Mali• Almoravids convert & conquer

Ghanian empire• 50+ years later, western Sudan

breaks into various small kingdoms

• mid-1200s, Keita ruling clan formed new & lasting empire Mali

• Mali built on monopoly of north-south gold trade

• Already controlled gold trade • Empire was larger than Ghana,

extended to Atlantic, south of Niger & west past Timbuktu

Mali• Agriculture & farming primary

occupations (rice, beans, yams, fish, cattle, sheep, goats + iron, cotton, gold=lucrative economy)

• Malinke core population of new Malian state, lived in walled towns

• Keita’s had converted to Islam, brought back military innovations

• Mali est. imperial empire under Keita King Sundiata in mid-13th century

• Dominated Sahara & Niger trade, capital Niani access to all resources, easy to defend

• Empire included several language groups

Mali• Local chiefs largely independent

but recognized a supreme “mansa”

• Greatest Keita king was Mansa Musa

• Pilgrimage to Mecca brought back intellectuals to build the arts & scholarship

• Further spread Islam• Timbuktu = center for sub-

Saharan Islamic religion & culture

• 15th century rivalries for power led to Mali waning, Berbers & Mossi assume land

Songhai• 1375 Sunni or Sonni empire centered

around Gao rose• Sonni Ali brought about imperial

strength, became “arguably the most powerful state in Africa” (riverboat floatilla & cavalry)

• Expansionism continued• Major source of wealth was

expansion of caravan trade across the Sahara to North

• Rulers varied in their devotion to Islam

• Empire divided by civil wars over succession, Moroccan Sa’dis able to defeat with superior gunpowder 1591

KanemEmpire further east, near Lake

Chad• Began with nomadic tribes,

Zaghawah• Mai Dunama Dibbalemi (mid

1200s) was key leader of subgroup called Kanuri who began military expansion

• Dibbalemi embraced Islam & used it to sanction his rule

• Said expansion was a means of “jihad” (holy struggle) against polytheists

Kanem to Kanem-Bornu• Kanuri mixed with other

tribes• Moved away from nomadic to

sedentary kingdom (with rule, tax & tribute)

• Civil strife over succession after 1400, Bornu land to SW became new Kanuri stronghold

• End 16th century, Kanem & Bornu unite

• Ruling dynasty lasted until 1846!

Eastern Sudan• Christian influenced (Maqurra &

Alwa) region south of Egyptian empire

• Region often called Christian Nubia, battled against increased Muslim influence of traders & tribes

• Christianity began to fade, aided by its elite nature & closeness to Egyptian brand of Coptic Christianity (est. 60AD)

• Funj state between Blue & White Nile, Islamic cattle nomads

Benin• Kingdom known for its court art

• According to Benin tradition, ailing kings who were thought to have lost their power were put to death. After one legendary oba's legs became paralyzed, he claimed his legs had been miraculously transformed into mudfish to avoid execution.

• “Mudfish” was a symbol of Benin kings because both were capable of crossing into different environments (land and water); frogs & crocodiles also symbolize kings