightly.


Writing an Effective Business Letter E-mail may be the quick and convenient way to relay daily business messages, but the printed business letter is still the

preferred way to convey important information. A carefully crafted letter presented on attractive letterhead can be a

powerful communication tool. To make sure you are writing the most professional and effective letter possible, use the

business letter format and template below and follow these basic business letter-writing.

Select a professional letterhead design for your small business - Your business letter is a representation of your

company, so you want it to look distinctive and immediately communicate "high quality." For a convenient and

economical alternative to using traditional preprinted letterhead, try using our contemporary letterhead and envelope

design templates. Simply create a letter within a predesigned color letterhead template and then print your entire piece

quickly and beautifully on your Phaser® color printer.

Use a standard business letter format and template - The most widely used format for business letters is "block style,"

where the text of the entire letter is justified left. The text is single spaced, except for double spaces between

paragraphs. Typically margins are about 1 inch (25.4 mm) on all sides of the document, which the default is setting for

most word-processing programs. If you are using Microsoft Word, you can turn to its built-in Letter Wizard for additional

formatting assistance (look on the Tools menu).

This business letter format illustrates the specific parts of a business letter:

Business Letter Template Fields:

Date: Use month, day, year format, e.g., March 3, 2012 or 3 March 2012

Sender's Address: It is a good idea to include sender's email and url, if available. Don't include this information if it's

already incorporated into the letterhead design. This will allow customers to find your small business more quickly.

Inside Address: Use full name. Mr./Ms. is optional

Salutation: Be sure to use a colon at the end of the name, not a comma as in personal letters

Body Text: State why you are writing. Establish any connection/mutual relationship up front. Outline the solution,

providing proof in the way of examples and expert opinions. Group related information into paragraphs

Closing "Call to Action": State what the reader needs to do and what you will do to follow up

Signature Block: Sign your letter in blue or black ink

Enclosures: Use if you have an enclosure

Carbon Copy: Use if you are sending a copy to additional person(s)

Use a professional tone - Save casual, chatty language for email - your printed business letter should be friendly but

more professional. As Scott Ober suggests in his book Contemporary Business Communication, "The business writer

should strive for an overall tone that is confident, courteous, and sincere; that uses emphasis and subordination

appropriately; that contains nondiscriminatory language; that stresses the "you" attitude; and that is written at an

appropriate level of difficulty." That said, be sure to sound like yourself - you don't want your letter to read as if a

machine wrote it.

Write clearly. - State your point early in your letter. To avoid any miscommunications, use straightforward, concise

language. Skip the industry jargon and instead choose lively, active words to hold your reader's attention.

Organize your information logically: Group related information into separate paragraphs. In a long, information-packed

letter, consider organizing information into sections with subheads. You may want to highlight key words to make them

"pop" - this technique is possible with most word-processing programs and your color multifunction printer.


Use Color to Emphasize Words in Text - It's easy to put a few words in color to draw attention to them. Just select

the type and click the arrow to the right of the Font Color button, choose the color you want, and then click the button.

Or, try highlighting a few words in the text. Select the type you want to emphasize, and then click the Highlight button.

Note: When highlighting parts of a document you intend to print, use a light color such as yellow, light green, or light

blue. If you wish to remove the highlighting, select the text and click the Highlight button again.

AutoText automates applying color (or any type style), which would ordinarily take numerous clicks or commands. Say

you're creating a report that compares your organization's performance against that of your competitor. Word can

automatically color your company's name every time it appears, making those entries easy to locate.

Be persuasive. - Establish a positive relationship with your reader right away. If you have a connection to the reader -

you've met before or have a mutual colleague, for example - mention it in your introductory paragraph. Whether you

think your reader will agree with the point of your letter or not, it is important to find common ground and build your

case from there. Understand your reader well enough to anticipate how he or she will react when reading your letter.

Address his or her needs or wishes, or a specific problem, and then outline your solution. Provide proof in the way of

examples and/or expert opinions to back up your point. Make sure to maintain a friendly tone. Conclude your letter with

a "call to action." State clearly what your reader needs to do or believe to achieve the desired solution and then state

what you, the writer, intend to do next to follow up.

Proofread your letter! All your careful crafting and printing can't cover up spelling or punctuation errors, which leave

a lasting negative impression. Now that you've learned the secrets of writing an effective business letter, you're ready to

start composing. Good luck!


How to Write a Memo

The basic function of a memo is to solve a specific problem by making the reader aware of specific information. A memo

can be written to persuade others to take action or give specific feedback on a particular matter. When written properly,

memos can be very effective in connecting the concern or issue of the writer with the best interests of the reader.


Method 1 of 1: Writing Your Own Memo 1. Analyze your audience. Decide to whom you are writing this memo (the audience) and what the audience’s

priorities and concerns are. Establish why this memo would be important to the reader.

2. Write the heading segment. The heading segment should include to whom the memo is written, who has written

the memo, the complete and exact date the memo was written, and the subject matter (what the memo is about).

A sample heading would look like:

To: Name and job title of the recipient

From: Your name and job title

Date: Complete date when the memo was written

Subject: (or RE :) What the memo is about (highlighted in some way)

To: All Staff and Interns

From: Ana Lucily, Executive Assistant to the President

Date: July 15, 2012

Subject: Dishes in the Sink

Write the heading segment

� Always address readers by their correct name; do not use nicknames.

� When constructing the heading, be sure to double space between sections and align the text.

3. Write the opening segment. State the purpose of the memo and identify the purpose in three parts: the context of

the problem, the particular assignment, and the purpose of the memo. Identify the exact reason for writing the

memo and make it clear to the reader.

� If you are having trouble describing what you are doing to solve the problem (the task statement), consider

whether you have clarified the situation.

� Include only as much information as is needed, while still being convincing that a real problem exists.



Date: July 15, 2012


It has come to our attention that there has been a pile of unwashed dishes that accumulates in the sink by the

end of each week. It has gotten so bad that washing one’s hands in the kitchen sink becomes an uncomfortable

undertaking. Therefore, we are introducing a new policy that mandates that employees wash their dishes as

soon as they are done with them, keeping the sink clear for other uses.

Write the opening segment

4. Include a summary segment. This segment should provide a brief statement of important suggestions. This will help

the reader quickly understand the key points of the memo. The summary can also include links or references to

sources that you have used in your research on the issue.



Date: July 15, 2012






If you do not have the time to wash your lunch container or coffee mug, leave it by your desk until you are ready

to wash it. Even two or three dirty plates will encourage every person thereafter to leave their unwashed, food-

stained dishes and silverware in the sink.

Include a summary segment

5. Expand in the discussion segment. In this segment, include all of the details that support your ideas and

recommendations for solving the problem. You may also choose to propose future problems that may arise and

discuss how your recommendations ensure these problems will not occur (see tips).




Date: July 15, 2012








stained dishes and silverware in the sink.

Conversely, studies have shown that when a sink is empty, people are more likely to wash their dishes

immediately.

Expand in the discussion segment

� Begin the discussion with the information that is most important.

� Start with the most general information and move to specific or supporting facts.

6. Finish with a closing segment. Close the memo with a friendly ending that states what actions you want the reader

to take. Consider the ways that the reader can benefit from the information in the memo and how these changes

will be advantageous.



Date: July 15, 2012








stained dishes and silverware in the sink. Conversely, studies have shown that when a sink is empty, people are

more likely to wash their dishes immediately.

Thank you for your cooperation!

Best,

Ana Lucily

Finish with a closing segment

� Be sure to consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those

actions easier. You might say, "I will be glad to discuss these recommendations with you later on and follow

through on any decisions you make."

7. Close with a call to action. If there is something you want the reader to do by a particular time, say so.



Date: July 15, 2012


It has come to our attention that there has been a pile of unwashed dishes that accumulates in the sink by the end

of each week. It has gotten so bad that washing one’s hands in the kitchen sink becomes an uncomfortable

undertaking. Therefore, we are introducing a new policy that mandates that employees wash their dishes as soon as

they are done with them, keeping the sink clear for other uses.

If you do not have the time to wash your lunch container or coffee mug, leave it by your desk until you are ready to

wash it. Even two or three dirty plates will encourage every person thereafter to leave their unwashed, food-stained

dishes and silverware in the sink. Conversely, studies have shown that when a sink is empty, people are more likely

to wash their dishes immediately.


Thank you for your cooperation!

Best,

Ana Lucily

Please clear out all unwashed dishes by 5pm today.

Close with a call to action

8. Review for spelling, grammar, and content errors. Pay particular attention to names, dates, or numbers. Be

consistent in the type of language you use.

� Get personal. Use words like "I," "you," and "we." To initiate action, write in active voice.

� Be conversational. Write the way you talk and do not be afraid to use contractions.

� Don't show off. Avoid scholarly words and technical jargon.

� Avoid "smothered" words: Simple root words with fancy endings tacked on. Favorites are "tion," "ance,"

"ent," "ment," "ize," and "ility." Example: Don't say, "The continuation of our issuance of incentives is

dependent upon the prioritization by employees of company objectives." Instead, say, "If you want to keep

getting incentives, meet company goals."


How to Format a Business Memorandum Business memorandum or memoranda — also called memo or memos — are specially formatted written

communications within your business. A memo's format is typically informal (but still all-business) and public. Memos

typically make announcements, discuss procedures, report on company activities, and disseminate employee

information. If you have something confidential to communicate, don’t do it in a memo.

The tone of memos usually is informal and friendly. Although you don’t need to be curt, officious, or patronizing, a

certain succinctness is acceptable. Structure the memo so that the most important information comes in the first

paragraph and that subsequent paragraphs spell out what's discussed in the first paragraph.

All memos are structured similarly. They have the following elements:

� An addressee: Flush left, in capital letters, near the top of the page

� The sender: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the addressee

� Date: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the sender’s name

� Subject: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the date

Use suitable paper for your memos — white bond, either note size or standard to fit most desk in-baskets.

This figure shows an example of a properly structured memo.

Some people appear to think that memos, because they're public, are effective management tools. Although memos are

effective for direction and suggestion, criticism and praise are best given in person.

Even though the majority of information today is conveyed via e-mail, you still need to use the correct style when

sending a memo in the body of an e-mail. When you’re conveying larger amounts of information, send that information

as a properly formatted memo attachment. The message itself can contain the correct headings, numbered items, and

other formatted information that an e-mail does not allow as easily.


Notice writing A notice is a very short piece of writing is usually formal in style. it is widely used by individuals and organizations to

announce events and celebrations, births and deaths, occasions like inaugurations or sales, to issue public instructions,

to make appeals and to extend invitations besides issues notice of termination to the employees or other way round i.e.

notice of leaving the job from the employee to employer. Most notices are meant to be pinned up or pasted on special

board meant for this specific purpose only. There must be one more such notice boar in the school and other

organization. Whereas notice issued by the government departments and other big organization also appear in various

newspapers.

How to write a notice Writing an effective notice is a kind of art that can be acquired with practice with keeping some basic points in mind

while writing them out. Your notice should give complete information and must be written in a clear and lucid style and

easily understandable language.





-------------------------NAME OF THE INSTITUTION/SCHOOL/COLLEGE----------------- ------------------------------------------- N O T I C E ---------------------------------------- -----DATE---------------- --------------------------------------HEADING (TITLE) ----------------------------------------- ____________________________ Content____________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Try to keep it short and up to the point. Include details like Time, Date, Venue, etc if necessary _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Leave a line. Signature Full Name Designation (if required) ---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x---x Hope this helps :)


Public speaking

Public speaking is the process and act of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended

to inform, influence, or entertain a listening audience. Public speaking is commonly understood as face-to-face speaking

between individuals and an audience for the purpose of communication. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the

latter is more often associated with commercial activity.

Better Public Speaking – (Becoming a Confident, Compelling Speaker)

� Whether we're talking in a team meeting or presenting in front of an audience, we all have to speak in public

from time to time.

� We can do this well or we can do this badly, and the outcome strongly affects the way that people think about

us. This is why public speaking causes so much anxiety and concern.

� The good news is that, with thorough preparation and practice, you can overcome your nervousness and

perform exceptionally well. This article explains how!

The Importance of Public Speaking - Even if you don't need to make regular presentations in front of a group, there

are plenty of situations where good public speaking skills can help you advance your career and create opportunities.

For example, you might have to talk about your organization at a conference, make a speech after accepting an award,

or teach a class to new recruits. Public speaking also includes online presentations or talks; for instance, when training a

virtual team, or when speaking to a group of customers in an online meeting.

Good public speaking skills are important in other areas of your life, as well. You might be asked to make a speech at a

friend's wedding, give a eulogy for a loved one, or inspire a group of volunteers at a charity event. In short, being a good

public speaker can enhance your reputation, boost your self-confidence , and open up countless opportunities.

However, while good public speaking skills can open doors, poor speaking skills can close them. For example, your boss

might decide against promoting you after sitting through a poorly-delivered presentation. You might lose a valuable new

contract by failing to connect with a prospect during a sales pitch. Or you could make a poor impression with your new

team, because you trip over your words and don't look people in the eye.

Make sure that you learn how to speak well!

Strategies for Becoming a Better Speaker - What’s great about public speaking are that it's a learnable skill. As such,

you can use the following strategies to become a better speaker and presenter.

Plan Appropriately - First, make sure that you plan your communication appropriately. Use tools like the Rhetorical

Triangle , Monroe's Motivated Sequence , and the 7Cs of Communication to think about how you'll structure what

you're going to say.

When you do this, think about how important a book's first paragraph is; if it doesn't grab you, you're likely going to put

it down. The same principle goes for your speech: from the beginning, you need to intrigue your audience. For example,

you could start with an interesting statistic, headline, or fact that pertains to what you're talking about and resonates

with your audience. You can also use story telling as a powerful opener; our Expert Interviews with Annette Simmons

and Paul Smith offer some useful tips on doing this.

Planning also helps you to think on your feet . This is especially important for unpredictable question and answer

sessions or last-minute communications.

Practice - There's a good reason that we say, "Practice makes perfect!" You simply cannot be a confident, compelling

speaker without practice.

� To get practice, seek opportunities to speak in front of others. For example, Toastmasters is a club geared

specifically towards aspiring speakers, and you can get plenty of practice at Toastmasters sessions. You could

also put yourself in situations that require public speaking, such as by cross-training a group from another

department, or by volunteering to speak at team meetings.

� If you're going to be delivering a presentation or prepared speech, create it as early as possible. The earlier you

put it together, the more time you'll have to practice.


� Practice it plenty of times alone, using the resources you'll rely on at the event, and, as you practice, tweak your

words until they flow smoothly and easily.

Then, if appropriate, do a dummy run in front of a small audience: this will help you calm your jitters and make you feel

more comfortable with the material. Your audience can also give you useful feedback , both on your material and on

your performance.

Engage With Your Audience - When you speak, try to engage your audience. This makes you feel less isolated as a

speaker and keeps everyone involved with your message. If appropriate, ask leading questions targeted to individuals

or groups, and encourage people to participate and ask questions. Keep in mind that some words reduce your power as

a speaker. For instance, think about how these sentences sound: "I just want to add that I think we can meet these

goals" or "I just think this plan is a good one." The words "just" and "I think" limit your authority and conviction. Don't

use them. A similar word is "actually," as in, "Actually, I'd like to add that we were under budget last quarter." When you

use "actually," it conveys a sense of submissiveness or even surprise. Instead, say what things are. "We were under

budget last quarter" is clear and direct. Also, pay attention to how you're speaking. If you're nervous, you might talk

quickly. This increases the chances that you'll trip over your words, or say something you don't mean. Force yourself to

slow down by breathing deeply. Don't be afraid to gather your thoughts; pauses are an important part of conversation,

and they make you sound confident, natural, and authentic.

Finally, avoid reading word-for-word from your notes. Instead, make a list of important points on cue cards, or, as you

get better at public speaking, try to memorize what you're going to say – you can still refer back to your cue cards when

you need them.

Pay Attention to Body Language - If you're unaware of it, your body language will give your audience constant,

subtle clues about your inner state. If you're nervous, or if you don't believe in what you're saying, the audience can

soon know.

� Pay attention to your body language: stand up straight; take deep breaths, look people in the eye, and smile.

Don't lean on one leg or use gestures that feel unnatural.

Many people prefer to speak behind a podium when giving presentations. While podiums can be useful for holding

notes, they put a barrier between you and the audience. They can also become a "crutch," giving you a hiding place from

the dozens or hundreds of eyes that are on you. Instead of standing behind a podium, walk around and use gestures to

engage the audience. This movement and energy will also come through in your voice, making it more active and

passionate.

Think Positively - Positive thinking can make a huge difference to the success of your communication, because it

helps you feel more confident. Fear makes it all too easy to slip into a cycle of negative self-talk, especially right before

you speak, while self-sabotaging thoughts such as "I'll never be good at this!" or "I'm going to fall flat on my face!"

lower your confidence and increase the chances that you won't achieve what you're truly capable of. Use affirmations

and visualization to raise your confidence. This is especially important right before your speech or presentation.

Visualize giving a successful presentation, and imagine how you'll feel once it's over and when you've made a positive

difference for others. Use positive affirmations such as "I'm grateful I have the opportunity to help my audience" or "I'm

going to do well!"

Cope With Nerves - How often have you listened to or watched a speaker who really messed up? Chances are, the

answer is "not very often."

When we have to speak in front of others, we can envision terrible things happening. We imagine forgetting every point

we want to make, passing out from our nervousness, or doing so horribly that we'll lose our job. But those things almost

never come to pass! We build them up in our minds and end up more nervous than we need to be. Many people cite

public speaking as their biggest fear, and a fear of failure is often at the root of this. Public speaking can lead your "fight

or flight" response to kick in: adrenaline courses through your bloodstream, your heart rate increases, you sweat, and

your breath becomes fast and shallow. Although these symptoms can be annoying or even debilitating, the Inverted-U

Model shows that a certain amount of pressure enhances performance. By changing your mindset, you can use nervous

energy to your advantage.


First, make an effort to stop thinking about yourself, your nervousness, and your fear. Instead, focus on your audience:

what you're saying is "about them." Remember that you're trying to help or educate them in some way, and your

message is more important than your fear. Concentrate on the audience's wants and needs, instead of your own.

If time allows, use deep breathing exercises to slow your heart rate and give your body the oxygen it needs to perform.

This is especially important right before you speak. Take deep breaths from your belly, hold each one for several

seconds, and let it out slowly. Crowds are more intimidating than individuals, so think of your speech as a conversation

that you're having with one person. Although your audience may be 100 people, focus on one friendly face at a time,

and talk to that person as if he or she is the only one in the room.

Watch Recordings of Your Speeches - Whenever possible, record your presentations and speeches. You can improve

your speaking skills dramatically by watching yourself later, and then working on improving in areas that didn't go well.

As you watch, notice any verbal stalls, such as "um" or "like." Look at your body language: are you swaying, leaning on

the podium, or leaning heavily on one leg? Are you looking at the audience? Did you smile? Did you speak clearly at all

times? Pay attention to your gestures. Do they appear natural or forced? Make sure that people can see them, especially

if you're standing behind a podium. Last, look at how you handled interruptions, such as a sneeze or a question that you

weren't prepared for. Does your face show surprise, hesitation, or annoyance? If so, practice managing interruptions like

these smoothly, so that you're even better next time.

Key Points - Chances are that you'll sometimes have to speak in public as part of your role. While this can seem

intimidating, the benefits of being able to speak well outweigh any perceived fears. To become a better speaker, use the

following strategies:

� Plan appropriately.

� Practice.

� Engage with your audience.

� Pay attention to body language.

� Think positively.

� Cope with your nerves.

� Watch recordings of your speeches.

If you speak well in public, it can help you get a job or promotion, raise awareness for your team or organization, and

educate others. The more you push yourself to speak in front of others, the better you'll become, and the more

confidence you'll have.


Negotiation

Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties, intended to reach an understanding, resolve point

of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for

individual or collective advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests of two people/parties involved in

negotiation process. Negotiation is a process where each party involved in negotiating tries to gain an advantage for

themselves by the end of the process. Negotiation is intended to aim at compromise.

Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, and government branches, legal proceedings, among nations

and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called

negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout

negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or

brokers.

What is Negotiation? Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise or agreement is

reached while avoiding argument. In any disagreement, individuals understandably aim to achieve the best possible

outcome for their position (or perhaps an organisation they represent). However, the principles of fairness, seeking

mutual benefit and maintaining a relationship are the keys to a successful outcome. Specific forms of negotiation are

used in many situations: international affairs, the legal system, government, industrial disputes or domestic relationships

as examples. However, general negotiation skills can be learned and applied in a wide range of activities. Negotiation

skills can be of great benefit in resolving any differences that arise between you and others.

Why Negotiate?

It is inevitable that, from time-to-time, conflict and disagreement will arise as the differing needs, wants, aims and

beliefs of people are brought together. Without negotiation, such conflicts may lead to argument and resentment

resulting in one or all of the parties feeling dissatisfied. The point of negotiation is to try to reach agreements without

causing future barriers to communications.

Stages of Negotiation - In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to

negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all parties involved can come

together. The process of negotiation includes the following stages: Preparation; Discussion; Clarification of goals;

Negotiation towards a WIN-WIN situation; Agreement and Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation - Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting will

take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also be helpful to prevent

the disagreement continuing. This stage involves ensuring all the pertinent facts of the situation are known in order

to clarify your own position. In the work example above, this would include knowing the ‘rules’ of your organisation,

to whom help is given, when help is not felt appropriate and the grounds for such refusals. Your organisation may

well have policies to which you can refer in preparation for the negotiation. Undertaking preparation before

discussing the disagreement will help to avoid further conflict and unnecessary wasting time during the meeting.

2. Discussion - During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it that is their

understanding of the situation. Key skills during this stage are questioning, listening and clarifying. Sometimes it is

helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward in case there is need for further

clarification. It is extremely important to listen, as when disagreement takes place it is easy to make the mistake of

saying too much and listening too little. Each side should have an equal opportunity to present their case.

3. Clarifying Goals - From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to

be clarified. It is helpful to list these in order of priority. Through this clarification it is often possible to identify or

establish common ground.

4. Negotiate for a WIN-WIN Outcome - This stage focuses on what is termed a WIN-WIN outcome where both sides

feel they have gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view

has been taken into consideration. A WIN-WIN outcome is usually the best outcome, however it may not always be

possible but through negotiation it should be the ultimate goal. Suggestions of alternative strategies and


compromises need to be considered at this point. Compromises are often positive alternatives which can often

achieve greater benefit for all concerned rather than holding to the original positions.

5. Agreement - Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have been

considered. It is essential to keep an open mind in order to achieve a solution. Any agreement needs to be made

perfectly clear so that both sides know what has been decided.

6. Implementing a Course of Action - From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented, to carry through

the decision.

� Failure to Agree: If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-

scheduling a further meeting is called for. This avoids all parties becoming embroiled in heated discussion or

argument, which not only wastes valuable time but can also damage future working relationships. At the

subsequent meeting, the stages of negotiation should be repeated. Any new ideas or interests should be taken

into account and the situation looked at afresh. At this stage it may also be helpful to look at other alternative

solutions and/or bring in another person to mediate.

� Informal Negotiation: Apart from situations when it is appropriate to employ this more formal process of

negotiation, you will no doubt encounter one-to-one situations where there is a need to negotiate informally.

At such a time when a difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the

stages set out above in a formal manner. Nevertheless, remembering the key points in the stages of formal

negotiation may be very helpful in a variety of informal situations.

In any negotiation, the following three elements should always be taken into account: Attitudes;

Interpersonal Skills and Knowledge

1. Attitudes - All negotiation is strongly influenced by underlying attitudes to the process itself, for example attitudes

to the issues and personalities involved in the particular case or attitudes linked to personal needs for recognition.

Always be aware that:

� Negotiation is not an arena for the realization of individual achievements.

� There can be resentment of the need to negotiate by those in authority.

� Certain features of negotiation may influence a person’s behaviour, for example some people may become

defensive.

2. Interpersonal Skills - There are many interpersonal skills required in the process of negotiation which are useful in

both formal settings and in less formal one-to-one situations. These skills include:

� Verbal Communication - Verbal Communication and Effective Speaking.

� Listening - Listening Skills and Active Listening.

� Reflecting, Clarifying and Summarizing

� Problem Solving -

� Decision Making -

� Assertiveness -

� Stress Management -What is Stress? And Avoiding Stress.

� Dealing with Aggression- Dealing with Aggression and What is Anger?

Negotiation strategies - Negotiation can take a wide variety of forms, from trained negotiator acting on behalf of a

particular organization or position in a formal setting, to an informal negotiation between friends. Negotiation can be

contrasted with mediation, where a neutral third party listens to each side's arguments and attempts to help craft an

agreement between the parties. It can also be compared with arbitration, which resembles a legal proceeding. In

arbitration, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their case and the arbitrator decides the outcome. This

negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation.

Negotiation theorists generally distinguish between two types of negotiation. Different theorists use different labels

for the two general types and distinguish them in different ways.

1. Distributive negotiation - Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining

negotiation. It tends to approach negotiation on the model of haggling in a market. In a distributive negotiation,

each side often adopts an extreme position, knowing that it will not be accepted, and then employs a combination

of guile, bluffing, and brinksmanship in order to cede as little as possible before reaching a deal. Distributive


bargainers conceive of negotiation as a process of distributing a fixed amount of value. The term distributive implies

that there is a finite amount of the thing being distributed or divided among the people involved. Sometimes this

type of negotiation is referred to as the distribution of a “fixed pie.” There is only so much to go around, but the

proportion to be distributed is variable. Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-lose because of the

assumption that one person's gain results in another person's loss. A distributive negotiation often does not involve

people who have never had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future.

Simple everyday examples would be buying a car or a house.

2. Integrative negotiation - Integrative negotiation is also sometimes called interest-based or principled negotiation. It

is a set of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and likelihood of negotiated agreement by providing an

alternative to traditional distributive negotiation techniques. While distributive negotiation assumes there is a fixed

amount of value (a “fixed pie”) to be divided between the parties, integrative negotiation often attempts to create

value in the course of the negotiation (“expand the pie”). It focuses on the underlying interests of the parties rather

than their arbitrary starting positions, approaches negotiation as a shared problem rather than a personalized

battle, and insists upon adherence to objective, principled criteria as the basis for agreement. The word integrative

implies some cooperation. Integrative negotiation often involves a higher degree of trust and the forming of a

relationship. It can also involve creative problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains. It is also sometimes

called win-win negotiation.

Negotiation styles - R.G. Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation. Individuals can often have strong

dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a negotiation depends on the context and the interests of

the other party, among other factors. In addition, styles can change over time.

1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems and preserving personal

relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the

other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party places little

emphasis on the relationship.

2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless warranted. When negotiating, avoiders

tend to defer and dodge the confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as tactful

and diplomatic.

3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in creative ways.

Collaborators are good at using negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They

can, however, create problems by transforming simple situations into more complex ones.

4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an opportunity to win something.

Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their

style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of

relationships.

5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal for all parties involved

in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however,

compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make concessions too quickly.

Types of Negotiators - Three basic kinds of negotiators have been identified by researchers involved in The Harvard

Negotiation Project. These types of negotiators are: Soft bargainers, hard bargainers, and principled bargainers.

1. Soft. These people see negotiation as too close to competition, so they choose a gentle style of bargaining. The

offers they make are not in their best interests, they yield to others’ demands, avoid confrontation, and they

maintain good relations with fellow negotiators. Their perception of others is one of friendship, and their goal is

agreement. They do not separate the people from the problem, but are soft on both. They avoid contests of

wills and will insist on agreement, offering solutions and easily trusting others and changing their opinions.

2. Hard. These people use contentious strategies to influence, utilizing phrases such as “this is my final offer” and

“take it or leave it.” They make threats, are distrustful of others, insist on their position, and apply pressure to

negotiate. They see others as adversaries and their ultimate goal is victory. Additionally, they will search for one

single answer, and insist you agree on it. They do not separate the people from the problem (as with soft

bargainers), but they are hard on both the people involved and the problem.


3. Principled. Individuals who bargain this way seek integrative solutions, and do so by sidestepping commitment

to specific positions. They focus on the problem rather than the intentions, motives, and needs of the people

involved. They separate the people from the problem, explore interests, avoid bottom lines, and reach results

based on standards (which are independent of personal will). They base their choices on objective criteria rather

than power, pressure, self-interest, or an arbitrary decisional procedure. These criteria may be drawn from

moral standards, principles of fairness, professional standards, tradition, and so on.

Researchers from The Harvard Negotiation Project recommend that negotiators explore a number of alternatives to the

problems they are facing in order to come to the best overall conclusion/solution, but this is often not the case (as when

you may be dealing with an individual utilizing soft or hard bargaining tactics)

Barriers to negotiations 1. Die hard bargainers.

2. Lack of trust.

3. Informational vacuums and negotiator's dilemma.

4. Structural impediments.

5. Spoilers.

6. Cultural and gender differences.

7. Communication problems.

8. The power of dialogue.

Nonverbal communication in negotiation - Communication is a key element of negotiation. Effective

negotiation requires that participants effectively convey and interpret information. Participants in a negotiation will

communicate information not only verbally but non-verbally through body language and gestures. By understanding

how nonverbal communication works, a negotiator is better equipped to interpret the information other participants

are leaking non-verbally while keeping secret those things that would inhibit his/her ability to negotiate.

Examples of non-verbal communication in negotiation - Non-verbal "anchoring" In a negotiation, a person can gain the

advantage by verbally expressing his/or her position first. By “anchoring” your position, you establish the position from

which the negotiation will proceed. In a like manner, one can “anchor” and gain advantage with non verbal (body

language) ques.

� Personal Space: The person at the head of the table is the apparent symbol of power. Negotiators can repel this

strategic advantage by positioning allies in the room to surround that individual.

� First Impression: Begin the negotiation with positive gestures and enthusiasm. Look the person in the eye with

sincerity. If you cannot maintain eye contact, the other person might think you are hiding something or that you

are insincere. Give a solid handshake.

Reading non-verbal communication Being able to read the non-verbal communication of another person can

significantly aid in the communication process. By being aware of inconsistencies between a person’s verbal and non-

verbal communication and reconciling them, negotiators will be able to come to better resolutions. Examples of

incongruity in body language include:

1. Nervous Laugh: A laugh not matching the situation. This could be a sign of nervousness or discomfort. When this

happens, it may be good to probe with questions to discover the person’s true feelings.

2. Positive words but negative body language: If someone asks their negotiation partner if they are annoyed and

the person pounds their fist and responds sharply, “what makes you think anything is bothering me?”

3. Hands raised in a clenched position: The person raising his/her hands in this position reveals frustration even

when he/she is smiling. This is a signal that the person doing it may be holding back a negative attitude.

4. If possible, it may be helpful for negotiation partners to spend time together in a comfortable setting outside of

the negotiation room. Knowing how each partner non-verbally communicates outside of the negotiation setting

will help negotiation partners to sense incongruity between verbal and non-verbal communication within the

negotiation setting.

Conveying receptivity They way negotiation partners position their bodies relative to each other may influence how

receptive each is to the other person's message and ideas.


1. Face and eyes: Receptive negotiators smile, make plenty of eye contact. This conveys the idea that there is more

interest in the person than in what is being said. On the other hand, non-receptive negotiators make little to no

eye contact. Their eyes may be squinted, jaw muscles clenched and head turned slightly away from the speaker

2. Arms and hands: To show receptivity, negotiators should spread arms and open hands on table or relaxed on

their lap. Negotiators show poor receptivity when their hands are clenched, crossed, positioned in front of their

mouth, or rubbing the back of their neck.

3. Legs and Feet: Receptive negotiators sit with legs together or one leg slightly in front of the other. When

standing, they distribute weight evenly and place hands on their hips with their body tilted toward the speaker.

Non-receptive negotiators stand with legs crossed, pointing away from the speaker.

4. Torso: Receptive negotiators sit on the edge of their chair; unbutton their suit coat with their body tilted toward

the speaker. Non-receptive negotiators may lean back in their chair and keep their suit coat buttoned.

Receptive negotiators tend to appear relaxed with their hands open and palms visibly displayed

Mass communication

Mass communication is the study of how individuals and entities relay information through mass media to large

segments of the population at the same time. It is usually understood to relate to newspaper, magazine, and book

publishing, as well as radio, television and film, as these mediums are used for disseminating information, news and

advertising. Mass communication differs from the studies of other forms of communication, such as interpersonal

communication or organizational communication, in that it focuses on a single source transmitting information to a large

group of receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass communication

persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, attitude, opinion, or emotion of the person or people receiving the

information.

WHAT IS MASS COMMUNICATION Ordinarily transmitting information to many persons is known as mass communication. But such a definition is not

adequate enough to express what mass communication intended is really for. It is true that mass communication

involves a large number of persons. But that is not all. Actually mass communication is a process through which a

message is extensively circulated among the persons who are far away from the source. Viewed in this sense, group

communication and public communication involving many persons cannot be classified as mass communication,

because the speaker and the audience here are not thus separated from each other by a great distance. What is needed

for mass communication to take place is a large number of heterogeneous audiences, encompassing vast boundaries of

space as well as some intermediary channels through which a message can be sent to the destination.

Sydney Head (1976) suggests that the term mass communication must imply at least five things:

1. Relatively large audience

2. Fairly undifferentiated audience composition

3. Some form of message reproduction

4. Rapid distribution and delivery.

5. Low unit cost to the customers.

Definitions –

• Barker (1981) defines: Mass communication is the spreading of a message to an extended mass audience

through rapid means of reproduction and distribution at a relatively inexpensive cost to the consumer. In each

case, a message is transported from its original source to a widespread audience through an intermediary

channel such as radio, television or news paper.

• In the opinion of Mehta: (1979) mass communication is concerned with transmitting information, thoughts and

opinions, entertainments, etc. at a time to a large number of audience of different characteristics.

• Agee, Ault and Emery (1979) define mass communication as a process of sending a message, thought and

attitude through some media to a large number of heterogeneous audiences.

• Dominick (1994) offers a comprehensive definition of mass communication:


Mass communication refers to the process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or more

machines produces and transmits public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous audiences. In his

opinion, the source in the mass communication situation is a group of individuals who usually act within

predetermined roles in an organizational setting. Dominick has resorted to a fine example to explain a mass

communication situation (process) with the help of a newspaper: Reporters gather news; writers draft

editorials. A cartoonist may draw an editorial cartoon; the advertising department lays out ads.; editors layout

all of these things together on a sample page; technicians transfer this page to a master; which is taker to a

press where other technicians produce the final paper; the finished copies are giver to the delivery staff who

distribute them; and of course behind ass of these is a publisher who has the money to pay for a building,

presses, trucks, paper, ink and so on.

By this time, we have an idea about mass communication. In the light of the above discussion we can now define

mass communication as a process in which professional communicators design and use intermediary channels

(radio, television, or mews paper) to disseminate messages quickly at a time to a large number of

heterogeneous but widespread and fairly undifferentiated audiences separated from a source by a great

distance.

Major Theories - Communication researchers have identified several major theories associated with the study of mass

communication. Communication theory addresses the processes and mechanisms that allow communication to take

place.

1. Cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner and Marshall McLuhan, discusses the long-term effects of

watching television, and hypothesizes that the more television an individual consumes, the more likely that

person is to believe the real world is similar to what they have seen on television.[2] Cultivation is closely related

to the idea of the mean world syndrome.

2. Agenda setting theory centers around the idea those media outlets tell the public "not what to think, but what

to think about." Agenda setting hypothesizes that media have the power to influence the public discourse, and

tell people what are important issues facing society.

3. The spiral of silence, developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, hypothesizes that people will be more likely to

reveal their opinion in public if they believe that they are of the majority opinion, for fear that revealing an

unpopular opinion would subject them to being a social outcast. This theory is relevant to mass communication

because it hypothesizes that mass media have the power to shape people's opinions, as well as relay the opinion

that is believed to be the majority opinion.

4. Media ecology hypothesizes that individuals are shaped by their interaction with media,[5] and that

communication and media profoundly affect how individuals view and interact with their environment.[6]

5. According to the Semiotic theory, communication characteristics such as words, images, gestures, and

situations are always interpretive. All sign systems, entitled to be “read” or interpreted, regardless of form, may

be referred to as “texts.” In the study of Semiotics, there is no such thing as a literal reading

Methods of Study - Communication researchers study communication through various methods that have been

verified through repetitive, cumulative processes. Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been used in the

study of mass communication. The main focus of mass communication research is to learn how the content of mass

communication affects the attitudes, opinions, emotions, and ultimately behaviors of the people who receive the

message. Several prominent methods of study are as follows:

1. Studying cause and effect relationships in communication can only be done through an experiment. This

quantitative method regularly involves exposing participants to various media content and recording their

reactions. In order to show causation, mass communication researchers must isolate the variable they are

studying, show that it occurs before the observed effect, and that it is the only variable that could cause the

observed effect.

2. Survey, another quantitative method, involves asking individuals to respond to a set of questions in order to

generalize their responses to a larger population.


3. Content analysis (sometimes known as textual analysis) refers to the process of identifying categorial properties

of a piece of communication, such as a newspaper article, book, television program, film, or broadcast news

script. This process allows researchers to see what the content of communication looks like.

4. A qualitative method known as ethnography allows a researcher to immerse themselves into a culture in order

to observe and record the qualities of communication that exist there.

Field of study 1. Advertising, in relation to mass communication, refers to marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner

that encourages the audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place

through some form of mass media, such as television, studying the effects and methods of advertising is

relevant to the study of mass communication

2. Broadcasting is the act of transmitting audio and/or visual content through a communication medium, such as

radio, television, or film. In the study of mass communication, broadcasting can refer to the practical study of

how to produce communication content, such as how to produce a television or radio program

3. Journalism, in this sense, refers to the study of the product and production of news. The study of journalism

involves looking at how news is produced, and how it is disseminated to the public through mass media outlets

such as newspapers, news channel, radio station, television station, and more recently, e-readers and smart

phones.

4. Public relations are the process of providing information to the public in order to present a specific view of a

product or organization. Public relations differs from advertising in that it is less obtrusive, and aimed at

providing a more comprehensive opinion to a large audience in order to form public opinion.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Define Business Communication? Answer: Communication is defined as “The flow of material information perception, understanding and imagination

among various parties”. Business includes those organizations, which are engaged in the production and distribution of

goods and services to earn profit. Therefore Business communication means, “Flow of information, perception etc.

either within a business organization or outside the organization among different parties”.

EXPLANATION: - We can extract the following points from the above definition;

1. Flow between two or more parties. In business communication the materials flow from one person to another

person or from many persons to different people. This flow may either be inside the organization or outside the

organization.

2. Flow of information, perception, imagination etc. Flow of information takes place when a party transfers the

material to another mind. For example, when a news caster says, “India has conducted nuclear test on 28th May

1998”. This is a flow of information from news caster to the listeners. Flow of perception means transfer of

different feelings. Finally, flow of imagination that occurs when a painter conveys his/her imaginations through a

portrait.

Discuss the role of effective business communication within and outside the organization

OR Why Business Communication is called, “Life blood” of an organization? Answer: A business Organization is a group of people associated to earn profit. Various kinds of activities have to be

performed by the people of an organization so as to earn profit. These activities need an effective and systematic

communication. Without efficient communication, one cannot even imagine to do work and hence will be unable to

earn profit. Since the aim of business organization is to earn profit, the organization will die without profit and this death

is a result of the absence of communication. This is why communication is called life blood of a business organization.

We can prove this statement in the following manner.


COMMUNICATION INSIDE AN ORGANIZATION: Different employees and officials in an organization need to communicate to each other. This internal communication with its importance is shown in the following way:

1. Setting goals and Objectives: - Mostly, the organizations have a variety of formal and informal objectives to

accomplish. These objectives may be financial results, product quality, market dominance, employee’s

satisfaction, or service to customers. So the communication enables all the persons in an organization to work

towards a common purpose.

2. Making and implementing decision: - In order to achieve the objective, people in a business organization collect

facts and evaluate alternatives, and they do so by reading, asking questions, talking or by plain thinking. These

thoughts are put into a written form. Once a decision has been made, it has to be implemented which requires

communication.

3. Appraisal: - Having implemented the decision, management needs to determine whether the desired outcome

is being achieved. Statistics on such factors as cost, sales, market share, productivity and inventory levels are

compiled. This is done through computers, manual papers, memos or reports.

4. Manufacturing the products: - Getting an idea for a new product out of someone’s head, pushing it through the

production process and finally getting the product also require communication. Designing the plan regarding

product, introducing the workers, purchasing raw material, marketing and distributing the product all require

effective communication.

5. Interaction between employer & employee: - Employees are informed about policies and decisions of

employers through circulars, reports, notices etc. Employers also get in touch with employees through

application, complaint etc. So, communication plays a vital role in the interaction of employer and employee.

EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION: 1. Hiring the employees: - If a company wants to hire someone, it advertises the vacancy, receives applications,

calls the candidates, takes the interview and then offers job to the successful candidates. The whole process

requires communication.

2. Dealing with customers: - Sales letters and brochures, advertisements, personal sales calls, and formal

proposals are all used to stimulate the customer’s interest. Communication also plays a part in such customer

related functions as credit checking, billing, and handling complaints and questions.

3. Negotiating with suppliers and financiers: - To obtain necessary supplies and services, companies develop

written specification that outlines their requirement. Similarly, to arrange finance, they negotiate with lenders

and fill out loan applications.

4. Informing the investors: - Balance sheet, income statement, and ratio analysis are used to inform the investors

regarding performance of business.

5. Interacting with Govt.:- Government agencies make certain rules to regulate the economy. These rules are

communicated to organizations through various papers. These organizations try to fulfill, these requirement like

filling taxation form and other documents.

Business COMMUNICATION IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM Just a few short years ago, the way we most often communicated with others was by telephone or letter. Often, using

the telephone meant playing what business workers referred to as “telephone tag.” This name resulted from a caller’s

having to leave a message for someone to call back, then not being available when the call was returned. If you

communicated via letters, you could never be sure exactly when the letter would be delivered.

With advances in technology, we now have many more options available. Among these options are voice mail and e-

mail. Voice mail enables you to leave a message for someone even if you know the person is not available. It enables the

person being called to answer the telephone or wait until a more convenient time to get any messages. E-mail enables

you to send “written” messages to anyone at any time and have those messages delivered instantly. This is particularly

useful if you must communicate with someone in a different time zone. You can send your message at a convenient time

for you, and the receiver can respond at a convenient time for him or her.

Each of these options also has negative aspects. Many people do not like voice mail because they do not like to be

greeted by a recording; others refuse to leave messages. Companies that rely on voice mail to answer and route all


incoming calls risk losing the business of people who want to speak with a “real” person. Have you ever been frustrated

by having to listen to a long recording or a list of options before your call could be completed?

E-mail has provided us with a way to send instantaneous messages. However, this ease of sending messages has

dramatically increased the number of unimportant messages being sent. (In other instances, using e-mail has proves to

be very costly. The informality of e-mail often causes people to respond without thinking and send messages that should

never be sent.) In addition, e-mail is not totally secure. Information that you don’t want others to know should not be

sent via e-mail.

Here are four general guidelines for using voice mail and e-mail. Whichever one you use, keep your message

professional, clear, and courteous. If you are dealing with extremely sensitive information, you may want to deliver the

message face-to-face or over the telephone so that there are no misunderstandings. Remember that neither voice mail

nor e-mail is totally secure, if you are sating or writing something that you so not want anyone other than the recipient

to know about, speak directly to him or her. Finally, be sure your messages are clear, concise, and grammatically correct.

Used properly, voice mail and e-mail are a significant help to professionals. With courteous and thoughtful use, people

can increase their own efficiency and become more responsive to others.

Business process outsourcing Definition: BPO stands for "business process outsourcing," which is simply another term for outsourcing. This is when a

company contracts an outside provider for services or business processes. This might include manufacturing or back-

office functions such as accounting and human resources. But BPO might also include front-end services such as

customer care and technical support. Also Known As: business process outsourcing, outsourcing, subcontracting.

"Global BPO" is another term for off shoring or outsourcing outside a company's home country or primary market.

BPO jobs are not necessarily work at home, but some, like call centers, can be.

Business Processing Source Call Centre

BPO is the short form of business process outsourcing.

Hence a BPO company that deals with outsourced jobs may

or may not have call centers. BPO is a much broader term

when compared to call centre. However, the two terms have

a relationship. A call center is a sub-set or sub-unit of a BPO.

It is a place where business is done over the telephone.

Again there are BPOs where there are no call centers but the

entire business is handled through the web. BPO includes, IT

services, financial services etc.

A call centre can be seen as a centre for handling the

business of internal and/or overseas clients and different

companies can outsource parts of their business to call

centers. A call centre is also considered as a BPO which

handles business over the telephone. However, there is a

misconception among many people that BPO means a call

centre.

Whereas BPO (Business Process Outsourcing) is a services to

ordinations and services might include call center, human

resources, software development and so on.

Call Center is mostly situated offshore and in which staff

make and receive calls in order to help the customers

regarding electronic equipments, computers and so on.

A BPO may be doing HR outsourcing job for various

companies, handling accounts for different companies etc.

Call Center is a type of BPO only where only inbound and

outbound services are handled whereas BPO is a place

where any type of outsourcing work is done.

Business Process Outsourcing basically is the leveraging of

expertise or specialist process vendors to offer and

administer an organization's critical or non-critical enterprise

developments and applications. The most well known

examples of BPO are call centre, human resources,

accounting and payroll outsourcing.

A call centre basically is a centralized office generally used

for the function of receiving and transmitting a huge

quantity of requests via telephone. A call centre usually is

controlled by a company to manage received product

support or information queries from customers.

A Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) organisation is

responsible for performing a process or a part of a process

of another business organisation; outsourcing is done to

save on costs or gain in productivity.

A call centre performs that part of a client's business which

involves handling telephone calls. A call centre, for example,

might handle customer complaints coming in over a

telephone.


BPO I nothing but a business process outsource which it

deals with the voice n non-voice base

call center is that there is 2 departments one is inbound on

another is outbound inbound is that call will come from

customer asking the quires to us outbound is that were we

have to make a call to customer n tell them about their due

date of payment n tell them to pay

BPO is nothing but a online sale products and advertize our

products

call center is nothing but a receive a call from the costumer

and give a solution it is company made

A Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) organisation is

responsible for performing a process or a part of a process

of another business organisation; outsourcing is done to

save on costs or gain in productivity.

A call centre performs that part of a client's business which

involves handling telephone calls. A call centre, for example,

might handle customer complaints coming in over a

telephone.

Business process outsourcing (BPO) is a form of outsourcing

that involves the contracting of the operations and

responsibilities of a specific business functions (or processes)

to a third-party service provider. Originally, this was

associated with manufacturing firms that outsource large

segments of its supply chain. In the contemporary context, it

is primarily used to refer to the outsourcing of services.BPO

that is contracted outside a company's country is called

offshore outsourcing. BPO that is contracted to a company's

neighboring (or nearby) country is called near shore

outsourcing. Given the proximity of BPO to the information

technology industry, it is also categorized as an information

technology enabled service or ITES. Knowledge process

outsourcing (KPO) and legal process outsourcing (LPO) are some of

the sub-segments of business process outsourcing industry.

A call centre is a centralized office used for the purpose of

receiving and transmitting a large volume of requests by

telephone. A call centre is operated by a company to

administer incoming product support or information

inquiries from consumers. Outgoing calls for telemarketing,

clientele, product services, and debt collection are also

made. In addition to a call centre, collective handling of

letters, faxes, live chat, and e-mails at one location is known

as a contact centre.

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