Malandra 1983 an Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion, Readings From the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions

An Introduction to Ancient Iranian ReligionReadings from the Avesta

and Achaemenid Inscriptions

ToKees W. Bolle

Minnesota Publications in the Humanities, Volume Two

A series of books published withthe financial assistance of the Graduate School

and the College of Liberal Arts ofthe University of Minnesota.

ANINTRODUCTION

TO ANCIENTIRANIAN RELIGION

Readings fromthe Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions

Translated and Edited by

WILLIAM W. MALANDRA

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS

Minneapolis

Copyright © 1983 by the University of Minnesota.All rights reserved.

Published by the University of Minnesota Press,2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55414

Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Avesta. Selections. EnglishAn introduction to ancient Iranian religion.

Bibliography: p.Includes index.

1. Iran—Religion—Addresses, essays, lectures.2. Zoroastrianism—Addresses, essays, lectures.

I. Malandra, William W. II. Title.BL1515.2.E53 1983 295'.82 82-21784

ISBN 0-8166-1114-9ISBN 0-8166-1115-7 (pbk.)

The preparation of this volumewas made possible in part by a grant from

the Translations Program of the National Endowment for the Humanities,an independent federal agency.

The University of Minnesotais an equal-opportunity educator

and employer.

Preface

lthough there are several good handbooks on Zoroastrianism inEnglish as well as others in French and German, there is little inthe way of primary textual material easily available to the non-

specialist. The present work is designed especially to provide a selectionof texts from the most ancient period of Iran's recorded religious history,presented in a modern English translation. While it can hardly be the roleof this anthology to provide an account of the Zoroastrian religion in greatdepth and detail, an outline of the religion in its historical, cultural, andspiritual setting is given by way of introduction, and the various selectionsare accompanied by sufficient commentary of a general nature as to pro-vide students with a basic orientation as they make their way through theoften difficult material. Thus, the book is intended not simply as a reader,a bare collection of texts, but also as an introduction to the more ancientforms of Zoroastrianism. The study of Zoroastrianism is an unusuallycomplicated undertaking, however, owing to a variety of factors, whichare discussed in the Introduction. Students who encounter Zoroastrian-ism for the first time will inevitably find the going rough unless they havesome previous acquaintance with the methods of the history of religionsand also some knowledge of ancient Indian religion of the Vedic period.In keeping with the purpose of the present work, I have tried to operatewith a minimum of presuppositions, yet inevitably I have been forced toassume a certain level of sophistication on the part of the reader; other-wise the work would have far exceeded reasonable bounds.

I have included some Gathic material as well as excerpts from theAchaemenid inscriptions, yet most of the reading selections are takenfrom the Younger Avesta, mainly from the Yashts. My choice of textswas governed by two considerations. First, I wanted to present a wideenough variety to give an idea of the range of texts contained in theAvesta. Second, I wanted to present texts that I consider to be importantand at the same time the most interesting. If a disproportionately large

V

A

vi I Preface

amount of space is given to the Yashts, it is because they are, generallyspeaking, the most interesting texts and because they contain withinthemselves much of the variety found in the Avesta as a whole. Converse-ly, if a disproportionately small amount of space has been allotted toZarathushtra's own compositions, the Gathas, it is because of two fac-tors. One is that they are already available in two modern English transla-tions by Duchesne-Guillemin and Insler (see Bibliography); the other isthat the Gathas are perhaps the most obscure and ambiguous composi-tions of all oriental religious literature. Almost every Gathic passage iscapable of multiple interpretations, and in many cases the words defycomprehension. To appreciate the magnitude of the problem, one needonly compare the numerous translations that already exist. So widely dothey often differ from one another on many passages that one could beskeptical that they all translate the same original text! Not wishing topresent the reader with many uncertain translations, I have chosen a fewGathas and Gathic stanzas whose interpretation is as clear as could behoped for under the circumstances and which contain important ideasexpressed in Zarathushtra's own individual style. Because the anthologyis deliberately limited to texts in Old Iranian languages, two importantsources for the study of Zoroastrianism have been excluded. These arethe notices by classical (Latin and Greek) authors on "Persian" religionand the wealth of material contained in the Pahlavi books. While it is truethat many Pahlavi works are or purport to be translations of lost Avestanoriginals, the recensions in which they are known to us date from theninth century A.D. For this reason, they must be used with extreme careas evidence for the earlier forms of the religion. Their inclusion herewould have necessitated long and highly technical discussions inappropri-ate to the aims of the present work. In regard to the classical sources,since they are accounts of Iranian religion rather than translations oftexts, they, too, are inappropriate to a source book based on originaltexts. Nevertheless, as the reader will discover, limited use of both Pahla-vi and classical sources is made in the course of the Introduction and thevarious commentaries to the reading selections.

A final note is in order concerning my transliteration of Iranian and OldIndian words. In the case of Old Indian, I follow the generally adoptedsystem of transliteration. The transliteration of Old Iranian words isanother matter. In the scientific literature one finds various systems in usefor Old Persian and Avestan. For Old Persian, I have generally followedthe system established by W. Hinz in his Neue Wege im Altpersischen,with the exception that v is replaced by my w. For Avestan, I havegenerally followed the system of Chr. Bartholomae in his AltiranischesWorterbuch, with the following important exceptions: v = w, w = v.

Preface I vii

These changes are in the spirit of K. Hoffman's system (Festgabedeutscher Iranisten zur 2500 Jahrfeier Irans [Stuttgart, 1971], pp. 64-73),though I avoid his cumbersome representation of w by uu and y by // (likeBartholomae, I do not distinguish initial and medial w and y). By repre-senting the bilabial semivowel with w, I wish to emphasize that it is not africative. The drawback to this is, of course, that many familiar nameslike Vdta, Var&hraghna, etc., become Wata, Wardthraghna, etc. Estab-lished words in English like Pahlavi are retained as such rather thanPahlawi. A key to transliteration and pronunciation is provided on p. ix.

Several notes to the reader are necessary to facilitate the use of theanthology. Since it is intended for the nonspecialist who cannot read thetexts in the original Avestan and Old Persian, no philological apparatus isincluded. Furthermore, the Introduction and the individual commentarieshave been written primarily for those not intimately acquainted with thefield of the history of Iranian religion. As a consequence, numerous con-troversial issues have been glossed over, and reference to various perso-nalities has been kept to a minimum. I have attempted throughout topresent a sober picture of the religion and to avoid extravagant theoriesthat have not gained acceptance. Nevertheless, opinions divergent frommy own are noted wherever necessary. The reader who wishes to pursueany topic in greater depth will find references in the bibliographies to themost pertinent literature. Many terms, minor deities, historical figuresand dynasties, texts, technical terms, and the like are listed in the Glos-sary for easy reference. In addition, the index should be consulted forcross references and location of topics.

I would like to thank my colleague, Prof. Bruce Lincoln, for his com-ments on an earlier draft of the manuscript, and also to express mygratitude to Prof. Richard N. Frye and Dr. Firoze M. Kotwal, whooffered many constructive suggestions on the improvement of the text.Partial assistance in writing was given in the form of a Summer ResearchGrant by the Regents of the University of Minnesota and by the NationalEndowment for the Humanities. Finally and above all, I must thank mywife, Geri Hockfield, for help in the preparation of the manuscript and forher many valuable comments during the course of its writing.

Abbreviations and Symbols

AceAog

AvCeltDBDNaDPdDSfElamFrGerGothIEIlrIrLatLithMPers

AbbreviationsAccadian NHGAogsmadaeca (a late NPers

Av text) NyAvestanCeltic OChSlDarius, Behistan OIndDarius, Naqsh-i Rustam a OlrishDarius, Persepolis d OPersDarius, Susaf PhiElamite RVFrench SktGerman VedGothic VendIndo-European XPcIndo-Iranian XPhIranian YLatin YAvLithuanian YtMiddle Persian

Symbols

New High GermanNew PersianNyayishn (part of the

Avesta)Old Church SlavonicOld IndianOld IrishOld PersianPahlaviRgvedaSanskritVedicVendidadXerxes, Persepolis cXerxes, Persepolis hYasnaYoung AvestanYasht

[ ] in the translations indicate a gloss or interpolation.( ) in the translations indicate additions by the

translator to clarify the meaning.* indicates a reconstructed word.

Vlll

Key to Transliterationand Pronunciation

The simple vowels a, e, i, o, u are pronounced approximately as inGerman; the macron (") indicates that the vowel is metrically long. Thetwo combinations ae and ao are diphthongs, pronounced approximatelyas in Engl b/te and out respectively. With the exception of the letterslisted below, all other letters are pronounced as in English. Note: In orderto make Avestan names and words less formidable, the following devia-tions from the standard transliterations are employed:

7 = gh, 0 = th, 8 = dh, s = sh, z = zh; g, rj = ng; £ = v;xw = xw; t = t

Old Persian is pronounced approximately like Avestan with the exceptionof 9 = Engl s.

macron (indicates a long ngh ng-hvowel: a, e, etc.) c Engl church

d Engl bwt (capitalized as 3) th Engl thinga Engl saw dh Engl thata Fr enfant w Dutch water (a bilabialx Ger ac/i semivowel, similar toxw x with w immediately Engl v but not a fricative)

following sh Engl showgh voiced x zh Frje

The following letters are found in Sanskrit and reconstructed Indo-European words:u IE: labial semivowelr IE and Skt: a vowel, in Skt usually pronounced as rig IE: a voiced unaspirated palatal stoph Skt: an aspirate, approximately Engl hm Skt: indicates nasalizationn, n Skt: palatal and cerebral nasals, approximately Engl ns, s Skt: palatal and cerebral sibilants, approximately Engl sht Skt: an unvoiced, unaspirated cerebral stop, approximately Engl t

IX

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Contents

Preface v

Abbreviations and Symbols... viii

Key to Transliteration and Pronunciation ix

Introduction 3

Reading Selections

1. Zarathushtra 35The Cow's Lament (Y. 29) 35Yasna 29 38

The Two Spirits (Y. 30.3-6; Y. 45.2) 39Yasna 30.3-6 40Yasna 45.2 40

Zarathushtra Questions Ahura Mazda (Y. 44) 41Yasna 44 42

2. Ahura Mazda 44Inscriptions of Darius I 48Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd) Yasht (Yt. 1) 51

3. Mithra 55Mithra (Mihr) Yasht (Yt. 10) 59

4. Rashnu 76Rashnu (Rashn) Yasht (Yt. 12) 79

5. Wsrgthraghna 80Warothraghna (Wahram) Yasht (Yt. 14) 82

6. Xwaranah 88Xwarsnah (Zamyad) Yasht (Yt. 19) 89

xi

xii I Contents

7. Wayu 97Wayu (Ram) Yasht (Yt. 15) 98

8. The Frawashis 102Frawashi (Frawardm) Yasht (Yt. 13) 105

9. Aradwl Sura Anahita 117Arsdwl Sura Anahita (Aban) Yasht (Yt. 5) 120

10. Ashi 130Ashi (Ard) Yasht (Yt. 17) 131

11. Sraosha 135Sraosha (Srosh) Yasht (Y. 57) 137

12. Tishtrya 140Tishtrya (Tishtar) Yasht (Yt. 8) 143

13. Haoma 150Haoma (Horn) Yasht (Y. 9, 10, 11) 151

14. Atar 159Yasna 62 160

15. Purity and Pollution 162Vendidad 5.1-44 164Vendidad 7.1-4, 9-15, 23-27 168Vendidad 7.53-58 169Vendidad 9 170Vendidad 16 173

16. Yima 175Vendidad 2 178

17. Miscellanea: Sacred Prayers 182(Yenghe hatam; Yatha ahu wairyo; Asham wohu; Ny. 1.16)

Notes 184

Glossary 186

Bibliography 189

Index 192

An Introduction to Ancient Iranian ReligionReadings from the Avesta

and Achaemenid Inscriptions


Introduction

Before the Buddha, before Christ and Muhammad, in a remote areaof Iran a unique individual emerged from the anonymity of histraditional tribal culture to preach a new gospel, one that was

destined to become the foundation of Iranian spirituality for more than amillennium. Like the Buddha, Christ, and Muhammad, he had the visionof transforming his inherited religion into a new faith. His name wasZarathushtra (Zoroaster in the West), and the religious vision to which hegave expression is known as Zoroastrianism, a religion whose roots goback to the beginning of the second millennium B.C. It is still practicedtoday by perhaps a hundred thousand people, living mostly in India and insmaller numbers in Iran. In antiquity it was one of the dominant religionsof the world. Its influence can be seen in Judaism (and Christianity), inManichaeism and other forms of gnosticism, in Northern (Mahdyana)Buddhism, and in Islam. Although its influence in the world came to anend during the seventh century A.D. with the Arab conquest of Iran andthe subsequent centuries of repression and persecution under Islam, asmall core of the faithful steadfastly has maintained its traditions andpreserved a small corpus of its sacred texts down to the present. Despiteits venerable age and its important place within the history of worldreligions, Zoroastrianism remains little known to all but a small number ofphilologists and historians of religions. A student of classics might recallencountering a reference to a Persian Magus named Zoroaster, who livedsix thousand years before Plato; or a student in a world religions coursemight remember something about the fire worshippers of ancient Iran. Inthe nineteenth century, the name of Iran's great prophet became widelyknown thanks to Friedrich Nietzsche's famous philosophic tract AlsoSprach Zarathustra. But in any case almost nothing of substance con-cerning Zarathushtra or the complex religious situation of ancient Iran hasmade its way into our intellectual culture. In fact, what few ideas peopledo entertain about these matters are either superficial generalizations, as

3

4 I Introduction

in the case of the beliefs about fire worship, or wanton distortions, as inthe case of Nietzsche's figure.

Any religion built upon a foundation so solid as to endure for threemillennia through periods of prosperity and deprivation alike is certainlyinitially worthy of more than passing notice. For those who heed the call,the rewards are great, for in Zoroastrianism one encounters, often inconfusing complexity, the historical records of a religion that not onlydominated the spiritual life of the Iranian people for centuries, but alsoaffected other religions in crucial ways.

Zoroastrianism is the name most usually applied to the religious com-plex of ancient Iran. The term should be used in a more restricted sense,however, since not all ancient Iranian religion was Zoroastrian. To beprecise, it is necessary to distinguish between a number of religiousphases, one of which will be characterized as Zoroastrian. The mostancient phase to be discussed encompasses a religion that goes back wellinto the third millennium B.C., to a time when the related Indo-Aryans andIranians still composed a single group. This Indo-Iranian religion is ahypothetical reconstruction, based primarily on the texts of the IranianAvesta and the Indian Rgveda. In the course of time the Indo-Iraniansdivided; one group, the Indo-Aryans, migrated to India and parts of theNear East, the other, the Iranians, settled throughout the Iranian plateau.The religion of these Iranians is known as Old Iranian. It too must bereconstructed, again primarily on the basis of the Avesta and to a lesserdegree on that of the Achaemenid inscriptions, notices in classical au-thors, and diverse other scraps of evidence. The reformed religion of theprophet is termed Zarathushtrianism. After the prophet's death, his reli-gion underwent a period of change, the final outcome of which was anational religion made up of Zarathushtrianism and many elements of theOld Iranian religion that were reintroduced, contrary to the original re-form. This final, rather eclectic religion, which is the source of almost theentire Avesta, is Zoroastrianism} The religion incidently referred to inthe Achaemenid inscriptions is the subject of controversy, since it cannotbe proved whether or not the "Great Kings," Darius and Xerxes, wereinfluenced by Zarathushtra. It may be easiest simply to leave the questionopen by calling their religion Old Persian.

Indo-Iranian Religion

A religion never has an absolute beginning. When one speaks of the'beginnings" of Hinduism or Christianity or Zoroastrianism, one may

Introduction I 5

have in mind the date of a founder such as Jesus or Zarathushtra; or onemay be referring to the oldest texts of the religion, such as the Rgveda inthe case of Hinduism. Yet these "beginnings" are really no more thanpoints in history that owe their existence to events still farther in the past.Unfortunately, the historical documents go back only so far. The limita-tions imposed on one's knowledge of a particular tradition by the verylimitations of the evidence force one to accept arbitrary dates for thebeginnings of these ancient traditions. That one's sources may be fivehundred or a thousand years earlier than another's is of no consequence,since—no matter where the cutoff date may lie—the sources themselvespresuppose an already long and complex tradition. As the readings in thisanthology suggest, the most ancient documents of Old Iranian religion arealready as complex and confusing as one could wish.

Sometimes the oldest sources do present an absolute limit beyondwhich one cannot penetrate. Often, however, one can push back thelimits of texts through the process of comparative historical reconstruc-tion. Ancient cultures did not exist in isolation, but were either relatedgenerically to or influenced by contact with other cultures. Study of thedocuments of such related traditions can often greatly augment one'sknowledge of the culture that one is studying. Let me offer two examplesto illustrate the point. (1) Old Iranian possesses a word, Av* daewa,OPers *daiwa meaning 'demon' or 'false or hostile god'. Other terms usedby related peoples include OInd deva 'heavenly; god'; Lat deus 'god'; Olrdia 'god'; and ONorse tivar 'gods'. The differences in meaning betweenthe Iranian terms and their counterparts in other languages suggest that,in the course of Iranian religious history, certain changes have taken placein ideology that have led to a demonization of the gods. I shall return tothis problem shortly; for now one need only note that one can safelyreconstruct a history of daewa/daiwa, at least to the extent that oneknows that the word originally meant 'god', not 'demon'. (2) The myth ofYima and his wara (see sect. 15) contains, among other themes, a"Noah's ark" motif. Since this myth seems to be of Semitic origin, onecan postulate an Iranian borrowing from Near Eastern cultures. Through-out the present work, I shall make extensive use of the comparativemethod. While the method is immensely useful, in fact indispensable, itmust be kept in mind that its limitation is that it presents hypotheticalreconstructions. Sometimes these reconstructions rest on very solidground, as in the case of daewa/daiwa; more often than not they are lesssecure.

The geographical name Iran (older Eran) derives from an ancient ex-

*Avestan. Abbreviations for linguistic sources are given on p. viii.

6 I Introduction

pression found in the Avesta by which the Iranians designated their ownterritory, airyana waejah, meaning 'expanse, territory of the Aryas'. Whowere these Aryas or Aryans? Culturally and linguistically they were theclose relatives of another group of people who also called themselvesAryas, now called Indo-Aryans in contradistinction to the Iranians. Thetwo groups of Aryans, Indo-Iranians, were related again linguistically andculturally to the extensive family of Indo-Europeans, which includes mostof the language groups of Europe as well as such ancient Asian groups asHittites and Tocharians. Although much controversy surrounds the loca-tion of the original homeland of the Indo-Europeans, it is fairly certainthat the Indo-Iranians lived in the steppes of what is now Soviet CentralAsia, north of the Caspian and Aral seas. At some point in the thirdmillennium B.C., there occurred a split in the group that resulted in thedivision between Indo-Aryans and Iranians. Around 1500 B.C., bothgroups began to move down out of the steppes into various areas ofancient civilizations, as part of a broader movement of Indo-Europeanpeoples. Although the precise migratory routes have not yet been conclu-sively demonstrated, it is known that the Indo-Aryans finally settled bothin the northwestern part of India (the Punjab) and in Anatolia; the Iranianssettled in Iran, that is, in a geographical area that included modern Iran,Afghanistan, and parts of Soviet Central Asia, especially the area bound-ed by the Oxus and Yaxartes rivers.

The study of the linguistic remains of the Iranians and Indo-Aryansreveals that while there are easily identified general characteristics thatdefine the two groups, within each group there were numerous dialectdifferences, as noted above. For example, the language of the Old Persianinscriptions (a southwestern dialect) is quite different from that of theAvesta (a northeastern dialect), and, in turn, Avestan itself is representedby two dialects. These linguistic facts are important to the historian ofreligions in that they show clearly that Indo-Iranian religion developed ina situation of cultural diversity. That is, although major cultural, linguis-tic, and religious traits were held in common by the various tribes, therewere many points of difference. Thus, as one approaches Indo-Iranianreligion, one may be dealing with phenomena as diverse as, say, DutchCalvinism and Italian Catholicism, both of which fall under the generalrubric of Christianity.

If one does not push the generalization too far, it is safe to say thatreligion reflects society, both its social institutions and its economic wayof life. Since this is certainly true of Indo-Iranian religion, some apprecia-tion of the material and social foundations of the culture is essential to anunderstanding of the religion. The Indo-Iranians were nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralists who herded a variety of animals, including goats and

Introduction I 7

sheep, but whose economic foundation was cattle. Like modern Nilotictribes in East Africa, the ancient Aryans depended in manifold ways uponthe cow.2 It provided milk and milk by-products, meat, leather; its urinewas used as a purifying agent; its dung fueled the fire; it could pull carts orplows. A man's wealth was measured not in money, but in cows. It is notsurprising, then, that the Cow occupies a central position in the religion.Dependence on cattle and other grazing stock means a life of wandering insearch of fresh pasture land. Usually the pastoralist life is divided into twoyearly phases. In winter when forage is scarce, when snow and coldimpede movement, communities, often a single extended family or a smallgroup of such families remain in fixed winter quarters. Once the snowshave melted and grass begins to grow, a cycle of migrations begins. Peo-ples living in mountainous areas follow a regular route of migration fromvalleys and lowlands into progressively higher altitudes until late summerwhen they begin the descent to the winter stations. No less than agricul-turalists, pastoral peoples depend on unfailing sources of water for theiranimals as well as an adequate spring melt and occasional summer rains toensure an abundance of grass. The importance of water is a commonmotif in Indo-Iranian mythology. Another important aspect of pastoralnomadism is warfare—that is, warfare not in terms of large, well-organized armies, but specifically in the form of cattle rustling. Many ofthe gods and heroes of myth and legend represent the ideal Aryan warriorwho is able to smash the defenses of his opponents and liberate theircattle. As people of the steppes, the Aryans made special use of horse andchariot in combat, a skill that made them superior to the sedentary agri-culturalists, whom they were destined to conquer in their invasions ofIndia and Iran.

There is some controversy over the structure of Indo-European andIndo-Iranian society.3 It is certainly the case that the society was patriar-chal. In matters of religion, women, with a few exceptions, played aminor role. The basic unit was the extended family, and a group of fami-lies formed a unit known as a *wik (Av wis, OInd vis). A larger groupingof families formed a tribe, known in Avestan as a zantu and called byvarious names in Old Indian. The Iranians recognized an even broadercategory called a dahyu 'people, country', which seems to have originallyincluded all related tribes, but later simply meant 'a province and/or itspeople'. Some scholars especially Dumezil, believe that Indo-Europeansociety generally was tripartite in structure, composed of commoners,warriors, and priests. Although it is true that a tripartite structure can bedemonstrated conclusively for Celtic, Iranian, and Indo-Aryan societiesfor historical periods, it is not at all certain that a primitive tripartition canbe safely reconstructed for Indo-European or even Indo-Iranian society,

8 I Introduction

mainly because there is no consistent terminology in the various lan-guages for the supposed classes. In Avestan a word for 'priest', athra-wan, became the generalized term for any priest, although in westernIran there was what Herodotus calls a tribe of Median priests, the Magi(OPers magu). In India, brdhmana 'brahmin' is a new formation on anolder term, brahman 'one who has to do with brahman (sacred powerinherent in prayers, spells)', again a once specific term generalized toinclude the entire class of specialists in the sacred. Members of the war-rior class in Iran were called rathaeshta 'who stands in the chariot', whilein India they are either rajanya 'kingly, noble' or ksatriya 'one whoexercises rulership; noble man'. The third estate is designated aswastryo.fshuyant 'husbandman, farmer' in Avestan; in Indie the term isvaisya 'commoner'. This situation, which is actually far more complexthan I have indicated here, is better explained in terms of independentevolution than of common origin. The roots of such independent evolu-tion can be found in certain functions that must necessarily have existed,that is, economic pursuits, governance, fighting, and specialization in thesacred. But there is no reason to assume that each function was the soledomain of three discrete hereditary social classes. The pater familias, forexample, could easily have exercised all three functions. If specializationoccurred, it could have been based on skill and/or vocation.

The sociological problem has a direct bearing on one's understanding ofthe religion of the Indo-Iranians, since those who believe in the triparti-tion of society also believe in a tripartition of the pantheon and of manyreligious motifs as a projection of human society. Although I must rejectthis particular application of sociological analysis to religion, I shall oftenrely, in what follows, on the basic premise that religious structures oftendo represent a projection of societal realities and ideals. At a time when"structuralism" in a variety of forms is enjoying wide currency in reli-gious studies, however, it is important not to lose sight of historicalchange as a determining factor in the formation of a religion. Religionstend to be conservative. Especially during periods of rapid historicalchange, religion will lag behind the rest of society, often to present ananachronistic view of things. Because of this inertia, which can carryarchaic ideas into an altered present, one must proceed with caution in thematter of sociological reconstructions. There is a fallacious assumptionimplicit in many attempted reconstructions of Indo-Iranian religion andsociety that the reconstructed period was somehow pristine, that is, notsubject to the same problems of historical flux that influence alldocumented history.

The science of religion has undergone many changes since its seriousbeginnings in the nineteenth century. These hermeneutical changes have

Introduction I 9

also affected the interpretation of Indo-Iranian religions. In the last cen-tury and the early part of this century, scholars were preoccupied withnature mythology, sharing an orientation to religion founded on the notionthat gods and many other aspects of religion represented the naiveworship of divinized natural phenomena. I bring this up not as a matter ofhistorical curiosity but to alert the reader to the fact that much of the olderliterature dealing with Indo-Iranian religion assumes the primacy of na-ture mythology. Of course, it is true that many divine beings have unmis-takable natural bases. As Avestan examples, one might cite Wata andWayu (two wind gods) or Hwarsxshaeta (the god Sun) or Tishtrya (thestar Sirius). Sometimes the deity is as uncomplicated in its manifestationsas is the natural phenomenon itself (e.g., Hwarsxshaeta); sometimes thedeity displays a complexity that far surpasses that of the phenomenon(e.g., Tishtrya). The real problem arises in respect to those deities whohave naturalistic associations, but whose natures are rooted in far differ-ent concerns. The god *Mitra (Av Mithra) provides a good example.Many early discussions concerned themselves almost exclusively withthe problem of the god's solar nature. In Middle Iranian languages, var-ious reflexes of his name do mean 'sun', (e.g., MPers mihr), and indeedthere are some references in the Avesta to his connection with the sun. Inthe Vedic texts known as Brahmanas one also finds the equation Mitra =Sun. But the word mitra or mithra itself means 'covenant, contract'.Thus, the basic nature of this god is not to be recovered by constructingan intricate theory concerning his identity with the sun, but rather byrealizing that he is essentially an ethical deity. A proper understanding ofMitra must begin with the ethical concept. Once this is done, many of thegod's aspects can be seen as proceeding from the central concept. Inaddition to the deities who represent either natural phenomena or theideals of society, there are always a number of so-called Sondergotter(special gods) who preside over very specific matters (e.g., the deitieswho rule over the five daily watches). The point to be made here is thatthere is no one, simple way of understanding either the origin or the basicnature of the various deities. Each case has to be examined on its ownmerits.

The Indo-Iranians, like other peoples, consistently divided the cosmosinto three levels: earth, heaven, and the middle space or atmosphere. Thistripartition of the cosmos, especially emphasized by the Indo-Aryans,provides the basic orientation of the religion. Since the levels are orderedin ascending grades, they present to the human perspective an order oftranscendence. The earth, though extremely holy herself, is the realm ofhuman activity and therefore of immanence. The atmosphere touches theearth, surrounds man, yet extends beyond to the vault of heaven. It is a

10 I Introduction

realm of ever-changing aspect, a seeming void traversed by the unpredict-able wind, now gentle, now violent, now dry, now bringing clouds andstorms. In short, the atmosphere is an arena for the constant activity ofawesome and often violent forces. Above the atmosphere is the vault ofheaven, and beyond it is heaven itself. Whereas the atmosphere touchesman, heaven is wholly beyond the sphere of ordinary human experience.Its very height provides a natural symbol of transcendence.

As a result of the tripartition of the cosmos, deities characteristicallyinhabit one or the other of the cosmic levels. And, characteristically,those who inhabit heaven, the so-called "sky gods," are creators of thecosmos and representatives of the highest ethical principles. They arealso masculine. They often remain aloof from the everyday functioning ofthe cosmos, although in some cases perpetual activity is required of them,as in the case of Mitra, who must be ever on the lookout for breakers ofcovenants. The deities of the atmosphere, normally masculine, tend to beviolent or at least martial in nature. They either perpetually inhabit theatmosphere, like the wind gods (Wata, Wayu), or else they dwell on themountain (usually the cosmic mountain) and issue forth through the air intheir chariots or in one or another of their theriomorphic forms. Stormand war are their chief occupations. The deities of the earth, usuallyfeminine, tend to be connected with fertility, prosperity, and more every-day concerns. Finally, there are deities who by nature occupy all cosmiclevels. The god Fire, for example, is the primary means of communicationbetween the human and divine realms. He either conducts the gods to thesacrifice or carries the offerings to the gods. The Heavenly River (knownunder a variety of names), flowing down from the heights of heaven to theearth, is, especially in Iran, a multivalent goddess who—perhaps becauseof her itinerary—shows personality traits characteristic of all cosmiclevels. In considering the cosmic associations of deities, I should like toemphasize, however, that the categories may be only approximations thatcan aid one's orientation, for one often finds that the situation presentedin the actual texts is too complicated to be amenable to all-too-simplisticschemes.

On the subject of cosmology, a few additional remarks are in order,although details will be covered in the introductions to the reading selec-tions. Myths about how the cosmos came to have the form it now has arenumerous, especially on the Indo-Aryan side. The multiplicity of explana-tions shows, if nothing else, that the Indo-Iranians probably possessed noone myth of creation, but were content with a variety of alternatives,without feeling a need for logical consistency. Common creation mythsprobably included at least the following themes: (1) creation through thedismemberment of a primordial giant, the cosmic man; (2) the incubation

Introduction 111

and hatching of the embryonic world from the cosmic egg; (3) the fashion-ing of the cosmos by an artisan or carpenter god; (4) creation by a herowho drives or holds apart heaven and earth; (5) creation by a powerfulbeing (d(h)dtar) who literally 'places' (d(h)a-) the cosmos in the void. InIranian religion (3) and (5) are the prevalent themes, and both feats areattributed to Ahura Mazda or one of his aspects.

Although the Indo-Iranians entertained a variety of theories about theorigin of the cosmos, they maintained fairly uniform ideas concerningcosmography, i.e., the structure of the cosmos once it had come intobeing. In addition to its inner tripartition, there is seen to exist a broaderduality of ordered being (cosmos) and nonordered being (chaos); cosmosarises, through whatever agency, out of chaos. Further, cosmos is like afortress surrounded by chaos, normally symbolized as the waters, some-times as darkness. There also occurs a vertical differentiation in chaos;that is, the waters surrounding the heavens are the source of Truth,whereas those in the nether regions below and around the earth areshrouded in darkness and are the source of the anticosmic principle ofFalsehood. This is not as peculiar as it may appear at first glance, sincethe human attitude toward the primordial, precosmic state naturally man-ifests itself in ambivalence. The reason is that chaos, pure undifferenti-ated being, contains the germs of all possibilities, for good as well as forevil. To the mystic who can transcend the finitude of the human condi-tion, pure being is the ultimate beatific goal of oneness beyond all oppo-sites. To the nonmystic, pure being is chaos, a state perceived with all itscontradiction as both terrifying and attractive. In mythico-cosmographicterms, such ambivalence finds expression in the vertical differentiation ofchaos.

I have mentioned that the cosmos was conceived of as a kind of for-tress. In the myths, the sky itself, the vault of heaven, is made of stone.The common Iranian word for the sky was as man (NPers asman, Vedasman) a word with the basic meaning of 'stone'. I have also mentionedthe lofty height of heaven. The gap separating "this earth" from "yonheaven," as the texts express it, is not unbridgeable. In addition to theintermediary of Fire, there also exists the cosmic mountain arising fromearth to heaven, the Mem of the Indians, called the Alburz (Av Hara-B3r3zaiti) by the Iranians. This mountain—actually a mountain range inthe case of the Alburz—partially mythological, partially homologizedwith real mountains, provides an important path of communication be-tween cosmic levels, an avenue both of transcendence for man and ofimmanence for the divine. As such, the cosmic mountain plays an essen-tial role in the system of cosmic hydrology. Although rain does figure inthe myths, the primary source of water for the Indo-Iranians was river

12 I Introduction

water. Its source was the cosmic ocean or sea, located in heaven. From itflowed a mighty river or rivers down the cosmic mountain to the earth tobecome various rivers. These flowed into the sea, from which they flowedback, in a manner that is unclear, into the heavenly ocean, so completingthe cycle. (See sects. 9, 12. 15, 16.)

It is a characteristic of Indo-Iranian cosmography that there is a gooddeal of confusion between it and actual geography. When reading texts,one is frequently not at all sure whether the text is referring to an actualmountain, river, or sea, or to a mythological one, or to both simultaneous-ly. For example, there are many references in the Avesta to theWouru.kasha sea. In some places it will appear obvious that it is thecosmic sea; in others, an actual sea (Aral? Caspian?) seems indicated.Sometimes one cannot discern which is meant. Part of this vagueness hasto do with the notion of sacred geography itself. Archaic peoples such asthe Indo-Iranians made their world a sacred world, one filled with reli-gious meaning, by investing geographic features with mythological con-tent. Thus the highest mountain would not be simply Mount So-and-So,but would be the cosmic mountain itself; rivers and seas were regarded inthe same way. In the case of nomadic peoples, geographic nomenclaturewas not absolute. That is, when a group moved to a new region, the newgeographical features were assigned the same associations as the old. Onecan easily observe this process as the Vedic Aryans progressed from thePunjab into the Doab, where, for example, the Ganges replaced the olderIndus (Sindhu) and Sarasvati as the cosmic river.

The duality of cosmos and chaos also had a far-reaching influence onthe ethical orientation of the Aryans. On the one hand, the dark, terrifyingaspect of chaos was viewed as an ever-present source of demonic forcesthat threatened cosmic order. Night was the special domain of demonswho issued forth from the nether regions of darkness beneath the earth. Inthe Avesta, demonic creatures commonly hide beneath the earth; in afamous Vedic myth, the god Indra casts the anticosmic demon Vrtradown into "long darkness" after having separated the cosmos (sat) fromchaos (asat). On the other hand, the concept of cosmos implied the idealof the real or true. In Vedic, the word used for 'cosmos' is sat, a neuternoun formed on the present participle of the verb 'to be' (as-). Its etymo-logical meaning is 'being', hence 'the real; the cosmos'. Its opposite, asat,is not absolute nonbeing, but rather nonbeing in the sense of 'nonorderedbeing; the unreal; chaos'. Although the duality sat-asat is not attested todirectly in Old Iranian religion, it is presupposed by one of the words for'true; truth', Av haithya, OPers hashya. Both of these correspond toOInd satya 'true; truth', literally, 'that which is related, that which cor-responds to the real (sat)'.

Introduction I 13

In addition to this word for 'truth', there existed another, partiallysynonymous word *rta (OInd rta, Av as ha, OPers (a)rta). The etymol-ogy of this word has been the subject of much dispute, but it probablyderives from a verb ar- 'to join'. Rta- is a neuter noun basically meaning'connection'.4 Like satya, rta- implies a "connection" with the real, withthe proper or characteristic order of things. As such it has two basicmeanings in Indo-Iranian: (1) 'truth'; (2) 'cosmic order'. Rta is perhapsthe most important concept in Aryan religion, since it embodies the basicprinciple by which the entire cosmos, physical as well as ethical, behaves.This highest principle was under the special care of the supreme heavenlydeity; in India this was Varuna, in Iran, Ahura Mazda. It was also closelyassociated with fire and had its seat in the heavenly waters. Because oftheir link with rta, both fire and water were employed in the solemnizingof oaths and the administration of ordeals. In the course of history, Vedicrta was soon replaced by the concept of dharma, while in Iran its activeusage persisted longer; but certainly by the late Achaemenid period, if notmuch earlier, it too fell into disuse in all but a formulaic way.

The concept of rta naturally implies its opposite. Vedic religion, whichis not exceptionally dualistic in outlook, made limited explicit use of thisopposite principle; Iranian religion, however, which developed an excep-tionally dualistic outlook, greatly exploited it. The principle opposingasha was not its simple negation (like Vedic anrta), but druj 'lie, false-hood, deceit'. It is essential to understand from the outset that Iranianreligion, especially Zoroastrianism, was founded on the idea of an all-inclusive ethical dualism. I shall return to the question of asha-druj short-ly in reference to the religion of Zarathushtra.

Many religions of the ancient world possessed in their mythologies theidea of generations of gods. The difficult question of the origin of the idealies beyond the scope of the present work. Let it suffice to observe thatIndo-Iranian religion seems also to have embraced this notion, althoughthe details are certainly obscure. Two groups of deities are encountered inthe Vedas and in the Avesta. They are the *asuras (OInd asura, Olrahurd) and the *daiwas or devas. The earliest parts of the Rgveda indicatethat the asuras are the older generation, while the devas are upstarts.Although they may show some signs of antagonism, the two groups coex-ist in a state of alliance against the common enemy, the anticosmic de-mons, variously called the danavas, dasas, and dasyus. In the latter partsof the Rgveda and especially in the Brahmanas, however, there is a cu-rious development: the asuras as a group (which includes among othersMitra and Varuna!) become the demons, whereas the devas emerge as thetrue gods. The antagonism between devas and asuras is one of the mostcommon themes of the later Vedic ritual literature, where the two groups

14 I Introduction

frequently fight with one another over the sacrifice. The preoccupation ofthe Vedic ritualists, who composed this literature, with this antagonismindicates that an essential aspect of the distinction between the twogroups of deities was the nature of their worship. That is, different formsof worship may have been performed for them. On the Iranian side, thesituation is generally reversed. All the texts, much later than the Rgveda,show an absolute dualism between ahura-daewa, so that the ahuric worldis aligned with Truth (Asha), while the daewic world is that of the Lie(Druj). Thus, for example, the great Vedic god Indra appears in the Aves-ta in the demonology of the Vendidad. About the only evidence for theproto-Indo-Iranian state of affairs is the fossilized Avestan phrase 'ofgods and men' (daewanam mashyanamca). In parts of Iran, notablyMazandaran and Sogdiana, daewa worship persisted into the Islamicperiod. As shall become clear in the discussion of Zarathushtra's religion,the reasons for the accommodation of the ahura-daewa opposition to thegeneral dualism are probably ritualistic.

There is an often-quoted statement of the Greek historian Herodotus tothe effect that the Persians do not erect statues, temples, and altars, andthat they consider those who do to be fools, for the reason that theirreligion is not anthropomorphic like the Greeks'.5 Like so much of Herod-otus' information, this observation contains some truth with an admixtureof inaccuracy. But the statement is generally valid for all of Aryan religionincluding the Vedas. The Aryans certainly constructed fire altars, butthere was no place in their religion for temples or icons. Major acts ofworship of the gods were accomplished through the performance of asacrifice, which in most cases required an animal victim. The word forsuch a ceremony, in Avestan yasna, in Old Indian yajna, derives from thecommon verbal root yaz-lyaj- 'to worship; to sacrifice'. The same verb,incidentally, is at the base of the normal Avestan word for 'god' yazata(lit. 'one worthy of worship or of sacrifice'). Since yaz- usually carries thebroader connotation of 'worship', especially with prayer, it is usuallytranslated as such even when sacrifice is involved.

To achieve a proper perspective on the nature and meaning of thesacrifice, one must first make the point that in Aryan society hospitality,its proper rites and observances, was a socio-ethical institution of primaryimportance. Now, the fundamental concept of Aryan worship is that oneinvites the desired deities as highly honored guests to a meal in theirhonor.6 A meal for an honored guest required more than the simple provi-sion of food. It was necessary to welcome the guest, to offer him refresh-ment after his long journey, to provide him a soft seat, to entertain himwith poetry and music, and, of course, to provide him with a fitting meal.Finally, hospitality itself was viewed as a kind of gift and, in addition, an

Introduction I 15

exchange of gifts would normally have taken place between host andguest. If properly treated, a guest was under a particular obligation toreturn the host's favor through a gift. It is clear, then, that the goal of thesacrifice was the reception of the deity's gift, the entire ceremony im-plying a quid pro quo arrangement often summarized by the Latin phrasedo ut des 'I give in order that you may give'. Although it is true that,outwardly, the sacrifice took the form of the rites of hospitality, whichinvolved the exchange of gifts, one should not get the impression that theceremony was viewed simply in terms of an everyday business transac-tion. It was also a time when the gods came down to earth and stayedamong men, an occasion for men to sit in the presence of the gods. To losesight of this important spiritual dimension is to reduce the very focal pointof the religion to a crass material exchange.

If one looks at the Avestan and Rgvedic literature from this perspec-tive, one quickly notices that much of it is in the form either of invoca-tions or invitations to the various deities or of laudatory poetry sung forand about the divine guest. One also observes that the host-worshipper'srequest for the obligatory gift of the god's boon is seldom omitted. It isimportant to keep in mind that Indo-Iranian hymns were composed notwith a human audience in mind, but a divine one. The hymns that praisethe gods by rehearsing their attributes and their mythological exploits areoften extremely confusing to modern readers. Almost never do they relatea myth in narrative style. Rather they present, in kaleidoscopic fashion,only isolated details or highlights of the mythology. Frustrating as it is tothe reader who would wish a clear narrative, the poets of the Avesta andthe Rgveda saw no reason to tell the story; after all, the gods knew theirown mythologies! The poets' goal was to allude to matters already knownto all, but to phrase them in new and artistically creative ways that wouldplease the divine guest.

The central deity of the sacrifice was the Fire (see sect. 14). He func-tioned as messenger between human and divine spheres. He carried theinvitations to the gods and either returned with them to the sacrifice or, onoccasion, conveyed the sacrifice to them. He was, in all cases, the in-termediary step in the offering of the victim in that the victim could not beoffered raw. Before the altar the sacrificer had to prepare a seat of softgrass for the god(s). This is the barssman of the Avesta, the barhis of theVedas (cf. Av barszish 'cushion'). In addition to the flesh or fat offering,the god was also given an invigorating drink to quench his thirst andrevive his spirits. This was the famous mixed drink of milk and *sauma(Av haoma, OInd soma), discussed in detail in sect. 13.

Although, as I believe, the yajna/yasna was originally a fairly simpleceremony, which any duly instructed household head could perform, in

16 I Introduction

time its performance became increasingly elaborate, especially in respectto the preparation of the sauma, until the ceremony became the exclusivedomain of religious specialists, an evolution that largely contributed to theestablishment of priesthoods in the respective societies.

Zarathushtrianism

It is partially against the religious background summarized in the preced-ing section that the figure of Zarathushtra must be seen. No prophet hasever emerged from a cultural or ideological vacuum. A prophet's creativ-ity, his ability to communicate a new revelation, rests on his familiaritywith his tradition and on his skill in interpreting that tradition. When onestudies the religious teachings of Zarathushtra, one's ability to understandhis often obscure pronouncements will depend on one's appreciation ofhis background.

Unfortunately, many of the facts concerning Zarathushtra's historicalcircumstances and his teachings are shrouded in obscurity. The full Sasa-nid Avesta apparently contained legends about his life and some of theseare recounted in the Pahlavi Denkard. Little credence can be given theseaccounts, however, since they belong to the genre of wonder-literature.Only a few hard facts can be retrieved from the Avesta, especially fromZarathushtra's own Gathas ('Songs'). A tentative biography may be givenas follows.

Zarathushtra spoke an archaic language, which, on the basis of compar-ative Iranian linguistics, can be assigned to the northeastern languagegroups exclusive of those farthest east on the Indo-Iranian frontier andthose north of the Oxus. Although this narrows down his geographicsphere of activity somewhat, it still leaves rather a vast area of his lifeopen to speculation. As I have already had occasion to mention, his datesare a matter for widely divergent opinion. One eminent scholar believesthat Zarathushtra was a Stone Age man living among nomadic Iraniantribes in northern Central Asia some time between 1700 and 1500 B.C., at atime before they had migrated south to Iran proper7; another equallyeminent scholar held, with equal conviction, that Zarathushtra was activein the quite civilized state of Chorasmia at the beginning of the sixthcentury B.C., at a time just preceding the formation of the Persian empireunder Cyrus the Great (559-529 B.C.).8 Obviously, one's assessment ofZarathushtra and the nature of his religious ideas will differ significantly,depending on where and when one places his life. And, if there is room forsuch widely incongruous opinions on the subject, one may well wonder

Introduction I 17

whether despair is the only alternative! The principal reason for posingthe early date for the prophet is the very archaic appearance of the Gathasin terms of both language and cultural reference. In linguistics, archaismdoes not necessarily imply greater antiquity, however, since for a varietyof reasons languages and dialects do not undergo change at a uniformpace. Glottochronology is thus a very insecure science. For example,since religions are conservative, changing only very slowly, religious orpriestly language tends to be archaic. An obvious example of this generaltendency is the continuing influence of "King James" English in Protes-tant Christianity throughout the English-speaking world. Zarathushtra,who was certainly trained as a priest, probably chose an archaic, hieraticform of his language in preference to the vernacular. A corollary to theuse of archaic language is often the retention of an anachronistic culturalframe of reference. Taking Christianity again as an example, it continuesto use the pastoral imagery of the Bible even in an age of urban industrialcivilization. To cite another example, the imagery of the IndianUpanisads is pastoral, yet it is known that these texts were composed inthe days of the early city-states of the Doab. If, then, Zarathushtra'sGathas are archaic, it may simply be the case that he was wont to employarchaic forms of speech and imagery. In favor of the late date forZarathushtra is the Zoroastrian (Sasanid) tradition that places him 258years before Alexander, that is, probably at the time of the defeat ofDarius III in 331 B.C. Although the traditional date should not beaccepted without question, especially when most other traditions of theprophet are so historically worthless, this date, unlike the extravagantGreek notion that Zoroaster lived six thousand years before Plato, isclearly not the product of a fanciful mythologization; furthermore, itmakes a good deal of sense in terms of the course of Iranian history in thesixth century. Therefore, I uphold the later date, in consequence of whichI shall interpret Zarathushtra's teachings and the evolution of Zoroas-trianism with reference to that date.

Zarathushtra was probably trained to be a priest. He refers to himself asa zaotar (cf. Ved hotar), the principal priest to officiate in the sacrifice(yasna), while the later tradition of the Young Avesta calls him an athra-wan 'priest'. He also refers to himself as a mathran 'one who composes orrecites sacred utterances' (mathra [Ved mantra}}. Some of the mathrasthat he produced, the Gathas or Songs, display a traditional Indo-European style of sacred composition the mastery of which requiredmuch training. His priestly profession was probably not thrust upon himby heredity; he evidently chose it, since his name and those of his fatherand a sole recorded ancestor would hardly qualify as priestly names. Hisfather's name was Pourushaspa, his ancestor Haecat.aspa, each contain-

18 I Introduction

ing the word aspa 'horse'. His own name contains the word for 'camel',ushtra. In addition, the word aspa is also contained in the names ofZarathushtra's royal patron Wishtaspa and of his son-in-law Jamaspa,while the word ushtra appears in his father-in-law's name Frashaoshtra.Zarathushtra's family name was Spitama (lit. 'who has brilliant (aggres-sive) strength').

Despite the obscurity of their content, the Gathas bear unmistakablewitness to the passionately personal relationship felt by Zarathushtra withhis god Ahura Mazda. The Gathas usually find Zarathushtra in intensedialogue with him. It was, no doubt, partially his religious zeal, partiallyhis visionary intellect, partially his drive to proselytize, which raisedZarathushtra from the anonymity of all his predecessors to a place inhistory as the prophet of what was destined to become the state religion ofIran and one of the most influential religions of the ancient world. Itappears that his initial efforts at spreading the word and winning supportfor his views in his homeland were met with stiff opposition and ultimate-ly failure. In one obscure stanza (Y. 46.1), Zarathushtra seems to bequestioning where he might go as a result of his being rejected or evenmade an outcast by the community. In any case, he often complains of hisweakness and his lack of cattle and men (Y. 46.2). When the Soul of theCow (gSush urwari) is told by Ahura Mazda that her protector is to beZarathushtra, she complains bitterly about the latter's weakness (Y.29.8-9). His principal enemies were men whom he identifies as kawis andkarapans. The latter, whose name means 'mumbler', were priests of somesort. The case of the kawis is not so clear. Since a common word for aVedic poet-seer is kavi, it would appear that the Iranian kawi was also apoet-seer. Matters are complicated, however, by the fact that kawi wasalso a princely title in eastern Iran, or at least in the house of Zarathush-tra's eventual patron, Wishtaspa. Zarathushtra attaches no pejorativeconnotation to the title kawi when it is applied to him. Kawi is, moreover,the name of a partially legendary dynasty (whose members will be en-countered in the reading selections) the last member of which was Wish-taspa. The reason for his being the last of the line is, incidentally, thatCyrus the Great probably brought it to an end in the course of his easterncampaigns. It remains a matter of conjecture whether the kawis to whomZarathushtra refers are religious opponents or hostile princes or both atonce. Be that as it may, Zarathushtra eventually found a patron, the kawiWishtaspa, who not only espoused the new faith but protected it andhelped propagate it by force of arms. Beyond these few facts little morecan be said about the prophet's life. Obviously, his religion prosperedgreatly once royal patronage had been secured, so much so that we mayassume that much of northeastern Iran soon confessed, on a superficial

Introduction I 19

level, the prophet's religion. How profound the reform he instituted waswill be discussed in the following section.

Any discussion of Zarathushtrianism must also begin with the conceptof the supreme deity, Ahura Mazda (see also sect. 2). As we shall see,there is a substantial body of evidence to show that a deity very much likeAhura Mazda was part of the Indo-Iranian religious tradition. He was asupreme creator who was especially concerned with 'Truth' (rta, asha),that is, the moral and physical order, and who could become an object ofintense personal relationship on the part of his worshipper. This inheriteddeity, the Wise Lord (the literal meaning of Ahura Mazda), far from beinga god of monotheistic devotion, stood at the head of a numerous panthe-on. Furthermore, he belonged to the class of gods known as asura (Irahura) 'lord'. While it is altogether unlikely that Zarathushtra inventedthe name Ahura Mazda, it would seem that he articulated a theology thatelevated Ahura Mazda to a status even more exclusive than the one hetraditionally enjoyed. It is a status that falls short of absolute monothe-ism, yet may be rightly called "qualified" monotheism, in that Zarathush-tra recognizes a plurality of "Wise Lords" (Y. 30.9, 31.4) as well as theso-called Entities or aspects of Ahura Mazda's personality.

In the previous section I had occasion to mention the Indo-Iranianpantheon and the distinction between 'truth' (rta) and 'falsehood' (Ilrdrugh, draughd). In the religion of Zarathushtra, these latent dualismshave become articulated into a dualism that sees the world as a battle-ground where the two ethical forces and their representatives contend. Itis probable that strong dualist tendencies were present in Old Iranianreligion before Zarathushtra, yet it was his genius to give a solid theo-logical foundation to them.

The dualism of Zarathushtra, in contradistinction to that of the YoungerAvesta and of orthodox Zoroastrianism of the Sasanid period, is notabsolute: that is, the opposing forces of Truth and Falsehood are notprimordial. They came into being, it would seem, as emanations or crea-tions of Ahura Mazda. As we shall soon learn, Ahura Mazda is sur-rounded by a group of beings, or 'Entities' (hatdm) as they are called,who appear to be emanations of aspects of his own personality. Drawingupon an ancient Indo-European myth of the Twins in whom life and deathoriginate, Zarathushtra elaborated his own variant whereby Ahura Mazdahad created two Spirits as twin brothers (ySma), Spanta Mainyu andAngra Mainyu, who were distinguished in mind, word, and deed, theformer as very good and the latter as bad (Y. 30.3). Together they estab-lished life and death. Although their very natures differed in every respect(Y. 45.2), the crucial distinction between the two lay in their exercise ofchoice, that is, free will. As Zarathushtra puts it, "Of the two Spirits, the

20 I Introduction

follower of the Lie chose the worst actions, the most beneficent (Spiritchose) Truth" (Y. 30.5). This original exercise of free will, even beforethe creation of the material world, remains paradigmatic for man. This isthe very essence of Zarathushtrianism. Man is endowed with free will andmust choose between Truth and Falsehood; his salvation or perditionrests solely on his choice. Furthermore, it is important to understand thatthe proper choice necessarily implies commitment to the Zoroastrian tril-ogy of "good thought, good speech, and good action." One who haschosen the life of Truth (Asha) is an ashawan 'righteous (man)' (lit.'Truth-possessor'); while one who has chosen the Lie (Druj) is a drug-want (lit. 'Lie-possessor').

Spanta Mainyu, the Beneficent Spirit, belongs also to the group ofEntities, which, in the post-Gathic literature, are called the AmashaSpdntas or Beneficent Immortals. Before discussing them individually, aclarification of the word spsnta is in order. Spanta is a technical religiousterm. Although its etymology has been much debated, it seems mostprobable that it is cognate with words in other Indo-European languagesthat mean 'holy'. Nevertheless, the Zoroastrian tradition shows that,irrespective of its etymology, spanta (as well as its other Avestan cog-nates) implies the notions of 'increase, increment, bounty, beneficence'.True to the Aryan heritage, Zoroastrianism has always been a life-affirming religion; it is worldly in outlook, seeing in a prospering world thetriumph of good over evil.

Scholars have tended to see as a model for Zarathushtra's creation ofthe Amasha Spsntas surrounding Ahura Mazda a group of Vedic deities,the Adityas, who surround, but also include, Varuna. Some even see inthem thinly disguised sublimations of the traditional deities supposedly•outlawed by Zarathushtra. The comparison with the Adityas is at bestvague and imprecise, however, while the sublimation theory is simplywrong. Rather than juggle deities around and assign them new, abstractnames, Zarathushtra seems to have developed a complicated theology ofAhura Mazda's aspects on the basis of key concepts of Old Iranian intel-lectual culture. This becomes clear when we look at the names of theseaspects. In addition to Spanta Mainyu, they are: Asha = Truth, WohuManah = Good Mind, Xshathra = Dominion, Armaiti = Devotion, Haur-watat = Wholeness, and Amsrdtat = Life.

Another dualism that is prominent in Zarathushtra's thought and main-tains its importance throughout the history of Zoroastrianism, is thatbetween matter and spirit. We must emphasize the point here that, unlikemost gnostic systems, which equate matter with evil and spirit with good,Zoroastrianism has never known such a dualism. The material world isthe creation of Ahura Mazda or of his creative aspect Spsnta Mainyu. As

Introduction I 21

such it was originally good. Unfortunately, however, it also containsdemons (daewas) and noxious creatures (xrafstras), which are the crea-tion of the Evil Spirit, Angra Mainyu. In human terms, evil is always aproduct of will, never of nature.

Not only was Zarathushtra a religious thinker and poet, but also aritualist through and through. It will be remembered that he was a priest(zaotar) by profession. As in matters of theology, so in ritual, Zarathush-tra instituted a reform of older practices. Precisely what these reformswere is again the subject of much disagreement among scholars, owing, asalways, to the obscurity of the Gathas. There is general agreement on twopoints. One is that Zarathushtra emphasized in the extreme the differ-ences in ritual accorded the daewas and the ahuras. As already noted, inthe later Vedic literature of the Brahmanas, the devas (gods) and theasuras (demons) are in a state of perpetual strife over the sacrifice (yajna).From Zarathushtra's point of view the daewas were the demons. Toworship them, to perform sacrifices appropriate to them, was to promotethe Lie and all it represented. The Gathas never state specifically who thedaewas are. The Younger Avesta is quite vague on the subject, since itsdemonology embraces mostly abstract entities (Pollution, Stupor, and thelike), some monsters, and three figures who correspond to Vedic devas,namely, Indra, Ndnghaithya (corresponding to the twin Nasatyas), andSaurwa (= Ved Sarva, a form oiRudra-Siva). One can only guess that thedaewas included certain members of the traditional pantheon plus demon-ic beings in general. If Old Iranian worship included the inherited class ofdaiwas we can easily understand the resistance that Zarathushtra's re-forms encountered. The second point on which there is agreement is thatwhat he objected to in particular was the violent manner in which thedaewa worshippers sacrificed animals, especially cattle. It must be under-stood that he did not oppose animal sacrifice; Zoroastrianism, exceptunder pressure from Hinduism and Hinduized Parsis, has always counte-nanced animal sacrifice. In Zarathushtra's eyes, the cow was a sacredanimal, and in his religion the Soul of the Cow (Gdush Urwan; see Yasna29) was the prototype of all ahuric animal creation. The extreme sense ofsacredness attaching to the cow made it necessarily the object of solici-tous care, but did not exempt it from sacrifice.

Much controversy surrounds Zarathushtra's attitude toward the drinkhaoma (see sect. 13). In a somewhat unclear passage, he condemns "thepiss of this drunkenness" in connection with the karapans and misrule.Many have assumed that this cannot possibly refer to anything other thanhaoma. In favor of the argument is the fact that haoma, or rather soma,was particularly important to Vedic Indra, a deva duly demonized in theVendidad. Against it is the entire history of Zoroastrianism, in which the

22 / Introduction

central ritual, the yasna, is essentially a haoma sacrifice. How could it bepossible for followers of Zarathushtra's teachings unashamedly toespouse a practice that their prophet so roundly condemned? Clearly,they did not. The proper conclusion to make is that "the piss of thisdrunkenness" must refer to something else.

The conflict between the two principles, Truth and the Lie, was man-ifest on a number of levels. It had its origin in the myth of the Twins. As aresult of the choices made by these two Spirits, their respective creationscame into conflict. On one level, the conflict is the struggle betweendaewas and ahuras over the ritual. On another level, the mundane level,the conflict manifests itself in human choice; in concrete reality, thechoice is made empirically. That is to say, one can observe from people'sbehavior which side they are on. Nothing is more natural than to numberone's enemies among the demonic creatures, those who have chosen theLie or were created by the Evil Spirit. Zarathushtra judged his personalenemies in this manner, but, more importantly, he also saw the cosmicconflict in sociopolitical terms. On the one hand, Zarathushtra cham-pioned the cause of peaceful, ordered pastoralist life. On the other hand,such life was constantly threatened by barbarous nomadic peoples led bythe demon Wrath (Aeshmd) who raided and plundered the settled folk.This conflict, which has plagued Iran throughout its history, was to be-come more fully articulated as that between Iran and Turan, that is,between civilized man and the northern barbarians.

A final element of Zarathushtra's religion was eschatology. It is difficultto judge on the basis of the Gathas just how far he had developed his ideason the subject, yet it appears that he had already formulated at least thegerminal concept of "last things." Later Zoroastrianism was to formulatean eschatological system in which Judaic messianism probably found itsoriginal inspiration. Zarathushtra was a realist in the sense that he focusedon the here-and-now. He often refers to the rewards of the righteous andof the iniquitous in terms of immediate signs. His belief in the power ofAhura Mazda was such that he did not envisage a perpetual situation inwhich the wicked prospered while the righteous suffered. He did have aconcept, though, of savior figures, whom he called Saoshyants and amongwhom he numbers himself. The Saoshyants were clearly seen as promot-ers of the good religion of Ahura Mazda, who were to lead the communityof the faithful to immanent victory over the forces of the Lie. He alsobelieved in a second or future life in which the rewards not realized in lifewould be obtained after the day of judgment. The final judgment of thedeparted souls took place at the Bridge of Judgment (Cinwato parstu).Those who cross safely, because of their good deeds, proceed to theirreward in heaven. The others, however, fall into darkness where men wail

Introduction I 23

and gnash their teeth, or, in Zarathushtra's words, into "a long life ofdarkness, bad food, (and)) lamentation" (Y. 31.20).

The Zarathushtrian community must well have expected the "marve-lous" (fsrashd) transformation of existence to be accomplished soon.When this did not happen and the world continued in its sinful ways, atheological reassessment must have taken place. Instead of an immanentestablishment of Ahura Mazda's dominion on earth, Zoroastrians came toexpect the fulfillment of their religion at the end of time: a novel conceptin itself. A theory of world ages was developed accompanied by a doc-trine of successive Saoshyants (born of Zarathushtra's miraculously pre-served semen), culminating in the final Saoshyant, who would appear atthe end of history in the final triumph of Ahura Mazda over the Evil Spirit.

Zoroastrianism

Apart from the translations of Achaemenid inscriptions and the Gathas,the present anthology draws almost exclusively upon the texts of Zoroas-trianism, that is, the eclectic religion that evolved in Iran after Zarathush-tra's reform of Old Iranian religion. Since much of this material is ana-lyzed in the introductions to the individual selections, my remarks herecan be brief. Nevertheless, a certain overview will be necessary for anunderstanding of subsequent discussions and of the texts themselves.

There are a number of problems concerning the nature of post-Zarathushtrian religion. By far the most complex problem is the processby which a reform movement in northeastern Iran became the basis for apan-Iranian religion under the later Achaemenids. Chronologically, ourpoint of departure is not so much the death of the prophet as the supposedfall of eastern Iran, including Wishtaspa's realm, to Cyrus the Great(559-529 B.C.) around the middle of the sixth century B.C. Once all of Iranhad been united under a powerful central authority, conditions for easycommunication throughout the empire were established in order to facili-tate the administration of so vast a territory. The new channels of com-munication also made travel easier. This in turn led to the possibility ofincreased cultural exchange. The Persian army itself was composed ofcontingents from throughout the empire. Merchants and craftsmen weredrawn to the capital from as far away as Ionia and India. There can belittle doubt that zealous followers of Zarathushtra seized the opportunityto spread the "good religion" throughout the empire, and, it would not beoverly rash to surmise that, just as Zarathushtra had seen his religionprosper under royal patronage, so his followers must have sought the

24 I Introduction

favor of the new royal house. Unfortunately, this is all speculation, forthere is not one shred of evidence to indicate what really happened.

The hypothesis that Zarathushtrian missionaries were at work in theempire and that they particularly sought Achaemenid patronage appearsto gain some substance when we examine the religious ideas of theAchaemenid kings, beginning with Darius I (522-486 B.C.). Althoughthere is disagreement among scholars as to whether or not Darius was aconvert to Zarathushtrianism, we can at least affirm that the ideas hepropounds in the course of his inscriptions are remarkably close to thoseof Zarathushtra. Although he grudgingly mentions "the other gods (baga)who are," he is otherwise devoted solely to the worship of Ahuramazda,often in intensely personal terms. He repeatedly singles out the Lie(draugd) as the cause of evil, especially of social and political chaos.However, he nowhere mentions Truth (arta), nor the daiwas nor theAmasha Spantas nor Zarathushtra. If he were a convert, would he not belikely to include these matters among his religious concerns? Although anoblique reference to daiwa worship may be implied in Darius' statementthat "the Scythians were unruly and did not worship Ahuramazda," it isonly his heir Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) who condemns their worship in hisfamous Daiwadana inscription (see sect. 2). The main question here, towhich there is no definitive answer, is whether Ahura Mazda was thecreation of Zarathushtra or already a pan-Iranian deity. By the time ofArtaxerxes II (404-359 B.C.), it seems that the eclectic Zoroastrian reli-gion (not Zarathushtrianism) has been accepted as the official religion ofthe empire. Again, there is no conclusive evidence for this; Artaxerxesmentions Mithra and Anahita in his inscriptions, however, and is said tohave encouraged the worship of the latter through her images, which hesent throughout the empire. It is also possible that a calendar reform wasinstituted during his reign, which substituted the names of Zoroastriandeities for the older month names. Furthermore, during his reign theGreeks first became aware of Zoroaster.

Closely linked to the question of missionary activities in western Iran isthat of the position of the Magi. According to a notice in Herodotus,9 theywere a tribe of Median priests whose presence seems to have been re-quired at all religious ceremonies, where they recited what the Greekhistorian calls "theogonies," no doubt Yasht-like hymns. Because of amagian plot to wrest the kingship from Darius, these powerful priests fellinto extreme disfavor at the beginning of the latter's reign. The weakenedstatus of the Magi may well have given Zoroastrians an easy foothold inthe western part of the Persian empire. Nevertheless, the Magi neverceased to exert their influence, and their fame spread far and wide in theancient world. Even Zoroaster himself was considered a Magus by the

Introduction I 25

Greeks. Another of the many unresolved questions is the role the Magiplayed in the formation of Zoroastrianism as manifested in the YoungerAvesta. Positive evidence of their influence is almost nil, however. In thefirst place, they are mentioned only once (Y. 65.7) in what appears to be alater interpolation in an already tardive text. Secondly, with few excep-tions (see the commentaries to Aradwi Sura Anahita and to Tishtrya,sects. 9 and 12), the Younger Avesta is exclusively eastern Iranian inlanguage and content. Even a casuistic text like the Vendidad, which isoften ascribed to Magian composers, contains not a single reference to theMagi or to western Iran, though the Hellenistic Greek system of measure-ment is used. On the other hand, the composition of the Younger Avestais such that one cannot escape the conclusion, I believe, that it is mostlythe redaction of older materials by people who poorly understood thelanguage of the original. If, as is commonly thought, the oldest redactiontook place some time during the fifth century B.C., what better candidatesare there for this work than the Magi, whose language was quite differentfrom Avestan?

Despite their obscurity, the Gathas bear the unmistakable mark of awell-conceived system of thought. Just the opposite is true of the YoungerAvesta. Whatever it has gained in lucidity, it has lost in coherence. It isopenly eclectic. The Old Iranian religion that Zarathushtra sought to re-form appears thinly disguised as the religion of the prophet. Everywhereone encounters the clumsy device of introducing non-Zarathushtrianmaterials as revelations made to Zarathushtra by Ahura Mazda. A typicalexample is the opening stanza of the Yasht to Mithra where "AhuraMazda said to Zarathushtra . . . " What he said, namely that he createdMithra equal to himself, would have been an outrage to Zarathushtra. Theentire remainder of the hymn is a collection of material about Mithrawhich largely ignores Zarathushtra and Ahura Mazda. How is one toexplain this perplexing about-face?

I offer the following explanation, which, it must be understood, isnecessarily conjecture. In order to reckon with the fact that eastern Ira-nian religion throughly dominated Zoroastrianism, we must assume thatbefore its full impact had been felt in the West, Zarathushtrianism hadalready made a grand accommodation with the old religion to the extentthat most of the deities, together with their hymns, were accepted into thereligion, all nominally subordinate to Ahura Mazda. The reason for thelarge-scale compromise of Zarathushtra's teaching was probably one ofpolitical and religious necessity. The policy of the Achaemenids on reli-gious diversity was one of tolerance, as, for example, in their treatment ofJews. Under these conditions the Zarathushtrian movement must havesoon come to terms with the reality that the way to growth and power was

26 I Introduction

not uncompromising antagonism, but accommodation. Once the gods ofthe old religion were sanctioned, people would have been far more recep-tive to Zarathushtrian doctrines, which did not outrage traditional piety.After having consolidated their position in the East, especially in Seistan,and bringing with them a sizable mass of texts in the sacred Avestanlanguage, the Zoroastrians moved to the West, i.e., Media and Persis. Asthey gained royal favor, the Magi, out of an instinct for survival, con-verted, and in time they became a dominant force. Since Zoroastrianismalready possessed a sacred language, Median and Old Persian had to beabandoned and the Avestan scriptures learned. Evidently, Avestan wasnever well understood and fell into disuse in its new geographical setting.This accounts for the patchwork nature of many of the Yashts and othertexts, as well as the terribly inept handling of the language in texts such asthe Vendidad, which must have been substantially composed in Arsacidtimes.

Before passing on to the texts themselves, I shall outline briefly thenature of the literary sources for old Iranian religion and then consider insome detail the problems of textual criticism.

Old Iranian Religious Literature

There are two indigenous sources for Old Iranian religion. The mostimportant is the Zoroastrian canon known as the Avesta. Its content isentirely religious. The other source is the corpus of Achaemenid inscrip-tions in the Old Persian language. As royal inscriptions, their purpose islargely political and propagandistic, yet most of these inscriptions make atleast some reference to religious matters, while some treat of religion inconsiderable detail. The present work includes materials from both. Inaddition, there are many Zoroastrian works in a Middle Persian dialectcalled Book-Pahlavi that purport to be translations of lost Avestan texts.Translations of these translations are not included here for the reason thatmost of them appear to be quite late works reflecting a period of religioushistory belonging to the Arsacid and the Sasanid periods; of those thatseem to preserve ancient materials, the absence of the original texts hasserved as a deterrent for inclusion.

According to Zoroastrian texts written in the ninth century A.D., wellafter the advent of Islam, but at a time when the religious community stillenjoyed some strength, the canon, called Avesta 'traditional, authorita-tive text', consisted of an immense corpus containing twenty-one divi-sions (Nasks). The summary of the Nasks given in the ninth-centuryDenkard shows that the Sasanid Avesta contained a wide variety of texts

Introduction I 27

covering such categories as the original Songs (Gathas) of Zarathushtra,liturgies, and a host of priestly instructions and materials, extensive trea-tises on scholastic learning and law, and miscellaneous material includingthe Yashts. Because of the vicissitudes suffered by Zoroastrians in Iran,as well as by those who found refuge in India during the succeedingcenturies, the once glorious Sasanid Avesta was lost. All that remains of ittoday is a fragment containing texts primarily of importance to ritual.Despite the fact that the Avesta became only a ritual prayer book, itcontains a surprising wealth of ancient literary material, as well as muchthat has little to recommend it to either students of religion or of litera-ture. Since the present anthology contains only those selections from theAvesta known as the Yasna, the Yashts, and the Vendidad, we shall limitour discussion to these.

As its name implies, the Yasna (Worship) contains the texts recitedduring the performances of the yasna. It is made up of some seventy-twosections of diverse style, origin, and content. Many of them are little morethan long invocation lists; others, like those to Horn and Srosh, are reallyYashts, which found their place in the Yasna due to ritual considerations,and still others contain spells. By far the most important are a group of theseventeen Gathas, which, except for one (Yasna 53), were composed byZarathushtra himself. These have been discussed already in reference tothe religion of Zarathushtra.

The Yashts are a collection of twenty-one hymns to various deities.Some preserve very ancient specimens of Old Iranian religious literaturewhile others are recent compilations of little religious value and certainlyno literary merit. They have been discussed in greater detail in respect toZoroastrianism.

The Vendidad, a work composed in faulty Avestan and of almost noliterary merit is nonetheless an invaluable source of information aboutnumerous matters of religious law, rituals, geography, and myth.

Beyond the heterogeneity of its content lies the problem of the varietyof language used in the composition of the Avesta. Two dialects, Gathicand Young Avestan, can be distinguished. Of these, Gathic is in a numberof ways the more archaic. Young Avestan itself shows varying historicallevels. The so-called great Yashts, for instance, provide frequent exam-ples of what one might call good Avestan, while the minor Yashts (e.g.,Yasht 1) and texts like the Vendidad exemplify a degenerate state of thelanguage, a dead, poorly understood ecclesiastical language. In certaincases like that of the Nirangistan (a ritual text), the language (aided bycorrupt manuscript tradition) has often degenerated to the point of beingunintelligible. Young Avestan texts, no matter how archaic much of theircontent may be, have not escaped the clumsy hand of latter-day redac-tors.

Textual Criticism

The primary source material for all the great world religions is textual. Tobe sure, texts can often be supplemented with relevant archaeologicalremains, works of art, and the like, but in every instance the real data ofthe religion resides in its texts. Texts vary a great deal, not only fromreligious tradition to religious tradition, but also within one and the sametradition. A large number of factors may contribute to the variety andheterogeneity of a religion's textual tradition. Obvious examples are: (1) atext may contain many historical layers representing centuries of compila-tion; (2) different parts of a text may have been composed by differentpeople with different opinions, interests, and stylistic modes of expres-sion; (3) the subject matter itself usually dictates changes in style: e.g., aprophetic section of text will be radically different from a legalistic one,an apocalyptic work will differ from a theological tract, etc.; (4) the in-tended audience will also call for different subjects and styles; that is, agod will hardly be interested in hearing the same things that a prospectiveconvert or a backslider will want to hear. Before one can begin to read atext intelligently, one must be able to place the text in a proper context, todiscern its historical position, its authorship, its intention, and so on. Themost frequent errors made in the field of comparative religion are thoseborn of an imperfect appreciation of the problems of textual criticism.Texts cannot simply be read and compared indiscriminately.

One's knowledge of ancient languages is different from that of modernones, in that one has, in most cases, no live informants, native speakers,whom one can question regarding the meaning of words or syntacticstructures. If the corpus of extant literature is vast enough, the textsthemselves can become their own informants. When a literature is rathernarrowly circumscribed, however, one can be confronted with all sorts ofwords and peculiarities of syntax that have no convenient source of elu-cidation. Another vexing problem is that most texts, with the exception ofrock-cut inscriptions, cuneiform tablets, and the like, have endured a longhistory of transmission from generation to generation, usually in the formof manuscript copies, sometimes even in an oral tradition. As the historyof transmission lengthens, the opportunity for error naturally increases.Often a philologist will be confronted with many manuscripts of a singletext, all of which may differ significantly from one another. The point tobe understood here is that a religious text is a fragile document whoseliteral interpretation itself may be difficult.

Introduction I 29

As one turns to consider the Avesta in particular, one can say at theoutset that it presents one of the most opaque texts of all the world'sreligious literature. This fact is due to its language, mode of composition,and abysmal state of preservation.

Like Western Europe or the Indian subcontinent or Southeast Asiatoday, ancient Iran, encompassing the modern states of Iran proper,Afghanistan, parts of Iraq, Pakistan, and Soviet Central Asia, was an areaof cultural unity amid wide diversity. Although the Achaemenid empire,founded by Cyrus the Great, did much to unify the many peoples who,like their Indian relatives, called themselves Aryas, its monarchs werealways 'king of kings' (OPers xshayathya xshayathyanam, NPers shahanshah). To the present day, cultural and linguistic regionalism has con-tinued to play a decisive role in Iranian history. For the ancient periodwith which I am concerned, only three different languages are attested toeven though Iranian linguistics indicates a far more complex situation.These languages are: (1) Old Persian, known primarily through theAchaemenid inscriptions, and spoken in the southwestern region of Parsa(Persis); (2) Median, a language spoken in the northwestern region ofMada (Media); and (3) Avestan, the religious language of the Avestapreserved in the two dialects, Gathic and Young Avestan. It is not knownfor certain just where these dialects were spoken, but it is plain from boththeir linguistic form and the cultural-geographic references that they werenative to eastern Iran, though probably not so far east as the Pamirs andthe Hindu Kush.

It is impossible to date the Avesta with any degree of accuracy. Asmentioned above, the dates for Zarathushtra's life are the subject ofheated debate. Some hold that he was a contemporary of the Vedic rsis,which would place him in the second half of the second millennium B.C.Others argue that he was active at the beginning of the sixth century B.C.(see p. 16). Wherever the truth lies, everyone now agrees that he cannothave lived much beyond the first decades of the sixth century, that is,before the rise of the Achaemenid empire. The situation with the YoungerAvesta is exceedingly confused in that it contains much material that isvery ancient, but in its present form has to be the work of redactors,priests who compiled an often eclectic mixture of inherited traditions,Zoroastrian "theology," and Magian casuistry. Scholars believe that theredactions of the oldest portions of the Younger Avesta took place sometime during the last half of the fifth century B.C. In any case, the composi-tion (not redaction) of the older sections, especially the great Yashts,belongs to a time prior to the rise of the Achaemenids. Crucial in all of thisis that the Indo-Iranians did not know any script. They were illiterate inthe sense that all their rich literature was oral. The first uses of writing in

30 I Introduction

both India and Iran were in the areas of commerce and government. Thepriesthood and literati especially had nothing but scorn for the writtenword. In the Achaemenid empire, written business was carried out, not inOld Persian, whose cuneiform script was invented only for formal inscrip-tions, but rather in the Semitic Aramaic language or in Elamite. The firstscript used for an eastern Iranian language was the Greek alphabetadapted to the Bactrian language of the first or second century A.D.Therefore, one can be absolutely sure that Avestan originally had noscript, its literature being passed on orally from generation to generation.

The next question is, "When was the Avesta first put into writing?"There is a tradition current in the Pahlavi books of the ninth century A.D.that prior to the "evil rule of Alaksandar the Roman" (i.e., Alexander theGreat) the entire Avesta existed, written in gold upon ox hides and kept inthe archives at Istaxr. These Alexander burned. Although the Pahlavibooks are ambiguous, it seems that a second redaction of the Avestaconsisting of a written text only took place as late as the middle of thesixth century A.D. under the patronage of the great Sasanid king XusrouI. For this a new script was invented, based on the contemporary Pahlaviscript. Two points are to be made here. First, the story of the ox hides canbe given little historical credence, in that it is an obvious piece of apolo-getics calculated to show the Muslims that Zoroastrianism was genuinelya Religion of the Book. Secondly, although there is internal evidence tosupport the idea that some form of the Avesta written in a Semitic scriptexisted prior to the Sasanid text, not a single remnant of this hypotheticaltext exists. It would be idle to speculate about its antiquity or even itsprecise form or content. The compilation of the Sasanid Avesta wasprobably based on both oral traditions and upon whatever written mate-rials there were.

After the ninth century, the history of Zoroastrianism is rather sad. Anoppressed, albeit tolerated, minority, the Zoroastrian community fell onhard times. During the early part of the tenth century, a group emigratedfrom Xorasan to the western Indian state of Gujarat, where they becamethe so-called Parsis. Under conditions of poverty and backwardness, thetextual tradition suffered terribly. Manuscripts were lost, and copies werebungled. It was only Western orientalism and the vastly improved socialand economic position of the Indian Parsis under the British Raj thatsaved the Zoroastrian textual tradition from inevitable destruction. Thesituation today is that, although there are numerous Avestan manuscripts,the earliest goes back only to the fourteenth century.

Because of these developments, the Avesta, such as it comes to ustoday, is a battered fragment of what one can imagine to have existed in,say, the fifth century B.C. In many ways it is a wonder that this great relic

Introduction 131

of Iran's ancient religious heritage has been preserved. One is also in aposition to appreciate how difficult it is to interpret such a text. To beginwith, one's most basic understanding of the language of the text is oftenimperfect, owing primarily to the poor manuscript tradition, but also toother problems inherent in the interpretation of ancient texts. Then one isconfronted with a host of problems concerning dating, relative chronolo-gy, authorship, and authenticity. Somehow weathering this storm of dif-ficulties, however, one may hope to proceed onward to a deeper under-standing of its religious and symbolic content.


Reading Selections


1. Zarathushtra

The Cow's Lament (Yasna 29)Probably the best known and in many ways the most interesting of the

Gathas is the so-called "Cow's Lament," (Yasna 29). In the form ofdramatic dialogue it expresses the suffering of the Cow at the hands of theforces of the Lie. She cries out to Ahura Mazda and the other Ahuras(i.e., the Amssha Spontas) for an explanation of her wretched condition.In particular, she despairs over her abandonment, her lack of an adequateherdsman for her protection. After some discussion born of indecision,since the Ahuras seem unable to find her a proper protector, Zarathushtrais recognized as the only one fit for the job. The choice of Zarathushtra isless than pleasing to the Cow, who regards him as a weakling. She mustmake do with Zarathushtra, however, and the Gatha ends with an incon-clusive prayer for the granting of power to Zarathushtra.

The Gatha is difficult to understand in detail for a variety of reasons.One of the most obvious problems is that the dialogue is so complex thatone cannot be sure in many cases who is speaking or, for that matter, whois being spoken to. One must assume that the narrator, who introducesthe discourse in sts. 1, 2, 6, and 9, is Zarathushtra himself. It is also clearthat in these stanzas the Cow, the Fashioner of the Cow, and AhuraMazda speak. In regard to the remaining stanzas, matters are notas straightforward. St. 3 is so obscure that almost nothing certain canbe said about it, though one might assume that the speaker is Truth(Asha), who is questioned in st. 2. St. 4 could well be a continuation of st.3, but it makes more sense to see it and st. 5 as issuing from Zarathushtra,who takes up the narration again in st. 7. To the latter is appended aquestion probably directed to Ahura Mazda. St. 8 is persumably spokenby Good Mind (Wohu Manah). The final two stanzas are again spoken byZarathushtra. With the help of this outline, one can see that the Gathatakes place in the context of the two supplicants, the Cow and Zarathush-tra, on the one hand, and the divine Ahuras, on the other; and, further,

35

36 I Zarathushtra

that there is dialogue not only between these two levels of being but alsoamong the Ahuras themselves.

The identity of the Fashioner of the Cow (Gsush tashan) is not com-pletely certain. Historically he probably derives from the Indo-Iranianfigure of the Artisan, known in the earlier parts of the Rgveda as Tvastrand in the Avesta as Thvorsshtar (see st. 6), while within Zarathushtra'stheological system he has been transformed into Spsnta Mainyu, thecreative aspect of Ahura Mazda, without ever completely losing his inde-pendence. The fact that Zarathushtra almost always (except in Y. 51.7)preserves the traditional nomenclature for this figure, instead of subsum-ing him completely under the Amasha Spsnta, gives the immediate im-pression that the "Cow's Lament" is based somehow on inherited tradi-tion, that it is not simply Zarathushtra's creation. That this is the case hasbeen shown by several scholars, most comprehensively, however, by B.Lincoln.10 According to Lincoln, the Indo-Iranians were the unique pos-sessors of a myth of the "Bovine's Lament," which, existing as an elab-oration of the more widespread Indo-European myth of the cattle raid,dramatized the conflict between warriors and priests over rightful posses-sion of cattle. In the myth (obviously a priestly creation) the Cow com-plains to the deities about her mistreatment at the hands of warrior raidingparties. The deities take counsel and subsequently decide to entrust theCow to a priest, who becomes the legitimate owner of cows and so of theirproducts, essential in the ritual service of the gods. I find myself in agree-ment with Lincoln as to the origin of the "Bovine's Lament" in thecontext of the Aryan pastime, cattle raiding; yet I cannot accept theremainder of the reconstruction as involving a class struggle. In the caseof the Indian evidence dealing with Vasistha (the priest) and Visvamitra(the warrior), the theme of caste conflict is obvious; yet, appearing as itdoes in the Rdmdyana epic, could the myth not equally well be an Indo-Aryan reinterpretation along caste lines? When one turns to the Iranianevidence (including Yt. 10.38, sts. 84-86; see sect. 3), one finds that cattleraiders are indeed active, yet the element of class conflict is inconspic-uous. The reason for this is that cattle raiding, though carried on byfighting men, was something that an entire community ultimately partici-pated in and benefitted from. Since there is no evidence that priestsformed their own communities independent of warriors, the idea that theIndo-Iranian myth portrayed a situation of warrior groups stealing fromunarmed priests who had no other recourse than the gods and their ownmagic is hard to accept. In fact, if I read Y. 29.9 correctly, the Cow notonly despairs at having a priest to look after her, but also anticipates apowerful ruler who will back Zarathushtra, a figure realized in the personof his eventual patron, Wishtaspa.

Zarathushtra I 37

Until recent years there has been general agreement that, along broadlines, the "Lament of the Soul of the Cow" is an allegorical portrayal ofthe conflict of two ways of life and religion in eastern Iran, and ofZarathushtra's struggle to establish his religious way of life. Zarathushtra,the Soul of the Cow, and the Ahuras represent a peace-loving, sedentaryform of agriculture in which animal husbandry played an important role.Pitted against them are the wild, lawless nomads and persistent followersof the old ways, all worshippers of the Daewas. On this level, the conflictis one that recurs at different historical moments throughout Iranian his-tory. The conflict is essentially sociological. On another level, the conflictis seen as not so much sociological as religious, and specifically ritualistic.That is, the daewas who have chosen Falsehood perform violent, orgias-tic, and bloody sacrifices, whereas Zarathushtra and the followers ofTruth respect the Cow, treating her in a ritually proper manner. Againstthis more commonplace interpretation, another theory has been gainingcurrency in recent discussions by S. Insler11 and H.-P. Schmidt,12 name-ly, that the Cow in the Gathas has little to do with "the cow in themeadow" who is threatened by cattle raiders and cruelly sacrificed by evilpriests; rather she is an allegorical figure representing religious vision, thedaena. The theory gains some support from the Rgveda, where on occa-sion the cow (dhenu or gav) is undoubtedly used as a metaphor for poetryor poetic vision (dhi). It also allows one to make sense of some ratherrecondite Gathic verses. Unlike the Rgveda, however, the Gathas nevermake the equation gaw = daena (also from the root d(h)i) explicit. Con-sidering the over-all obscurity of these texts, this fact leaves one hesitantto journey further into the unknown. It may well be that, as Schmidthopes, further research will establish the theory on firmer ground, but fornow it should be maintained only as an hypothesis, which should notdivert one from trying to understand Zarathushtra's message in moreconcrete terms. For example, is anything to be gained by searching out ahidden meaning in Ahura Mazda's clear statement in st. 6 that "theArtificer fashioned thee for the husbandman and herdsman"?

To sum up, then, one may say that the "Cow's Lament" is based on anancient mythic theme of the Cow's suffering at the hands of raiders.Zarathushtra has reworked the myth to reflect his perception of the world,a world where the peace-loving followers of Ahura Mazda are pittedagainst foes who practice cattle raiding. Although the conclusion can bedrawn from other Gathic contexts that the daewas required ritual treat-ment of the Cow, abhorrent to Zarathushtra, this element is not apparentin the "Lament." Further, one must entertain the possibility that forZarathushtra the theme of the "Cow's Lament" was to be understood ona spiritual as well as this more mundane level. Here the myth has become

38 I Zarathushtra

an allegory for the vicissitudes suffered by the righteous man's soul in itsquest for the "good vision."

Yasna 291. The Soul of the Cow lamented to you: For whom have you deter-

mined me? Who fashioned me? Wrath and Violence, Harm, Daring,and Brutality (each) have bound me! I have no other pastor than you—so appear to me with good husbandry!

2. Then the Fashioner of the Cow asked Asha (Truth): Hast thou a ratu*for the Cow such that you are able to give him, together with a herds-man, zeal for fostering the Cow? Whom do you want as a lord for her,who, hostile toward Liars, may repel Wrath?

3. [Obscure.]4. Mazda is most mindful of the declarations which have been made

previously (?) by gods (daewas) and men and those which shall be madeafterward (?), (for) he is the decisive Lord. Thus may it be for us as hemay will!

5. Thus we both are calling out to the Lord with outstretched hands, my(soul) and the Soul of the pregnant Cow, in order that we may address(?) Mazda with questions. (For, as matters now stand,) there is nopossibility of) continuing life for the righteously living husbandman(residing) among Liars.

6. Then Ahura Mazda, knowing, spoke (these) words through his life-breath (?): Not one (of us) has found an ahu, nor even a ratu in accord-ance with Truth. So, indeed, the Artificer fashioned thee for the hus-bandman and the herdsman.

7. Ahura Mazda, in agreement with Asha, fashioned the mathra of (?)(from?) butter and (also) milk for the Cow, he (who) through (his)commandment is beneficial for those who are undernourished (?).

Whom dost thou have (for us) through Good Mind, who will give ustwo to men?

8. Here I have found this one who alone listens to our commandments,Zarathushtra the Spitamid. He wants, O Mazda, to recite hymns ofpraise for us and Asha, if I should bestow on him sweetness of speech.

9. The Soul of the Cow lamented: Must I suffer a powerless caretaker—the speech of a man without strength—whom I wish to be a powerfulruler? When ever shall he come to exist who can give him a helpinghand?

*Meanings of untranslated terms are given in the Glossary.

Zarathushtra I 39

10. O Lord, may you (Ahuras) give power and dominion to them, that(dominion?) through Good Mind by which he might grant good livingand peace. I, in any case, consider thee, O Mazda, to be the originalpossessor of this.

11. Where are Asha and Wohu Manah and Xshathra? Now you shouldaccept me, through Asha, O Mazda, for (giving) instruction to the greatcommunity (?). O Lord, (come) now to us (here) below on account ofour liberality to such as you.

The Two Spirits (Yasna 30.3-6; 45.2)The stanzas in Yasna 30, together with 45.2, allude to the encounter

between the two Spirits, the primordial Twins. The mythology of theTwins, as already indicated (Introduction, p. 19), extends back into proto-Indo-European religion and is to be found in other variants elsewhere inIranian myth, especially in the figure of Yama (the Twin). WithZarathushtra the myth has undergone a reinterpretation, which accordswell with his general propensity to rework inherited ideas in order toexpress his own vision of the dualistic cosmological and ethical situationfacing mankind. In keeping with the general practice of Indo-Iranianhieratic poetry, Zarathushtra assumes that the myth is already wellknown to his audience and therefore does not stand in need of anystraightforward exposition; rather he is seeking to interpret the myth. Thetwo preceding stanzas are obscure enough to make it impossible to knowto whom the poem is addressed, but one can recognize from the verbforms that a group is called upon to listen, whether they be the Ahuras,his own followers, or mankind in general. If I am correct in interpretingthe term xwafna (st. 3), the basic meaning of which is 'sleep, dream', as'vision', then one may conclude that Zarathushtra's inspiration for hisreinterpretation of the ancient myth derives from a direct religious experi-ence.

One of the initially bewildering features of Zarathushtra's exposition ishis use of verbal tenses. This difficulty is rooted in the fact that theIndo-Iranian languages possessed a special verb form, the injunctive,which is reserved for the expression of myth and timeless truths. Whereasone tends to regard all events, whether mythological or not, as takingplace in a nonrecurring historical order, archaic man understood mythicalevents, which took place in mythological time, as being everpresent. Tosay that the two primordial Spirits chose good and evil "in the beginning"implies that they do so in the present as well. This is not to imply thatarchaic man had no real notion of past, present, and future; rather, it is arecognition of his awareness of an atemporal dimension that cuts across

40 I Zarathushtra

temporality. The problem is that we lack words to express adequately thissubtlety of thought. If one translates the injunctive with the past tense,one relegates the action to history; if one uses the present, one excludesthat aspect of the action that took place in illo tempore, i.e., in mytholog-ical time. In reading the text, therefore, one must understand that themyth of the two Spirits is also a present reality. Furthermore, it is presentreality in the sense that the two Spirits now contend with each other notonly on an individual level but also in the cosmos. Bearing in mind thatZarathushtra uses abstractions (for example, 'Good Mind' or 'Devotion')to refer to states of mind as well as to divine entities, one comprehendsthat for him the macrocosmic struggle is simultaneously occurring in thehuman microcosm. Each one of us recapitulates the cosmic drama, and,as in the case of the two Spirits, man holds the keys to his own destiny inhis free exercise of choice between good and evil, between Truth and theLie.

Yasna 30.3-63. Now, these are the two original Spirits who, as Twins, have been

perceived (by me?) through a vision. In both thought and speech, (and)in deed, these two are what is good and evil. Between these two, thepious, not the impious, will choose rightly.

4. Furthermore, the two Spirits confronted each other; in the beginning(each) create(d) for himself life and nonlife, so that (?) in the end therewill be the worst existence for the Drugwants, but the best Mind for theRighteous.

5. Of these two Spirits, the deceitful (drugwant) chose the worst courseof action, (while) the most beneficent Spirit who is clothed in the har-dest stones (chose) Truth, (as) also (do) those who believingly propitiateAhura Mazda.

6. Between these two (Spirits) the daewas did not choose rightly at allsince, while they were taking council among themselves, delusion cameupon them, so that they chose the worst Mind. Then, all together, theyran to Wrath with which they infect the life of man.

Yasna 45.2Now I shall proclaim the original two Spirits of existence. About the

two, the very beneficent would have spoken thus to the evil one: Nei-ther our minds nor (our) pronouncements nor (our) intellects nor yet(our) choices nor (our) words nor yet (our) deeds, nor (our) visions(daena), nor (our) souls (urwan) are in agreement.

Zarathushtra I 41

Zarathushtra Questions Ahura Mazda (Yasna 44)This Gatha treats a broad range of subjects central to Zarathushtra's

religious vision. Although the statements in each stanza are posed in theform of questions addressed to Ahura Mazda, it is clear that to a largemeasure they are rhetorical, for what Zarathushtra seeks is divine con-firmation of his various doctrines. The form of the Gatha is of particularinterest in that it illustrates the intimacy and directness of Zarathushtra'srelationship with Ahura Mazda, a feature that is present throughout theGathic corpus. The opening stanza establishes the basis of his question-ing. In it Zarathushtra reminds Ahura Mazda of their friendship and thusof the propriety of his persistent demand that he be answered correctly.One may remark parenthetically that reminding a god of friendship is adevice found also in the Rgveda on the part of the seer Vasistha in hisconversations with Varuna.13

The second stanza is too obscure to be translated with any confidence,though it seems to be concerned with "the basis of the Best Existence"and apparently with the one who will bring it about. Fortunately, sts. 3-5are as clear as one could wish. Their rhetorical nature is transparent; butany doubts that might linger are dispelled in st. 7, in which Ahura Mazdais recognized "as the Creator of everything," through his creative aspect,Spsnta Mainyu, the Beneficent Spirit.

In contrast to sts. 3-7, which deal mostly with questions relating to thecreation and ordering of the cosmos, the remainder of the Gatha (sts.8-20) treats a variety of what can be broadly defined as doctrinal ques-tions. In sts. 9-11, Zarathushtra asks about the daena, the inspired visionthat is to form the basis of his community of followers. St. 12 reflects thesituation in which Zarathushtra found himself as the prophet of the newfaith in confrontation with spokesmen for the old religion. Having alreadyacknowledged himself (in st. 11) as the true prophet, he asks for help indistinguishing followers of the Truth from those who follow the Lie. Someinterpreters have seen in this stanza that Zarathushtra is referring tohimself as an ashawan (righteous man) vis-a-vis his opponents in debate.This is certainly a plausible explanation, yet one can also imagine a situa-tion in which opponents who can be won over are to be distinguished fromthose who are fundamentally evil and incorrigeable. Sts. 13-21 continuethe theme of Zarathushtra's mission against the Lie and the strategy fordealing with its followers. It is uncertain what is meant in st. 14 by "agreat schism," since this is a purely etymological translation of a wordwhich should mean something like 'split'. Perhaps Zarathushtra followeda policy of "divide and conquer." Although st. 15 is not entirely clear, itseems that antagonisms have reached the point of open conflict by re-

42 I Zarathushtra

course to arms; in typical fashion (e.g., Yt. 5.20) Zarathushtra asks thedeity for victory. In st. 16 Zarathushtra asks for signs that will show whois or are to lead the community. Since the expression W9rdthra(m)-jan'smasher of resistance' (see sect. 5) is characteristically a warrior epithet,it is likely that this term refers to a warrior patron, as indeed Wishtaspawas. It is probable that the judge (ratu) refers to Zarathushtra himself (cf.Yt. 13.152). St. 17 is quite obscure, though it can be made out that, as inY. 29.9, Zarathushtra is concerned with the authority of his voice. St. 18is quite a puzzle, not only because of the obscurity of its final lines butalso because of the strange reward it mentions. Some have seen in thehorses (aspa) and camel (ushtra) the payment made to a priest for servicesrendered. Since—if the Veda is any guide in such matters—one wouldexpect cows to be given to a priest, Insler has suggested that this is aveiled allusion to Wishtaspa and Jamaspa (as stallions of their families)and to Frashaoshtra (Frasha-ushtra).14 The last stanza to begin with "thisI ask thee . . . ," like the preceding one, is capable of various interpreta-tions; if st. 18 refers to the priest's payment, however, as I believe it does,then st. 19 must also have to do with God's punishment for those whobehave deceitfully toward the priest, presumably Zarathushtra himself.Unfortunately, there is no further information to clarify the context of st.18 and 19. The final stanza (20), while still in the form of a question, isstructured differently from the others. Whether it originally formed partof the Gatha or was added later from some other source is impossible tosay. Although its interpretation is very insecure, one finds again thetheme of the Cow's mistreatment, here at the hands of priests hostile toZarathushtra.

Yasna 44\. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord! Concerning reverence

(nomah)—how reverence for ones such as you (is to take place); (and)O Mazda, (how) one such as thee might instruct a dear (friend) such asme, and moreover (how one such as thee might instruct) us throughTruth in order to establish dear relationships (?) so that (one such asthee?) might come to us through Good Mind.

2. [Obscure.]3. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!

Who, through the generative act (?), is the original father of Asha?Who established the path(s) of the sun and stars?Who is it through whom the moon (now) waxes, now wanes?Even these, O Mazda, and others, I wish to know.

4. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!

Zarathushtra I 43

Who supports the earth below and (keeps) the heavens (above) fromfalling down? Who (supports) the waters and plants?

Who yokes the two steeds to the wind and clouds?Who, O Mazda, is the Creator of Good Mind?

5. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!What artificer created days and nights?What artificer created sleep and wakefulness?Who is it through whom dawn, midday, and evening (come to pass),

reminding the religious (man) of his duty?6. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!

(Tell me) whether the things I shall proclaim are true: Devotion(Armaiti) establishes Truth firmly through (good) actions . . .[obscure].

For whom didst thou fashion the pregnant Cow who produces felic-ity?

7. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!Who fashioned honored Devotion together with Dominion?Who made by means of his soul (?) a son respectful of his father?Through these (questions?) I am serving thee, O Mazda, recognizing

(thee) as the Creator of everything by means of Spanta Mainyu.8. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!

—In order that I may keep in mind thy instructions, O Mazda, andthe words which I have exchanged with Good Mind and (the words?)which are to be correctly acquired through Truth concerning (?) life, towhat goods shall my soul proceed in the future (?)?

9. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!How am I to perfect my Vision (daena) which the master of a rich (?)

estate would proclaim by his lofty authority—one such as thee, pos-sessing much wealth, O Mazda, sitting in (thy) seat with Truth andGood Mind?

10. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!(Tell me about) that Vision which is the best of those which exist,

which in the company of Truth promotes my people, (which) throughthe words and action of Devotion—my insight—desiring (thy) posses-sions, correctly shall see thee, O Mazda.

11. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!How is Devotion to disperse among those to whom thy Vision shall

be told, O Mazda? I have been overwhelmingly acknowledged by themas thy original (follower): (therefore) lookest thou upon all others withenmity of spirit!

44 I Zarathushtra

12. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!(Among those) with whom I shall debate: who is righteous (ashawan)

or who is deceitful (drugwant)? Which of the two: is (this one) evil or isthat one evil? The deceitful one who keeps (?) me from (?) thy bounty—is not that one (evil)? This one is not considered to be evil.

13. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!How are we to drive the Lie away from us (and) onto those who,

filled with disobedience, do not strive for association with Truth nortake pleasure in the counsel of Good Mind?

14. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!How may I deliver the Lie into the hands of Truth in order to destroy

it through the mathras of thy teaching, to create a great schism (?)among the liars and to bring torments and evils upon them, O Mazda?

15. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!If thou, together with Truth, art capable of protecting this (?)—when

the two hostile (?) armies come together—by means of those commandswhich thou desirest to keep secure, to which of these two, to whom wiltthou give victory?

16. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!Who is (one who can) smash resistance in order to protect, by means

of thy teaching, those who exist?Let signs be given me. O Healer of Life, promise us a Judge (ratu)! So

may Obedience go to him through Good Mind, to him, whomever itmay be whom thou wishest!

17. [Obscure.]18. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!

How may I win this reward: ten mares with a stallion and a camel sothat . . . [obscure].

19. This I ask thee, speak to me truly, O Lord!What shall be the immediate punishment in this (case) for him who

will not give the reward to him who has won it, who . . . (?)I know what will be his final (reward)!

20. Have the daewas, O Mazda, ever been good rulers?—so I ask it—.[Text very uncertain.]

2. Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda is the supreme being of Zoroastrianism. In the Gathas andin the Achaemenid inscriptions, especially those of Darius the Great, he is

Ahum Mazda I 45

described to us in terms that show that he was experienced both as thesupreme creator of the universe, the mighty lord who ultimately controlsthe destiny of all, and as a personal deity of those who worship him. Thislatter experience of intimacy, of a close and intensely personal rela-tionship with God, is unique in Old Iranian religion and is nowhere en-countered in Vedic religion save in the Vasistha hymns to Varuna. Insurprising contrast to the Ahura Mazda of Zarathushtra and Darius, theAhura Mazda of the Younger Avesta is only a pathetic shadow of thenoble Wise Lord. It is not that he has been demoted, relegated to aninferior position in the pantheon in the manner suffered by Varuna in theIndian tradition. He still retains his honored status; yet he has beensapped of all personality. The possible reasons for this situation are com-plex and require some background.

The problem of the origin of Ahura Mazda has long been a point ofcontroversy among scholars. As I have already noted in the Introduction,many Iranian gods have their counterparts in the Vedic pantheon. Suchcorrespondences exist under two forms: either two deities share a com-mon name or they share common and unmistakable characteristics. Dis-cussions about the origins and identities of Indo-Iranian deities haveusually been confused, because the participants have been unable toagree on what might constitute identity. Also, in discussions, the histori-cist fallacy has frequently been applied, namely, that by tracing the his-tory of a deity back to some irreducible point one has necessarily arrivedat an essential understanding of the deity. While one should never under-value the historical explanation, neither should one view it as exclusive orsufficient in itself.

Since the name 'Ahura Mazda' does not occur outside Iran, one cansafely say, on one level, that he is a creation of the Iranian spirit. Whenone discovers the meaning of the name and examines the constellation ofreligious ideas surrounding Ahura Mazda, however, one is immediatelyforced to draw comparisons with the great Vedic deity Varuna. AhuraMazda means 'Wise Lord'. In Avestan the name consists of two separate-ly declined words, which, especially in the Gathas, need not appear con-tiguously. Old Persian, representing a linguistically younger develop-ment, has the two words coalesced into one ('urmzd'/ahuramazdd/). Theone exception is found in an inscription of Xerxes (XPc 10) in which theindependently declined ahurahya mazddha Curhy mzd'h) is an archaismperhaps under the influence of Avestan usage. This manner of addressingthe supreme being as 'the wise lord' is encountered also in the Vedawhere king Varuna is invoked as the 'wise lord' (asura praceta(h), RV1.24.14) and elsewhere is referred to as 'the all-knowing lord' (asurovisvdveda(h), RV 8.42.1). Although these epithets are by no means unique

46 I Ahura Mazda

to Varuna, as mazda is in Ahura Mazda, the concept of a "wise, all-knowing lord" must have been common to Indo-Aryans and Iranians.

Just as Ahura Mazda has no exact Vedic counterpart whose namewould be *Asura Medhd, so Varuna has no exact Iranian counterpart*Wouruna. Since Varuna is a god of such manifest importance in theVeda, however, it is difficult to imagine that he does not have a longhistory extending back well into the proto-Indo-Iranian period. Thesearch for the "lost" wise lord Varuna in Iranian religion leads onepromptly to Ahura Mazda, for a number of reasons perhaps more com-pelling than the epithets just discussed. In the first place, both supremedeities are intimately connected with one of the most basic Indo-Iranianreligious concepts, Truth (Ved rta, Av asha, OPers (a)rta). (See Intro-duction, p. 13.) Secondly, both are surrounded by a group of deities, who,though not identical, bear certain resemblances to one another. They arethe Avestan Amasha Spsntas and the Vedic Adityas. Thirdly—a pointthat is frequently overlooked—it is only Ahura Mazda and Varuna whoare the object of intense personal religious experience. To be sure, otherdeities may be approached in Vedic or Avestan hymns with terms ofendearment by the supplicants; yet the language is the formal language ofhieratic poetry, lacking the unmistakable stamp of direct experience.Fourthly, both are creators.

Against the case for the identification of Ahura Mazda with Varuna, ithas been argued that the points of similarity between them are deceptive,that both deities may be innovations of their respective traditions, andthat the only true Indo-Iranian deity of this type is a shadowy figure calledsimply Ahura or Asura in the Avesta and Rgveda respectively.15 Althoughthe problem may never be resolved to everyone's satisfaction, a partialsolution may lie in the recognition of a semantic obstacle. For those whoinsist upon an identity of names alone, clearly there is no ground forcomparison. Also, for those for whom shared essential characteristics, inthe absence of a shared name, are sufficient grounds to claim identity, theidentification of Ahura Mazda and Varuna will fail owing to some essen-tial differences (see sects. 3 and 4). What one must come to realize asimportant from the comparative point of view is that certain culturallyshared concepts have become associated with the supreme deity in bothsocieties. To understand these together with the differences is the neces-sary task of the comparativist.

Returning to purely Avestan developments, one has observed that thenobility of Zarathushtra's and Darius' experience has suffered a debase-ment in the Younger Avesta. Generally, when Ahura Mazda appears it isin a dialogue with Zarathushtra in which his role is no more than to give

Ahura Mazda I 47

authority to either a religious practice or to a piece of non-Zarathushtrianliterature. The Avestan Yasht to Ahura Mazda, given on pp. 51-55, is arecent work that can claim no antiquity. Its faulty language and its motleycontent, with its overriding concern for the magic of spells, show clearlythere was no Old Iranian, that is, pre-Zarathushtrian, Yasht tradition thatincluded Ahura Mazda. In fact, the author of this Yasht is quite at a lossto know what to say about him. The explanation for this is to be found inthe nature of Ahura Mazda and in the degeneration of the Zarathushtrianreligious vision. The "Wise Lord" is basically an abstract form of deity.In the absence of any vigorous flesh-and-blood mythology, such a god canbe realized only in the fullness of religious experience. Where the occa-sion for such experience is wanting, a god like Ahura Mazda cannot helpbut lose meaning, until, as in this Yasht, he is understood only in terms offormulae like "most beneficent Spirit, Creator of the material world,righteous." Ahura Mazda was, then, what the phenomenology of religioncalls a deus otiosus, a god who, because of his transcendence, isirrelevant to everyday religious concerns. Such gods are supplanted bymore immanent deities active in the affairs of men. This process is man-ifest in the religion of the Younger Avesta with the reinstatement of thetraditional gods. It is also seen in the course of the Achaemenid inscrip-tions, in which at first Darius and his son Xerxes only occasionally referto 'the gods' or the 'gods of the royal house', but later, with Artaxerxes IIand III, the goddess Anahita (see sect. 10) and the great god Mithra (seesect. 3) are invoked together with Ahuramazda.

The Achaemenid inscriptions are a unique source of information aboutOld Iranian religion in that they can be dated and assigned to historicalpersonalities. They must be taken with a certain amount of caution whenused in reference to the Avesta, however. They belong to the languageand culture of southwestern Iran; the Avesta belongs to the eastern partsof Iran (see Introduction). The propagandistic intent of the royal inscrip-tions differs from that of the priestly authors of the Avesta. In spite ofthese precautions, however, the two sources are wonderfully com-plimentary. Beyond the amount of space devoted to the role of Ahur-amazda, one finds in particular prominence the concern with the Lie(drauga, Av druj), the very essence of moral, social, and political chaos.The king, Ahuramazda's chosen representative on earth, is a speaker oftruth who maintains the just moral order within society while protectingsociety from rebellion brought about by followers of the Lie. Finally, inXerxes' Daiwadana inscription, we encounter the fundamental antago-nism between the gods (OPers baga, Av ahura, yazata, bagha) and theantigods or demons (OPers daiwa, Av daewa).

48 I Ahura Mazda

Inscriptions of Darius I (521-486 B.C.)Rule by divine authority (DB I. 11-16)Darius the king says: By the will of Ahuramazda I am king. Ahuramazda

delivered the kingship to me.Darius the king says: These are the countries which came to me. By the

will of Ahuramazda I have become king over them: Persis, . . .(There follows a list of satrapies.)

Darius the king says: These are the countries which came to me. By thewill of Ahuramazda they became my subjects, they bore me tribute.Day and night they did what I told them.

Darius the king says: Among these countries, whatever man was loyal Itreated well, (but) whomever was unruly I punished well By the will ofAhuramazda these countries behaved according to my law. They did asI told them.

Darius the king says: Ahuramazda delivered this kingship to me. Ahur-amazda bore me aid until I had secured this empire. By the will ofAhuramazda I hold this empire.

Summary of his campaigns; religious and moral admonitions (DB IV.2-67)

Darius the king says: This is what I did by the will of Ahuramazda in thesame year after I became king. I fought XIX battles. By the will ofAhuramazda I won them. And I captured IX kings. One namedGaumata was a Magus. He lied. Thus he said, "I am Bardiya, the sonof Cyrus." He made Persis rebellious. (There follows the list of thekings who lied and made their countries rebellious. They were Aginathe Elamite; Nidintu-Bel the Babylonian, the false Nebuchadrezzarson of Nabonitas; Martya the Persian, the false Immanish; Fraw(a)rtithe Mede, the false Xshathrita descendant of Cyaxares; Cigataxma theSagartian, a false descendant of Cyaxares; Frada the Margian;Wahyazdata the Persian, another false Bardiya; Arxa the Armenian,another false Nebuchadrezzar.)

Darius the king says: I captured these IX kings in these battles.Darius the king says: These are the countries which became rebellious.

The Lie made them rebellious, because these (kings) lied to the people.Afterward Ahuramazda placed them in my hands. I dealt with them atmy pleasure.

Darius the king says: You, whoever you are who shall be king afterward,guard yourself diligently from the Lie. Punish well that man who shallbe a liar, if you should think, "My country shall be secure."

Darius the king says: This is what I did. By the will of Ahuramazda I did it

Ahura Mazda I 49

in one and the same year. You, whoever you are who shall afterwardread this inscription which I made, may it convince you. Do not thinkthat this is a lie.

Darius the king says: O Ahuramazda, I swear this oath, that this is true; itis not a lie; I did this in one and the same year.

Darius the king says: By the will of Ahuramazda there is also much elsethat I have done, (but) that is not written down in this inscription. It isnot written down lest what I have done seem too much to him whoshould read this inscription afterward (and) it not convince him and hethink it a lie.

Darius the king says: The former kings, as long as they were (kings), didnot do what I did by the will of Ahuramazda in one and the same year.

Darius the king says: Now let this convince you. Thus tell the people whatI have done; do not conceal it! If you do not conceal this proclamation(and) tell it to the people, may Ahuramazda be a friend to you and mayyour family be numerous and may you live long!

Darius the king says: If you should conceal this proclamation (and) nottell it to the people, may Ahuramazda smite you and may you have nofamily!

Darius the king says: This is what I did; in one and the same year I did itby the will of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda bore me aid, (as did) also theother gods who exist.

Darius the king says: Ahuramazda bore me aid, (as did) also the othergods who exist, for the reason that I was not unruly, I was not a liar, Iwas not an evildoer, neither I nor my family transgressed. I did not dealcrookedly with either the weak or the strong. I treated him well whocooperated with my house; I punished him well who (sought) to de-stroy (it).

Victory for Darius through the worship of Ahuramazda (DB V.20-36)Darius the king says: Afterward I went off to Scythia with the army, after

the Scythians who wear pointed hat(s). These Scythians fled from me.When I came up to the (Oxus) river, I then crossed over it with thewhole army. Afterward I smote the Scythians greatly. I captured oneof them. He was brought bound to me. Then I made another (their)chief according to my pleasure. Afterward the country became mine.

Darius the king says: Those Scythians were unruly and did not worshipAhuramazda. I worshipped Ahuramazda. By the will of Ahuramazda Idealt with them as I pleased.

Darius the king says: He who worships Ahuramazda will be blessed both(while) living and (when) dead.

50 I Ahum Mazda

Prayer to Ahuramazda (DPd 1-24)Ahuramazda, the great, who is the greatest of the gods, He created Darius

the king; He delivered the kingship to him. By the will of AhuramazdaDarius is king.

Darius the king says: This country, Persis, which Ahuramazda deliveredto me, which is beautiful, with good horses and men, by the will ofAhuramazda and of me Darius the king, does not fear another (coun-try).

Darius the king says: May Ahuramazda bear me aid together with thegods of (the royal) house! And may Ahuramazda protect this countryfrom a hostile army, from famine, from the Lie. Let not a hostile army,nor famine, nor the Lie come to this country. I pray (to) Ahuramazdatogether with the gods of (the royal) house for this blessing. MayAhuramazda together with the gods of (the royal) house bestow thisblessing on me.

Ahuramazda chose Darius (DSfS-22)Darius the king says: Ahuramazda who is the greatest of the gods created

me. He made me king. He delivered the empire to me which is greatwith good horses and men. By the will of Ahuramazda Wishtaspa myfather and Arshama my grandfather both were living when Ahuramaz-da made me king over this earth. Such was Ahuramazda's pleasure thatof the entire earth he chose me, a man. He made me king over theentire earth. I worshipped Ahuramazda, (and) Ahuramazda bore meaid. He made successful for me what I commanded to be done. All thatI did was by the will of Ahuramazda.

(DNa 1-12, 30-35, 47-60)A great god is Ahuramazda who created this earth, who created yonder

heaven, who created man, who created happiness for man, who madeDarius king, one king over many, one commander over many. I amDarius the great king, king of kings, king of countries containing allpeoples, king of this great earth, extensive as it is.

Darius the king says: After Ahuramazda saw this earth in turmoil hedelivered it to me; he made me king; I am king by the will of Ahuramaz-da.

Darius the king says: All this that was done, I did by the will of Ahur-amazda. Ahuramazda bore me aid until I did what was to be done. MayAhuramazda protect me from evil and my house and my country! Ipray (to) Ahuramazda for this. May Ahuramazda grant it to me! Oman, let not that which is Ahuramazda's command seem evil to you!Do not stray from the straight path! do not be antagonistic!

Ahura Mazda I 51

Xerxes' Daiwadana inscription (XPh 13-16, 28-56)Xerxes the king says: By the will of Ahuramazda these are the countries

over which I was king. (There follows a satrapy list.)Xerxes the king says: When I became king there was (one country),

among these which are written above, (which) revolted. Then Ahur-amazda bore me aid. By the will of Ahuramazda I smote that countryand set it in its (proper) place. And among these countries was (one)where formerly the daiwas were worshipped. Then by the will of Ahur-amazda I destroyed that daiwa-temple. And I decreed, "Let the daiwasnot be worshipped!" There where formerly the daiwas were wor-shipped, I worshipped Ahuramazda at the barssman (?) in accordancewith Truth (?). And there was another (matter) which had been donebadly. I made it good. All that I did 1 did by the will of Ahuramazda.Ahuramazda bore me aid until I had done what was to be done. You,whoever you are who (shall live) afterward, if you think, "May I behappy while living and may I be blessed when dead," behave accordingto that law which Ahuramazda established, worship Ahuramazda at thebarasman in accordance with Truth (?). The man who behaves accord-ing to that law which Ahuramazda established and worships Ahuramaz-da at the barasman in accordance with Truth (?), he becomes happywhile living and (is) blessed when dead.

Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd) Yasht (Yasht 1)1. Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: O Ahura Mazda, most beneficent

Spirit, Creator of the material world, righteous! What (aspect) of theHoly Word is most powerful? What is most defensive (?) (victorious)?What is most glorious? What is bravest?

2. what is (the best slayer in victory)? What is most curative? What bestovercomes the hostility of daewas and (evil) men? Of all of materialexistence, what most affects (?) the mind? Of all of material existence,what best cleanses the spirit?

3. Then Ahura Mazda said: Our name [i.e., Amasha Spantas], O Spita-mid Zarathushtra, is what is most powerful of the Holy Word, that(name is) most victorious, that (name is) most glorious, most brave,

4. most victorious, most curative, that (name) best overcomes the hos-tility of daewas and (evil) men, that (name) out of all of material exist-ence most affects the mind, that (name) out of all of material existencebest cleanses the spirit.

5. Then Zarathushtra said: Declare to me, O righteous Ahura Mazda,that name of yours which is the greatest and the most beautiful and the

52 / Ahum Mazda

bravest and the most victorious and the most curative and the best atovercoming the hostility of daewas and (evil) men),

6. so that I may overcome all daewas and (evil) men, so that I mayovercome all sorcerers and witches, so that no one may overcome me,neither a daewa nor yet an (evil) man, neither a sorcerer nor yet awitch.

7. Then Ahura Mazda said: (First) I am called "He Who Is to Be Im-plored," O righteous Zarathushtra; second, "Shepherd" (?); third,. . . (?); fourth, "Asha Washishta"; fifth, "All the Good Created byMazda, the Seed of Asha"; sixth, I am "Intelligence"; seventh, "Intel-ligent"; eighth, I am "Insight"; ninth, "Insightful";

8. tenth, I am "Beneficence"; eleventh, "Possessing Beneficence";twelfth, "Lord" (Ahura); thirteenth, "Most Powerful"; fourteenth,this "Unassailable" (?); fifteenth, "Invincible"; sixteenth, "He WhoRemembers (People's) Merit"; seventeenth, "All Perceiving"; eight-eenth, "Curative"; nineteenth, I am "Creator"; twentieth, I am called"Mazda."

9. You should worship me, O Zarathushtra, by day (and) by night withlibations which bear (me) glory (yasah), (and then) I, Ahura Mazda,shall come to aid and support you; good Sraosha the companion of Ashiwill come to aid and support you; the waters and the plants and theFrawashis of the Righteous will come to aid and support you.

10. If, O Zarathushtra, you want to overcome those hostilities (of)daewas and men, (of) sorcerers and witches, (of) tyrants, kawis, andkarapans, (of) biped scoundrels and biped distorters of Truth and quad-ruped wolves,

11. and the hostile army with a broad front, with a broad banner, thenrecite these names during all the days and nights.

12. I am "Protector" and "Creator," I am "Protector" and "Knower,"and I am "Spirit" and "Most Beneficent" (or "Most Beneficent Spir-it"). I am called "Curative," I am called "Most Curative," I am called"Priest," I am called "Supreme Priest," I am called "Lord," I amcalled "Wise," I am called "Righteous," I am called "Most Right-eous," I am called "Glorious," I am called "Most Glorious," I amcalled "Seer of Much," I am called "Best Seer of Much," I am called"Far-Seer," I am called "Best Far-Seer,"

13. I am called "Watcher," I am called "Pursuer," I am called"Creator," I am called "Guardian," I am called "Protector," I amcalled "Knower," I am called "Best Knower (?)," I am called "Seek-ing Dominion," I am called "Seeking Dominion Most," I am called. . . (?), I am called . . . (?).

Ahura Mazda I 53

14. I am called "Without Deceit," I am called "Free From Deceit," Iam called "Warder," I am called "Overcoming Hostility," I am called"Immediate Conquest," I am called "All Conquering," I am called"All-Fashioner," I am called "(bestowing) All Felicity," I am called"(bestowing) Much Felicity," I am called "Felicitous."

15. I am called "(Bestowing) Efficacious Profit," I am called "(Bestow-ing) Efficacious Advantage," I am called "Possessing Profit," I amcalled "Strong," I am called "Strongest," I am called "Truth," I amcalled "High," I am called "Ruler," I am called "Highest Ruler," I amcalled "Intelligent," I am called "Most Intelligent," I am called "Far-Seeing"—and those are the names.

16. He who, in this material existence, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, recitesthese names of mine (?) either by day or at night,

17. (who recites) either standing up or lying down, either lying down orstanding up, either girding on his girdle or loosening his girdle, eithersetting forth from his residence or setting forth from his tribe, or settingforth from his country, [going away to (another) country],

18. O man, not on this day, not on this night will (?) the (weapon?) ofone deceived by Wrath, whose mind is of the Lie, hit him, neither willthe a/cw,16 nor the battle-axes (?), nor the knives, nor the maces, nor the(sling) stones hit (him).

19. And these twenty names stand ready as (his) support and fortifica-tion against the invisible Lie, the concupiscent, deceiving (Lie) andagainst the destructive conjuror, against the all-destructive Deceiver(Angra Mainyu), as if a thousand men would watch over one man.

20. [Repeat Y. 44.16 (p. 44).]21. Homage to the Kawyan Xwaronah, homage to the Aryan homeland.

Homage to the Mazda-created Profit, homage to the river Daily a.Homage to the immaculate river Anahita, homage to the entire right-

eous world.Yathd ahu wairyo . . . [Repeat prayer ten times (p. 183).]Ashsm wohu . . . [Repeat prayer ten times (p. 183).]

22. We worship the Ahuna wairya prayer.We worship the Amosha Spsnta, most beautiful Best Truth.We worship Strength and Prosperity and Power and Victory and

Glory and Might.We worship opulent, glorious Ahura Mazda.Yenghe hatam . . . [Repeat prayer (p. 182).]

23. Yathd ahu wairyo . . . [Repeat prayer twice.]I dedicate worship and praise, power and might to opulent, glorious

Ahura Mazda.

54 I Ahura Mazda

Asham wohu . . . [Repeat prayer.]24. O Zarathushtra, you should forever protect the amicable man

against the inimical enemy. Do not let the friend go for a beating! Donot abandon that law-abiding man to ill treatment, to disenfranchise-ment (at the hands of his) oppressors, (that) man who will offer thegreatest sacrifice (but who) will demand (?) least of us, the AmashaSpantas, for (his) sacrifice.

25. Wohu Manah is here in my house, O Zarathushtra,Asha Wahishta is here in my house, O Zarathushtra.Xshathra is here in my house, O Zarathushtra.Sponta Armaiti is here in my house, O Zarathushtra.Haurwatat and Amaratat, [both of whom are the reward of the right-

eous (people) who are going to the life beyond.] (are) here in my house.26. This I know and understand, O righteous Zarathushtra, through my

intelligence and understanding, how the first existence was and how thelast existence will be.

27. A thousand cures! Ten thousand cures![Come to my aid, O Mazda, (and that of ?) well-built, handsome

Strength, Ahura-created Warathraghna, and conquering Superiorityand Spsnta Armaiti,]

And through Spsnta Armaiti destroy their hostility, cover their ears,bind their hands together, smash their jaws, bind the binder (?).

28. Will the righteous man, O Mazda, conquer a liar? (Will) the right-eous man conquer the Lie? (Will) the righteous man conquer a liar?

We worship Ahura Mazda's understanding for the maintenance ofthe Holy Word.

We worship Ahura Mazda's intelligence for the retention of the HolyWord.

We worship Ahura Mazda's speech for the proclamation of the HolyWord.

We worship that mountain Ushi.dam, Ushi.darana,17 by day (and) bynight with libations which bring (it) glory.

29. Then Zarathushtra said, "May she (Armaiti) put you, a scoundrel, inthe ground!" By the eyes of Spanta Armaiti the scoundrel was castdown.

30. A thousand cures! Ten thousand cures!We worship the frawashi of the righteous man who is called

Asmo.x wan want. Then as a believer (?) I shall worship imploringly (thefrawashis) of the other righteous (men).

By the (propitiation) of the strong Mazda-created GaoksranalWe worship the strong Mazda-created Gaokarsna.

Mithra I 55

31. [Repeat st. 28 from "We worship Ahura Mazda's understanding. . ."to the end.]

Asham wohu.[Repeat six times: st. 30 from "We worship the frawashi. . ."to the

end; st. 28 from "We worship Ahura Mazda's understanding . . ."tothe end.]

Asham wohu.32. We worship the creatrix Spanta Armaiti . . . ( ? ) .

Therefore, we should make him, the greatest of all, Ahura Mazda,the ahu and ratu for the killing of lying Angra Mainyu, for the killing ofWrath with the bloody club, for the killing of the daewas from Mazan-daran, and (for the killing) of all the lying daewas from Warana, for thepromotion of opulent, glorious Ahura Mazda, for the promotion of theAmssha Spantas, for the promotion of the opulent, glorious star Tish-trya, for the promotion of the righteous man, for the promotion of allthe righteous creations of Spanta Mainyu.

3. Mithra

Next to Ahura Mazda, Mithra is the greatest god of the old Iranian pan-theon. The opening stanza of his Yasht states that Ahura Mazda createdMithra equal to himself in respect to his worship. It is a Zoroastriandevice to legitimize the worship of a god who, to judge by the richness ofhis Yasht, must have been the equal of Ahura Mazda in non-Zarathushtrian circles. The absence of Mithra from the Gathas, con-trasted with his prominence in the Younger Avesta, led some scholars,H. S. Nyberg18 and his students, to espouse the belief that Eastern Iranhad been the scene of lively sectarian struggles between "communities"of people who were devoted to either Mithra or Ahura Mazda or perhapsto other deities as well. In the previous selection I noted the exclusivity ofMazda worship on the part of Darius and Xerxes and the later inclusion ofMithra under Artaxerxes II and III. Despite the fact that Mazdaism seemsto have demanded a near monotheistic allegiance to Ahura Mazda, it ishard to imagine that sectarianism was rampant among the generality of"pagan" Iranians. Pan-Iranian sectarianism existed, rather, in the schismbetween daewa and ahura worshippers (see Introduction, p. 13). Ifone lets oneself be guided, in part, by the testimony of the Rgveda, oneshall not be surprised to find Mithra on equal footing with Ahura Mazda,for, in the Rgveda, Mitra is the almost constant companion of Varuna,whose affinity to Ahura Mazda has already been discussed. In fact, the

56 I Mithra

two are so intimately related that they are rendered indistinguishablewhen, as so frequently happens, they are invoked together as an indis-soluble pair (dvandvd), mitrdvarund. In the Younger Avesta, Mithra alsoenters into this dual (dvandva) relationship with other deities, such asAhura, Rashnu, and Thvorashtar. Mithra's connections with Vedicdeities and his relationships with Iranian deities will be discussed; fornow, one should simply observe that, for the Indo-Iranians and probablythe Indo-Europeans in general, divine supremacy was a shared honor.

The most basic point of departure for understanding the Indo-Iraniangod *Mitra- is the meaning of the name. In Indo-Iranian, the word *mitra-had two meanings: (1) 'covenant, contract, treaty'; (2) 'friendship'.Although meaning (2), I believe, can easily be derived from meaning (1),H.-P. Schmidt has recently made a strong case for a basic meaning'alliance', which, he feels, better explains the two.19 In Old Indian, mean-ing (2) rapidly underwent a semantic shift to 'friend'; as a result, it wasonce widely held—and is still held today among a small minority—thatVedic Mitra was the 'Friend'. Because Vedic Mitra is constantly eclipsedby Varuna, there is no internal evidence that might persuade one thatMitra meant anything but the god Friend. When one takes cognizance ofthe Iranian evidence, however, one cannot doubt that the Indo-Iraniandeity was indeed the god Covenant. It is probable that, by the end of theRgvedic period (c. 900 B.C.), meaning (1) had fallen into disuse, to bereplaced by meaing (2); yet the existence in the oldest strata of theMahabhdrata of the compounds mitradruh (Av mithra.drug) 'covenant-breaking, treacherous', and mitradroha 'the breaking of a covenant'show that the Indo-Aryans knew meaning (1). It is clear, then, thatMithra's nature is rooted in an ethical concept, the sanctity of agreementsamong people. Accordingly, his complex personality should be explainedwith reference to this fundamental aspect.

I have already mentioned that, divorced from Varuna, Mitra is a some-what pale figure in the Rgveda, having just one hymn solely his. His onlydistinguishing trait is that "he puts people in their proper places"; that isto say, by guaranteeing the inviolability of covenants, contracts, agree-ments, treaties, and the like, he maintains lawful stability among people.With Varuna he presides over Truth (rta), yet, unlike Varuna whoseconcern is Truth in all its many facets, Mitra's function is singular. Bothhe and Varuna are called rdjan. This word has unfortunately been trans-lated when applied to Mitra and Varuna according to its secondary mean-ing 'king' (cf. Lat rex, Olrish ri, Goth reiks), whereas emphasis should beplaced on the primary meaning 'judge'. In a manner analogous to theancient Israelite 'judge' who developed into a king, IE reg was primarily ajudge and only secondarily a king; or, to put it differently, the primary

Mithra I 57

function of a king was to judge (see sect. 4). Although in the AvestaMithra's function as judge is implicit, this function being explicitly carriedout by Rashnu, in the Pahlavi literature his only function is chief judge ofthe dead along with Rashnu and Sraosha. Thus it would seem that in theIndo-Iranian conception of the divine order, which, one may suppose,was at least paradigmatic for the human order, the god Covenant must actin concert with another god whose role is that of judge in the broadestsense. In India it was Varuna; in Iran, Rashnu.

The colorless picture drawn of Vedic Mitra stands in marked contrastto that of Avestan Mithra. The latter is portrayed as a mighty warrior,who, sallying forth to battle in his chariot laden with weapons, wields hismace to smash the heads of covenant violators. In the Vedas, not onlyMitra, but Varuna, too, is amazingly deficient in martial qualities. Indeed,the royal aspect of force resides in the great warrior god Indra (whosename appears as a daewa in the Avesta). The contrast between him andVaruna is nowhere better seen than in RV 4.42. What is striking is thatVedic Indra and Avestan Mithra so closely resemble each other in martialdemeanor. Two general explanations of this have been given. One appealsto changes in the pantheon as a result of the Zarathushtrian reform.According to this view, when Indra was banished by Zarathushtra, aserious ideological vacuum was created. To fill the vacuum, his martialcharacteristics were simply transferred to an acceptable deity, Mithra. Tosuch reasoning it has been objected that, although Indra and Mithra doresemble each other closely, there is no license to make Mithra heir toIndra's confiscated property. Mithra's acquisition of martial traits can justas well have arisen out of his need to be able to enforce his judgments. Itmay be noted that both approaches assume that Mithra's warlike aspect issecondary. In any case, I think it is wrong to see in Mithra a thinlydisguised Indra. It is safer to say that both gods exhibit ideals of the Aryanwarrior, which, in the Vedas, never attached themselves to Mitra, whilein the Avesta they appear as part of Mithra's makeup. A possible explana-tion of the similarity between Mithra and Indra may reside in the god ofaggressive combat Warathraghna (see sect. 5).

Another aspect that Mithra shares with Indra, though far less promi-nently, is his role in replenishing the earth's water supply. Although thesubject of hydrology is taken up in detail below (see sects. 9 and 12), onemust observe that neither Mithra nor Rgvedic Indra should be seen spe-cifically as rain gods. They are both primarily concerned with the releaseof river water, that is, with the seasonal melt of mountain snows and therunoff of vernal mountain rains. Mithra's ability to fill the rivers and lakesinvolves him in agriculture (st. 61) and by extension may explain hisability to grant sons and noble offspring.

58 I Mithra

Mithra's standing epithet is wouru.gaoyaoiti (lit. 'possessing wide pas-ture land'). In the translation I have perpetuated the usual rendering,'Mithra of wide pastures'. If the meaning of 'wide pastures' is not under-stood, however, much idle speculation about Mithra's involvement incattle raising can result. As Benveniste showed, Av gaoyaoiti and Vedgdvyuti designate not simply pasture land, but a secure domain under theprotection of a deity, "«« lieu d'asyl."20 In the Yasna Haptanghaiti (Y.42.2) and in the Sraosha Yasht (Yt. 57.2), dual deities are worshippedunder the names of the Protector and the Artisan (payu thvorshtara).Gershevitch21 has brilliantly proved that the Protector is Mithra, and thatthe Artisan is Ahura Mazda's creative aspect, Spanta Mainyu. In Yt.10.54 he is protector and guardian of all creatures. The designation 'pro-tector' fits well his standing epithet, and together they offer sufficientexplanation for his concern for the well-being of house and home (sts. 4,30, 38) and the prosperity of the material world (st. 103).

A final problem that must be addressed is Mithra as a solar deity. If theAvesta contained the only information about Mithra that existed, theproblem would be insignificant. In Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian,however, and on Kushan coins, various reflexes of the Old Iranian namemean 'sun'. In the Zoroastrian tradition, Av Hwaraxshaeta, Phi xwarshedis the normal word for the sun. Why, then, if the Iranians had a perfectlygood word and deity for the sun, did they make the transfer to Mithra?Gershevitch has argued that Avestan Mithra is associated especially withthe first light in the morning, an association which, in conjunction withhis need to patrol the earth incessantly in search of covenant breakers,paved the way for his being associated completely with the diurnal courseof the sun and with the sun itself. Moreover, there are other factors thatmay have contributed to his eventual identification with the sun. As over-seer of covenants Mithra was concerned with good government, and insuch a capacity he is often responsible for a peculiar fiery power, calledxwarsnah 'glory, fortune' (see sect. 6), which accompanies legitimateauthority. Further, the sacred element over which covenential oaths weresworn was, in Iran, fire. In Sasanid Iran, one of the sacred fires was theburzen-mihr. The homology of fire and sun is ancient and universal, sothat Mithra's early connection with the former inevitably led to his asso-ciation with the latter.

Although it lies beyond the scope of this anthology, I should point outthat not only did Mithra, like other Iranian gods, play several roles inManichaeism, but a derivative form of his cult also spread throughout theGreco-Roman world, even as far as Great Britain, where it became thereligion of Mithras, which enjoyed its greatest prominence among theRoman legions.

Mithra I 59

Mithra (Mihr) Yasht (Yasht 10)I

1. Ahura Mazda said to Zarathushtra the Spitamid: When I createdMithra of wide pastures, I made him, O Spitamid, as worthy of worshipand praise as myself, Ahura Mazda.

2. The knave who is false to a treaty, O Spitamid, destroys the wholecountry to the (same) extent as even one hundred kayadhas smiting therighteous (man). Do not break a covenant, O Spitamid, neither (theone) which you might conclude with a drugwant nor (one) with anashawan belonging to the Good Religion, for the contract applies toboth of you, to drugwant and to ashawan.

3. Mithra of wide pastures gives possession of swift horses to those whoare not false to a covenant. Fire (Atar), (the son) of Ahura Mazda, givesthe straightest path to those who are not false to a covenant. The good,strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous give noble progeny tothose who are not false to a covenant.

4. Because of his rayi and glory, I shall audibly worship Mithra of widepastures with libations. We worship Mithra of wide pastures, who be-stows peaceful and comfortable dwellings on the Iranian countries.

5. May he come hither to us in order to help (us). May he come hither tous for spaciousness. May he come hither to us to support (us). May hecome hither to us to (grant us) mercy. May he come hither to us to cure(us of disease). May he come hither to us so that we are able to defeatour enemies. May he come hither to us to (grant us) a good life. May hecome hither to us to grant us possession of Truth. (May) strong, un-shakable, undeceivable Mithra of wide pastures, who is worthy of wor-ship and praise, (come hither) for the sake of the whole material world.

6. With libations I shall worship the powerful god, strong Mithra,strongest in the (world of) creatures; I shall pay homage to him withpraise and reverence; with libations I shall audibly worship him, Mithraof wide pastures. We worship Mithra of wide pastures with haoma(mixed) with milk . . . [Continue with Ny. 1.16 (p. 183)].

II7. We worship Mithra of wide pastures, whose speech is correct, who is

eloquent (in verbal contests), who has a thousand ears, is well built, hasten thousand eyes, is tall, has a wide outlook, is strong, sleepless,(ever) waking,

8. whom the rulers descending upon the battlefield worship (as theyadvance) against the bloodthirsty enemy armies, against those drawnup in battle lines between the two warring countries.

60 I Mithra

9. Whichever of the two (countries? rulers?) can worship him first, be-lievingly, with understanding thought from a trusting mind—to thatone, Mithra of wide pastures turns; at the same time, the victoriousWinds (also turn to that one), at the same time Damoish Upamana(turns).

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]Ill

10. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7];11. whom the Warriors worship at (i.e., bending down close to) the

manes of (their) horses, requesting strength for their teams, health forthemselves, much watchfulness against enemies, the ability to retaliateagainst foes, the ability to overcome unfriendly, hostile opponents at ablow.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]IV

12. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7];13. who is the first supernatural god to rise across the Kara (mountain

range), in front of the immortal swift-horsed sun, who is the first to seizethe beautiful mountain peaks adorned with gold; from there he, themost mighty, surveys the whole land inhabited by Iranians,

14. where gallant rulers preside over many (offerings of) refreshments(to the gods), where high mountains rich in pasture lands and waterprovide fodder for cattle, where there exist deep lakes with wide ex-panses of water, where wide irrigation waters rush with eddies towardParutian Ishkata,22 Haraiwan Margu,23 Sogdian Gawa,24 andChorasmia.25

15. Strong Mithra surveys (the continents) Arazahi, Sawahl, Fradadhaf-shu, Widadhafshu, Wouru.bargshtl, Wouru.jaroshtl, and that splendidcontinent Xwaniratha, (the land of) village settlement and (of) healthyvillage habitation;

16. (Mithra) the supernatural god who drives over (throughout?) all thecontinents bestowing xwaranah, the supernatural god who drives over(throughout?) all the continents bestowing power. He secures victori-ousness for those who, instructed (in religious matters), knowing Truth,worship him with libations.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]V

17. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who is deceived by noone, neither by the head of the house (ruling over) the house, nor by thevillage head (ruling over) the village, nor by the tribal head (ruling over)the tribe, nor by the head of the country (ruling over) the country.

Mithra I 61

18. If, indeed, the head of the house (ruling over) the house, or thevillage head (ruling over) the village, or the tribal head (ruling over) thetribe, or the head of the country (ruling over) the country is deceitfultoward him, Mithra, angered (at) having been treated with enmity,(comes) forth (and) smashes the house and the village and the tribe andthe country, and the heads of the houses (ruling over) the houses, andthe village heads (ruling over) the villages, and the tribal heads (rulingover) the tribes, and the heads of the countries (ruling over) the coun-tries and the councils of premiers of the countries.

19. Mithra, angry (at) having been treated with enmity, will sally forthfrom (?) that direction in which, of the (possible) directions, the breakerof a covenant is least on guard in his mind.

20. Even the horses of the breakers of a covenant become loath to bemounted; running they do not get away, being ridden they do not take(their rider) forward, drawing (the chariot) they do not persevere (makeprogress). Back flies the spear which the covenant-breaker throws, inspite of (?) the evil spells which the covenant-breaker performs.

21. Even when his throw is a good one, even when he hits the body,even then they (?) do not hurt him (the opponent) in spite of (?) the evilspells which the covenant-breaker performs. The wind carries (away)the spear which the covenant-breaker throws, in spite of (?) the evilspells which the covenant-breaker performs.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]VI

22. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who (when) unde-ceived removes a man from anxiety, removes (him) from danger.

23. May you, O Mithra, undeceived (by us), remove us from anxiety,from anxieties. You induce fear for their own person(s) in men who arefalse to a covenant in this manner: (when) angered you are able toremove the power in their arms, the strength in their legs, the light oftheir eyes, the hearing of their ears.

24. (An enemy) does not hit with blades (?) of well-sharpened spear(s) orof far-flying arrow(s) him to whom Mithra comes with foreknowingthought to help, (Mithra) who, strong, having ten thousand spies, unde-ceivable, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]VII

25. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], the profound, powerfulLord (Ahura), granting profit, eloquent (in verbal contests), pleasedwith (hymns of) praise, lofty, very skillful, tanu.mathra, the strong-armed warrior,

62 I Mithra

26. the smasher of the daewas' heads, the especially evil punisher ofguilty men who are false to a covenant, the suppressor of witches, whowhen not deceived leads the country to superior strength, who whennot deceived leads the country to superior valor,

27. who carries away the straightest (paths) of the defiant country,obscures (its) xwarsnah, removes (its) victoriousness; he harries themdefenseless; he, strong, all-knowing, undeceivable, having tenthousand spies, deals out ten thousand blows.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

VIII28. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who makes firm the

pillars of the high-built house, (who) makes strong the gateposts.Then he gives herds of cattle and teams of men to the house in which

he is propitiated; he destroys the others in which he is treated withenmity.

29. You, O Mithra, are evil and best toward the countries. You, OMithra, are evil and best toward men. You, O Mithra, rule over thepeace and strife of the countries.

30. You provide the great houses with bustling women (and) fast char-iots, with spread-out rugs (and) laid-down piles of cushions. You pro-vide with spread-out rugs (and) laid-down piles of cushions the high-built house of the righteous (man) who, bearing libations, worships youat the proper time with words, with worship in which (your) name ismentioned.

31. O strong Mithra, I shall worship you at the proper time with words,with worship in which (your) name is mentioned, with libations. Ostrongest Mithra, I shall worship you at the proper time with words,with worship in which (your) name is mentioned, with libations. Oundeceivable Mithra, I shall worship you at the proper time with words,with worship in which (your) name is mentioned, with libations.

32. O Mithra, may you listen to our worship; O Mithra, may you besatisfied with our worship, may you sit at our worship. Come to ourlibations, come to them (which) have been offered, collect them forconsumption, deposit them in Paradise.

33. O strong (Mithra), by an agreement of given promises give us thisboon which we ask of you: wealth, strength and victoriousness, well-being and possession of Truth, good reputation and peace of soul,intelligence, increment and knowledge, and Ahura-created Victorious-ness, and Best Truth's conquering superiority, and the ability to inter-pret the Spsnta Mathra,

Mithra I 63

34. so that we, being in good spirits, cheerful, joyful, optimistic, mayconquer all opponents; so that we, being in good spirits, cheerful, joy-ful, optimistic, may conquer all enemies; so that we, being in goodspirits, cheerful, joyful, optimistic, may conquer. . . . May we over-come all the hostilities of daewas and men, of sorcerers and witches, oftyrants, kawis and karapans

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

IX35. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], the avenger of (un-

paid) debts, the levier of armies, whose perception is thousandfold (andwho) rules as an all-knowing ruler;

36. who sets the battle in motion, who takes his stand in battle, who,taking his stand in battle, smashes the battle lines. All the flanks of thebattle-tossed lines are in confusion, the center of the bloodthirsty armyis quaking.

37. He will be able to bring upon them terror and fear. He hurls away theheads of the men false to the covenant; off fly the heads of the men falseto the covenant.

38. He destroys the crumbling dwellings, the uninhabitable abodes, inwhich dwell the drugwants false to the covenant who smite the trulyrighteous (men).

The Cow, accustomed to pastures, [who is in the clutches of menfalse to the covenant], pulls (their wagon) along the dusty road ofcaptivity, dragged forward as their draft animal. Tears are flowing in astream along (her) face.

39. Even their eagle-feathered arrows, propelled by the bowstring,flying from a well-drawn bow, strike no wounds, since Mithra of widepastures, angered (at) having been treated with enmity, is hostile (at)not having been acknowledged.

Even their pointed, well-sharpened spears with long shafts, flyingfrom (their) arms, strike no wounds, since Mithra of wide pastures,angered (at) having been treated with enmity, is hostile (at) not havingbeen acknowledged.

Even their sling stones, flying from (their) arms, strike no wounds,since Mithra of wide pastures, angered (at) having been treated withenmity, is hostile (at) not having been acknowledged.

40. Even their well-drawn daggers, which have been brought down uponthe heads of men, strike no wounds, since Mithra of wide pastures,angered (at) having been treated with enmity, is hostile (at) not havingbeen acknowledged.

64 I Mithra

Even their well-wielded maces, which have been brought down onthe heads of men, strike no wounds, since Mithra of wide pastures,angered (at) having been treated with enmity, is hostile (at) not havingbeen acknowledged.

41. Mithra frightens (them) hither, Rashnu frightens (them) back,Sraosha the companion of Ashi chases (them) together from all direc-tions toward their protective gods. (But) these desert the battle lines,since Mithra of wide pastures, angered (at) having been treated withenmity, is hostile (at) not having been acknowledged.

42. Thus they say to Mithra of wide pastures: Alack! Mithra of widepastures! These swift horses are taking us before (you,) Mithra; thesestrong-armed ones, O Mithra, are destroying us with (their) dagger(s).

43. Thereupon Mithra of wide pastures knocks them down with onehundred blows for (every) fifty blows, and with one thousand blows for(evrey) hundred blows, and with ten thousand blows for (every)thousand blows, and with countless blows for (every) ten thousandblows, since Mithra of wide pastures is angered (at) having been treatedwith enmity.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

X44. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whose abode broad as

the earth is set in the material world, unrestricted in size, shining,reaching widely abroad,

45. who has eight servants. On every height, in every watch post sitMithra's spies, espying (him who is) false to a covenant; they arewatching those, they are remembering those who are the first to be falseto a covenant, and they are guarding the paths of those whom thedrugwants, who are false to the covenant and smite the truly righteous(men), seek.

46. Helping, protecting, protecting behind, protecting in front, Mithra ofwide pastures, as an undeceivable spy watching all around, comes forthfor him for whom Mithra comes with understanding thought to help,(Mithra) who has ten thousand spies, (who) is strong, all-knowing,undeceivable.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XI47. We worship Mithra of wide pastures . . . [continue with st. 7],

notorious in his anger. (His) broad-hooved (horses) drive against thebloodthirsty enemy armies, against those drawn up in battle lines be-tween the two warring countries.

Mithra I 65

48. Then, when Mithra drives forth against the bloodthirsty enemyarmies, against those drawn up in battle lines between the two warringcountries, then he ties the hands of the men false to the covenantbehind (their backs), he clouds their vision, he deafens their ears. He(the man false to the covenant) cannot stand firm, he has no endurance[these countries, these opponents] since Mithra of wide pastures hasbeen treated badly.

XII49. We worship Mithra . . . [repeat st. 7],50. for whom he who is the creator, Ahura Mazda, fashioned a dwelling

on top of shining lofty Kara which has many spurs, where there is nonight nor darkness, no cold nor hot wind, no illness causing muchdeath, no defilement caused by the daewas; nor do mists issue forthfrom lofty HaraitI;

51. which (dwelling) all the Beneficent Immortals built in harmony withthe sun, believingly, with understanding thought from a trusting mind,(for him) who surveys the entire material world from lofty HaraitI.

52. Then when the evil-doing treacherous person sallies forth with a faststep, Mithra of wide pastures harnesses (his) fast chariot, (as does) bothstrong Sraosha the companion of Ashi and charming Nairyo.sangha.(Mithra) slays him (so that he is) slain either in the battle line or on theattack.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XIII53. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who regularly com-

plains to Ahura Mazda with outstretched hands, saying:54. I am the beneficent protector of all creatures, I am the beneficent

guardian of all creatures, yet men do not worship me with worship inwhich (my) name is mentioned, as other gods are worshipped withworship in which (their) names are mentioned.

55. If, indeed, men would worship me with worship in which (my) nameis mentioned, as other gods are worshipped with worship in which(their) names are mentioned, I would go forth to the truthful men for theduration of a definite period, (for the duration) of a definite (period) ofmy own radiant immortal life I would go unto (truthful men).

56. The righteous (man) bearing libations worships you at the propertime with words, with worship in which (your) name is mentioned. Ostrong Mithra, I shall worship you . . . [Continue with st. 31.]

57-59. [Repeat sts. 32-34.]

66 I Mithra

XIV60. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whose reputation is

good, whose (physical) appearance is good, whose renown is good,who grants boons according to his pleasure, who grants asylum accord-ing to his pleasure . . . (?), who, strong, having ten thousand spies,undeceivable, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XV61. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], (who, as) a spy,

stands erect, watchful, brave, eloquent, who fills the waters, who lis-tens to the call (of men), who lets the water fall, who allows the plantsto grow, who has jurisdiction over boundaries, is eloquent, clever,undeceivable, who has manifold perception, who was created by theCreator,

62. who gives neither power nor strength to any man false to a covenant,who gives neither fortune (xwarsnah) nor reward to any man false to acovenant.

63. (When) enraged you are able to remove the power in their arms . . .[continue with sts. 23-24.]

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XVI64. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], in whose soul . . .

[obscure],65. who is swift among the swift, loyal among the loyal, brave among

the brave, eloquent among the eloquent; who grants . . . ( ? ) . . . ,fat, herds, dominion, sons, life, well-being, (and) possession of Truth,

66. who is accompanied by good Ashi, and Parandi (driving) a swiftchariot and strong manly Valor and the strong Kawyan Xwaranah andthe strong autonymous Firmament and the strong Damoish Upamanaand the strong Frawashis of the Righteous and him who is the Unifier(?) of the many righteous (men) who worship Mazda.

XVII67. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who drives forth in

(his) high-wheeled chariot, built by (Spsnta) Mainyu, from the conti-nent of Arazahi to the shining continent Xwaniratha, accompanied bytimely Energy (?), and by the Mazda-created Xwaranah, and by theAhura-created Victoriousness,

68. whose chariot good, tall Ashi guides; for whose (chariot) the Maz-dean Religion prepared the paths for easy travel, which (chariot) is

Mithra I 67

pulled by supernatural, white, radiant, shining (?), wise, shadowlesssteeds which issue forth from the supernatural realm wheneverDamoish Upamana gets it off to a good start, (and) which all the super-natural daewas as well as the concupiscent drugwants fear, (cryingout):

69. May we not here encounter the bludgeoning of the enraged Lord(Ahura) whose thousand blows encounter (his) enemy, he who, strong,having ten thousand spies, undeceivable, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]XVIII

70. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], in front of whomAhura-created Warathraghna drives in the form of a ferocious wild boarwith sharp teeth, with sharp tusks, a boar that kills at one blow, un-approachable (when) angered, whose face (bristles) are speckled, swift,having metal hind feet, metal forefeet, metal tendons, a metal tail (and)metal jaws;

71. who, overtaking (his) opponent(s), overcome by passion togetherwith manly valor, strikes down (his) opponents with a toss (of his head).He does not think that he has struck anyone; it does not seem (to him)that he is striking anyone, until he smashes the vertebrae, which are thepillars of life, the spring of vitality.

72. who cuts everything up; all at once he mixes together on the groundthe bones, hair, brains, and blood of the men who are false to a cove-nant.

XIX73. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who regularly, with

outstretched hand, joyfully raises (his) voice, saying: Righteous AhuraMazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of the material world!

74. [Repeat st. 55.]75. May we be guardians of your dwelling places; (but) may we not be

deserters of the dwelling places, neither of the house, nor of the settle-ment, nor of the tribe, nor of the country; nor (may we be deserters ofthat) of ours which strong-armed (Mithra) shall guard from the enemies.

76. You destroy the enmities of the enemies, (you destroy the enmities)of the inimical.

Destroy the slayers of the righteous! You have good horses and agood charioteer; you are the strong helper when invoked.

77. I shall invoke you for help (May he come to us for help) with anabundant sacrifice and a good sacrifice of libations, with an abundantoffering and a good offering of libations, so that through you we may

68 I Mithra

inhabit with a long (period of) habitation a welcome habitat fit to in-habit.

78. You protect those countries which strive to treat Mithra of widepastures well. You destroy those (countries) which are defiant.

I shall invoke you for help.May he come to us for help, powerful, unshakable Mithra, the in-

sightful Lord of the countries who is worthy of worship and praise.[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XX79. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who, as ajudge, gives

a dwelling place (to him) for whom Rashnu has furnished a . . . (?) forlong succession (of descendants).

80. You are the protector of the dwelling place, the defender of thosewho reject the Lie; you are the protector of the community, the guar-dian of those who reject the Lie. Through you (that community), in-deed, obtains the best succession (of descendants) and Ahura-createdVictoriousness, in which men false to the covenant lie (defeated), hav-ing been smitten previously at the divinatory trial.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXI81. [Repeat st. 79.]82. who has one thousand perceptions. Ahura Mazda gave (him) ten

thousand eyes so that he might look out. Thus, with these eyes andthese perceptions, he espies the covenant-breaker and the one false tothe covenant. Thus, with these eyes and these perceptions, Mithra isundeceivable, (he) who, strong, having ten thousand spies, undeceiv-able, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXII83. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whom the leader of

the community regularly invokes with outstretched hands for help,84. whom the village head regularly invokes with outstretched hands for

help, whom the head of the house regularly invokes with outstretchedhands for help, whom she—who, afflicted by the (pain) of her swelling(udder), longs for her milkmaid—regularly invokes with outstretchedhands for help, whom the pauper, who follows the doctrine of Truth(but) is deprived of his rights, regularly also invokes with outstretchedhands for help;

85. whose lamenting voice reaches up to the Lights (of heaven), (who)

Mithra I 69

goes all around this earth (and) extends out into the seven continents,(as) also when he raises his voice reverently, (and) also when the Cow,

86. (she) who, being led away captive, with outstretched hands, yearn-ing for the herd, regularly invokes (Mithra) for help, (thus), "Whenwill Mithra of wide pastures, the hero, driving from behind, make usreach the herd, when will he turn us who are being driven to the abodeof the Lie, to the path of Truth?"

87. Then Mithra of wide pastures comes to help him by whom he hasbeen propitiated; but Mithra of wide pastures destroys the house, vil-lage, clan, country and empire of him by whom he has been treated withenmity.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXIII88. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whom Haoma, rich in

rays, curative, beautiful, majestic, yellow-eyed, worshipped on thehighest peak of lofty HaraitI [which (peak) is called Hukairya by name];the untainted (Haoma worshipped) the untainted (Mithra) with un-tainted barasman, with an untainted libation, with untaintedwords;

89. (Haoma) whom righteous Ahura Mazda installed as the promptlysacrificing, loud-chanting zaotar. The promptly sacrificing, loud-chanting zaotar performs the worship with a loud voice, as Ahura Maz-da's zaotar, as the Amasha Spantas' zaotar. (His) voice reaches up tothe (heavenly) Lights, goes all around this earth (and) will extend outinto all the seven continents,

90. (Haoma) who, as the first hdwanan, placed the star-spangled, super-naturally fashioned haoma (plants) on lofty HaraitI; whose (?) well-builtbody Ahura Mazda glorified, the Amssha Spantas glorified; whom,from afar, the swift-horsed Sun causes to perceive reverence.

91. Reverence to Mithra of wide pastures, who has a thousand ears, tenthousand eyes! You are worthy of worship (and) praise! May you (al-ways) be worthy of worship (and) praise! Hail to the man who regularlywill worship you, (he who has) kindling wood in his hand, barasman inhis hand, milk in his hand, pestle and mortar in his hand, with washedhands, with washed pestle and mortar, with the barasman spread out,with haoma (plants) elevated, with the Ahuna wairya being recited!

92. Righteous Ahura Mazda confessed this religion (daena), as didWohu Manah, as did Asha Wahishta, as did Xshathra Wairya, as didSpsnta Armaiti, as did Haurwatat and Amarstat; out of desire for it theAmssha Spsntas professed it, beneficent Mazda gave it jurisdiction

70 I Mithra

over living beings—(the Amssha Spantas and Ahura Mazda) who con-sider you the ahu and ratu in the (world of) creatures, (who) purify theBest (Religion) for the creatures.

93. Now then, in both lives, in both our lives, O Mithra of wide pas-tures, the material existence and that which is spiritual protect us fromthe drugwant Death, from the drugwant Wrath, from the drugwantarmies who raise the bloody banner, from the deceptions of Wrath,which treacherous Wrath perpetrates with daewa-created(Asto.)Widhatu.

94. Now then, you, O Mithra of wide pastures, give strength to ourteams, health to ourselves, much watchfulness against enemies, theability to retaliate against foes, the ability to overcome unfriendly,hostile opponents at a blow.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXIV95. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who, broad as the

earth, goes along after sunset, (who) sweeps both edges of this broad,round earth whose limits are far apart; (who) surveys all that which isbetween earth and heaven,

96. (who) grasps in both hands the mace with a hundred knobs, with ahundred blades, a feller of men as it swings forward, cast in stronggolden bronze, the strongest of weapons, the most victorious ofweapons,

97. of which the very deadly Angra Mainyu is terrified, of whichtreacherous Wrath, whose body is forfeited, is terrified, of which long-handed Bushyasta is terrified, of which all the supernatural daewas andalso the concupiscent drugwants are terrified.

98. (They all say:) May we not encounter the bludgeoning of the enragedMithra of wide pastures; may you, enraged, not slay us, O Mithra ofwide pastures!

(We worship Mithra), the mightiest of gods, the bravest of gods, thefastest of gods, the swiftest of gods, the most victorious of gods. Mithraof wide pastures comes forth on this earth.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXV99. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], of whom all the super-

natural daewas and also the concupiscent drugwants are terrified.Mithra of wide pastures, lord of the countries, drives along the south-

ern edge of this broad, round earth whose limits are far apart.100. On his right side drives good Sraosha the companion of Ashi; on his

Mithra I 71

left side drives tall Rashnu, the powerful; on all sides of him drive thewaters and the plants and the Frawashis of the Righteous.

101. He is able to keep them supplied with eagle-feathered arrows.Then, when driving, he arrives there where the countries are hostile toMithra; it is he who first strikes his club down on horse and man; atonce he completely frightens both of them, horse and man.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXVI102. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], who has white

horses (and) spears with sharp points and long shafts, the far-shootingarcher, the warrior manifesting his youthful strength,

103. whom Ahura Mazda appointed as guardian and supervisor over theprosperity of the whole world; who, as guardian and supervisor overthe prosperity of the whole world, who, without falling asleep, watch-fully, protects Mazda's creatures, who, without falling asleep, watch-fully, guards Mazda's creatures.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXVII104. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whose very long

arms reach out to catch those who speak falsely. Even if (he whospeaks falsely) is at the eastern river, he is caught. Even if he is at thewestern (river), he is struck down. Whether at the source of the Ranghaor in the middle of this earth,

105. Mithra lays hold even of him, reaching around (him) with botharms. The ill-fated (person), having strayed from the straightest (path),is unhappy in spirit. "So," thinks the ill-fated (person), "guileless (?)Mithra does not see all this evil-doing, not all (of it which is) for the sakeof deception."

106. But I think in (my) mind: No man in existence on earth (can) thinkevil thoughts to as great an extent as supernatural Mithra thinks goodthoughts; no man in existence on earth (can) speak evil words to asgreat an extent as supernatural Mithra speaks good words; no man inexistence on earth (can) commit evil deeds to as great an extent asMithra performs good deeds.

107. No man in existence on earth is endowed with greater naturalintelligence than the natural intelligence with which supernaturalMithra is endowed; no man in existence on earth (can) hear with hisears as much as supernatural Mithra, who has listening ears (and) athousand perceptions. He sees all those who lie. Powerful Mithra

72 / Mithra

comes forth, strong in dominion he drives, with a beautiful far-shiningglance he looks (around) with his eyes, (saying):

108. Who will worship me? Who will deceive (me)? Who thinks that Iam to be worshipped with good worship, who with bad worship? Towhom shall I be able to allot insight and xwaranah, to whom bodilyhealth? To whom shall I be able to allot property that affords muchcomfort? For whom shall I raise noble progeny hereafter?

109. To what (man whose) mind is not thinking (about it), shall I give apowerful realm, beautifully strong with a numerous army . . .[obscure].

110. To whom shall I be able to allot sickness and death, to whompoverty that brings misery? Whose noble progeny shall I slay with oneblow?

111. From what (man whose) mind is not thinking (about it) shall I carryaway (his) powerful realm beautifully strong with a numerous army. . . [obscure].

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXVIII112. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whose spear (?) is of

silver, whose armor (?) is of gold, driving with whip, the powerful,swift, broad-shouldered warrior. Brilliant are Mithra's courses as hecomes to that country where he is treated well. Wide are (their) valleysfor (protected) pasturage (so that) now their own cattle and men goabout freely.

113. Then may he come to help us. O exalted Mithra and Ahura, whenthe whip cracks and the horses neigh, the whips lash, the bowstringstwang (?) (and) the sharp arrows dart (?), then the evil sons of thosewho have offered viscid libations, having been struck, will go downwrithing.

114. [Repeat st. 74.]

XXIX115. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], 0 Mithra of wide

pastures, (you) the religious chief, the Nmany a, the Wisya, the Zantu-ma, the Dahyuma, the Zarathushtrdtsma\

116. Twentyfold is the contract between two friends shouldering(mutual) obligations, thirtyfold between two fellow citizens, fortyfoldbetween two partners, fiftyfold between husband and wife, sixtyfoldbetween two fellow students, seventyfold between disciple andteacher, eightyfold between son-in-law and father-in-law, ninetyfoldbetween two brothers,

Mithra I 73

117. one hundredfold between father and son, one thousandfold be-tween two countries; ten thousandfold is the contract of the MazdeanReligion: thereby follow days of strength, thus these will be (days) ofvictory.

118. I shall come by the worship of the lowly (and) the exalted. Just asyonder sun comes forth and drives on across high Kara, so, even I, OSpitama, shall come by the worship of the lowly (and) the exalted tospoil the mischief of lying Angra Mainyu.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]XXX

119. We worship Mithra of wide pastures . . . [continue with st. 7],Worship Mithra, O Spitama; proclaim (him) to (your) disciples. Maythe Mazdeans worship you with small and large cattle, with flying birds[those which fly as winged (birds)].

120. [Obscure.]121. Zarathushtra asked him: O Ahura Mazda, how should a righteous

man drink a purified libation, in order that Mithra of wide pastures,whom he worships, may be propitiated, not treated with hostility?

122. Then Ahura Mazda said: Let them wash their bodies for three daysand three nights; let them undergo as expiation thirty lashes (of thewhip) for the worship and praise of Mithra of wide pastures. Let themwash their bodies for two days and two nights; let them undergo asexpiation twenty lashes (of the whip) for the worship and praise ofMithra of wide pastures. Let no one drink these libations who is notversed in the Staota Yesnya (and) the Wispe Ratawo.

XXXI123. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], whom Ahura Mazda

worshipped in the shining Paradise.124. With outstretched arms for nondestruction, from shining Paradise,

Mithra of wide pastures drives forth his beautiful, all-adorned, fast-driving smoothly running chariot.

125. Four immortal, all white horses, who live on spiritual food, pull thischariot; the forehooves are shod with gold, the hind hooves with silver;all are harnessed to the yoke, as well as to the yoke pin(s) and yokestrap(s). (The yoke) is connected to a solid, well-made shaft by meansof a metal hook.

126. On his right side drives Rashnu, the most just, the most beneficent,the tallest; and on his left drives righteous Razishta Cista, bearinglibations; [she wears white garments,] the likeness of the MazdeanReligion.

74 I Mithra

127. Brave Damoish Upamana drives along in the form of a ferociouswild boar with sharp teeth, with sharp tusks; a boar that kills at oneblow; unapproachable (when) angered; whose face (bristles) are speck-led; swift, dexterous, nimble; in front of him drives blazing Fire who isthe strong Kawyan Xwaronah.

128. There in the chariot of Mithra of wide pastures are a thousandwell-made bowstrings [that is, bowstrings made of deer sinew]. They flyfrom the supernatural realm, they fall from the supernatural realm ontothe heads of the daewas.

129-131. (A repetitious list of the weapons in Mithra's chariot, namely,one thousand arrows, spears, battle axes, daggers, and clubs.)

132. There in the chariot of Mithra of wide pastures is (his) beautiful,easily wielded mace with a hundred knobs, with a hundred blades, afeller of men as it swings forward, cast in strong golden bronze, thestrongest of weapons, the most victorious of weapons. It flies from thesupernatural realm, it falls from the supernatural realm onto the headsof the daewas.

133. Thereupon, it (the mace) smashes (the heads) of the daewas; there-upon, they (clubs, knives, etc.) smash down (on the heads) of the menfalse to the covenant.

Mithra of wide pastures drives forth across Arazahl (and) Sawahl,across Fradadhafshu (and) WIdadhafshu, across Wouru.barashtl (and)Wouru-jarashti, across this splendid continent Xwaniratha.

134. The very deadly Angra Mainyu becomes truly terrified; treacher-ous Wrath whose body is forfeited becomes truly terrified; long-handedBushyasta becomes truly terrified; all the supernatural daewas and alsothe concupiscent drugwants become truly terrified.

135. [Repeat st. 98.]

XXXII136. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], for whom white

coursers, yoked to his one-wheeled golden chariot, will pull . . . ( ? )when he brings his libations to his abode.

137. Hail to the authoritative man—thus said Ahura Mazda—O right-eous Zarathushtra, for whom a righteous zaotar . . . ( ? ) . . . learned,who is tanu.mathra, shall worship with the litany of Mithra at thespread-out barasman. Straightway, Mithra visits the authoritativeman's dwelling, if as a result of his (the man's) favor (shown to thepriest), it (the litany) is in accordance with the prescription for thinking.

138. Woe to the authoritative man—thus said Ahura Mazda—O right-eous Zarathushtra, for whom a zaotar who is not a righteous man, not

Mithra I 75

learned, not tanu.mathra, (shall) worship standing behind the barasmanand spreading the barssman fully, and offering a long hymn of worship.

139. He who is contemptuous of Mazda, contemptuous of the otherAmssha Spsntas, contemptuous of Mithra of wide pastures, contemp-tuous of the Law and the Judge (Rashnu) and world-promoting, world-increasing Justice, does not propitiate Ahura Mazda, nor the otherAmasha Spantas, nor Mithra of wide pastures.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXXIII140. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7].

I shall worship Mithra, O Spitama, the good, brave, supernatural,foremost, very merciful, unchangeable, whose home is on high, thepowerful, brave warrior.

141. Valiant, armed with a finely made weapon, wakeful in the dark-ness, undeceivable—he is the most powerful of the most powerful, he isthe bravest of the bravest, he is the very smartest of the gods. Valiant,attended by xwarsnah, he has a thousand ears, ten thousand eyes, hewho, strong, having ten thousand spies, undeceivable, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]

XXXIV142. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], the well-created,

greatest god, who in the morning (re)creates the many forms, the crea-tures of Spanta Mainyu, as he illumines himself, like the Moon, with hisown light.

143. whose face blazes like (that) of the star Tishtrya; whose chariot, OSpitama, the undeceiving (Ashi?) first guides as ... (?). (Mithra) who,strong, having ten thousand spies, undeceivable, knows all.

[Repeat sts. 4-6.]144. We worship Mithra . . . [continue with st. 7], we worship Mithra

who is in front of (?) the country, we worship Mithra who is inside thecountry, we worship Mithra who is at the country, we worship Mithrawho is above the country, we worship Mithra who is around the coun-try, we worship Mithra who is behind (?) the country.

145. We worship the exalted Righteous who (ensure) freedom from dan-ger, Ahura and Mithra, as well as the Stars, the Moon, and the Sun. Atthe barasman we worship Mithra, the Lord of all countries.

[Repeats sts. 4-6.]

4. Rashnu

As with Mithra, so with Rashnu, the starting point for an understanding ofhis nature is understanding the meaning of his name. It means 'judge' andin its appellative sense is also applied once to Mithra (Yt. 10.79). Thename is derived from a verbal base raz- 'to direct, make straight, judge',which also provides Rashnu's standing epithet razishta 'straightest, mostjust'. The same verb in Indo-European, *reg, was highly productive,yielding, for example, NHG Recht 'law' and Richter 'judge', and in Latin,Celtic, and Old Indian the common word for 'king' (see below). As divineJudge, he seems to have been particularly active in oaths and ordeals. TheAvestan word warah covers both meanings (cf. OInd sapatha). At atrial, oaths affirming the veracity of testimony were essential, and, whenhuman criteria failed to establish the truth, divine criteria were employedin the form of ordeals.

The one hymn dedicated to Rashnu must be counted among the morerecent of the Yashts. The language of the text is often corrupt and con-fused. St. 8, for example, contains nine or ten words that are sheer gibber-ish; the silly answer that is given in the initial stanzas to Zarathushtra'squestion, as well as the formulaic repetition of sts. 9 to the end, point toredactors who understood very little of the Avestan language and whowere able to accomplish little more than to pass along, often in garbledform, bits of inherited lore pertaining to Rashnu. Although the RashnuYasht is, as it stands, recent, it is only so in terms of redaction. There ismuch in it that must go back to very old material. A curious aspect of thefirst two stanzas of the Yasht is that they have nothing to do with Rashnu.Now, one prominent feature of Zoroastrian eclecticism is the legitimizingof non-Zarathushtrian texts by means of some artificial device, usually astatement put in the mouth of Ahura Mazda (e.g., Yt. 10.1). In sts. 1 and 2it would seem that Ahura Mazda has been substituted for Rashnu, as iscertainly the case in sts. 3 and 4, which are reworkings of sts. 5 and 6,where Rashnu occurs in what must be the traditional invocation of the godJudge to preside at an ordeal.

St. 3 informs us that the ordeal or the swearing of an oath (warah) wasto take place at noon. In keeping with Indo-Iranian ritual practice, a seatof grass or twigs was provided for the divine guest called to the ceremony.The fire, present at most Zoroastrian rituals, represents in this contextone of the elements (the other being water) over which oaths were solem-nized. Among other expedients, hot oil was a favorite substance for

Rashnu I 77

effecting the ordeal. In addition to the epithets discussed above, Rashnu'sother epithets befit the divine Judge who must needs be wise, decisive,supportive of the law-abiding man's case, hard on criminals, and able toobserve, even from afar, the activities of men. This latter ability istediously exploited in sts. 9-37, in which all the important places, bothwithin this world and in the beyond, that Rashnu visits on his rounds, areenumerated with the identical formula.

Fortunately, our knowledge of Rashnu is not confined to Yasht 12.There are scattered, though important, references to him elsewhere in theAvesta. He also appears in the Pahlavi books in a somewhat differentcapacity. Finally, there exist references to him outside the Zoroastriantradition altogether. To begin with the latter, these references consist ofnames. The Iranians, like many peoples, often chose personal names thatcontained the name of a god. Among the Persepolis Fortification Tablets,dated to the end of the reign of Darius I (c. 500 B.C.), at least two suchtheophoric names appear bearing Rashnu's name: *Rashnuka,*Rashnudata, and a dubious *Rashnubar. Since it is not likely thatZoroastrianism had any effect on the nomenclature in Persis at this time,the inclusion of Rashnu among the hundreds of names contained in thetablets is conclusive proof in itself that Rashnu was a "pagan" pre-Zoroastrian deity, a conclusion already drawn on the basis of the internalevidence of his Yasht.

In later Zoroastrianism, Rashnu retains his role of judge, but he isalmost exclusively limited to judging the souls of the deceased. He sharesresponsibility with Mihr (Mithra) and Srosh (Sraosha), assuming a rathersubordinate position as simply the weigher of the souls' good and evildeeds. There are indications in the Denkard that, in lost Avestan textsdealing with jurisprudence, Rashnu still retained his older and broaderrole as judge. The evolution of Rashnu's role from that of judge in generalto judge of the dead belongs to a span of history more recent than theAvesta and can be seen as a natural outgrowth of orthodox Zoroastriantheology. Since there is no trace of the later role in the Avesta, it need notconcern us here.

As noted, the scope of the Rashnu Yasht is extremely narrow. Whenstripped of the lines that do not pertain to Rashnu, the Yasht tells us littlemore about the divine Judge than that he was invoked with variousepithets, with a given formula and ritual acts at the institution of anordeal, that at a trial (aratha) he was particularly severe with criminals,and that his sphere of activity was universal. Surprisingly enough, nothingis said about his close connection with Sraosha and, more importantly,with Mithra.

The Mithra Yasht (Yasht 10) dramatically portrays Mithra driving in his

78 I Rashnu

chariot with Rashnu now at his right (st. 126), now at his left (st. 100).Quite apart from the naturalistic association of Mithra with the movementof the sun, the purpose of Mithra's daily travels is to oversee the cove-nants between men and the inflicting of punishment wherever covenantinfringements have taken place. Since treaties between peoples areamong the most important of covenants, Mithra's most convenientmethod for punishing the treaty breakers is turning the tide of battleagainst them. This is described in the ninth Kardah of the Yasht, in which(in st. 41) Rashnu plays an active role. Here, and throughout the Zoroas-trian tradition, Rashnu has always followed more or less in the shadow ofthe greater god Mithra. In the Rashnu Yasht, however, the figure ofRashnu gains a measure of independence, as he visits all the parts of theuniverse, presumably alone. Whether he is alone or in the company ofMithra, Rashnu's function is clearly the overseeing of justice. He bothperceives the doings of men and presides as supreme authority at theiradjudicatory processes.

In matters having to do with relations among men, it would seem that,on the one hand, Mithra's proper jurisdiction was over the whole area offormal covenantal or contractual relations, but not beyond; while, on theother hand, Rashnu had jurisdiction over the more diverse area of crimi-nal law. The distinction is best illustrated by contrasting statements insist-ing that Mithra will destroy the person false to a covenant and that Rash-nu will destroy the thief and bandit^ Although each function is distinct,both contribute to the formation of a total legal structure. That Rashnu isalmost always in the company of Mithra is, then, explicable in terms of afundamental conception of the divine system of justice. Religio-historicaldevelopments in Iran dictated that Mithra should eclipse his partner ingreatness. As one turns to the Indo-Aryans, one shall see the positions ofMithra and Rashnu reversed.

Rashnu is one of the gods of the Iranian pantheon who has no obviouscounterpart in the Vedas. The only serious attempt to identify him with anIndian deity was made by Dumezil, who attempted to prove his identitywith Visnu.26 The argument, founded on a false etymology for 'Visnu,'has little to recommend it. My own opinion is that a strong case can bemade for a qualified identification with another Vedic deity, Varuna,whose name has appeared already in the discussions of Ahura Mazda andMithra (sects. 2 and 3). The reader will have observed that, on the onehand, Vedic Mitra is nearly always found in a dual (dvandvd) relationshipwith Varuna and that, on the other hand, Avestan Mithra appears in thedual compounds mithra-ahura and payu-thvorsshtara. He also appears insuch a relationship with Rashnu (Yt. 13.3; cf. Yt. 13.47 and the Parthianproper name Rashnumitr). The Vedic counterparts of Ahura and

Rashnu I 79

Thvorashtar are Asura and Tvastar respectively, and it will be clear thatthe functional counterpart of Rashnu is Varuna, the divine judge (amongother aspects) of the Vedic pantheon, who is particularly conspicuous asoverseer of oaths and ordeals, as is Rashnu. Varuna is, of course, a vastlymore complex figure, and it would be foolish to attempt to see any furtherresemblance between him and Rashnu than the one aspect put forth here.One sees in the coupling of Mithra-Varuna and Mithra-Rashnu the reflec-tion of the Indo-Iranian ideal of the divine legal structure as encompassingtwo distinct yet interrelated functions. The contrast between the twofunctions is inversely represented in Iran and India: in Iran, the aspect ofCovenant greatly overshadows that of Judge, whereas in India the aspectof Judge assumes the dominant position.

Rashnu Yasht (Yasht 12)1. Righteous (Zarathushtra) questioned him: O righteous Ahura Mazda!

I turn to you, O Ahura Mazda; I ask you about the rule of speech.Speak to me (about this matter), O Wise One! You are undeceivable,having undeceivable intelligence, undeceivable, all-knowing! What(aspect) of the Mathra Spanta is the correct law? What, the law ofjudicial procedure? What the decision? What solicitous? What won-drous? What perceptive? . . . (?).

2. Then Ahura Mazda said: I shall, indeed, proclaim this to you, Oupright, righteous Spitamid. The Mathra Spsnta which has muchxwarsnah, that is (what is) of the Mathra Spsnta the correct law, thelaw of judicial procedure, the decision, the solicitous, the wondrous,the perceptive . . . (?).

3. Then Ahura Mazda said: You should strew a third of the barssmanabout at midday (with the words), "We invoke, we propitiate" me, whoam Ahura Mazda. I call also the . . . ( ? ) to this instituted ordeal, to thefire and the barssman, to the full, overflowing (bowl of water), to the(boiling) ordeal-ghee and the vegetable oil.

4. Then I shall come to you, I who am Ahura Mazda, to this institutedordeal, to the fire and the barasman, to the full, overflowing (bowl ofwater), to the (boiling) ordeal-ghee and the vegetable oil, at the sametime as the victorious Wind, at the same time as Damoish Upamana, atthe same time as the kawyan Xwaranah, at the same time as the Mazda-created Profit.

5. We invoke, we propitiate Rashnu who is powerful. I call also the . . .(?) to this instituted ordeal, to the fire and the barssman, to the full,overflowing (bowl of water), to the (boiling) ordeal-ghee and the vege-table oil.

80 I Rashnu

6. Then lofty Rashnu who is powerful will come to help you, to thisinstituted ordeal . . . [continue with st. 5].

7. O righteous Rashnu! O must just Rashnu! O most beneficent Rashnu!O wisest Rashnu! O most decisive Rashnu! O Rashnu, you who knowbest from afar! O Rashnu, you who see farthest in(to) die distance! ORashnu, you who best support the (accuser's) plaint! O Rashnu, youwho best smite down the thief!

8. (O Rashnu,) you who when not treated with enmity are the mostsuccessful (?), who best smite, best destroy the thief and the bandit atthis trial . . . (?).

9. Also when you, righteous Rashnu, are at the continent Arazahi, we in-voke, we propitiate Rashnu who is powerful. . . . [Continue with sts. 5-8.]

5. Warathraghna

It is immediately clear from the most cursory reading of Yasht 14 thatWarathraghna is a god of combat, of physical force. The name itself,which means 'victory', stands in need of further elucidation in order thatone may achieve an understanding of the god's basic nature. 'Victory',which is the translation given in the traditional Zoroastrian commentaries,is an accurate yet colorless approximation. The name is a compoundconsisting of a prior member wardthra and a final member ghna. Theelement warathra means 'defense, resistance, obstruction'; ghna means'the smashing, breaking, smiting'. Together they form a neuter nounmeaning 'the smashing of resistance', and in its appellative sensewarsthraghna is a common word in the Avesta. As a masculine propername, it designates the deity who represents the power to overcome allobstructions. It must be remembered that the Indo-Iranians were aggres-sive, life-affirming peoples, who abhorred anything that stood in the wayof expansion and productivity. On the cosmic level, this world view wasconsciously articulated by the Vedic Aryans in the mythic complex ofIndra and the serpent of cosmic obstruction Vrtra (Av warathra). TheAryan world view never received such extensive theological treatment inIran on the level of cosmogony. On the mundane level, however, it wasadmirably expressed in the person of Wsrsthraghna, who epitomizes theideal of the Aryan warrior, fiercely aggressive in his ability to smash thedefenses of all who stand in his way. At a time when the seminomadicAryans were pressing into centers of established civilization from thesteppes, the god who smashes defenses must have been especially signifi-cant. Ancient Iranian monarchies down through the Sasanids never lost

Wsrsthraghna I 81

the ideal of global expansion (though this was limited in fact by practicalconsiderations), and, as a consequence, Wsrsthraghna retained a signifi-cant place in the pantheon up to the advent of Islam. To summarize,Wsrsthraghna stands for 'victory' through offensive warfare.

Before Benveniste's definitive work on Warathraghna, much of anerroneous nature was written about this deity and its relation to VedicIndra. Guided by the mistaken assumption that Vedic myth represents astage earlier than the Iranian, scholars thought that Indra's epithetvrtrahan meant originally 'slayer of (the serpent) Vrtra', and that theabsence of the dragon-slayer motif from Warathraghna's mythologyproved the degenerate state of the Iranian myth. Since Indra does occur inthe Avesta, banished as a daewa, one could assume that what remained ofthe once glorious Indra had been divided among Mithra, who gained hismace and martial traits, Warsthraghna, who perpetuated his epithet andperhaps his ability to change form, and the hero Thraetaona, slayer ofDahaka the snake (azhi-dahaka; cf. Ved ahi-vrtrd). Now matters areseen to be quite the opposite. The mythological context of the Avestapreserved what must approximate the original Indo-Iranian cast of char-acters; the Veda contains the innovations. Thus, Wsrothraghna (whoactually has no counterpart *Vrtraghna in the Vedas, as the epithetvrtrahan, Av warathrajan is an adjective applied to gods and men alike)must be acknowledged as the original Indo-Iranian deity of war and vic-tory through offensive breaking down of all enemy defenses.

The most conspicuous characteristic of Warsthraghna is his ability tomanifest himself in a variety of forms both anthropomorphic and ther-iomorphic. The ten manifestations described in his Yasht call to mindPuranic Visnu's ten avataras and Indra's general ability to change form.In light of the fact that post-Vedic Visnu has borrowed heavily in certainaspects from Vedic Indra, it may well be that the avatara concept ulti-mately derives from Ilr *Wrtraghna. Be that as it may, the most promi-nent avatara of Wsrathraghna was the boar, under which form the readerhas already seen him ferociously clearing the way in front of Mithra (Yt.10.70). All the avataras have in common that they portray aggressiveforce and virility.

Of note also is the first avatara, the Wind (Wayu or Wata). Though agod in his own right (see sect. 7), he is frequently mentioned in the Avestaas the Victorious Wind (Wata Warathrajan). In this aspect he is usuallyaccompanied by Conquering Superiority (Wanainti Uparatai) and a cu-rious figure, Damoish Upamana, whom Gershevitch has explained asWarsthraghna's alter ego.27 It is interesting to note that Wanainti,a goddess, appears later on the coins of Huvishka as OANINAO in theform of the Greek goddess of victory, Nike.

82 I Wdrathraghna

In accordance with his ability to bestow victory and consequently hisimportance to those wielding power, Warsthraghna is closely connectedwith xwarsnah (see sect. 6). He has the unique epithet baro-xwaranah-'bearing xwaranah', which means, if one follows the Pahlavi gloss (Vend.19.37), that he bore it as his battle standard, though the implication is thathe bestows the xwaranah upon the victor. In the myth of the flight ofxwarsnah after Yima's "fall" (Yt. 19.35, 36, 38), the xwarsnah flees in theform of one of Warathraghna's avataras, the falcon (waraghna), first toMithra, then to the two heroes Thraetaona and Ksrssaspa. The associa-tion of the falcon with Warsthraghna was deeply rooted in popular belief,especially, one may surmise, among warriors, as is shown by the impor-tance attached to falcon amulets.

Finally, it will be seen (sect. 12) that the water-bringing god Tishtrya,the star Sirius, assumes three forms shared with Wsrothraghna: the bull,the horse, and the young man.

Wdrsthraghna (Wahram) Yasht (Yasht 14)

I1. We worship Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna.

Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: Ahura Mazda, most beneficentSpirit, righteous Creator of the material world, who among the spiritualyazatas is best equipped? Then Ahura Mazda said: "Wsrgthraghna, OSpitamid Zarathushtra."

2. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him first in the form ofthe bold, beautiful Mazda-created Wind. The good Mazda-createdxwaranah he bore, the Mazda-created xwarsnah, curativeness andstrength.

3. Then strongest (Warsthraghna said) to him: In strength I am thestrongest, in valor I am the most valorous, in xwaranah I am most inpossession of xwarsnah, in favor I am most bestowing of favor, in wealI am most bestowing of weal, in curativeness I am most curative.

4. Then I shall overcome hostilities, the hostilities of all enemies, thehostilities of daewas and men, sorcerers and witches, tyrants, kawis,and karapans.

5. On account of his rayi and glory, I shall worship him with audibleworship, Ahura-created Warathraghna, with libations. We worshipAhura-created Warsthraghna (with the words): yaish dataish paoiryaishahurahe (Y. 46.15), with haoma (mixed) with milk. . . . [Continue withNy. 1.16 (p. 183).]

Wsrsthraghna I 83

II6. [Repeat st. 1.]7. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him a second time in

the form of a beautiful golden-horned bull on whose horns was mountedwell-built, handsome Strength; thus Ahura-created Warathraghnacame.

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with st. 5].

Ill8. [Repeat st. 1.]9. Ahura-created Warathraghna came driving to him a third time in the

form of a beautiful white horse with yellow ears (and) a golden bridle,on whose forehead was mounted well-built, handsome Strength; thusAhura-created Worathraghna came.


IV10. [Repeat st. 1.]11. Ahura-created Warsthraghna came driving to him a fourth time in

the form of a rutting camel, . . . (?), attacking (?), bellowing, tram-pling, having woolly hair which clothes men,

12. who among ejaculating males has the greatest power and the greatestpassion, who goes (to mate) among the females [indeed, those femalesare best protected which a rutting camel protects], (who) has strong,forelegs, fat humps, nictitating (?) eyes, a clever head, is intelligent,tall, (and) powerful,

13. whose (?) far-seeing (glance) shines forth . . . ( ? ) afar through thedark night; who expectorates spittle back upon (his) whitish head; whostays on his good knee(s), on his good leg(s), looking out like an all-ruling ruler; thus he came.


V14. [Repeat st. 1.]15. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him a fifth time in the

form of a ferocious wild boar with sharp teeth, with sharp tusks, a boarthat kills at one blow, unapproachable (when) angered, prepared forbattle, outflanking (the enemy): thus he came.


VI16. [Repeat st. 1.]17. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him a sixth time in the

84 I Wdrsthraghna

form of a regal fifteen-year-old man with clear eyes, with small heels,handsome: thus he came.


VII18. [Repeat st. 1.]19. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him a seventh time in

the form of a falcon, seizing from below (with his talons), crushing (?)from above (with his beak), who is the fastest of birds, the swiftest ofthose that fly forth.

20. He alone among living beings (can) overtake the flight of an arrow,[either he only, or not at all,] even when it flies well shot; who at thefirst gleam of dawn, pluming himself, flies; at evening seeking (his)evening meal, in the predawn seeking (his) breakfast.

21. He grazes (with his wings) the . . . ( ? ) of the mountain tops, hegrazes the peaks of the mountains, he grazes the river valleys, he grazesthe treetops (?), listening for the call of the birds: thus he came.


VIII22. [Repeat st. 1.]23. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him an eighth time in

the form of a beautiful wild ram with downward-curved horns: thus hecame.


IX24. [Repeat st. 1.]25. Ahura-created Warothraghna came driving to him a ninth time in the

form of a beautiful sharp-horned . . . ( ? ) goat: thus he came.On account of his rayi . . . [continue with st. 5].

X26. [Repeat st. 1.]27. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna came driving to him a tenth time in the

form of a handsome, intelligent, Mazda-created hero. He carried agold-inlayed, adorned, fully decorated dagger: thus he came.


XI28. We worship Ahura-created Wsrathraghna who makes (men) virile

(?), who makes (men) strong, who is concerned with a good peace, whoprovides good ways.

Wsrsthraghna I 85

Righteous Zarathushtra worshipped him, Warsthraghna, for victoryin thought, for victory in speech, for victory in act, for victory indeclaratory speech, for victory in retort.

29. Ahura-created Wsrothraghna gave him the scrotum's well, the arm'sstrength, health of the entire body, fatness of the entire body, and that(power of) sight which the aquatic kara2S has who (can) distinguish ahair-thin eddy of the far-shored, thousand-man-deep Rangha (river).


XII30. [Repeat st. 28.]31. Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna gave him . . . [continue with st. 29],

and that (power of) sight which a stallion has who, even on a dark night,starless (?) and cloudy, (can) see a horsehair lying on the ground (andtell) whether it is from the head or the tail.


XIII32. [Repeat st. 28.]33. Ahura-created Warsthraghna gave him . . . [continue with st. 29],

and that (power of) sight which the zaranumani vulture29 has who, evenfrom a distance of eight villages, (can) perceive a piece of flesh the sizeof a fist—even as large as the shimmer of a shimmering needle, even aslarge as the point of a needle.

On account of his rayi . . .

XIV34. We worship Ahura-created Warathraghna.

Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: Ahura Mazda, most beneficentSpirit, righteous Creator of the material world! When I am much cursedverbally (or) mentally by hostile men, what is the remedy?

35. Then Ahura Mazda said: Find yourself the feather of a falcon withspread-out feathers, O Spitamid Zarathushtra. With the feather strokeyourself, with the feather countercurse (your) opponent.

36. Whoever carries either a bone of the swift bird or a feather of theswift bird—not even a clever man harms (him) nor drives (him) forth.The feather of the bird of birds brings him much (?) respect, (the feath-er) possessing much (?) xwaranah maintains support (for him).

37-40. [Obscure.]XV

41. We worship Ahura-created Wsrathraghna.May Warsthraghna surround this house which possesses xwaranah

86 I Wdrathraghna

(?) with cattle pens (?), as the great eagle (broods on the nest), as thewater-laden clouds envelop (?) the great mountains.


XVI42. We worship Ahura-created Wsrsthraghna.

Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: Ahura Mazda, most beneficentSpirit, righteous Creator of the material world, where is it that oneshould invoke Ahura-created Warathraghna by name? where praise(him)? where call (him) down?

43. Then Ahura Mazda said: When two armies should come together, OSpitamid Zarathushtra, . . . (?),

44. you should arrange four feathers on the way. Whichever of the two(armies) shall be first to worship (with the words), "O well-made, well-built Strength, O Ahura-created Warsthraghna!", that one shall beaccompanied by victory.

45. I propitiate Strength and Warathraghna, the two protectors, the twodefenders, the two guardians. . . . [The remainder is obscure.]

46. O Zarathushtra, do not teach this spell to anyone other than a fatheror a son or a blood brother or an athrawan student. And these (are)words for you which are strong (and) firm, strong (and) eloquent, strong(and) victorious, strong (and) curative; and these (are) words for youwhich (can) save even a forfeited head, (can) repel even the arm alreadyunpraised (to strike) a blow.


XVII47. We worship Ahura-created Warsthraghna who ranges between the

two arrayed battle lines. Together with Mithra and Rashnu, he asks upand down (the battle lines): Who is false to Mithra, who abandonsRashnu? To whom shall I be able to apportion disease and death?

48. Then Ahura Mazda said: If men would worship (with the words), "OAhura-created Warathraghna!", . . . ( ? ) according to the Truth whichis best, there would be no enemy army directed here toward the Aryancountries, nor famine, nor mange (?) nor . . . (?), nor a war chariot, noran upraised banner.

49. Zarathushtra responded to him: What, in fact, O Ahura Mazda, isthe most correct worship and praise of Ahura-created Warathraghnaaccording to the Truth which is best?

50. Then Ahura Mazda said: The Aryan peoples should offer up liba-tions for him; the Aryan peoples should strew barasman for him; the

Wsrsthraghna I 87

Aryan peoples should cook an animal, either a white one or a dark oneor whichever color (as long as it is) all of the same color.

51. Let not a knave partake of it, nor a whore, nor an Ashawan whodoes not recite the Gathas, a destroyer of life opposed to this ahuricZoroastrian Religion.

52. If a rogue partakes of it, or a whore, or an Ashawan who does notrecite the Gathas, a destroyer of life opposed to this ahuric ZoroastrianReligion, (then) Ahura-created Warathraghna goes away with his cura-tive power.

53. Similarly, famines will come to the Aryan countries; similarly,enemy armies will descend upon the Aryan countries; similarly, theAryan countries will be smitten with one hundred blows for (every) fiftyblows, . . . [Continue with Yt. 10.43 (p. 64).]

54. Then Ahura-created Warsthraghna spoke forth thus: O men, theSoul of the cow created by the Creator is not to be worshipped orpraised if now the Wyambura daewas30 [daewa-worshipping men] areeither letting blood flow or sprinkling (it) forth;

55. if now the Wyambura daewas [daewa-worshipping men] bring to thefire (some) of the plant which is called "juniper" by name (and) the fuelwhich is called "felt" by name;

56. if now the Wyambura daewas [daewa-worshipping men] break (?)(the ox's) back, . . . ( ? ) (its) midsection, stretch all the limbs outstraight; (—they seem to be slay ing (but) do not slay, [they seem to . . .(?) (but) do not . . . (?)] if now the Wyambura daewas [daewa-worshipping men] rip off (its) ears and gouge out (its) eyes.


XXI57-61. [Omitted.]62. We worship Ahura-created Wsrathraghna, who destroys the battle

lines, who cuts the battle lines, who tramples the battle lines, whothrows the battle lines into confusion; Ahura-created Warathraghnacompletely destroys the battle lines, he completely cuts the battle lines,he completely tramples the battle lines, he completely throws into con-fusion the battle lines of daewas and men, of sorcerers and witches, oftyrants, kawis, and karapans.


XXII63. We worship Ahura-created Warathraghna.

Then, when Ahura-created Worsthraghna binds behind (their backs)

88 I Wdrdthraghna

the hands of the oppressed battle lines, of the allied districts, of the menfalse to the treaty, (when he) clouds (their) vision (and) deafens (their)ears, he (the man false to the covenant) cannot stand firm, he has noendurance.

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with st. 5],

6. Xwaranah

I have discussed facets of the exercise of temporal power in severalcontexts, for example, the political role of Ahuramazda in respect to theAchaemenid kings and the importance of Warsthraghna as an Aryanideal. But no one religious concept is more central to Iranian notions ofthe legitimate wielding of political authority than the concept of xwaranah'glory'. The word is better known in its Median form *farnah. Althoughthe Achaemenid kings did not use it in their inscriptions, it gained curren-cy throughout the Iranian world under their empires, as can be seen bythe popularity of the word in numerous proper names and in its occur-rence as a loan word in such remote languages as Khotanese (pharrd),Sogdian (prn), and Kushan-Bactrian (<£APPO). Whoever wished to rulelegitimately had to be graced by possession of xwaranah. This is amplyillustrated in Yasht 19, in which the xwarsnah either eludes evil rulers,especially non-Iranians (e.g., Azhi Dahaka or Frangrasyan), or desertsthe Iranian ruler who has fallen into evil ways (Yima). When evil gainedthe upper hand and sovereignty passed to non-Iranians, the xwaranahwould take refuge in the cosmic sea Wouru.kasha until such time as itcould again grace a legitimate ruler. In this sense, then, xwarenah was asymbol of Iranian national unity. Often in the Avesta the xwarsnah iscalled 'kawyan', i.e., 'belonging to the Kawis'. The Kawis were a partial-ly legendary, partially historical dynasty of eastern Iranian rulers (seeIntroduction, p. 18). Since the Avesta is an eastern Iranian document, it ishardly surprising that it should glorify the regional dynasty. In MiddlePersian literature, the Kawyan Xwarsnah has become generalized and,for example, it is used in reference to the first Sasanid Ardaxsher.

In its various meanings, xwaranah is not confined to the political con-text alone, but has a much wider range of application. It can be a creativepower used by the gods or it can be a religious power employed by holymen to gain victory over the forces of the Lie. But in its most generalapplication xwaranah embodies the concept of good fortune. Given such arange of meaning, one might well ask what the original, etymologicalmeaning might be. Because the xwaranah was visualized as a kind of

Xwardnah I 89

fiery radiance, many scholars would relate it to the word for 'sun' hwarlxwar (OInd suvar), even though there are morphological problems con-nected with such an etymology. Another possibility begins with 'goodfortune' as the basic meaning and posits a verb *xwar- 'to grasp, take';thus the meaning will have been something like 'what one gets'. One canalso posit an Iranian verb hwar- 'to shine', corresponding to the poorlyattested OInd svar- 'to shine'. None of this is at all certain. In mostinstances I have translated the word as 'glory', and otherwise, where thecontext requires it, as 'fortune'.

An interesting and apparently ancient mythological motif is that ofApam Napat's guardianship of xwarsnah (Yt. 19.51-52). Since ApamNapat (Child of the Waters), the "lofty Ahura," is elsewhere said tosubjugate countries in revolt, his connection with xwarsnah can hardly befortuitous. In the Vedas there is an intimate connection, often borderingon identity, between Apam Napat and Agni (Fire). This association of theaquatic god with fire, or with a fiery substance guarded in a body of water,is, as Dumezil has, I think, shown, Indo-European in origin, even if onedoes not follow his trifunctional analysis of the rest of the xwarsnahmyth.31

Xwardnah (Zamydd) Yasht (Yasht 19)I

1-8. (A list of mountains.)9. We worship the strong Mazda-created kawyan Xwarsnah created by

Mazda, much praised, having superior skill, solicitous, having super-natural power, perceptive . . . ( ? )

10. which belongs to Ahura Mazda, since it is Ahura Mazda who is wontto create the creatures numerous and good, numerous and beautiful,numerous and wonderful, numerous and marvelous, numerous andradiant,

11. since (?) they shall make life marvelous (so that it may be) unaging,undying, not decaying, not putrefying, ever living, ever prospering,autonomous. When the departed shall rise up again (from the dead),nondestruction shall come for the living. By the will (of Ahura Mazda)(the Saoshyant) makes life marvelous.

12. The beings shall become undying who are under the command (?) ofTruth. The Lie shall retreat to wherever it was whence it came in orderto destroy the righteous man, him and (his) family and (his) being; andthe hussy will be terrified (?), and the scoundrel will be destroyed. . . .(?)

13. On account of its rayi and glory, I shall worship it with audible

90 I Xwarsnah

worship, the strong kawyan Xwaranah created by Mazda, with liba-tions. We worship the strong kawyan Xwarenah with haoma (mixed)with milk. . . . [Continue with Ny. 1.16 (p. 183).]

II14. [Repeat st. 9.]15-17. which belongs to the Amssha Spantas . . . [continue with Yt.

13.82-84 (p. 113)].18. who are the Creators and the Fashioners and the Makers and the

Overseers and the Protectors and the Guardians of these creatureswhich belong to Ahura Mazda.

19-20. It is even they who, by the will (of Ahura Mazda), make lifemarvelous (so that it is) unaging. . . . [Continue with st. 11 from "un-dying" to end of st. 12.]

Ill21. [Repeat st. 9.]22. which belongs to the supernatural and mundane gods, and to both

the born and the unborn, wonder-working Saoshyants.23-24. [Repeat sts. 19-20.]

IV25. [Repeat st. 9.]26. which accompanied Haoshangha Paradhata for a very long time, so

that on the sevenfold earth he ruled over daewas and men, sorcerersand witches, tyrants, kawis, and karapans, (he) who slew two-thirds ofthe daewas from Mazandaran and the liars from Warsna.

On account of its rayi . . . [continue with st. 13].

V27. [Repeat st. 9.]28. which accompanied Taxma Urupi dressed in skins (?) so that on the

sevenfold earth he ruled over daewas and men, sorcerers and witches,tyrants, kawis, and karapans;

29. so that he became victorious over all daewas and men, all sorcerersand witches; so that for thirty years he rode around the limits of theearth on Angra Mainyu transformed into the form of a horse.


VI30. [Repeat st. 9.]31. which accompanied regal Yima rich in herds, for a very long time, so

that on the sevenfold earth he ruled over daewas and men, sorcerersand witches, tyrants, kawis, and karapans;

Xwarsnah I 91

32. who (Yima) took from the daewas both goods and profit, both flocksand herds, both contentment and renown, under whose rule . . . ( ? )cattle and men did not die, water and vegetation did not dry up;

33. under whose rule there was neither cold nor heat, nor was thereeither old age or death, nor daewa-created jealousy, before (when therewas?) nonfalsehood, (that is,) before he (?) introduced falsehood [un-true speech] to his mind.

34. Then, when he (?) introduced falsehood [untrue speech] to his mind,the Xwarsnah, visibly, in the form of a bird, went forth from him.Seeing the Xwaranah rushing away, regal Yima rich in herds sadlybegan to wander, and, given over to depression, he kept himself hidden(?) on the earth.

35. First, the Xwaranah turned away from regal Yima, the Xwaranahwent from Yima the son of Wlwahwant in the form of a falcon. Mithraof wide pastures, who has listening ears and a thousand perceptions,took possession of the Xwaranah.

We worship Mithra, the ruler of all countries, whom Ahura Mazdacreated possessing the most xwaranah of the supernatural gods.

36. When, a second time, the Xwaranah turned away from regal Yima,(when) the Xwaranah went from Yima the son of Wlwahwant in theform of a falcon, the prince Thraetaona of the mighty house ofAthvyanids, took possession of the Xwarsnah, since he was the mostvictorious among victorious men other than Zarathushtra,

37. who (Thraetaona) slew Azhi Dahaka. . . . [Continue with Y. 9.8(p. 152).]

38. When, a third time, the Xwarsnah turned away from regal Yima,(when) the Xwaranah went from Yima the son of Wlwahwant in theform of a falcon, manly-minded Karasaspa took possession of theXwaranah, since he was the most powerful among strong men, exceptfor Zarathushtra, because of (his) manly valor;

39. —Since it was strong Manly Valor who accompanied him, weworship Manly Valor standing erect, unsleeping, resting in its placeawake, who accompanied Ksrasaspa—

40. who slew the horse-devouring, man-devouring, poisonous, yellow-ish-horned Serpent, over whom (the Serpent) poison spurted up on itstail, on its nose, on its back, to the height of a spear shaft, on whomKsrssaspa cooked food in a metal (pot) at noon time. The scoundrelbecame hot. . . . [Continue with Y. 9.11 from " . . . and began tosweat" (p. 153).]

41. Who slew yellow-heeled Gandarava who attacked open-mouthed,

92 I Xwarznah

destroying the material world of Truth; who slew the nine sons ofPathana and the sons of Niwika and the sons of Dashtayani; who slewHitaspa (wearing) a golden diadem and Warashawa Danayana andPitaona much given to witches;

42. who slew Arazoshamana endowed with manly valor, brave, rough(?), clever, hobbling (?), watchful, who could not be overtaken (?),raising a clamor ( ? ) . . . ;

43. who slew Snawidhka of the horned race, whose hands were of stone.He boasted thus: I am a minor, not an adult. If I should become anadult, I shall make earth my wheel, I shall make heaven my chariot.

44. I shall bring Spsnta Mainyu down from (his) shining heaven(Garo.nmana), I shall have Angra Mainyu fly up from (his) awful (?)Hell. They shall pull my chariot, both Spanta Mainyu and Angra(Mainyu), if manly-minded Karssaspa does not slay me.

Manly-minded Karssaspa slew him. (He took) away the breath oflife, the ... (?) of (his) life-force.


VII45. We worship the Mazda-created, unobtainable (?) Xwaranah. . . .

[Continue with st. 9.]46. Spanta Mainyu and Angra (Mainyu) thereupon each sent forth

(their) fastest messengers after this unobtainable (?) (Xwarsnah) whichthey both wanted (?). Spanta Mainyu sent forth as messenger(s) WohuManah, Asha Wahishta, and Fire, the son of Ahura Mazda. AngraMainyu sent forth as messenger(s) Aka Manah and Aeshma with thebloody cudgel and Azhi Dahaka and Spityura who cut Yima (intwo).

47. Thereupon Fire, (the son) of Ahura Mazda, raced straight away,thinking thus to himself, "I shall get possession of this unobtainable (?)Xwarsnah!" Then the three-headed Snake of evil religion ran forthbehind him uttering (this) taunt(?):

48. Ho! Mark this well, Fire, (son) of Ahura Mazda! If you get hold ofthis unobtainable (?) (Xwarsnah), I shall completely drive you away.Thereafter you will not flame up on the Ahura-created earth for theprotection of Truth's creatures.

Then Fire drew back his hands out of anticipated concern for his life,since the Snake . . . (?)

49. Thereupon, the three-headed Snake of evil religion raced forththinking thus to himself, "I shall seize this unobtainable (?)Xwarsnah." Then Fire, (the son) of Ahura Mazda raced straight awaybehind him, speaking with these words:

Xwarsnah I 93

50. Hold! Mark this well, Azhi Dahaka with (your) three heads! If youget hold of this unobtainable (?) (Xwaronah), I shall shoot up (flames) at(your) ass (and) light up your mouth. Thereafter, you will not ventureforth on the Ahura-created earth for the destruction of Truth's crea-tures.

Then the Snake drew back his paws out of anticipated concern for hislife, since Fire . . . (?)

51. This Xwaranah reached (?) the Wouru.kasha sea. Immediately,Apam Napat, whose horses are swift, took possession of it. And ApamNapat, whose horses are swift, desires it, (saying): I shall keep thisXwaranah at the bottom of the deep sea, at the bottom of the deep bays.

52. We worship the lofty Ahura, imperial, regal Apam Napat, whosehorses are swift, the hero who brings help when invoked; who createdman; who fashioned man, the aquatic god who is the best listener whenworshipped.

53. Now, some one of you men—said Ahura Mazda—O righteousZarathushtra, should seek the Xwaranah. . . . [The remainder of stan-za is obscure.]

54. Ashi, bestowing much well-being, heaped up with good things,strong in terms of cow(s) and pasture(s), will accompany him.

Victory, who every day (grants the ability to) strike down (theenemy) in the attack, who (grants) a full life, will accompany him.Then, accompanied by this Victory, he will defeat the bloodthirsty(hostile) army; then, accompanied by this Victory, he will defeat allenemies.

On account of its rayi. . . [continue with st. 13, with the substitutionof "unobtainable (?)" for "kawyan"].

VIII55. [Repeat st. 45.]56. which the Turian scoundrel Frangrasyan sought, (which was floating

in the middle) of the Wouru.kasha sea. Naked, he threw off his clothes.Seeking that Xwaranah which belongs to the Aryan countries—to theborn and the unborn—and which belongs to righteous Zarathushtra, heswam out toward the Xwarsnah. The Xwaranah raced away, theXwarsnah departed. From this there arose this outlet of the Wouru-.kasha sea, the bay which is called "Haosrawah."

57. Then Frangrasyan the Tura, possessing much miraculous power, OSpitamid Zarathushtra, rose up from the Wouru.kasha sea, uttering thisevil utterance: ithe itha yathna ahmdi. I did not embrace this Xwarsnahwhich belongs to the Aryan countries—to the born and the unborn—and which belongs to righteous Zarathushtra.

94 I Xwardnah

58. I shall mix together both: all that is dried up and fluid . . . (?)Ahura Mazda will get into difficulties creating the adverse (?) crea-

tures.Then Frangrasyan the Tura, possessing much miraculous power, O

Spitamid Zarathushtra, descended upon the Wouru.kasha sea.59. A second time, naked, he threw off his clothes. . . . [Continue with

st. 56 through " . . . departed."] From this there arose this outlet of theWouru.kasha sea, the bay which is called "Wanghazda."

60. Then Frangrasyan the Tura, possessing much miraculous power,rose up from the Wouru.kasha sea, uttering this evil utterance: ithe ithayathna ahmai, awaetha itha yathne kahmai. I did not embrace thatXwaranah which belongs to the Aryan countries—to the born and theunborn—and which belongs to the righteous Zarathushtra.

61. [Repeat st. 58.]62. A third time he threw off his clothes. . . . [Continue with st. 56

through " . . . departed."] From this there arose this outlet of theWouru.kasha sea, the water which is called "Avzhdanwan."

63. Then Frangrasyan the Tura, possessing much miraculous power,rose up from the Wouru.kasha sea, uttering this evil utterance: ithe ithayathna ahmai, awathe itha yathna ahmai, awoya itha yathna ahmai. Idid not embrace that Xwarsnah which belongs to the Aryan countries—to the born and the unborn—and which belongs to the righteousZarathushtra.

64. He did not embrace that Xwaranah which belongs to the Aryancountries—to the born and the unborn—and which belongs to the right-eous Zarathushtra.

On account of its rayi. . . [continue with st. 13, with the substitutionof "unobtainable (?)" for "kawyan"].

X70. [Repeat st. 9.]71. which accompanied Kawi Kawata and Kawi Aipi.wohu and Kawi

Usadhan and Kawi Arshan and Kawi Pisina and Kawi Byarshan andKawi Syawarshan,

72. so that they all became brave, all courageous, all solicitous, all filledwith wondrous power, all perceptive, all Kawis bold in action.


XI73. [Repeat st. 9.]74. which accompanied Haosrawah for well-shaped strength and for

Xwarsnah I 95

Ahura-given victory and for conquering superiority and for well-formulated commands and for unalterable commands and for irreversi-ble commands and for immediate victory over opponents,

75. and for healthy strength and for Mazda-created xwarsnah and forbodily health and for noble, good, able, eloquent, fair, clear-eyed prog-eny who save (others) from trouble (and) have good intelligence, (and)for future uncontested good knowledge of the Best Life,

76. and for radiant dominion and for longevity and for all boons and forall cures, for the resistance of sorcerers and witches, tyrants, kawis,and karapans, for the resistance of hostility done by evil rulers,

77. when (?) Kawi Haosrawah (competed with?) this Kgrasa (wazda)[on the racecourse which is long, and we do not cut the turning postwhen the scoundrel cunningly competes against him with his horses].He became victorious over all. Kawi Haosrawah, the lord, bound theTurian scoundrel Frangrasyan (and) Karasawazda, (Haosrawah) theson and avenger of Syawarshan the treacherously slain man, and ofAghraeratha the Narawid.


XII78. [Repeat st. 9.]79. which accompanied righteous Zarathushtra, (urging him) to think

according to the (true) Religion, to speak according to the (true) Reli-gion, to act according to the (true) Religion, so that, of the entirematerial world of being, he was the most righteous in terms of Truth,most authoritative in terms of dominion, most insightful in terms ofinsight, most glorious in terms of glory, most victorious in terms ofvictory.

80. Before his time the daewas would move about visibly, visibly (their)orgies would take place, visibly they would drag women away from(their) men. Then the daewas would violate them crying and lamenting.

81. Then, alone, the Ahuna wairya, which righteous Zarathushtra re-cited four times with (the proper) pauses and then in a loud recitation,drove down all the daewas (so that they became) concealed in the earth,unworthy of worship, unworthy of praise.

82. from (?) whom the Turian scoundrel Frangrasyan sought theXwarsnah over the seven continents. Around the seven continentsthe scoundrel Frangrasyan stormed, seeking Zarathushtra'sXwarsnah. The Xwaranah swam out toward the birds' . . . (?). Lo,they two (who?) came back to me; they two came to the desire of (my)

96 I Xwarznah

desire (?), as in any case it was according to the pleasant disposition ofme (?) Ahura Mazda and of the Mazdean Religion.


XIII83. [Repeat st. 9.]84. which accompanied Kawi Wishtaspa, (urging him) to think accord-

ing to the (true) Religion, to speak according to the (true) Religion, toact according to the (true) Religion, so that he praised this Religion,driving (?) the daewas away from the Righteous (?).

85-86. Who with bow and arrow sought . . . [continue with Yt. 13.99-100 (p. 115)].

87. Brave Kawi Wishtaspa became victorious over Tathryawant, whosereligion is evil, and Psshana the daewa worshipper and the drugwantArajat.aspa as well as any other evil, blasphemous Huns.


XIV88. [Repeat st. 9.]89. which (will) accompany the victorious Saoshyant and the other com-

panions, so that he will make life marvelous . . . [continue with st. 11].90. [Repeat sts. 12-13.]

XV91. [Repeat st. 9.]92. When Astwat.srata, the son of Wispa.taurwa, rises out of the water

Kasaoya as Ahura Mazda's messenger, wielding the victorious waedhaweapon32 which heroic Thraetaona carried when Azhi Dahaka wasslain,

93. which the Tura Frangrasyan carried when the drugwant Zainigu wasslain, which Kawi Haosrawah carried when the Tura Frangrasyan wasslain, which Kawi Wishtaspa carried while teaching the armies ofTruth—then (Astwat.orata) will banish the Lie from the world of Truth.

94. Seeing with the eyes of intelligence, he will view all creatures . . .(?) of the hideous (Lie?). He will see the entire material world of exist-ence with the eyes of zeal, and his gaze will render undying the entirematerial world.

95. The companions of the victorious Astwat.srata will come forth hav-ing good minds, good speech, good deeds, (and) good daenas, who alsodo not speak falsehoods with their own tongues. Wrath with the bloodycudgel, whose Xwaranah is evil, will flee before them. Through Truth,(Astwat.9r9ta) will be victorious over the evil Lie who is hideous, whois composed of darkness.

Wdyu I 97

96. He will also be victorious over the Evil Spirit. The Good Spirit willbe victorious over it. He will be victorious over the falsely spoken(word). The rightly spoken word will be victorious over it. He willconquer health and immortality, both hunger and thirst. Health andImmortality will conquer evil hunger and thirst. Angra Mainyu, thedoer of evil deeds, impotent, will flee.


7. Wayu

Indo-Iranian religion recognized two wind gods, Vata (Av Wata) andVayu (Av Wayu), who, because they are based on the same naturalphenomenon, are difficult to distinguish, even though significant differ-ences do exist between them. The figure of the bold Wata is often seen inthe Avesta in the company of a number of other deities, notably Mithra,Wsraraghna, Tishtrya, and Satawaesa. Outside Yasht 15, Wayu is scarce-ly ever found.

In Avestan and in Iranian generally, wata (and its cognates) is thecommon word for 'wind'. In the Avesta it is found both as an appellativeand as a proper name. Often it is difficult to decide whether a given text istalking about the wind or the Wind, i.e., the divine being manifest in thewind. In the case of wayu, the word is always the name of the god, neveran appellative. The linguistic situation seems to indicate that Wayu was toa much greater degree detached from his elemental nature, while Wataremained barely distinguishable from it. Comparisons with the corre-sponding wind gods in the Vedas confirm the antiquity of the separatenessof the two gods. On the one hand, Vedic Vata is quite similar to IranianWata; on the other hand, Vedic Vayu has very little in common withWayu, except that they are both powerful deities possessing many char-acteristics suggested by the nature of wind itself.

The sphere of the wind's activity is, of course, the atmosphere (cf.MPers andarwdy). According to the Iranian view of the cosmos, the earthand the stone vault of heaven (asman 'stone') were separated by a void.Since 'air' does not appear as one of the basic elements associated withthe Amasha Spsntas, this conclusion is warranted. Within this voidmoves a mysterious something, invisible yet sensible, the wind. The mys-teriousness of the wind is augmented by the fact that it is so unstable, soambivalent. It can be the gentle breeze that cools or the wind that bearsaloft the long-awaited rain clouds; yet it can be the terrible, violent windof storms and whirlwinds or the dread hot wind that parches all creation.

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The ambivalence of the wind detectable in the Avesta is elaborately ar-ticulated in the Pahlavi literature as the two Winds: the Good Wind (way Iweh} and the Evil Wind (way ibadtar). In the Vendidad (5.8 [see p. 166]),he follows after the demon of death Asto.Widhatu to take away the soul ofthe dead, and elsewhere (Aogamadaeca 77) he is called "merciless'. HisYasht portrays him in his beneficent albeit violent nature, as the swiftestof gods, a wonderfully equipped, skillful warrior whom heroes worshipfor success in battle.

Yasht 15 is actually dedicated to an insignificant deity Raman, whosename means 'peace, repose'. The reason for such an association isobscure. The Yasht itself is a late and rather chaotic work. Like the AhuraMazda Yasht (Yt. 1.7-8, 12-15 [pp. 52, 53]), it contains a section listingepithets which, while they would be important for a detailed study ofWayu, are better omitted here.

Wayu (Ram) Yasht (Yasht 15)

I1. I shall worship the god of the waters (?). I shall worship either one,

both victorious Peace and Profit (?). We worship Wayu also; we invokeWayu also, for this house and for this head of the house and for thispious person bearing libations . . . (?), we worship the best god.

2. Ahura Mazda, the Creator, worshipped him in the Aryan territory ofthe good Daitya (river), on a golden throne, on a golden carpet, on agolden rug, on the spread barosman, with hands overflowing (with liba-tions).

3. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I might slay the creatures of Angra Mainyu, but not thatwhich belongs to Spanta (Mainyu).

4. Wayu who has superior skill gave him that boon so that it (?) accom-panied the Creator, Ahura Mazda.

5. We worship righteous Wayu. We worship Wayu who has superiorskill. We worship this (aspect) of yours, O Wayu, that derives fromSpsnta Mainyu.

On account of his rayi and glory, I shall audibly worship strong Wayuwho has superior skill with libations. We worship strong Wayu who hassuperior skill with haoma (mixed) with milk . . . [continue with Ny.1.16 (p. 183)].

II6. [Repeat st. 1.]7. Haosyangha Paradhata worshipped him at the peak of Hara, joined

Wayu I 99

with metals (?), on a golden throne. . . . [Continue with st. 2 from". . . on a golden carpet."]

8. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I might slay two-thirds of the daewas from the Mazan-daran and the drugwants from Warana.

9. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Haosyangha Paradhata"for "Ahura Mazda."]

Ill10. [Repeat st. 1.]11. Taxma Urupi dressed in skins worshipped him on a golden throne.

. . . [Continue with st. 2 as above.]12. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-

rior skill, that I become victorious over all daewas and men, all sorcerersand witches; so that for thirty years (?) I may ride around the limits ofthe earth on Angra Mainyu transformed into the form of a horse.

13. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Taxma Urupi" for "AhuraMazda."]

IV14. [Repeat st. 1.]15. Regal Yima rich in herds worshipped him from golden, all-shining

Mount Hukairya, on a golden throne. . . . [Continue with st. 2 asabove.]

16. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I may come to possess the most xwarsnah among people,like the sun among men, so that, under my rule, I may make cattle andmen not to die, water and vegetation not to dry up, (that I may make)inexhaustible victuals [food].

In the reign of brave Yima there was neither cold nor heat, there wasneither old age nor death, nor daewa-created jealousy.

17. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Yima" for "Ahura Maz-da."]

V18. [Repeat st. 1.]19. Three-headed Azhi Dahaka worshipped him at (the city) Kwirinta,

the access to which is difficult, on a golden throne. . . . [Continue withst. 2 as above.]

20. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I may make unpopulated all the seven continents.

21. Wayu who has superior skill did not give this boon to him, (since he

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was) not worshipping, not petitioning, not invoking, not pious, notbearing libations.


VI22. [Repeat st. 1.]

23. The prince Thraetaona of the mighty house of the Athvyanids wor-shipped him in quadrangular Warsna on a golden throne. . . . [Con-tinue with st. 2 as above.]

24. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I may become victorious over Azhi Dahaka who has threemouths, three heads. . . . [Continue with Yt. 5.34 from ". . . sixeyes" (p. 122).]

25. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Thraetaona" for "AhuraMazda."]

VII26. [Repeat st. 1.]

27. Heroic-minded Karssaspa worshipped him at the Gudha, an outlet ofthe Mazda-created Rangha (river) on a golden throng. . . . [Continuewith st. 2 as above.]

28. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that I may go down (?) as avenger of (my) brother Urwax-shaya, that I may slay Hitaspa in order to carry (his body) back in (my)chariot; likewise lordly Gafya, likewise lord Aewo.gafya, likewise theaquatic (monster) Gandarava.

29. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Karssaspa" for "AhuraMazda."]

VIII30. [Repeat st. 1.]

31. Aurwasara, lord of the country, worshipped him in the whitishforests, at the Whitish Forest, in the midst of the forest, on a goldenthrone. . . . [Continue with st. 2 as above.]

32. He petitioned him: Give me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have supe-rior skill, that the hero of the Aryan peoples, who consolidated therealm, Haosrawah, not slay us two (?), that I may escape from KawiHaosrawah. Kawi Haosrawah will kill him in the Pan-Iranian forest!

33. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Aurwasara" for "AhuraMazda."]

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IX34. [Repeat st. 1.]35. Hutaosa of the clan of the Naotarids, who had many brothers, wor-

shipped him on a golden throne. . . . [Continue with st. 2 as above.]36. She petitioned him: Grant me this boon, Wayu, (you) who have

superior skill, that I may be dear, beloved, (and) respected in the houseof Kawi Wlshtaspa.

37. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "Hutaosa" for "AhuraMazda."]

X38. [Repeat st. 1.]39. Girls (as yet) unapproached by men worship him on a golden throne.

. . . [Continue with st. 2 as above.]40. Then they petition him: Grant us this boon, Wayu, (you) who have

superior skill, that we may find a young householder whose bodily formis most handsome, who will treat us well as long as we both shall live.And may he, (being) clever, wise (?), and eloquent, beget offspring.

41. [Repeat sts. 4-5, with the substitution of "the girls" for "AhuraMazda."]

XI42. [Repeat st. 1.]

We worship that which, rich and glorious, belongs to Sponta Mainyu.43-48. (Epithet list.)49. You should invoke (me) by these my names. I am (he), O righteous

Zarathushtra, who (stands?) between the bloodthirsty enemy armies,between drawn-up battle lines, between the two warring countries.

50. You should invoke (me) by these my names, O righteous Zarathush-tra, whom (?) the all-ruling ruler of the country (worships whether heis?) walking or running, riding or driving in a chariot, seeking protectionor seeking healing.

51. You should invoke (me) by these my names, O righteous Zarathush-tra, whom the unrighteous perverter of Truth (worships whether he is)walking . . . [continue with st. 50].

52. You should invoke (me) by these my names, O righteous Zarathush-tra, (whom a man worships?) when he may remain bound (or when)bound he may be delivered (?), (or when) bound he may be led (away)- - . ( ? )

53. O Wayu, (who) among horses and men, among all (things), createsuncertainty (?), (who) among all (things) works against the daewas!—

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and in the lowest and obscurest places he reaches the one who will seekhim.

54. With what (form of) worship should I worship you? With what (formof) worship should I give worship? . . . ( ? ) Wayu, swift, high-girdled,possessing firm yoke-thongs (?), high-stepping, broad-chested, broad-hipped (?)—(his) two eyes, which do not become bloodshot (?),. . . (?)

55. [Obscure.]56. If you (?) make me worshipped, I shall proclaim to you curative,

glorious, Mazda-created spells so that the much-devastating AngraMainyu will not overcome you, nor the sorcerer, nor one practicingsorcery, nor a daewa, nor a man.

57. We worship swift Wayu. We worship fleet Wayu. We worship Wayuthe swiftest of the swift. We worship Wayu the fleetest of the fleet. Weworship Wayu whose helmet is golden. We worship Wayu whose cape(?) is golden. We worship Wayu whose chariot is golden. We worshipWayu whose (chariot) wheels are golden. We worship Wayu whoseweapons are golden. We worship Wayu whose clothes are golden. Weworship Wayu whose shoes are golden. We worship Wayu whose girdleis golden.We worship righteous Wayu. We worship Wayu who hassuperior skill.

We worship this (aspect) of yours, O Wayu, that derives from SpantaMainyu.


8. The Frawashis

One of the most complex and unusual phenomena of Zoroastrianism isthat of the Frawashis. The Frawashis, for reasons to be given, are guard-ian spirits, which play three quite distinct roles. In one aspect, they are aband of ninety-nine thousand, nine hundred ninety-nine powerful deitieswhose functions and modes of operation are various. In their secondaspect, which in actual practice, as opposed to literary reference, mayhave been as or more important than the first, they are ancestor spirits.Finally, the frawashi is one of the spiritual elements of the human person-ality. The meaning of the word frawashi is not completely certain. Theproblem is that there are numerous war- verbs from which frawashi (*fra-w(a)r-ti) could derive. The two best candidates seem to be war- 'to cover,protect, ward off and *war- (IE uel-), which is equivalent to Latin valeo.If the latter is the correct one, then frawashi will mean something like

The Frawashis I 103

'pre-eminent valor' and so, applied to one who possesses it, 'hero'. Oneshould note that although the word frawashi is feminine in gender, there isno indication that the Frawashis were thought to be women. In one in-stance (st. 46), where, unfortunately, the translation is very tentative,they may be referred to as 'heroes, men' (naro).

The Frawashis figure most prominently in the Avesta as a band or armyof armed warriors which flies from heaven to the protection of all thematerial world menaced by the daewas' onslaught. Beyond the usualZoroastrian world view, which divides the world between drugwants andashawans, between daewas and ahuras, the Frawashis preserve anancient amoral trait also found in Mithra, in that they aid the party who isfirst to worship them, and one may assume that in Iranian warfare carefulattention to their worship was an important prelude to battle. Eventhough military prowess is their trademark, the Frawashis have otherfar-reaching powers that derive from other sources, namely, their posses-sion of insight and glory. The opening stanzas of Yasht 13 tell how theycame to the assistance of Ahura Mazda in the creation and maintenance ofthe cosmos through "their insight a/nd glory" (angham rayaxwarananghaca). It is interesting that, just as Darius says repeatedly that"Ahuramazda bore me aid" (Ahuramazda-mai upastam abara1), soAhura Mazda says that "they bore me aid" (\frawashay 6\ me baranupastam}. The notion of creative power residing in insight is an archaicfeature of Aryan religion. On the efficacy of xwaranah, see sect. 6. Else-where in the Avesta, the phrase ahe raya xwarananghaca "on account ofhis rayi and xwarsnah" has become a formulaic refrain used in the praiseof all deities, where rayi- has become associated with a homonym mean-ing 'wealth, opulence'. In contrast to Sasanid Zoroastrian theology, inwhich the Frawashis are the creation of Ahura Mazda, here they appearto be coeternal with him. That the Yasht's authors did not have recourseto the common device of attributing a god's creation to Ahura Mazda (asin, e.g., Yt. 10.1 [p. 59]) is probably due to the fact that Ahura Mazdahimself has a frawashi.

In their role as warriors and as maintainers of the proper cosmic order,the Frawashis, along with Arodwi Sura Anahita, Tishtrya, and Sata-waesa, are involved with the unending struggle for water. In addition toaiding the above-mentioned deities, they themselves must fight for thewater that overflows from the Wouru.kasha sea. Each Frawashi mustsecure the water necessary for the families and clans under its personalguardianship.

Sts. 49-52 of the Frawashi Yasht give clear testimony to the fact that insome way the Frawashis were regarded as ancestor spirits. There they aredescribed as coming to their respective settlements at the Hamaspath-

104 I The Frawashis

maedaya festival. This festival, whose name is of uncertain meaning,functioned as an "all-souls' day," the last day (or days) of the year, atwhich time the spirits of the deceased return to their houses on earth to bereceived with all due hospitality by the living. The latter part of the Yasht(omitted here) contains long lists of names of deceased people whosefrawashis are to be worshipped. In later Zoroastrianism, the worship ofthe deceased's frawashi is an important part of the complex funeral cere-monies and the ensuing commemorative rites. The association of thefrawashi with the dead is seen outside Zoroastrianism in the use in Chris-tian Sogdian of the word frwrt-qty 'house of the frawart', i.e., 'tomb'.

The third aspect of the frawashi is that of guardian spirit, as a spiritualelement of the human personality. Like many peoples, the ancient Ira-nians counted a number of what we might call souls. Apart from the 'lifeprinciple' (ahu) and consciousness (baodhah), there were three elementsthat enjoyed special independent existence. That which comes closest tothe modern notion of soul, and which is so translated, is the urwan. It isan individual's guiding moral faculty. When a person dies, it is the urwanthat passes over into the next existence. It is judged according to its goodand bad deeds, and it alone must suffer punishment or enjoy rewardsaccording to the judgment. Zoroastrians believe that after death theurwan tarries in the vicinity of the body for three days, after which,conveyed by Wayu, it journeys to the Cinwat bridge (Bridge of Judgment)where it is judged. The souls that are deemed good cross over and pro-ceed to heaven; those deemed evil fall into the abyss. In all of this thedeceased's frawashi plays a role as guardian of the soul, as, no doubt, itguarded the soul during life. The eschatological picture is not complete,however, without the introduction of the third spiritual entity, the daena(a homonym of the word for [the Zoroastrian] religion). The daena seemsto be a kind of spiritual double of the individual, which is involved in themoral and religious decisions one must make through life. At the Cinwatbridge, the urwan meets its daena, which will either be in the form of abeautiful maiden, if good, or in the form of an ugly woman, if evil. Theevidence for this complex of beliefs in the Avesta is sparse, but does notcontradict it. As in the Pahlavi books, there is a certain amount of confu-sion between the urwan and the frawashi. In one place (Y. 16.7), thedeparted souls in heaven are specifically called the Frawashis of the right-eous.

The frawashi itself, one may suppose, preexists the individual forwhom it is destined as a guardian spirit. It enjoys an independent exist-ence as a deity, and is apparently unaffected by the moral quality of theindividual, although, it is true, only the frawashis of the righteous arementioned. Also unlike the urwan, it is equally unaffected by the indi-

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vidual's death. One can conclude on the basis of later practice that oncethe urwan had been sent off on its journey, the frawashi of the deceasedbecame the object of veneration. The urwan, residing, as it would, ineither heaven or hell, would be incapable of attending to worldly affairs,whereas the frawashi would be perfectly able to do so.

The origins of the Frawashis, if they can be traced at all, are to be foundin several places, since there is no real Vedic counterpart. Whereas theFrawashis are the only collective deities in Iranian religion, there are anumber of such groups in the Vedas. With one group, the Maruts, theFrawashis share their warrior nature and in a somewhat vague mannertheir concern for water. As ancestor spirits of each deceased person, theyare like the Pitaras or manes (manusyah pitarah). In respect to theirdivine powers they appear to have an affinity with the Angirases, the"heavenly fathers" (devah pitarah). I know of no precedent for their roleas guardian spirits. Whether the Frawashis represent a later combinationof originally separate entities or an ancient complex is a matter without aneasy solution. In either case, they are one of the truly unique concepts ofZoroastrianism.

Frawashi (Frawardm) Yasht (Yasht 13)

1. Ahura Mazda said to Zarathushtra the Spitamid: Let me then tell youabout the strength and power, the glory and help and support of themighty, victorious Frawashis of the Righteous, O upright Spitamid,how the mighty Frawashis of the Righteous came to help me, how theybrought me support.

2. Through their rayi and glory, I support, O Zarathushtra, yonderheaven, above, shining and clear, which is all around this earth, as itwere like a bird (all around) an egg, which abides, established by(Spanta) Mainyu, firmly fixed, with distant limits, with the appearanceof a bright crystal glimmering over the three(fold world),

3. which Mazda wears as a mantle decorated with stars, fashioned by(Spanta) Mainyu, in company with Mithra and Rashnu, and SpsntaArmaiti, of which the two borders of the sides are not visible to anyone.

4. Through their rayi and glory, I support, O Zarathushtra, Arsdwl SuraAnahita, who spreads abroad . . . [continue with Yt. 5.1 (p. 120)].

5-8. [Yt. 5.2-5.19. Through their rayi and glory, I support, O Zarathushtra, the broad,

Ahura-created earth which is great and wide, which is the carrier ofmuch prosperity, which carries all material existence both living anddead, and the high mountains rich in water, rich in pasture land,

106 I The Frawashis

10. upon whom channel waters flow flowing in streams, upon whommany sorts of plants grow up from the earth, for the protection ofanimals and man, for the protection of the Aryan peoples, for theprotection of the five kinds of animals, for the help of righteous men.

11. Through their rayi and glory, I, O Zarathushtra, maintain the sonsconceived in the mothers (so that) they do not die; until the appointedtime, at birth, I put together the bones and hair and muscles and intes-tines and sinews and nails.

12. For if the mighty Frawashis of the Righteous had not given mesupport, in that case the animals and men which are the best of the(various) species would not have been mine. Power would have beenthe Lie's, dominion the Lie's, material existence the Lie's.

13. Of the two Spirits, the Liar would have installed himself on earthand in heaven. Of the two Spirits, the Liar would have been victoriouson earth and in heaven. Nor afterward would the conqueror give in tothe conquered, (that is,) Angra Mainyu to Spanta Mainyu.

14. Through their rayi and glory, the waters flow with a forward coursenear undiminishing springs.

Through their rayi and glory, plants grow up from the earth nearundiminishing springs.

Through their rayi and glory, the winds, flying in the clouds, blownear undiminishing springs.

15. Through their rayi and glory, women conceive sons, through theirrayi and glory, they give birth with easy delivery, through their rayi andglory, (it is) that they are with sons.

16. Through their rayi and glory, a man is born, eloquent, who makeshis words heard in verbal contests, whose judgment is sought after,who comes away from the discussion victorious over the defeatedGaotama.

Through their rayi and glory, the sun goes on that path; through theirrayi and glory, the moon goes on that path; through their rayi and glory,the stars go on that path.

17. They are the best givers of help in the mighty battles, the Frawashisof the Righteous.

These Frawashis of the Righteous are the most powerful, O Spita-mid, who (are) of the previous teachers, who (are) indeed of the unbornmen, (that is,) the Saoshyants who (will) accomplish the Renovation.Furthermore, the Frawashis of others, of the living righteous men, arestronger, O Zarathushtra, than (those) of the dead (righteous), O Spita-mid.

18. And which man, an all-ruling ruler of the country, while living will

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treat them well, the Frawashis of the Righteous, he will become a mostsuccessful ruler of men, whoever he may be—who indeed (also) treatswell Mithra of wide pastures and property furthering property—in-creasing Justice.

19. Thus I tell you about the strength and power, the glory and help andsupport of the mighty, victorious Frawashis of the Righteous, O uprightSpitamid, how they brought me support.

20. Ahura Mazda said to Zarathushtra, the Spitamid: Now, in case, inthis material existence, O Zarathushtra Spitamid, a cattle thief crossesyour path and if there is fear for yourself of frightening terrors andperils, then you should learn these words by heart, then you shouldutter these victorious words, O Zarathushtra.

21. The good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous I praise, Iinvoke, I celebrate. We worship the N many as, the VIsyas, the Zantu-mas, the Dahyumas, the Zarathushtrotsmas, (those who) are among theexisting Righteous, (those who) are among (the Righteous) who haveexisted, (those who) are among (the Righteous) who will exist, all ofevery land, the most powerful of the most powerful lands;

22. who support heaven, who support the water(s), who support theearth, who maintain the animals, who maintain the sons conceived inthe mothers (so that) they do not die; until the appointed time, at birth,they put together the bones and hair and muscles and intestines andsinews and nails;

23. who bring much, who come powerfully (?), who come themselves(?), who come swiftly (?), who come strongly (?), who come at the call(?), who are to be invoked at bloody fights, who are to be invoked atbattles, who are to be invoked at fights;

24. who give victory to him who invokes (them), grant a boon to himwho seeks (it), give health to the sick, give good fortune to him, alibation-offering righteous man, who, worshipping (and) propitiating,invokes them;

25. who are wont to turn most to that place where righteous men believemost strongly in Truth, and where the offerings are greatest, and wherethe righteous man is satisfied, and where the righteous man is nottreated with hostility.

26. We worship the good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Right-eous, the strongest of drivers (of chariots), the swiftest of those ridingforth, the least oppressed of those who are hard pressed, the mostserviceable of supports, the least vanquishable of weapons and armor,who make the attack in which they come impossible to divert.

27. These good, these best we worship, the good, strong, beneficent

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Frawashis of the Righteous; they, indeed, should be invoked at thestrewn barssman, they at the battles, they at the fights, they wherebrave men fight in the battles.

28. Mazda called upon them for help, for the support (?) of yon heavenand of the water(s) and of the earth and of the plants, so that SpantaMainyu might support the heaven, the water(s), the earth, the animals,the plants, so that he might maintain the sons conceived in the mothers(so that) they do not die; until the appointed time, at birth he putstogether the bones and hair and muscles and intestines and sinews andnails.

29. Spanta Mainyu maintains (the Frawashis) who are powerful, abidein silence, have good eyes, are keen-eyed, have (good) hearing, arevery patient, who are tall, high girdled, who have a good gait, a broadgait, whose breathing is fast, . . . ( ? ) famed, (who) support heaven.

30. We worship the good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Right-eous, who offer good fellowship, who offer good community, withwhom it is best to dwell for the purpose of long successions (of descen-dants, for those people) who do not anger you beforehand, O (you)good ones, profound, far-seeing, curative, famed, winning in battle.

31. We worship . . . Righteous, who have a terrible disposition towardenemies, have superior ability, are most strong, who, (coming) fromabove to the battle, smash the powerful arms of the hostile armies.

32. We worship . . . Righteous, (who are) faithful, brave, powerful,incomparable, fortunate, beneficent, curative, accompanied by thecurative power of Ashi, which is as broad as the earth, long as a river,high as the sun.

33. We worship . . . Righteous, who are brave, valiant, battling, blood-thirsty, (who) crush (and) destroy the hostilities of all enemies—godsand men—(who) strike down (their) opponents in the onslaught accord-ing to their own will and inclination.

34. You good ones, (being) most powerful, consign the Ahura-granted Victory and conquering Superiority to those countries whereyou good ones, not angered, satisfied, unharmed, not treated with hos-tility, (being) worthy of worship, worthy of praise, go about on yourchosen course.

35. We worship . . . Righteous, (who are) famed, winning in battle,attacking, (who) carry shields, cannot be moved from (?) the straightest(paths), to whom both the pursuer and the pursued call for help: thepursuer calls (for assistance) in order to catch, the pursued, in order toescape;

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36. who are wont to turn most to that place where righteous men believemost strongly in Truth, and where the offerings (are) greatest, andwhere the righteous man (has been) satisfied.

37. We worship . . . Righteous, (who) form a numerous army, girdedwith weapons, with upraised banners, shining, who, then, in the terriblebattles, came down for the sake of the Xshtawis, when (?) the braveXshtawians waged war against the Danus.

38. You, then, overcame the resistance of the Turanian Danus.You, then, overcame the hostilities of the Turanian Danus.Thanks to you, the Karshnazids, having good men, became the

strongest, (as well as) the brave Xshtawians, the brave Saoshyants, thebrave victorious (men).

You destroyed the crumbling (dwellings) together with (their) sites ofthe Danus who are lords of tens of thousands.

39. We worship . . . Righteous, who smash the two sides of the battleline standing (close) together, drive apart the center, swiftly drive forthfrom behind for the help of righteous men, for the affliction of thosewho work evil.

40. We worship . . . Righteous, who are strong, unshakable, victoriouswinners in battle, pacifying, pursuing, decisive, whose thrusts arequick, whose bodies nimble, whose souls are noble, righteous, who aregivers of victory to him who calls, givers of a boon to him who has beendesirous, givers of health to the sick,

41. givers of good fortune to him who will so worship them as that manworshipped them, righteous Zarathushtra, ratu of the material world,the apex of the two-legged (world), coming for the sake of whatevercrises, concerned for whatever distress,

42. who, being called up, spiritually impelled, come forth from the sum-mit of heaven to help, (who) possess well-built Strength and Ahura-created Victoriousness and conquering Superiority and Profit whichbrings riches, which brings boons, which is righteous, abundant,worthy of worship, worthy of praise according to the Best Truth.

43. They (i.e., the Frawashis) release Satawaesa between heaven andearth, who lets the water fall, listens to the call, who lets the waters fall,lets the plants grow, for the protection of both cattle and men, for theprotection of the Aryan people, for the protection of the five kinds ofanimals, for the help of righteous men.

44. In between earth and heaven will come Satawaesa who lets thewater fall, listens to the call, who lets the water fall, the plants grow,beautiful, shining, full of light, for the protection of cattle and men, for

110 I The Fraw as his

the protection of the Aryan lands, for the protection of the five kinds ofanimals, for the help of righteous men.

45. We worship . . . Righteous, (who) have metal helmets, metalweapons, metal shields, who fight in battles surrounded by light, havingstrung arrows which they are carrying in order to kill the daewas by thethousands.

46. When the wind blows forth among them (i.e., the Frawashis) bearingthe scent of men, these heroes recognize (these men) in whom is thescent of victory. They (i.e., the men) extend offerings to them, to thegood, heroic, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous, before the bowhas been strung, before it has been raised with both hands.

47. Whichever of the two (parties), indeed, worships them first, be-lie vingly with foreknowing thought from a trusting mind, in that direc-tion do the strong Frawashis of the Righteous turn, together withMithra and Rashnu and the strong Damoish Upamana, together withthe victorious Wind.

48. They strike down the peoples at a blow with a hundred blows for(every) fifty blows. . . . [Continue with Yt. 10.43 from " . . . and withone thousand blows" (p. 64).] Where the strong Frawashis of theRighteous turn, together with Mithra and Rashnu and the strongDamoish Upamana, together with the victorious Wind.

49. We worship . . . Righteous, who fly hither up to the settlement atHamaspathmaedaya time. Here, then, they move about for ten nights,desiring to learn this:

50. Who will praise, who will worship, who will laud, who will propiti-ate, who will welcome us with hand(s) holding meat (and) clothing, withTruth-attaining reverence? By whom will our name(s) be sung, bywhom will your soul(s) be worshipped, to which one of us will this giftbe given that he may have inexhaustible food for ever and ever?

51. Then the man who will worship them with hand(s) holding meat(and) clothing, with Truth-attaining reverence, the strong Frawashis ofthe Righteous bless (when they) are satisfied, not injured, not treatedwith hostility.

52. May there be in this house herds of cattle and (troops) of men, andmay there be a swift horse and a sturdy chariot, may the man besteadfast (and) eloquent who, indeed, will worship us with hand(s)holding meat (and) clothing, with Truth-attaining reverence.

53. We worship . . . Righteous, who show beautiful paths to the Maz-da-created waters which earlier stood still in the same place, for a verylong time, (after) having been created, (but) not having flowed forth.

The Frawashis I 111

54. Thus, these now flow forth along the Mazda-created path(s), thegod-provided course(s) at the appointed time, to the liking of AhuraMazda, to the liking of the Amasha Spantas.

55. We worship . . . Righteous, who show beautiful growth to the well-pruned plants which earlier stood still in the same place, for a very longtime, (after) having been created, (but) not growing forth.

56. Thus, these now grow forth along the Mazda-created path(s), thegod-provided course(s) at the appointed time, to the liking of AhuraMazda, to the liking of the Amasha Spantas.

57. We worship . . . Righteous, who, (being) righteous, showed thepaths to the stars, the moon, the sun, (and) Infinite Lights, which earlierstood still in the same place, for a very long time, without movingforward, because of the hostility of the daewas, because of the decep-tions of the daewas.

58. Thus, these now move forth (along the path) whose turning point isdistant, (eventually) reaching the road's turning point which is the goodFrashokaroti.

59. We worship . . . Righteous, who, ninety-nine thousand, nine hun-dred ninety-nine (strong), watch over that sea, the shining Wouru.kasha.

60. We worship . . . Righteous, who, ninety-nine thousand, nine hun-dred ninety-nine (strong), watch over those stars, Hapto.iringa.

61. We worship . . . Righteous, who, ninety-nine thousand, nine hun-dred ninety-nine (strong), watch over the body of the Samid Ksrasaspawith the (long) locks of hair, bearing a cudgel.

62. We worship . . . Righteous, who, ninety-nine thousand, nine hun-dred ninety-nine (strong), watch over that semen of the righteous Spita-mid Zarathushtra.

63. We worship . . . Righteous, who fight at the right (hand) of theruling lord if he satisfies the Righteous, if by him the strong Frawashisof the Righteous are not angered, are satisfied, are not done violence,are not treated with hostility.

64. We worship . . . Righteous, who are greater, who are more power-ful, who are braver, who are stronger, who are more victorious, whoare more curative, who are braver than words can express, who by tensof thousands ride in among those offering oblations.

65. And when the waters, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, flow forth from theWouru.kasha sea, and when the Mazda-created Xwaranah (emerges),then the strong Frawashis of the Righteous issue forth, numerously by

112 I The Frawashis

the many hundreds, numerously by the many thousands, numerouslyby the many tens of thousands,

66. searching for water, each for his own family, for his own settlement,for his own clan, for his own land, saying thus, "Will our own landdecline and dry up?"

67. They fight in battles for their own place and dwelling [as (a man) hasa place and a house to live in], just as a man, a brave warrior, (always)defends (his) well-collected wealth, girded with weapons.

68. And then whichever of them are victorious bring away the water,each for his own family, for his own settlement, for his own clan, for hisown land, saying thus, "May our own land prosper and flourish!"

69. When the all-ruling ruler of the land is beset by hostile enemies, thenhe, whoever he is, calls upon the strong Frawashis of the Righteous.

70. They will come to him for help, if by him they are not angered, aresatisfied, not done violence to, not treated with hostility, the strongFrawashis of the Righteous; they swoop down to him just like an eagle.

71. They stand ready as his weapon and armor, support and fortificationagainst the invisible Lie, the concupiscent, deceiving (Lie), and(against) the destructive conjurer, against the Deceiver, who causesmany deaths, Angra Mainyu, as if one hundred, and one thousand, andten thousand sheaves were threshed,

72. so that, because of this, neither a well-thrown knife, nor a well-wielded mace, nor a well-drawn arrow, nor a well-hurled spear, norstones thrown by the arm may hit (him).

73. They are prepared for that and they are prepared for even more,sitting quietly, the good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous,desiring to know this: Who will praise,. . . [continue, repeating st. 50].

74. We worship the noble minds, we worship the daenas of the Saviors,we worship the souls of the domesticated animals, we worship (thesouls) of the wild animals, we worship (the souls) of the aquatic ani-mals, we worship (the souls) of the animals living in the ground, weworship (the souls) of the birds, we worship (the souls) of the plainsanimals, we worship (the souls) of the pasture animals, we worship theFrawashis.

75. We worship the Frawashis, we worship the faithful, we worship thebrave, we worship the bravest, we worship the beneficent, we worshipthe most beneficent, we worship the strong, we worship the strongest,we worship the firm, we worship the unshakable, we worship themighty, we worship the most powerful, we worship the fleet, weworship the fleetest, we worship the brave, we worship the bravest,

The Frawashis / 113

76. for they are the bravest of the creation of both Spirits, the good,strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous, who rose up (to help)then when the two Spirits, both the Beneficent Spirit and the Evil,created (their) creations.

77. When the Evil Spirit stormed the creation of Good Truth, GoodMind and Fire rushed in between.

78. These two overcame the hostilities of him, the lying Evil Spirit, sothat he could not stay the waters in (their) courses, nor the plants in(their growing); all at once the strongest waters of the strong, rulingcreator Ahura Mazda flowed forth and the plants grew up.

79. We worship all the waters, we worship all the plants, we worship allthe good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Righteous; by (their)name(s) we worship the waters, by (their) name(s) we worship theplants, by (their) name(s) we worship the good, strong, beneficent Fra-washis of the Righteous.

80. Of all these original Frawashis we now worship that Frawashi whichis Ahura Mazda's, the greatest, the best, the most beautiful, the mostsolid, the wisest, the best built, the highest in terms of Truth,

81. whose (i.e., Ahura Mazda's) soul is the Holy Word, white, shining,spotless, and the forms which he (i.e., the Frawashi of Ahura Mazda)assumes (are) the beautiful forms of the Amasha Spsntas, the blossom-ing (forms) of the Amasha Spantas.

We worship the Sun whose horses are swift.82. We worship the good, strong, beneficent Frawashis of the Right-

eous, who are of the radiant, perspicacious, lofty, aggressive, swift,ahuric Amasha Spantas, who are righteous, free from danger,

83. (all) seven of the same mind, (all) seven of the same speech, (all)seven of the same deed and the same father and ruler, who is theCreator, Ahura Mazda,

84. of whom the one looks upon the soul of the other (which is) thinkingupon "good thoughts," thinking upon "good speech," thinking upon"good acts," thinking upon Garo.nmana; whose paths are shining asthey fly hither to the libations.

85. We worship . . . Righteous, and that (Frawashi) of the beneficent,eloquent Urwazisht fire, and that of brave Sraosha the companion ofAshi, who is tanu.mathra, the ahuric wielder of a heavy cudgel, andthat of Nairya Sangha,

86. and that of most just Rashnu, and that of Mithra of wide pastures,and that of the Mathra Spsnta, and that of the heaven, and that of thewaters, and that of the earth, and that of the plants, and that of theCow, and that of Gaya (Marotan), and that of the blessed Righteous.

114 I The F'rawashis

87. We worship the Frawashi of righteous Gaya Marstan, who firstlistened to the thought and teachings of Ahura Mazda, from whom(Mazda) fashioned forth the families of the Aryan peoples, the seed ofthe Aryan peoples.

We now worship Ashi and the Frawashi of righteous Zarathushtrathe Spitamid,

88. the first who has thought the "good," the first who has spoken the"good," the first who has done the "good," the first priest, the firstwarrior, the first agriculturalist, the first who finds (for others), the firstwho causes himself to find, the first who has gained (for himself), thefirst who has gained (for others) the Cow and the Word and Obedienceto the Word and Dominion and all the Mazda-created Good that origi-nates in Truth;

89. who was the first priest, who was the first warrior, who was the firstagriculturalist, who first turned (his) face away from the daewic andhuman brood; who first of the material world praised Truth, vilified thedaewas, chose (the religion as) a Mazda worshipper, a Zoroastrian, anenemy of the daewas, a follower of ahuric doctrine;

90. who first of the material world spoke daewa-repudiating wordswhich follow ahuric doctrine; who first of the material world pro-claimed daewa-repudiating words which follow ahuric doctrine, whofirst of the material world has said that everything having to do with thedaewas is unworthy of worship, unworthy of praise; who is strong,accompanied by all good life, the first teacher of the countries;

91. by whom the Ashsm (wohu) which contains all mathras was madeknown, (who is) ahu and ratu of the world, the praiser of Truth which isthe greatest and the best and the most beautiful (?), and (who is) theinterpreter of the Religion which is the best of the existing (religions);

92. whom all the Amssha Spantas, in harmony with the sun, believinglywith foreknowing thought from a trusting mind, sought as the ahu andthe ratu of the world, the praiser of Truth which is the greatest and thebest and the most beautiful, the interpreter of the Religion which is thebest of the existing (religions);

93. at whose birth and growth the plants and waters recovered, at whosebirth and growth the plants and waters grew, at whose birth and growthall the beneficently created creatures called down upon themselveswell-being.

94. According to our wish a priest has been born, the SpitamidZarathushtra. Zarathushtra will worship us with libations, with strewnbarasman. From now on, the good Mazdean Religion will spread outover all the seven regions.

The Frawashis I 115

95. From now on, Mithra of wide pastures will promote all supremeauthorities of the countries and will pacify those in revolt. From nowon, strong Apam Napat will promote all the supreme authorities of thecountries and will subjugate those in revolt.

96-98. [Omitted.]99. We worship the Frawashi of righteous Kawi Wlshtaspa, brave, per-

sonifying the Word, the ahuric wielder of a heavy cudgel, who with bowand arrow sought open space for Truth, who with bow and arrow foundopen space for Truth, who stood prepared for this ahuric Zarathush-trian Religion as arm and support,

100. who freed her (the Religion) who was stationary, being bound, from(her) fetters, (who) set her down (so that she was) sitting in the middle,ruling on high, unshakable, righteous, abundant in cattle and pastures,happy about (her) cattle and pastures.

101-144. [Omitted.]145. We worship the Frawashis of the righteous men of all countries, we

worship the Frawashis of the righteous women of all countries, weworship all the good, strong, beneficent Frawashis from Gaya Maratanup to the Victorious Saoshyant.

146. May the Frawashis of the Righteous come here to us immediately,may they come to us for help. They protect us even (while) we are indifficulties with visible (acts of) help, with helpful Ahura Mazda andstrong Sraosha, the companion of Ashi, and the wise Mathra Spanta,which is the daewa-repudiating messenger of daewa-repudiating AhuraMazda, which Zarathushtra appointed as helper for the material exist-ence.

147. May you good ones settle down, you waters and you plants and youFrawashis of the Righteous; here you will be beloved (and) welcomedin this house; here the priests of the lands think upon good Truth, theyraise up (their) hands for our help, O strong ones, for your worship, Ostrongest ones!

148. We worship now the Frawashi(s) of all those righteous men andwomen whose souls are to be worshipped and whose Frawashis are tobe invoked.

We worship now the Frawashi(s) of all those righteous men andwomen in whose worship righteous Ahura Mazda knows (what is) bet-ter for us.

Among all these we have heard (that) Zarathushtra (was) the first,best ahuric teacher.

149. We worship now the ahu and the daena and the baodhah and theurwan and the frawashi of the first teachers (and) of the first to have

116 I The Frawashis

listened to the teachings, of the righteous men and women who havewon a victory for Truth.

We worship now the ahu and the daena and the baodhah and theurwan and the frawashi of the righteous men and women who are nextof kin, who have won a victory for Truth.

150. We worship the first teachers of the families and of the villages andof the clans and of the countries, who have been.

We worship the first teachers of the families and of the villages and ofthe clans and of the countries, who will be.

We worship the first teachers of the families and of the villages and ofthe clans and of the countries, who are.

151. We worship the first teachers of the families and of the villages andof the clans and of the countries, who (have) acquired a family, who(have) acquired a village, who (have) acquired a clan, who (have) ac-quired a country, who (have) acquired the Word, who (have) acquiredthe soul, who (have) acquired the good, all good things.

152. We worship Zarathushtra, the ahu and ratu, and the first teacher ofall material existence, of beings the most beneficent, of beings havingthe best dominion, of beings the most intelligent, of beings having themost glory, of beings the most worthy of worship, of beings the mostworthy of praise, of beings the one most to be pleased, of beings themost lauded, a man who is called "worshipped," "worthy of worship,""worthy of praise," just as (he is called) by each of the beings accord-ing to Truth which is best.

153. We worship this earth and we worship yonder heaven and weworship the good things which are in between, worthy of worship andworthy of praise, (which) are to be worshipped by a righteous man.

154. And we worship the souls of the harmless wild animals. Then weworship the souls of righteous men and women wherever born, whosebetter daenas win a victory or will win a victory or have won a victory.

155. We worship now the ahu and the daena and the baodhah and theurwan and the frawashi of the righteous men and women who, learnedin the Religion, win a victory, will win a victory, have won a victory,who have won a victorv for Truth.

Yenghe hatam . . . [Repeat prayer (p. 182).]Yatha ahu wairyo . . . [Repeat prayer (p. 183).]

156. May (those) Frawashis among (?) the strong, completely victo-rious, strong, victorious Frawashis of the Righteous, among the Fra-washis of the first teachers, among the Frawashis of the next of kincome into this house, satisfied may they move about in this house.

Arddwf Sura Anahita I 117

157. Satisfied, may they wish upon this house good beneficient Ashi.May they depart from this house satisfied; may they carry (with them)hymns of praise and prescribed (ritual) acts to the Creator, Ahura Maz-da, and to the Amasha Spsntas, may they not by any means go awaylamenting from this house and (from that) of us Mazda worshippers.

9. Aradwi Sura Anahita

Deeply rooted in Indo-Iranian religion was the belief in the extreme sanc-tity of water in general and specifically of bodies of water, especiallyrivers. Like other divinized elements of the material world, the watersmust be understood from the religious perspective to be at once a physicalentity and a divine reality. For the ancient Iranians water was never aneutral, objective substance, but rather substance and divinity in one.Herodotus tells the—from the Greek perspective—ridiculous story ofhow Xerxes, furious at the Hellespont for having wrecked the Persianbridge across it, had it flogged with three hundred lashes and severelychastised. Such madness, we must understand, was predicated onXerxes' perception of the Hellespont as a living divinity.

One of the longest Yashts belongs to Aradwl Sura Anahita, a complexgoddess, whose nature is rooted in the conception of her as the HeavenlyRiver who feeds, so to speak, all the other rivers and streams of the world(see sect. 12.) In Pahlavi her Yasht is usually referred to as the AbdnYasht, "Yasht belonging to the Waters." Throughout the Yasht her overtfluvial nature alternates with her anthropomorphic manifestations, some-times to such an extent that the two are indistinguishable (sts. 7, 15).Much of what is said of her in the Yasht points to her supremacy overwater. There are other aspects of her personality, however, which, whencompared with non-Avestan sources, point to non-Aryan origins.

The name arddwl sura andhita 'the Moist Strong Untainted' poses anumber of problems. In the post-Avestan Zoroastrian tradition, the god-dess is almost always referred to as simply Ardwisur. The name Anahlddoes occur sporadically, but in isolation from Ardwisur, and usually it isseen in astrological contexts as the name for the planet Venus. As alreadynoted (sect. 1), Artaxerxes II invoked Anahita, along with Mithra andAhuramazda, but never Aradwi Sura Anahita. In Greek she goes only bythe name 'Avai/ris. The declension of the name in both Old Persian andAvestan shows a peculiarity. By all rights, the nominative singular femi-nine should be * andhita, yet it is andhita (so in Av; OPers has 'nhf). The

118 I Arddwi Sura Anahita

Greek reflects an Iranian *Anahiti, that is a feminine ending in short /.Now, the defective language of Artaxerxes' inscriptions shows that theactual language of the time was well along its way in a transition from theinflected older form to the greatly simplified Middle Persian, one in whichnominal stems ending in short vowels lose their final vowels. It has beenargued that both the Avestan and Old Persian reflect this change and that,further, the original name was *Andhiti. When the name was reintro-duced, the identity of the original vowel having been forgotten, one wasno longer sure how to give the nominative. What might this mean? Thelinguistic evidence seems to suggest two things: (1) the non-Avestan us-age indicates that one may have to reckon with two distinct goddesseswho have been united in the Avesta; (2) the incorporation of the god-dess(es) into the Zoroastrian canon may be recent.

It has already been pointed out that, in Old Persian and Greek, anahit(a)and 'Avail-is, respectively, occur. If this should arouse a suspicion thatthe name belonged to western Iran, confirmation comes from the fact thatduring the period of Hellenistic syncretism the cult of Anahid/'AvaiTi<;was joined to those of Artemis, Aphrodite, Cybele, Athena-Minerva,Hera, and even Magna Mater, and enjoyed great popularity throughoutthe Near East. A wholly unusual feature of Anahita's cult was the employ-ment of images of the goddess. Not only does Artaxerxes mention her,but the Babylonian historian Berossus informs us that the king had manyimages of her made and distributed. Ancient Indo-Iranian religion did notemploy images, and Herodotus explicitly states (see Introduction, p. 14)that the Persians thought it to be folly. One can only conclude that thesource of Anahita images is to be located outside Iranian culture. Keepingthis in mind, one must consider the extensive description of Aradwi SuraAnahita, given at the end of the Yasht (sts. 126-129), to be based on anobservation of a cult image. Since nowhere else in Vedic or Avestanliterature does such a detailed description of a deity's garment occur, thisconclusion seems inescapable. Now, if the description of her is based onan image, and if the whole idea of sculptural representation of deities isalien to the Aryan religious mind, what might the source of her image be?The best candidate is the Babylonian goddess Ishtar (Sumerian Inanna),whose image was elaborately dressed for worship.33 The differences indress between Ishtar and Arsdwi Sura Anahita, especially the beavercoat, show that the borrowing was not direct, rather that the idea ofdressing the image was suggested by the dressing of Ishtar. The connec-tion with Ishtar would remain weak if it were not for other correspond-ences. Ishtar was worshipped as a fertility goddess, a role actively playedby Arsdwl Sura Anahita. More important for the comparison, Ishtar wasa goddess of war and patroness of the palace. It can hardly be an accident

Arsdwi Sura Anahita I 119

that a greater part of the Ardwlsur Yasht is taken up with the goddess'smartial traits and her patronage of heroes of Iranian legend. As goddess ofwar, Ishtar rides upon a lion. This feature, though not found in the Aves-ta, occurs on the widespread Kushan coins of NANA (Nanaia), a goddesswho in terms of Iranian syncretism is to be identified with Anahita.

The foregoing discussion may be summarized as follows. The AvestanAradwl Sura Anahita is a syncretistic goddess composed of two major andindependent elements. On the one hand, she manifests the ancient Indo-Iranian idea of the Heavenly River who brings the waters to the rivers andstreams of the earth. On the other hand, she is a goddess of uncertainorigin, who, though maintaining many of her original traits, came to beassociated with the cult of Inanna-Ishtar. The merging of the two in theAvesta must be a late syncretistic effort on the part of Zoroastrians anx-ious to bring Anahita into the fold. The origin of Anahita is, as I havesaid, uncertain. One clue may be present in her Yasht, however: thedescription of her beaver coat. It is obvious from the nature of thatdescription that beavers were not known to the audience for whom theYasht was redacted. The Old World beaver (Castor fiber] did not rangesouth of the Caspian nor along the rivers and lakes of the Aral-Caspiansteppe, but was plentiful in the Caucasus. In fact, Herodotus (IV.I09)mentions beaver among the Scythians, and in Roman imperial times,beaver from the Black Sea area (called 'Pontic dog', canis ponticus) wasan item of active trade. Perhaps Anahita was a local goddess of theextreme northwest whose cult, for whatever reasons, diffused throughoutwestern Iran, eventually to join with that of Inanna-Ishtar.

Returning to Arodwl Sura Anahita's Aryan heritage, one finds that,although she represents the commonly shared concept of the HeavenlyRiver, she has no counterpart in the Vedas bearing the same name or aname remotely resembling hers. Lommel, however, in an importantarticle,34 set forth a body of evidence to show that she actually is the rivergoddess Sarasvati. Quite apart from the obvious fact that Arsdwl SuraAnahita and Sarasvati are both identified as the Heavenly River, corre-spondences such as their association with rain, fertility, and sacred studyalso point to the very real possibility of common origins. Unconvincing isLommel's claim that aradwi sura, and anahita are nothing more thanepithets of a *HarahwatI, as are his attempts to connect Aradwl SuraAnahita *HarahwatI to Sarasvati through the geographic province nameHarahwatI (Arachosia).

The Ardwlsur Yasht should be read with an eye to a diversity of origins,which is reflected in chronological levels of the text. The redaction of thetext, at the least, must be late Achaemenid. If the reason for the impor-tance of this goddess for Iran's legendary history is her association with

120 I Aradwi Sura Anahita

Ishtar, then one shall have to rule that all the Kardahs describing her aidto heroes are late adaptations (see sect. 10), albeit of ancient materials.Concern for fertility and procreation, though not a necessary attribute offemale deities, is too general for one to be able to decide whether AradwlSura Anahita owes this to Ishtar, * Anahita, or *HarahwatI. The truth maybe that it was common to all and hence facilitated the syncretism of theArdwisur Yasht.

Arddwl Sura Anahita (Aban) Yasht (Yasht 5)

I1. Ahura Mazda said to Zarathushtra Spitama: On my account, worship

her, O Zarathushtra Spitama, Aradwl Sura Anahita who spreadsabroad, is healing, opposed to the daewas, a follower of ahuric doc-trine, who is worthy to be worshipped by the material world (and)worthy to be praised by the material world, who is a crop-increasingashawan, a herd-increasing ashawan, an ashawan who makes the coun-try prosper,

2. who purifies the semen of all males, who purifies for conception thewombs of all females, who gives easy delivery to all females, who givesmilk to all females regularly and at the proper time;

3. (worship her,) the vast, famed afar, who is as great as all these waterswhich flow forth upon the earth, who forcefully flows forth from MountHukairya to the Wouru.kasha sea.

4. All the shores of the Wouru.kasha sea surge, the whole middle surgesas Aradwl Sura Anahita flows along into it, as she streams along into it,which has a thousand bays and a thousand outlets; and each of thesebays and each of these outlets is a forty days' ride for a man riding agood horse.

5. And the outlet of this one water will spread out to all the sevencontinents and (the outlet) of this one water flows down in summer andwinter alike.

She (Anahita) purifies the waters, the semen of males, the wombs offemales, (and) the milk of females,

6. whom I, Ahura Mazda, brought forth . . . ( ? ) for the prosperity ofhouse, settlement, clan and land, and for the protection, care, over-sight, guarding, and surveillance (of these).

7. Then Aradwl Sura Anahita went away, O Zarathushtra, from theCreator, Mazda. Very beautiful were (her) white arms stronger than ahorse's. Wearing beautiful sleeves, very strong in her arms, flowing,she showed herself off, thinking this in her mind:

Arddwi Sura Anahita I 121

8. Who will praise me? Who will worship (me) with purified, filteredlibations containing haoma and milk? Whom shall I, friendly (and)agreeable, accompany for the sake of (his) . . . ( ? ) and cheerfulness?

9. On account of her rayi and glory, I shall worship her with audibleprayer, I shall worship her with well-recited prayer, Aradwl Sura Ana-hita, with libations. Thus may you be directed by (this) invocation, thusmay you be better worshipped, O Aradwl Sura Anahita, with haoma(mixed) with milk. . . . [Continue with Ny. 1.16 (p. 183).]

II10. [Repeat st. 1.]11. who, in front, drives (her) chariot, (who) holds the reins of the

chariot; riding in this chariot (and) yearning for a man, (she is) thinkingthis in her mind: Who will worship (me). . . . [Continue with sts. 8-9.]

Ill12. [Repeat st. 1.]13. whose four draft animals, white, all of the same color (and) breed,

tall, overcome the hostilities of all enemies, of daewas and men, ofsorcerers and witches, of tyrants, kawis, and karapans.

On account of her rayi . . . [continue with st. 9].

IV14. [Repeat st. 1.]15. strong, regal, tall, beautiful, in whom flow down by day and by night

as many falling waters as all the waters which flow forth on the earth.She who is strong flows forth!


V16. [Repeat st. 1.]17. He who is the Creator, Ahura Mazda, worshipped her in the Aryana

Waejah of the good Daitya with haoma (mixed) with milk, barosman,skill of tongue and thought, with speech, action, libations, and correctlyuttered words.

18. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that I may instigate the son of Pourushaspa,righteous Zarathushtra, to think according to the (true) Religion, tospeak according to the (true) Religion, to act according to the (true)Religion.

19. Aradwl Sura Anahita then granted him this boon, (she) who alwaysgrants a boon to him who offers (her) libations, (who,) pious, worships(and) entreats (her).

On account of her rayi . . . [continue with st. 9],

722 / Arddwi Surd Anahita

VI20. [Repeat st. 1.]21. At the foot of Mount Kara, Paradhata Haoshyangha offered her one

hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.22. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strong

Aradwl Sura Anahita, that I may become the highest power over all thecountries, over daewas and men, over sorcerers and witches, overtyrants, kawis, and karapans; that I may strike down two-thirds of thedaewas from Mazandaran and of the drugwants from Warana.

23. [Repeat st. 19.]

VII24. [Repeat st. 1.]25. Regal Yima, whose herds are good, offered her, before the peak of

Hukairya, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) tenthousand sheep.

26. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that I may become the highest power over all thecountries, over daewas and men, over sorcerers and witches, overtyrants, kawis, and karapans; that I may take from the daewas bothgoods and profit, both flocks and herds, both contentment and renown.


VIII28. [Repeat st. 1.]29. Three-headed Azhi Dahaka offered her, in the country of Bavri, one

hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.30. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strong

Aradwl Sura Anahita, that I may make unpopulated all the seven conti-nents.

31. Aradwl Sura Anahita did not grant him this boon.On account of her rayi . . . [continue with st. 9].

IX32. [Repeat st. 1.]33. Thraetaona, the prince of the mighty house of Athvya, offered her,

in quadrangular(?) Warsna, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows,and ten thousand sheep.

34. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArodwl Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over Azhi Dahaka whohas three mouths, three heads, six eyes, a thousand perceptions, thevery powerful daewic liar, the evil deceiver of (?) the world, the most

Aradwi Sura Andhita I 123

powerful liar which Angra Mainyu brought forth against the materialworld to destroy the world of Truth; and may I drive away his twowives Sanghawak and Aranawak who rise up with most beautifulbodies for the household, those two who are most excellent.


X36. [Repeat st. 1.]37. Strong-willed Ksrasaspa offered her, within sight of lake Pishinah,

one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.38. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strong

Aradwl Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over Gandarava whoseheels are yellow; by the surging shores of the Wouru.kasha sea may Istorm the liar's strong house which (stands) on (this) broad, round(earth) whose ends are distant.


XI40. [Repeat st. 1.]41. The Turanian scoundrel Frangrasyan offered her, in (his) cave in the

earth, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousandsheep.

42. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongAradwl Sura Anahita, that I may obtain that Xwaranah which is floatingin the middle of the Wouru.kasha sea, (and) which belongs to the Aryanpeoples born and unborn and to righteous Zarathushtra.


XII44. [Repeat st. 1.]45. Brave, mighty Kawi Usan offered her, on Mount 3razifya, one hun-

dred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.46. [Repeat st. 22, through " . . . karapans."]47. [Repeat st. 19.]

XIII48. [Repeat st. 1.]49. The hero who consolidated (?) the power of the Aryan countries,

Haosrawah, offered her, within sight of the deep lake Caecasta35 with awide expanse of water, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows,(and) ten thousand sheep.

50. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArodwi Sura Anahita, that I may become the highest power . . . [con-

124 I Arddwi Surd Andhitd

tinue with st. 22 through ". . . karapans"]; that, of all the teams ofhorses, I may be foremost to drive along the racecourse which is long.Indeed, I shall not cut (?) the turning post (? with my chariot) when (?)the scoundrel, Nsrsmanah, competes against me with (his) horses.


XIV52. [Repeat st. 1.]53. The brave warrior Tusa worshipped her at the manes of (his) horses,

requesting strength for (his) teams, health for himself, much watchful-ness against enemies, the ability to overcome hostile, unfriendly oppo-nents at a blow.

54. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over the brave sons ofWaesaka at the pass Xshathro.suka, the highest in the lofty, holy Kan-gha range36; that I may strike down the Turanian peoples with onehundred blows for (every fifty blows. . . . [Continue with Yt. 10.43from " . . . and with one thousand blows" (p. 64).]


XV56. [Repeat st. 1.]57. The brave sons of Waesaka offered her, at the pass Xshathro.suka,

the highest in the lofty, holy Kangha range, one hundred stallions, onethousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.

58. Then they entreated her: Grant us this boon, O good, most strongAradwl Sura Anahita, that we may be victorious over the brave warriorTusa; that we may strike down the Aryan peoples with one hundredblows. . . . [Continue with Yt. 10.43 from ". . . for every (fifty)blows" (p. 64).]

59. Aradwl Sura Anahita did not grant them this boon.[Repeat st. 9.]

XVI60. [Repeat st. 1.]61. The clever boatman Paurwa worshipped her as brave victorious

Thraetaona caused him to fly up in the form of a vulture.62. Thus he flew for three days (and) three nights in the direction of his

own house. He could not descend. At the end of the third night he cameto the dawn, to the lighting up of the early (dawn). At the dawn heinvoked Arsdwl Sura Anahita:

63. O Aradwi Sura Anahita, come immediately to help me! Bring meassistance now! I shall bring you, at the Rangha river, one thousand

Aradwi Sura Anahita I 125

purified, filtered libations containing haoma and milk if, living, I reachthe Ahum-created earth, the house which is my own.

64. Aradwi Sura Anahita flowed up to (him) in the form of a beautiful,very strong maiden, well built, high girdled, erect, noble in respect to(her) illustrious lineage, in shoes worn to the ankle with bright goldenlaces.

65. She took hold of his arms. Soon it was, not long, that she hastilyrestored (him) [to the Ahura-created earth, to his own house] just ashealthy and safe as before.


XVII67. [Repeat st. 1.]68. Jamaspa offered her, as he perceived far off the army of the daewa-

worshipping drugwants approaching in battle array, one hundred stal-lions, one thousand cows (and) ten thousand sheep.

69. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that I shall be attended by as great a victory as allthe other Aryans.


XVIII71. [Repeat st. 1.]72. Ashawazdah, the son of Pourudhaxshti, and Ashawazda and Thrita,

the sons of Sayuzhdri, offered her in the presence of (?) the lofty Ahura,lordly, regal Apam Napat whose horses are swift, one hundred stal-lions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousand sheep.

73. Then they entreated her: Grant us this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that we may be victorious over the challengingTuranian Danu and over Kara Asabana and Wara Asabana and bravestDuraekaeta, in the battles in this world.

74. Aradwl Sura Anahita then granted them, too, this boon. . . . [Con-tinue with st. 19.]

XIX75. [Repeat st. 1.]76. Wistauru the Naotarid worshipped her at the WitahwaitI37 river,

with correctly uttered speech, with words speaking thus:77. By this truth, by this correctly spoken (statement), O Arsdwl Sura

Anahita, (it is the case) that as many daewa worshippers have beenslain by me as I bear hairs on my head. So, you leave, O Arsdwl SuraAnahita, a dry passage across good WitawhaitI for me!

726 / Arddwi Sura Anahita

78. Aradwl Sura Anahita flowed up to (him) in the form of a beautiful,very strong maiden, well built, high girdled, erect, noble in respect to(her) illustrious lineage, dressed in golden shoes, who was completelyadorned, splendid. Some waters she made stand still, the others she(made) flow onward. She left a dry passage across good Wltahwaiti.


XX80. [Repeat st. 1.]81. Yoishta, of the Fryanids, offered her, on the island Paitipa of the

Rangha, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and) ten thousandsheep.

082. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongAradwl Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over the evil-thinking,tenebrous Axtya, and may I answer his ninety-nine difficult, malicious-ly asked questions when the evil-thinking, tenebrous Axtya will ques-tion me.


XXI84. [Repeat st. 1.]85. to whom beneficent Ahura Mazda spoke: Return, descend, O

Arsdwi Sura Anahita, from those stars to the Ahura-created earth! Thebrave lords, the rulers of the countries, (and) the sons of the rulers ofthe countries will worship you.

86. Also, brave men will entreat you for possession of swift horses andfor the superiority of (their) xwaranah. The athrawans who memorize(and) the athrawan students will entreat you for wisdom as well as forbeneficent and ahura-given victoriousness and conquering superiority.

87. Maidens in marriageable position will ask you for generous estatesand for a strong householder. Young wives in labor will ask you foreasy childbirth. You, O Aradwl Sura Anahita, shall be able to grantthese (things) to them!

88. Then, O Zarathushtra, Aradwi Sura Anahita went away from thosestars to the ahura-created earth. Then Arsdwl Sura Anahita said:

89. O upright, righteous Spitamid, Ahura Mazda created you as ratu ofthe material world; Ahura Mazda created me protectress of all ashawanexistence. Through my insight and xwarsnah, cattle and draft animalsgraze about over the earth. And men with two feet . . .(?)!, indeed,protect. . . (?) these, all the Mazda-created good stemming from Truthas a stockyard (?) protects the livestock.

Arddwi Surd Andhitd I 127

90. Zarathushtra asked her, Arodwl Sura Anahita: O Aradwl Sura Ana-hita, with what prayer shall I worship you, with what prayer shall Isacrifice in order that Mazda may make for you a course, not on thisside, (but) above the sun, so that the serpent(s) and the spiders and thescorpions and the spiders and those poisonous spiders (?) may notdeceive you?

91. Then Arodwl Sura Anahita said: O upright, righteous Spitamid, youshould worship me with this prayer, sacrifice (to me) with this prayerfrom sunrise to sunset. You may drink this libation of mine (as well as?)the wise, skillful athrawans who have investigated the dictates andinterpreted the teachings, who (are) tanu.mathra.

92. Let not someone afflicted with . . . (?), nor a feverish person, nor aeunuch (?), nor a . . .(?), nor an impotent person (?), nor a woman, norsomeone (who is) instructed (but) does not recite the Gathas, nor aleper who has been isolated, consume this libation of mine!

93. I shall not be present at those libations which, (though dedicated) tome, the blind and the deaf and the dumb and the foolish and the insaneand the epileptic consume: (that is,) those marked with the mark withwhich, according to the thinking of everyone, those of much intelli-gence are not marked. Let not a chicken-breasted person, nor a hunch-back, nor a toothless drugwant drink any of this libation of mine!

94. Zarathushtra asked her, Arodwi Sura Anahita: O Aradwl Sura Ana-hita, now what becomes of the libations to you when the daewa-worshipping drugwants bring (them) to you after sunset?

95. Then Aradwl Sura Anahita said: O upright righteous SpitamidZarathushtra, the frightful (?), the . . . (?), the slanderous (daewa wor-shippers) install themselves by these (libations) which (they bring) tome after (sunset). They drive six hundred and a thousand (strong). . . .(?)

96. I shall worship the golden Mount Hukairya, honored by all fromwhich Arsdwl Sura Anahita flows forth at the height of one thousandmen. She reigns over much xwaranah, as do all these rivers which flowforth on the earth, she who, powerful, flows forth.


XXII97. [Repeat st. 1.]98. round whom stood the Mazda worshippers with barasman in their

hands. The Hwowids worshipped her; the Naotarids worshipped her.The Hwowids asked for wealth; the Naotarids, for possession of swifthorses. Soon thereafter the Hwowids became the strongest in terms of

128 I Ar9dwi Sura Anahita

wealth; soon thereafter the Naotarid, Wlshtaspa, came to possess theswiftest horses of these countries.


XXIII100. [Repeat st. 1.]101. . . . which has one thousand bays and one thousand outlets; and

each of these bays and each of these outlets is a forty days' ride for aman riding a good horse. At each outlet stands a well-built house,splendid with one hundred windows, well-made with one thousandcolumns, strong with ten thousand beams.

102. Moreover, in (each) house every couch for lying (on) is beautifullyspread out, perfumed, (and) provided with cushions.

Aradwl Sura Anahita, O Zarathushtra, flows at the height of onethousand men. She reigns over as much xwaronah as all these riverswhich flow forth on the earth, she, (Arsdwl Sura Anahita,) who, beingpowerful, flows forth.

XXIV103. [Repeat st. 1.]104. Righteous Zarathushtra worshipped her in the Aryan land of the

good Daitya with haoma (mixed) with milk. . . . [Continue with Ny.1.16 (p. 183).]

105. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwl Sura Anahita, that I may instigate the son of Aurwat.aspa,brave Kawi Wlshtaspa, to think according to the (true) Religion, tospeak according to the (true) Religion, to act according to the (true)Religion.

106. [Repeat st. 19.]

XXV107. [Repeat st. 1.]108. The highly intelligent Kawi Wlshtaspa offered her, within sight of

the river Frazdanu, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and)ten thousand sheep.

109. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongArsdwi Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over Tathryawant whosereligion is evil, and Pashana the daewa worshipper, and drugwantArajat.aspa in the battles in this world.

110. [Repeat st. 19.]

XXVI111. [Repeat st. 1.]112. Zairl.wari, the fighter on horseback, offered her, within sight of the

Arddwi Sura Anahita I 129

waters of the Daitya, one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, (and)ten thousand sheep.

113. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strongAradwl Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over the daewa worship-per Humayaka with the extended claws (?), who possesses eight strong-holds (?), and over the drugwant Arsjat.aspa in the battles in this world.


XXVII115. [Repeat st. 1.]116. Wandaramanish Arsjat.aspa offered her, at the Wouru.kasha sea,

one hundred stallions, one thousand cows, and ten thousand sheep.117. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, O good, most strong

Argdwi Sura Anahita, that I may be victorious over brave Kawi Wish-taspa (and) Zairi.wari the fighter on horseback, that I may smite downthe Aryan peoples with one hundred blows for (every) fifty blows. . . .[Continue with Yt. 10.43 from " . . . and with one thousand blows" (p.64).]

118. [Repeat st. 31.]

XXVIII119. [Repeat st. 1.]120. whose four stallions Ahura Mazda created: Wind, Rain, Clouds,

and Hail. By urinating (?), O Spitamid Zarathushtra, they let it rain,snow, drizzle, and hail on her (?);

who has so many missiles—nine hundred and a thousand.121. [Repeat st. 96.]

XXIX122. [Repeat st. 1.]123. Good Aradwl Sura Anahita stands, wearing a golden plastron,

yearning for the prayer at the libation, thinking this in her mind:124. [Repeat sts. 8-9.]

XXX125. [Repeat st. 1.]126. who, Aradwl Sura Anahita, is wont to be seen in the form of a

beautiful, very strong maiden, well built, high girdled, erect, noble inrespect to (her?) illustrious lineage, dressed in a long-sleeved, much-embroidered, golden coat.

127. Holding barssman in her hand in the correct way, showing off herfour-lobed golden earrings, Aradwl Sura Anahita of good birth is wontto wear a necklace about her beautiful throat. She laces herself around

130 I Aradwi Surd Anahita

the waist both so that (her) breasts (may be) well formed and so thatthey swell out.

128. Above (on her head), Aradwl Sura Anahita binds a beautiful, well-made, golden diadem (studded) with one hundred stars, (holding) eightbuns of hair (?), made like a chariot body, adorned with pennants,having a prominent rim.

129. Aradwl Sura Anahita wears beaver clothes of thirty (male) beaverwhich have (each) begotten four (young). [That is, the female beaver ismost beautiful because she is most dense-haired. The female beaver isan aquatic animal.] Normally, at the appropriate time, replete withsilver and gold, the furs shine on the beholders.

130. Now then, O good, most powerful Arsdwl Sura Anahita, I ask forthis boon, that I, very beloved (to you?), may win great estates char-acterized by abundant ripening (of the crops and) large shares, wherethere are neighing horses, rattling wheels, (and) snaking whips, wherethere is much to eat, where meats are stored up, where there are fra-grant aromas. In the storage rooms I (?) have deposited, as far as onecould wish, copiously, all (things requisite) for a good life . . . (?).

131. Now, then, O good Aradwl Sura Anahita, I ask for two coursers,for both a two-legged courser and a four-legged one; that two-leggedcourser (is he) who should be swift when mounted, skilled at turning thechariots forward in battles; that four-legged one (is he) who will routboth flanks of the (hostile) army which has a broad front, both the leftand the right, and the right and the left.

132. On account of this worship, on account of this praise, return,descend, O Aradwi Sura Anahita, from those stars to the Ahura-created earth, to the worshipping zaotar, to the hand overflowing (withlibations), for help to the pious libation-offering worshipper, (you, whoare) the giver of a boon to one who asks, so that these heroes mayreturn victorious, like (those) of Kawi Wlshtaspa.

10. Ashi

Ashi is a goddess who personifies the concept of 'reward, recompense',which is the meaning of her name. As an appellative, ashi is employed inboth Gathic and Young Avestan to indicate both favorable and unfavor-able recompense for one's actions, depending, of course, on the moralquality of such actions. As a goddess Ashi is, for the most part, consid-ered to be only 'Good Reward' (ashi wanghwi), and, as her Yasht makes

As hi I 131

clear, her area of concern is the good things of life, especially domesticfelicities. Because of this her Yasht contains a treasure of information onthe ancient Iranian conception of the ideal household.

Ashi's genealogy is carefully spelled out. She is Ahura Mazda's andSpanta Armaiti's daughter; the sister of the Amgsha Spantas and theMazdean religion; her brother is Sraosha. These family connections,together with the sensuous description of her infatuation with Zarathush-tra (sts. 21-22), show how deeply her worship must have been rooted inZarathushtrianism.

Although some scholars have seen in her a mere colorless, abstractdeity (like the Amssha Spantas) whose being acquired flesh and bloodthrough wholesale borrowings from others, particularly Aradwl SuraAnahita, it is hard to reconcile this view with the vividly individual pictureof her as she is portrayed in the Avesta. While some borrowing must haveoccurred, her individuality is unimpaired. One might even go so far as toquestion whether Aradwi Sura Anahita has not also borrowed from her.Like Anahita, Ashi is mounted on a chariot and, like Anahita, she isconcerned with human fertility. There are significant differences betweenthem, however. It should especially be emphasized that Ashi is preoccu-pied with human sexuality. Whereas Arsdwl Sura Anahita forbids peoplewith a variety of deformities and diseases to participate in her worship,Ashi excludes only those who are sexually dysfunctional. Ashi's promo-tion of sexual potency is, furthermore, restricted to situations in whichsexuality may be legitimately exercised. A most curious myth is thatfound in sts. 55-56. The Naotarids were the clan of Zarathushtra's patronWIshtaspa; the Turanians were the barbarians. One might perhaps thinkof ritual contest involving a search for Ashi by children; but, in any case,the meaning is totally obscure.

Ashi (Ard) Yasht (Yasht 17)I

1. We worship good Ashi (who is) regal, tall, beautiful, good to beworshipped, whose (chariot) wheels hum, powerful, who bestowsprofit, who is curative, who has broad insight, (is) strong,

2. the daughter of Ahura Mazda, the sister of the Amssha Spantas, whoby reason of (her) insight drives forth before all the Saoshyants,

And she bestows, at her pleasure, innate insight upon him, and shecomes to help him who invokes (her) both close by and at a distance.

He who shall worship Ashi with libations shall worship Mithra withlibations.

3. On account of her rayi and glory, I shall worship her with audible

132 I Ashi

prayer; I shall worship her with properly performed worship, goodAshi, with libations.

We worship good Ashi with haoma (mixed) with milk. . . . [ContinuewithNy. 1.16 (p. 183).]

II4. [Repeat st. 1.]5. Homage to Haoma and to the Mathra and to righteous Zarathushtra!

[Even so, homage to Haoma, since all other intoxicants are accompa-nied by Wrath with the bloody cudgel; but the intoxication which isHaoma's is accompanied by Truth itself.]

6. O good Ashi, O beautiful Ashi, O radiant Ashi, shining joyfully with(your) rays! O Ashi, (you who) give good fortune to these men whomyou accompany!

The house becomes sweet-smelling in which good, strong Ashi sets(her) feet, agreeably minded for a long succession (of descendants).

7. Those men whom you accompany, good Ashi, govern estates wherethere is much to eat, where meats are stored up, where there are fra-grant aromas, in which there are a spread-out couch and other valuedpossessions.

Hail (to him) whom you accompany!And (she,) powerful (and) manifold (?), accompanies me.

8. The houses of those whom you accompany, good Ashi, stay wellconstructed (?), rich in cattle foremost for long support.

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]9. The couches of those whom you accompany, good Ashi, stay nicely

spread, sweetly perfumed, well prepared, provided with cushions, withlegs laced with gold.

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]10. The respected wives of those whom you accompany, good Ashi, are

wont to sit on beautiful couches provided with cushions, groomingthemselves, decorating (their clothing) with clasps, displaying four-lobed (golden) earrings and gold-adorned necklaces, (thinking to them-selves), "When will the master of the house come to us? When shall wejoyfully enjoy (his) dear body?"

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]11. The maidens of those whom you accompany, good Ashi, sit with

. . . ( ? ) feet, binding their waists, with active bodies (and) long fingers.[The bodies (?) of such (girls?) are of (such) beauty that (they are) apleasure for those who watch (them)].

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]

Ashi I 133

12. The horses of those whom you accompany, good Ashi, inspire fear;swift, snorting impetuously, they pull the fast chariot, strain at theleather; they convey the brave praiser (?) whose horses are swift,whose chariot is sturdy, whose spears are sharp and have long shafts,the far-shooting archer, pursuing the enemy from behind, slaying thefoe in front.

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]13. The firm-humped, very spirited camels of those whom you accom-

pany, good Ashi, inspire fear when in rut, fighting with each other theyrise up (?) from the ground.

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]14. A merchant brings silver and gold in a cask (?) from foreign lands

and splendid tailored (?) clothes to those whom you accompany, goodAshi.

Hail (to him). . . . [Continue with st. 7.]15. Look away from me, (but) turn your grace toward me, tall Ashi!

You are well created (?) (and) of good lineage. You are able to givexwaranah to (my) body, according to (your) desire.

16. Your father is Ahura Mazda, the greatest of gods, the best of gods.(Your) mother, Spanta Armaiti.Your brother is good Sraosha the companion of Ashi [and powerful

lofty Rashnu and Mithra of wide pastures who has ten thousand spies(and) a thousand ears].

Your sister is the Mazdean Religion.17. Good Ashi who is tall takes her stand as a charioteer, worthy to be

praised by the gods, immovable from the straightest (paths), speakingwith words: Who are you who invoke me whose voice is the very best Ihave heard among those who invoke me?

18. Thereupon he spoke out: (I am) Zarathushtra the Spitamid, who wasthe first man to praise Asha Wahishta, to worship Ahura Mazda, toworship the Amssha Spantas, at whose birth and growth the plants andwaters recovered, at whose birth and growth the plants and watersgrew,

19. at whose birth and growth Angra Mainyu fled the broad round earthwhose ends are distant. Thus, evil Angra Mainyu, full of destruction,muttered: All the gods could not drag (?) me forth against my will, butZarathushtra alone drove me away against my will.

20. He smites me with the Ahuna wairya, so great a weapon as a stonethe size of a house. He scorches me with the Asha wahishta, as it werewith molten metal. The Spitamid Zarathushtra who alone banished memade it better for me to abandon this earth.

134 I Ashi

21. Then tall, good Ashi spoke thus: Draw nearer to me, O upright,righteous Spitamid. Lean against my chariot.

The Spitamid Zarathushtra drew nearer to her. He leaned against herchariot.

22. Then she caresses him with her left arm and her right, with her rightarm and her left, speaking thus with words: You are beautiful, OZarathushtra; you are handsome, O Spitamid—with beautiful calvesand long arms. You have been granted glory for your body and long-(lasting) well-being for your soul, in so much as I have (now) pro-claimed this to you.

On account of her rayi . . . [Continue with st. 3.]

Ill23. [Repeat st. 1.]24. At the foot of beautiful, Mazda-created Mount Hara, Haoshyangha

Paradhata worshipped her.25. Then he entreated her: Grant me this boon, good tall Ashi, that I

may be victorious over all the daewas from Mazandaran, so that, fright-ened, I may not out of terror flee before the daewas, (rather) may all thedaewas, unwilling, frightened, flee before me; frightened may they runinto darkness.

26. Good tall Ashi circled (him), she went around (him). HaoshyanghaParadhata obtained the boon.

On account of her rayi . . . [continue with st. 3].27-52. (A suppliant list which includes Yima, Thraetaona, Haoma,

Haosrawah, Zarathushtra, and Wishtaspa.)

X53. [Repeat st. 1.]54. Then good tall Ashi said: Let not any (of the following) have a share

of these libations of mine which (men) bring to me: neither a man whosesemen is obstructed, nor a woman past (the age of) menstruation, nor aprepubescent boy, nor a girl who has not been approached (sexually) bymen.

55. When the Turanians and the swift-horsed Naotarids frightened me,then I concealed myself under the foot of a . . . (?) bull. Then theydrove me out of hiding—the prepubescent boys, the girls who have notbeen approached (sexually) by men.

56. When also the Turanians and the swift-horsed Naotarids frightenedme, then too I concealed myself under the neck of a sheep, of a ramwith a hundred . . . (?). Then too they drove me out of hiding—the

Sraosha I 135

prepubescent boys, the girls who have not been approached (sexually)by men.

57. Tall, good Ashi lamented (with her) first lament in respect to thewoman who has not given birth to a son: Do not frequent her house, donot lie down on her couch! What am I to do with her? Should I go forthto the vault of heaven? Should I turn back to the earth?

58. Tall, good Ashi lamented (with her) second lament in respect to thatwoman who bears that son sired by (her) husband (but) bears (him) foranother man: What am I to do with her? Should I go forth to the vault ofheaven? Should I turn back to the earth?"

59. Tall, good Ashi lamented (with her) third lament: This is, for me, themost awful deed (which) terrible men carry out, that they abduct un-married girls. [They rape (them).] What am I to do with them? Should Igo forth to the vault of heaven? Should I turn back to the earth?

60. Then Ahura Mazda said: O beautiful Ashi created by the Creator, donot go forth to the vault of heaven, do not turn back to the earth! Here,walk around the interior part of my beautiful, royal house.

61. I shall worship you with this rite, I shall pay you worship with thisrite as Wishtaspa worshipped you in sight of the river Daitya. Thezaotar should raise (his) voice high, standing behind the barssman. Ishall worship you with this rite, I shall pay you worship with this rite, obeautiful Ashi created by the Creator.


11. Sraosha

Sraosha is a deity who, at least from the time of Zarathushtra, has playedan important role in Iranian religion. His worship was so deep-rooted inIranian religious custom that he survived Islam to continue in an alteredstate as the angel Surosh. He is also the only deity to have two Yashtsdedicated to him, namely Yasna 57 and Yasht 11 (Srosh Yasht Hadhoxt).He name itself, derived from the verb 'to hear' (sru-), means somethinglike 'obedience, discipline'. Unlike many abstract deities who, like theAmssha Spsntas, have quite empty personalities, god Obedience is aflesh-and-blood figure of some complexity.

Sraosha does not appear in the Gathas as an Amssha Spsnta, but isclosely allied with them. In Yasna 33, for example, Zarathushtra contrastsDisobedience (asrushti) and Evil Mind (st. 4) with "Obedience which is

136 I Sraosha

greatest of all" (wispa.mazishtam sdraosham) and Good Mind (st. 5); or,again, in Y. 33.14, he mentions Sraosha in connection with Dominion andTruth. But whereas he remains definitely an abstraction for Zarathushtra*in the Younger Avesta he takes on a very different aspect. We havealready remarked how empty Ahura Mazda and especially the AmgshaSpsntas are in the post-Gathic literature. The fact that Sraosha dramati-cally gains substance has led to the suspicion that he was already animportant deity of the popular religion outside Zarathushtrian circles.Were this the case, Zarathushtra evidently assumed him into his ownsystem by stripping him of his various attributes, which did not harmonizewith Zarathushtra's generally abstract mode of thought.

Recently, Boyce has made the attractive suggestion that Sraosha maysomehow be connected with the Vedic deity Brhaspati (also known asBrahamanaspati).38 While not going so far as to claim a generic rela-tionship, she has brought to light a striking number of structural parallelsbetween the two. One of Sraosha's primary functions is his mastery ofprayer and sacrifice. Indeed, his role as an intermediary between man andthe divine via prayer is what perpetuated his veneration into IranianIslam. Now, it is mastery over prayer that is the defining characteristic ofBrhaspati, whose name means 'Lord of Prayer or Sacred Rite' (brh-,brahman-). Like Sraosha, Brhaspati opposes the particularly demonicforces. Whereas most Vedic gods combat demons by force of arms,Brhaspati, often in concert with the Angirases (see p. 105), employs themagic power of song to destroy his enemies. In Iranian religion, eventhough Sraosha does wield his terrible, bladed club, his distinctiveweapon is sacred speech (mathra). He is also the first divine ritualist. Afurther interesting similarity is that both Brhaspati and Sraosha are close-ly allied with the war gods Indra and Mithra. One might well suppose thatSraosha's martial traits derive from his association with Mithra.

There are, however, important points of difference between Sraoshaand Brhaspati. Brhaspati is, in the opinion of many scholars, a creation ofthe priestly caste and as such appears to manifest the concerns of onlythis elite class. Sraosha, on the contrary, was deeply rooted in popularpiety. He is singled out as the youthful protector of the poor, women, anddefenseless people in general. As well as being a demon slayer, protectorof the defenseless, and intermediary, he is a constant companion of thegoddess Ashi (Reward). His standing epithet is ashya, which means 'con-nected with Ashi, i.e., companion, friend of Ashi'. Since rewards can berealized in both this world and the next, Sraosha became, in later Zoroas-trianism, the guide of the soul of the deceased on its journey across theCinwat bridge. Together with Mithra and Rashnu, he also came to serveas judge of the dead.

Sraosha I 137

Sraosha (Srosh) YashtYasna 57

I1. [Omitted.]2. We worship Sraosha, the companion of Ashi, handsome, victorious,

world-promoting, the righteous ratu of Truth, who as the first in thecreation (?) of Mazda, at the spread barasman worshipped Ahura Maz-da, worshipped the Amasha Spantas, worshipped the Protector andCreator (Thvorsshtar) who both created all the creatures.

3. On account of his rayi and glory, on account of his power and victo-riousness, on account of his worship of the gods, I shall worship him,Sraosha, the companion of Ashi, with libations, and (also I shallworship) good tall Ashi and handsome Nairya Sangha.

May victorious Sraosha the companion of Ashi come to help us!4. [Omitted.]

II5. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth,6. who first strewed barasman—three sticks and five sticks and seven

sticks and nine sticks—up to the knees, [up to the middle of the legs,]for the worship, praise, propitiation, and proclaiming of the AmsshaSpantas.

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with sts. 3-4].

Ill7. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth,8. who first recited the five Gathas of righteous Zarathushtra the Spita-

mid, line by line, stanza by stanza, together with commentary, togetherwith the interpretation, for the worship, praise, propitiation, proclaim-ing of the Amasha Spsntas.


IV9. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth,10. who constructs a strong house for the poor man and woman after

sunset, who smites Wrath with (his) devastating weapon, (inflicting) agory wound, and then beats (him) to death (by) smashing his head, justas the strong (beats) the weaker.


138 I Sraosha

V11. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, brave, swift, powerful, bold, strong, of highintelligence,

12. who returns from all battles triumphant to the assembly of theAmasha Spsntas.

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with sts. 3-^].

VI13. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, the strongest of youths, the bravest of youths,the most vigorous of youths, the swiftest of youths, the most feared,(even) at a distance, of youths.

O Mazdeans, zealously pursue the worship of Sraosha the compan-ion of Ashi!

14. Far from this house, far from this settlement, far from this clan, farfrom this country go evil calamities, famines—in whose house victo-rious Sraosha the companion of Ashi is satiated (with food) (and) re-ceived hospitably and the righteous man who is predominantly char-acterized by good thoughts, good speech, (and) good deeds.

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with st. 3-4].

VII15. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, who is the victor over the kayadha, who is thevictor over the kaidhya, who is the slayer of the very powerful, life-destroying daewic Lie, who is the guardian and overseer of the prosper-ity (?) of the entire world

16. who, not falling asleep, wakeful, protects Mazda's creatures; who,not falling asleep, wakeful, watches over Mazda's creatures; who pro-tects the entire material world with upraised weapon after sunset;

17. who has not gone to sleep since the two Spirits, both the BeneficentSpirit and the Evil, created (their) creations, watching over the world ofTruth; who battles every day and night with the daewas from Mazanda-ran.

18. He does not flee, frightened, out of terror, from the daewas. Unwill-ing, all the daewas, afraid, flee from him; afraid, they race into thedarkness.


VIII19. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

Sraosha I 139

righteous ratu of Truth, whom radiant, curative, beautiful, imperial,yellow-eyed Haoma worshipped on the highest peak, on the highHaraitI,

20. whose speech is good, whose speech is protecting, whose speech ismusical (?), who has mastery over knowledge of all sorts which hasmuch understanding (?) and over pre-eminence in the (sacred) Word.


IX21. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, whose victorious thousand-pillared house isbuilt on the highest peak, on the high HaraitI, self-illumined on theinside, star-studded on the outside,

22. whom the Ahuna wairya serves as (his) victorious weapon, and theYasna HaptahvaitI (Y. 35-41) and the victorious Fshusho Mathra (Y.58) and all the sacrificial acts.

On account of his rayi . , . [continue with sts. 3-4].

X23. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, through whose strength and victoriousness andknowledgeableness and wisdom the Amasha Spantas came down to theearth containing the seven continents; who (Sraosha) is the religionteacher of the Religion.

24-26. [Omitted.]

XI27. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth, whom four white, light, shining (?), beneficent,wise, shadowless, supernatural racehorses drive—their horny hoovesare adorned with gold.

28. (The racehorses are) faster than (two other) horses, faster than twowinds, faster than two rains, faster than two clouds, faster than twowinged birds, faster than two well-shot (arrows) being shot.

29. who (i.e., the four horses) catch up with all those whom theychase—they are not caught from behind—who, with both weapons,arrive at their destination drawing good Sraosha the companion of Ashi(in his chariot).

Even if he is at the eastern river he is seized, even if he is at thewestern (river) he is struck down.39


140 I Sraosha

XII

30. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, therighteous ratu of Truth, who, tall, high-girdled, installs(?) himself inMazda's creation;

31. who, thrice on the same day or on the same night, descends to thiscontinent, shining Xwaniratha, holding in his hand his weapon sharp atthe blade, easily wielded at the head(s) of daewas,

32. in order to smite Angra Mainyu the liar, in order to smite Wrath withthe horrible club, in order to smite the daewas from Mazandaran, inorder to smite all the daewas.


XIII33. We worship Sraosha, handsome, victorious, world-promoting, the

righteous ratu of Truth. Both here and elsewhere, both here and overthe entire earth, (we worship) all (the conquests?) of Sraosha, compan-ion of Ashi, brave, tanu.mathra, brave, valorous, strong in his arms,the warrior, smiter of daewas' heads, winning conquests, [who has won(many) conquests], righteous; and we worship Conquering Superiority,which belongs to Sraosha companion of Ashi and which belongs to godJustice.

34. We worship all the houses protected by Sraosha where dear, be-loved Sraosha, companion of Ashi, is received hospitably and wherethe righteous man is prodominantly characterized by good thought,good speech, (and) good deeds.


12. Tishtrya

Despite the relative wealth of information furnished by Yasht 8, the deityto whom it pertains remains, in many respects, something of a mystery.He has no immediately apparent counterpart in the Rgveda, nor is anytrace of him to be found in Old Iranian religion outside of the Avesta. Inthe Pahlavi books he is frequently confused with another astral deity, TIr,but sometimes, in astrological texts, he is pitted against TIr as hisarchenemy. He is normally identified as the star Sirius, yet the myth of hisconflict with Apaosha, involving his ability to provide the earth withwater, contradicts such an identification. Even the etymology of his name

Tishtrya I 141

is problematic. Before attempting to delineate the problems, it might bewell to begin with what is clear from the Avesta.

Tishtrya is a bright star (st. 2). One would suppose that he is among thebrightest of stars, since he was appointed "ratu and overseer of all thestars" (st. 44) by Ahura Mazda. What especially distinguishes Tishtrya isthat he is one of the stars "of watery nature" (afsh.cithrd), that is, one ofthe stars responsible for bringing water, mainly in the form of rain, to theearth. Moreover, he is the strongest of these stars (st. 45). His mythologyconcerns itself primarily with various aspects of hydrology. It is clearfrom the Yasht that Tishtrya is not what the phenomenology of religionwould classify as an atmospheric storm god. His yearly arrival or risingoccasions the storm-producing forces, but it is not Tishtrya himself, itwould seem, who is the actual rain bringer. His battles with the evilpowers who would prevent rain merely establish the proper conditions forthe production of rain.

In order to better understand Tishtrya's mode of operation, one mustfirst examine some of the cosmological notions involved. In sect. 9 underAradwl Sura Anahita, I discussed the significance of the cosmic sea orlake Wouru.kasha. In the Tishtrya Yasht, the heavenly river is nowherementioned as the replenisher of water to the sea, yet Woru.kasha con-tinues to function as the source of earthly river water, now releasingwater at the instigation of Tishtrya and his deputy Satawaesa (st. 9).Recall that Aradwi Sura Anahita descends from the peak of the cosmicmountain towering into the sphere of the stars, down to Wouru.kasha.Tishtrya both descends into and rises from Wouru.kasha; and when herises again, together with Satawaesa, it is with the "mist," that is, thewater evaporating from the raging sea. The mist rises from a MountUs.handawa (apparently part of the Alburz) where presumably it is trans-formed into the clouds, which, conveyed thence by the bold Wind, bringrain and hail to the places inhabited by mankind.

Before the process of cloud production can begin, Tishtrya must dobattle with various demons: Apaosha (Nonprosperity), as well as a host ofshooting stars identified as witches (pairika), among whom is Duzhyairya(Bad Crop) (sts. 51-55). The battle with Apaosha along the shores ofWouru.kasha is a unique sort of myth. The astral deity Tishtrya, assuminghis third transmutation, the white horse, fights a hideous horse (also anastral deity). First the tide of battle runs in Apaosha's favor, but then,after worship has been offered by Ahura Mazda, it turns in Tishtrya'sfavor. One cannot help but be struck by the ritual nature of the myth. Theoutcome of the myth, enacted yearly, is explicitly linked to Tishtrya'sworship. The specification that in the successive combats the one horsedrives the other the length of a racecourse, that is, half the circuit, arouses

142 I Tishtrya

the suspicion that one is dealing with a ritual race or contest of some sortinvolving one complete circuit of a racecourse.

Having established that Tishtrya is a star responsible for the initiationof the process of rainmaking and in general for replenishing water, andwho, accordingly, is considered essential for good crops and thrivinglivestock, one must now consider some problems. In reality, the problemshave their source in the question of his identity. While it is generallyagreed that Tishtrya is to be identified as Sirius, it is equally agreed thatSirius is highly ill suited as a bringer of rain, since his heliacal rising wouldhave occurred at the time of greatest seasonal drought. It may be possibleto find a solution to this dilemma in the fact that in the Pahlavi books he isoften either confused with or placed in direct opposition to Tlr, who issometimes Sirius, sometimes the planet Mercury. Although Tlr is notmentioned in the Avesta (unless in the uncertain name Tiro.nakathva), hisOld Iranian credentials are insured by the preservation of his name in acommon proper name *TIridata (Gr Tipi8aTT)<;, Elam Ti-ri-da-da, AceTi-ri-da-a-ta). On a unique coin of the Kushan king Huvishka there occursa defective legend, which some, since Stein, have read TEIPO, but whichis better read as MEIPO. Thus, in the absence of any eastern Iranianreflexes of the name, one is tempted to surmise that Tiri was a popularwestern Iranian astral deity (like Anahita). If this is so, one may postulatethat Tishtrya was a prominent eastern Iranian astral deity. Now, a strik-ing, though not entirely unique, feature of the Tishtrya Yasht is its relent-less propaganda in support of Tishtrya's worship (sts. 15, 17, 19; 23-25;57-61). The redactors of the text were obviously anxious to promote thecult of Tishtrya either because Tishtrya was a "pagan" deity who re-quired admittance into the orthodox religion, or—and I suspect this to bemore likely—because Tishtrya's cult stood in need of promotion. I havealready shown that Arsdwl Sura Anahita is a syncretistic deity in theAvesta. If one supposes that, in a similar way, Avestan Tishtrya is asyncretistic deity composed of two originally distinct astral deities, onecan explain not only why his cult needed propagandizing, but also whythere exists the dilemma of his identification. The question requiring res-olution is, which deity, Tishtrya or Tiri, was Sirius and which was a starappropriate to his principal function?

In recent years, Forssman has put forth a cogent argument in favor ofthe old identification of Tishtrya with the Vedic astral deity Tisya.40

According to his etymology, Tisya (<*Tistriya) and Tishtrya mean '(thestar) related to the three stars' (*tri-strom). Because of both Tisya's andTishtrya's association with archery (Yt. 8.6), and on the authority of theIndie evidence, Forssman makes a strong case for the "Three Stars"

Tishtrya I 143

being those of Orion's belt. If the argument is valid, then TIri will have tohave been a star other than Sirius.

Scholars have noted that Tishtrya's three forms (young man, steer, andhorse) are also avataras of Warsthraghna (see sect. 5), a fact that maybetray a borrowing on the part of Tishtrya. While one could imagine thisfor the first two, it is difficult to accept the horse manifestation as anythingbut original to his character. Now that the etymology of Tishtrya's oppo-nent Apaosha has been established, it is clear that the older connection ofthe latter (as *Apavrta) with Vedic Vrtra is in error. Thus, Tishtrya'smyth is unparalleled in Indo-Iranian religion in presenting a uniqueapproach to problems of hydrology.

Tishtrya (Tishtar) Yasht (Yasht 8)I

1. Ahura Mazda said to Zarathushtra the Spitamid: Attend to the officeof ahu and the office of ratu.

We worship the Moon and the abode and the sacrificial food offering.I shall worship with libations the star Tishtrya the allotter of (one's)

land, so that the glorious, opulent stars and foremost the Moon willassist me; [they allot xwaranah to men.]

2. We worship the glorious, opulent star Tishtrya who provides peacefuldwelling places, good dwelling places, who is white, bright, clear, shin-ing, curative, fast-snorting, exalted, shining from afar with bright im-maculate rays of light; and (we worship) the water Psrothuzrayah41 andthe far-famed Wanghwl42 and the Mazda-created name of the Cow andthe mighty Kawyan Xwarsnah and the frawashi of righteous Zarathush-tra the Spitamid.

3. On account of his rayi and glory, I shall worship him with audibleworship, the star Tishtrya, with libations.

We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya with haoma (mixed)with milk. . . . [Continue with Ny. 1.16 (p. 183).]

II4. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya containing the seed of

water, the strong, exalted, powerful, far-seeing, whose ability is supe-rior, the exalted one from whom (comes) renown—from Apam Napat(comes his?) lineage.

Ill5. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya for whom cattle and

draft animals yearn, and (also) men who formerly committed acts of

144 I Tishtrya

violence, and astrologers (?) who formerly lied, saying: When will opu-lent, glorious Tishtrya rise for us? When will the springs of water stout-er than a horse flow anew?


IV6. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya who flies as swiftly to

the Wouru.kasha sea as the supernatural arrow which the archerirsxsha, the best archer of the Iranians, shot from Mount Airyo.-xshutha to Mount Xwanwant.43

7. Then Ahura Mazda, the Creator, who lets the waters fall (?), blewupon (?) it [and plants]. Mithra of wide pastures prepared for him a patharound.


V8. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya who overcomes the

witches, who defeats the witches which, as shooting stars, fly betweenearth and heaven. Regularly he comes to the righteous bay, (called)"Horse-Shaped," in the mighty, beautiful, deep sea Wouru.kasha withwide expanses of water, and makes those waters surge; and the turbu-lent winds blow upon (it).

9. Then Satawaesa sets the waters of the seven continents in motion.When he conies at the loosing (?) (of the waters) he stands, beautiful,bringing peace (and) a good crop to the countries. When will the Aryancountries have a good crop?


VI10. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya who said to Ahura

Mazda, saying thus: O Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creatorof the material world, righteous,

11. if, indeed, men would worship me with worship wherein (my) nameis spoken, as the other gods are worshipped with worship wherein(their) names are spoken, I would go forth to the righteous men for theduration of a definite period; (for the duration) of a definite (period) ofmy own radiant immortal life I would go unto (righteous men), for onenight, or two, or fifty.

12. We worship Tishtrya; and we worship the Tishtryaeinis; and weworship (the star) Upa.paoiri; and we worship the Paoiryaenls; thosestars which (compose) Hspto.iringa (we worship) for the resisting ofsorcerers and witches. We worship the Mazda-created star Wanant for

Tishtrya I 145

well-built Strength, for Ahura-created Victoriousness, for conqueringSuperiority, for the ability to overcome trouble, and to overcome enmi-ty. We worship Tishtrya whose eyes are healthy.

13. During the first ten nights, O Zarathushtra Spitamid, opulent, glo-rious Tishtrya, driving among the (celestial) lights, blends (his) formwith the form of a regal, clear-eyed, tall, aggressive, powerful fifteen-year-old man, manifesting his youthful strength,

14. —then at the (time) of life when a man first receives the girdle; thenat the (time) of life when first a man goes about endowed with greatphysical strength; then at the (time) of life when a man first attainssexual potency.

15. He speaks here in the assembly; here he asks: Who will worship menow with libations containing milk (and) haoma? To whom shall I givewealth in men [a troop of men] and purification of his own soul? Now Iam to be worshipped and praised by the material world according to theBest Truth.

16. During the second ten nights, O Zarathushtra Spitamid, opulent,glorious Tishtrya, driving among the (celestial) lights, blends (his) formwith the form of a golden-horned steer.

17. He speaks here in the assembly; here he asks: Who will worship menow with libations containing milk (and) haoma? To whom shall I givewealth in cattle [a herd of cattle] and purification of his own soul? NowI am to be worshipped and praised by the material world according tothe Best Truth.

18. During the third ten nights, O Zarathushtra Spitamid, opulent, glo-rious Tishtrya, driving among the (celestial) lights, blends (his) formwith the form of a beautiful white horse with yellow ears (and) a goldenbridle.

19. He speaks here in the assembly; here he asks: Who will worship menow with libations containing milk (and) haoma? To whom shall I givewealth in horses [a herd of horses] and purification of his own soul?Now I am to be worshipped and praised by the material world accord-ing to the Best Truth.

20. Then opulent glorious Tishtrya, O Zarathushtra Spitamid, comes upto the Wouru.kasha sea in the form of a beautiful white horse withyellow ears (and) a golden bridle.

21. Then out against him rushes the daewa Apaosha, in the form of ablack horse, cropped, with cropped ears, cropped, with cropped mane,cropped, with cropped tail, completely denuded, inspiring horror.

22. They both, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, opulent, glorious Tishtrya and

146 I Tishtrya

the daewa Apaosha, grapple with each other; for three days (and) threenights, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, they fight. Then the daewa Apaoshaoverpowers him, then defeats him, opulent, glorious Tishtrya.

23. Thereupon, he (Apaosha) drives him (Tishtrya) away from theWouru.kasha sea along a path the length of a racecourse. Opulent,glorious Tishtrya calls down woe and adversity upon himself: Woe tome, O Ahura Mazda! Adversity, O Waters and Plants! Misfortune, 0Mazdean Religion! Men do not now worship me with worship wherein(my) name is spoken, as they worship other gods with worship wherein(their) names are spoken.

24. If, indeed, men were to worship me with worship wherein (my)name is spoken, as they worship other gods with worship wherein(their) names are spoken, I would procure for myself the strength oftenhorses, the strength often camels, the strength often oxen, the strengthoften mountains, the strength often channel waters.

25. I, Ahura Mazda, worship opulent, glorious Tishtrya with worshipwherein (his) name is spoken. I procure for him the strength of tenhorses, the strength often camels, the strength often oxen, the strengthoften mountains, the strength often channel waters.

26. [Repeat st. 20.]27. [Repeat st. 21.]28. They both, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, opulent, glorious Tishtrya and

the daewa Apaosha, grapple with each other; they fight, O Zarathush-tra, at noon time. Then opulent, glorious Tishtrya overpowers, then hedefeats the daewa Apaosha.

29. Thereupon he (Tishtrya) drives him (Apaosha) away from theWouru.kasha sea along a path the length of a racecourse. Opulent,glorious Tishtrya calls down well-being upon himself: Hail to myself, OAhura Mazda! Hail, O Waters and Plants! Hail, O Mazdean Religion!

There shall be weal, O Countries! Henceforth the crops of big-seededgrains and of small-seeded grasses and (the crops) of the material worldwill come up unhindered for you.

30. [Repeat st. 20.]31. He makes the sea surge on; he makes the sea surge away; he makes

the sea rage on; he makes the sea rage away. He makes the sea flow on;he makes the sea flow away.

All the shores of the Wouru.kasha sea surge; the entire middlesurges.

32. At that time, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, opulent, glorious Tishtryarises from the Wouru.kasha sea. Thereupon opulent, glorious Sa-

Tishtrya I 147

tawaesa shall rise from the Wouru.kasha sea. Then the mists rise to-gether from mount Us.handawa which stands in the middle of theWouru.kasha sea.

33. Then (Satawaesa?) drives forth the cloud-producing righteous mists.The east wind drives along the path on which radiant, life-promotingHaoma comes. Then the bold Mazda-created Wind brings rain andclouds and hail to the dwellings and settlements (and) to the sevencontinents.

34. Apam Napat allots to the material (world) the waters allotted to thesettlements, O Spitamid Zarathushtra. And the bold Wind and theXwaranah placed in the waters and the Frawashis of the Righteous . . .

VII35. We worship the glorious, opulent star Tishtrya who thence will fly

forth from shining Dawn on the path whose turning point is distant, onthe god-ordained course, at the appointed time at the pleasure of AhuraMazda, at the pleasure of the Amssha Spsntas.


VIII36. We worship the glorious, opulent star Tishtrya whom, when man-

kind has passed through a year (?), the lords acquiring insight and thewild (beasts) who haunt the mountains and the timid (animals) whoroam the plains watch for, whether rising with a good crop for thecountry or coming up with a bad crop, (saying): When will the Aryancountries have a good crop?


IX37. We worship the glorious, opulent star Tishtrya, whose flight is fast,

swift-flying, who flies as swiftly to the Wouru.kasha sea as the super-natural arrow which the archer Brsxsha, the best archer of the Aryans,shot from Mount Airyo.xshutha to Mount Xwanwant.

38. Ahura Mazda blew upon (?) it; [the Amasha Spgntas] (Ahura Mazda(?) and) Mithra of wide pastures fully prepared for it a path. Good tallAshi and Parandi with the swift chariot swept along behind it, all along,until, flying, it reached Mount Xwanwant. It came down onto MountXwanwant.


X39. We worship the glorious, opulent star Tishtrya who overcomes the

Pairikas, who defeats the Pairikas which Angra Mainyu threw out,thinking to keep back all the stars containing the seed of water.

148 I Tishtrya

40. Tishtrya overcomes them; from the Wouru.kasha sea he drives themaway. Then clouds will float up bearing the waters which ensure a goodcrop, in which the streaming showers spread out widely, streamingdown on the seven continents.


XI41. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya for whom the stag-

nant and running waters, the spring (waters) and the (waters) standingin riverbeds, channel and bay(?) (waters) yearn, (saying):

42. When will opulent, glorious Tishtrya rise for us? When will thesprings of water stouter than a horse flow with an onward flow towardthe beautiful dwellings and settlements and pasture lands, running tothe roots of the plants? [They grow with a strong growth.]


XII43. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya who washes away

completely all horrors, (who) sprinkles the . . . ( ? ) with water, who,being most powerful, cures all the creatures if he is worshipped, propiti-ated, satisfied, (and) acknowledged.

On account of his ravi . . . [continue with st. 3].

XIII44. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya whom Ahura Mazda

created as ratu and overseer of all the stars, as (he created) Zarathush-tra (ratu and overseer) of men, whom Angra Mainyu does not harm, northe witches and sorcerers, nor the sorcerers among men, nor do all thedaewas together dare (?) to harm (him).


XIV45. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya, for whom Ahura

Mazda created a thousand perceptions, strongest among the (stars)bearing the seeds of the waters, who comes flying among the lights withthe (stars) bearing the seeds of the waters.

46. To all the bays of the strong, beautiful, deep Wouru.kasha sea thathas wide expanses of water, and to all the beautiful inlets and to all thebeautiful outlets he comes in the form of a beautiful white horse withyellow ears (and) golden bridle.

47. Then the waters, falling, cleansing (?), healing, descend, O SpitamidZarathushtra, from the Wouru.kasha sea. There the most powerful

Tishtrya I 149

(Tishtrya) allots them to these countries when he is worshipped, pro-pitiated, satisfied, (and) acknowledged.


XV48. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya, for whom all the

creatures of Spgnta Mainyu yearn, those which live under the groundand those which live above the ground, and those which are aquatic andterrestrial and those which fly and those which move on the plains, andthose which are above them—[it is said to be the boundless, infiniteexistence of the Righteous].

On account of his rayi . . . [continue with st. 3].49. We worship the opulent, glorious star Tishtrya, solicitous, vigorous,

perceptive, able, having power over thousands of boons, who givesboons especially to him who propitiates him, to the man who asks beingunasked.

50. I created, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, yonder star Tishtrya as worthyof worship, as worthy of praise, as worthy of propitiation, as worthy ofglorification also as myself, Ahura Mazda,

51. for the resistance and for the obstruction and for the overcoming andfor the requital of the enmity of the Pairika who (is called) "Bad Crop,"whom evil-speaking men call "Good Crop" by name.

52. If I had not created, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, yonder star Tishtrya. . . [continue with st. 50].

53. [Repeat st. 51.]54. (then) indeed, as far as I am concerned, here each day or each night

the Pairika (called) "Bad Crop," running to and fro, would have com-pletely (?) rent the life-force of the entire material world.

55. Tishtrya, indeed, opulent (and) glorious, fetters that Pairika withinsuperable double, triple, and multiple bonds, as if a thousand menwho were the strongest in bodily strength were to fetter a single man.

56. If, indeed, O Spitamid Zarathushtra, the Aryan peoples were mind-ful of opulent, glorious Tishtrya's due worship and praise, since it is tohim that worship and praise are most due according to the Truth whichis best, (then) there would be no enemy army directed here toward theAryan countries, nor famine, nor mange (?), nor . . . (?), nor a warchariot, nor an upraised banner.

57-61. [Yt. 14.49-53, with the substitution of "Tishtrya" forWsrothraghna" (pp 86-87).]

13. Haoma

Two elements stand at the very center of Indo-Iranian ritual. They arehaoma/soma and fire. From the times of the Avesta and the Vedas downto the present day, the major Zoroastrian and Vedic rituals have beeninseparable from these elements. Avestan haoma (OPers hauma, MPershorn, OInd soma, Ilr *sauma) is a word whose meaning is as clear asanyone could wish. It is a noun derived with a suffix -ma- from a verbhu-lhau- (*su-/sau-), which means 'to press or extract (juice from some-thing)'. Therefore, haoma is simply 'the thing which has been pressed,pressing, i.e., juice'. In both Avestan and Vedic, the expression hutahaomalsuta soma, lit. 'the pressed pressing', is common. Further, inAvestan the word for the press (consisting of mortar and pestle) is hawa-na- 'the presser'. It is important to realize that this specialized wordoriginally meant 'juice'; it was not the name of a plant. Only at a later timecould the sacred juice have become a name for the plant from which it wasextracted. This fact has been one of the greatest impediments to an iden-tification of the plant, for, at an early period, it seems that both Indiansand Iranians began to use a variety of substitutes, plants whose juicescould scarcely induce the mental states ascribed to the genuine article. Inother words, in the history of Vedic and Zoroastrian rituals, a parallelprocess of symbolic valorization occurred whereby the symbolism of theritual took precedence over the actual properties of the juice. The causeof this transformation is surely the new environments in which the twopeoples found themselves after leaving the "homeland." The haoma/soma-producing plant was just not available in India or Iran, and so onehad to make do with whatever was at hand.

Neither the Vedas nor the Avesta, as will be seen, offer much in theway of botanical description of the plant. Whatever the identity of thesoma/haoma plant may have been, it is certain that only its stems or stalkswere used. These are called in Avestan asu, in Vedic amsu. Whenpressed, the stalks yielded a juice whose color was harilzairi. Althoughthis color word refers to colors ranging from brown to yellow, one can befairly confident, on the basis of Soma's frequent comparison with the sunand Haoma's epithet 'radiant', that the color was yellow. In both tradi-tions the juice was thought to have medicinal properties. Finally, thereare indications that the plant grew in mountainous regions. Many propos-als have been made in respect to haoma/soma's identity. Currently, the

Haoma I 151

most popular proposal is that of R. G. Wasson,44 that soma was thehallucinogenic mushroom Amanita muse aria, which, in recent centuriesat least, has been used by shamans in central Asia and Siberia. Althoughthe mushroom argument appears quite compelling at first sight, it is notreally supported by textual evidence at all.

As intriguing as the problem of haoma/soma's identification is, it doesnot contribute one way or the other to a religious understanding of thesacred juice. Because of the relative paucity of information supplied in theAvesta, our picture of haoma must be embellished through the rich Vedicmaterials. To begin with, one should understand that haoma/soma is atonce the juice produced and consumed in the ritual and a great god. Allactual pressings are the visible presence of the god himself. In the mind ofthe worshipper, the haoma was always a manifestation of Haoma, and, assuch, the drink was always charged with sacred power and infused withdivine personality. Haoma/soma is characteristically found as the subjectof the verb mad- or with one of its nominal derivatives. This verb canhave a range of meaning from 'to be drunk, intoxicated' to 'rejoice, beexhilarated'. When applied to haoma/soma, it falls somewhere betweenthe two in that what is implied is an altered state of mind through imbib-ing, yet the state is far from drunkenness. As Y. 10.8 so succinctly puts it,"all other intoxicants (maidhyangho) are accompanied by Wrath with thehorrible club; but that intoxication (madho) which is Haoma's is accom-panied by gladdening Truth." This idea of haoma's ability to bring oneinto relationship with Truth is an oft-repeated theme in the Rgveda. Therethe poets attribute their religious insight and intellectual creativity to thepowers of soma. Far from inducing a mindless stupor, soma stimulatedthe mind, enhancing one's mental powers in the sense that it enabled oneto grasp Truth (rta, asha). A second major property of haoma/soma, onewhich may seem unrelated to the first, was that of a stimulant taken bywarriors before going into battle. No doubt this explains why Haoma isinvoked for victoriousness and why various heroes of Iranian legend andmyth are specified as primary practitioners of his cult.

The major ceremony of Zoroastrian ritual is and has been the yasna (seeIntroduction, p. 14). Since the primary concern of the yasna is haoma, theHaoma Yasht is included in the Yasna section of the Avesta instead ofamong the Yashts.

Haoma (Horn) Yasht

Yasna 91. At the time of the pressing, Haoma approached Zarathushtra, who

was putting the fire in proper order and reciting gathas. Zarathushtra

752 / Haoma

asked him: Who, O man, are you, the most beautiful of the entirematerial world that I have seen . . . ?

2. Then he, righteous Haoma who keeps death far away (?),45 answered:I, O Zarathushtra, am righteous Haoma who keep death far away. Seekme, O Spitamid; press me out for drinking; praise me for strength as thefuture Saoshyants will praise me.

3. Then Zarathushtra said: Reverence to Haoma! Who was the firstman, O haoma, to press you for the sake of the material world? Whataward was accorded him? What boon came to him?

4. Then he, righteous Haoma who keeps death far away, answered:WTwahwant was the first man to press me for the sake of the materialworld. This award was accorded him; this boon came to him, that a sonwas born to him, regal Yima rich in herds, possessing the mostxwaranah among people, like the sun among men, who made it thatunder his rule cattle and men did not die, water and vegetation did notdry up, (who made) inexhaustible victuals [food].

5. In the reign of brave Yima, there was neither cold nor heat, there wasneither old age nor death, nor daewa-created jealousy. Father and sonalike went about fifteen (years old) in appearance so long as Yima, richin herds, the son of Wlwahwant, ruled.

6. Who was the second man, O Haoma, to press you for the sake of thematerial world? What award was accorded him? What boon came tohim?

7. Then he, righteous Haoma who keeps death far away, answered:Athvya was the second man to press me for the sake of the materialworld. This award was accorded him; this boon came to him, that a sonwas born to him, Thraetaona of the mighty house,

8. who slew three-mouthed, three-headed Azhi Dahaka, with six eyes(and) a thousand perceptions, the very powerful daewic Lie, the drug-want evil for creatures, whom Angra Mainyu created as the mostpowerful Lie, against the material world for the destruction of the worldof Truth.

9. Who was the third man, O Haoma, to press you for the sake of thematerial world? What award was accorded him? What boon came tohim?

10. Then he, righteous Haoma who keeps death far away, answered:Thrita, mightiest of the Samids, was the third man to press me for thesake of the material world. This award was accorded him; this booncame to him, that two sons were born to him, Urwaxshaya andKsrssaspa: the one a law-giving teacher, the other a very skilled, curly-haired, club-bearing youth,

Haoma I 153

11. who slew the horse-devouring, man-devouring, poisonous, yellow-ish-horned Serpent, over whom (the Serpent) yellowish poison spurtedup to the height of a spear shaft, on whom Ksrasaspa cooked food in ametal (pot) at noon time. The scoundrel became hot and began tosweat. He dashed forth from (under) the metal (pot); he cast the boilingwater about. Frightened, he ran off to the side [heroic-mindedKarasaspa].

12. Who was the fourth man, O Haoma, to press you for the sake of thematerial world? What award was accorded him? What boon came tohim?

13. Then he, righteous Haoma who keeps death far away, answered:Pourushaspa was the fourth man to press me for the sake of the materialworld. This award was accorded him; this boon came to him, that youwere born to him, O upright Zarathushtra, of the house of Pourushaspa,a daewa-repudiating follower of ahuric doctrine.

14. You are famed in Aryana Waeja as the first, O Zarathushtra, to haverecited the Ahuna wairya four times with (the proper) pauses, and thenwith a loud recitation.

15. You, O Zarathushtra, made all the daewas go into undergroundconcealment who formerly roamed about this earth in human form—(you) who have become the strongest, the bravest, the most energetic,the fastest, the most victorious of the Creation of the two Spirits.

16. Then Zarathushtra said: Reverence to Haoma! Good Haoma, well-created Haoma, properly created, good, created (?), curative, well-built, beneficent, victorious, yellow-colored, having tasty (?) stalks—sothat (Haoma) is best for the drinker and the best provision for the soul.

17. I call down, O yellow (Haoma), your intoxicating power, strength,victoriousness, (ability to grant) health, curativeness, prosperity,growth, force for the entire body, complete knowledge, (and) I calldown this that I may go about among beings autonomous(ly), overcom-ing hostility, defeating the Lie,

18. (and I call down) this, that I may overcome the hostilities of all thosewho are hostile, of daewas and men, of sorcerers and witches, oftyrants, kawis, and karapans, and of biped scoundrels and of bipedconfusers of the Truth and of quadruped wolves and of the enemy armywith a broad front, burning (?) (and) rushing.

19. This first favor I ask of you, O Haoma, (you who) keep death faraway: the Paradise of the Righteous (which is) light (and) constrains allgood things.

This second favor I ask of you, O Haoma, (you who) keep death faraway: health for this body.

154 I Haoma

This third favor I ask of you, O Haoma, (you who) keep death faraway: longevity of life.

20. This fourth favor I ask of you, O Hamoa, (you who) keep death faraway: that I, (being) capable, strong, (and) contented, may make mystand on this earth overcoming hostility, defeating the Lie.

This fifth favor I ask of you, O Haoma, (you who) keep death faraway: that I, victorious, winning battles, may make my stand on thisearth overcoming hostility, defeating the Lie.

21. This sixth favor I ask of you, O Haoma, (you who) keep death faraway: may we first become aware of the thief, first the bandit, first thewolf; let no one become aware of us first; of all may we be the first tobecome aware!

22. Haoma allots power and strength to the heroes who are driving(their) teams to battle.

Haoma gives those (women) giving birth regal sons and righteousprogeny.

Haoma allots increment and knowledge even to those who (as)householders (?) devote themselves to the study of the Nasks.

23. Haoma allots a husband (?) and master (?) even to those maidenswho have remained long unmarried, as soon as he, having good intelli-gence, is entreated.

24. Haoma deposed from power even him, Karasani, who in his lust forpower lamented, who (had) said, "May an athrawan from now on notgo about increasing (religious) studies in my country."

He will conquer all the increases;He will smite down all the increases.

25. Hail to you, who are through your own power autonomous, OHaoma!

Hail to you! You greatly inspire the correctly spoken words.Hail to you! You do not question the correctly spoken speech by

means of circuitous questioning(?).26. Mazda brought you Paurwanya as a girdle, star-adorned, super-

naturally fashioned, [the good Religion of the worshippers of Mazda],And you are girdled with this on the peaks of the mountains, for long (?)the ... (?) and ... (?) of the Holy Word.

27. O Haoma, head of the family, head of the settlement, head of thetribe, head of the country! through (your) beneficence lord of wisdom! Icall upon you for strength and victoriousness for myself and for growththat causes much felicity.

28. Carry away from us the enmities of (our) enemies, away the intent of

Haoma I 155

those who rage (against us)! Whatever evil-doing man there is in thishousehold, in this village, in this tribe, in this country, seize thestrength from his legs, cloud his intelligence, thwart his purpose!

29. May you not have power in (your) legs! May you not have anypower in (your) hands!

May he not see the earth with (his) eyes! May he not see the Cowwith his eyes, he who does violence to our minds, he who does violenceto our bodies.

30. O yellow Haoma! strike with the mace the body of the jaundiced,dreadful, poison-spitting snake, for the sake of the righteous personthreatened with destruction.

O yellow Haoma! strike with the mace the body of the bloodthirstybandit become great (and) enraged, for the sake of the righteous personthreatened with destruction.

31. O yellow Haoma! strike with the mace the body of the drugwantman, of the haughty tyrant, for the sake of the righteous personthreatened with destruction.

O yellow Haoma! strike with the mace the body of the unrighteousperverter of Truth, the destroyer of life (who) has in mind the words ofthis Religion, (but) does not carry (them) out in (his) actions, for thesake of the righteous person threatened with destruction.

32. O yellow Haoma! strike with the mace the body of the whore en-chantress, who provides pleasure, who approaches (the man) whosemind tosses like a cloud buffeted by the wind, for the sake of therighteous person threatened with destruction.

O yellow Haoma! strike her body with the mace for the sake of therighteous person threatened with destruction.

Yasna 101. Here, now, let the daewas and the daewls disperse! May good Sraosha

stay here (as a guest).May good Ashi stay here (as a guest); may good Ashi rest here at this

house which is ahuric, which belongs to Truth-promoting Haoma.2. I praise with speech, O insightful (Haoma), your lower pressing stone

which accepts the stalks; also I praise with speech, O insightful(Haoma), your upper pressing stone with (?) which I pound with theforce of a man.

3. I praise the cloud(s) and the rain which cause your body to grow onthe peaks of the mountains. I praise the high mountains where, OHaoma, you are wont to grow.

156 I Haoma

4. I praise the wide, broad, fertile (?), beneficent earth who bears you, Orighteous Haoma.

I praise the earth's pasture (land?) where you grow, pleasant-smelling, brave.

May you grow, O Haoma, on the mountain as Mazda's good growthand also prosper in every way! And you are actually the spring ofTruth.

5. Increase through my speech in all (your) stems, in all (your) sprouts,in all (your) branches.

6. When praised, Haoma increases; so the man who praises him be-comes more victorious. Even the slightest pressing of Haoma, even theslightest praise of Haoma, even the slightest drink of Haoma serves toslay a thousand daewas.

7. When created, impurity disappears immediately from this housewhere regularly one brings in (?), where regularly one praises the man-ifest curative medicine of medicinal Haoma [for his village and dwell-ing].

8. Indeed, all the other intoxicating drinks are accompanied by Wrathwith the horrible club; but that intoxication which is Haoma's is accom-panied by gladdening Truth. Haoma's intoxication makes nimble theperson who may laud Haoma as a young son. Haoma will serve themfor curative purposes.

9. O Haoma, give me the medicines by which you are the grantor ofhealth. O Haoma, give me the powers to smash resistance with whichyou overcome resistance. I will serve you as a praising (?) friend. [TheCreator, Ahura Mazda said that a praising friend (is) very good, as (is)the Best Truth.]

10. The beneficent god fashioned you as a hero created by the Creator.The beneficent god deposited you, the hero created by the Creator, onthe high Haraitl.

11. Then bounteous, wise birds carried you (away) in various directions:to Mount Ishkata which is in the Hindu Kush, to the mountain peakStaro.sara, to ... (?), to ... (?), to Mount Spita.gama.46

12. Now you, O Haoma, having many species, milky (?), yellow-colored, grow (all) about in these mountains. Your medicines are com-pounded with the wondrous powers of Wohu Manah.

Now, throw back the purpose of him who vilifies me, (throw) downevery single purpose of him who stands against me as a vilifier.

13. Reverence to Haoma, as (it is he who) makes the mind of the pauperas exalted as even (the mind) of the richest!

Haoma I 157

Reverence to Haoma, as (it is he who) makes the mind of the pauperas exalted as ... (?) when he attains (?) (his) desires.

You make rich in men, very prosperous, (and) very intelligent (him)who regularly partakes of you, O yellow Haoma, mixed with milk.

14. [Obscure.]15. I reject the . . . (?) of the villainous, slow-witted . . . (?) who thinks

she is deceiving the athrawan and Haoma [It is she who, being de-ceived, perishes], who sets about to consume that which is Haoma'sportion. (Haoma) grants her neither sons who (will become) athrawansnor good sons.

16. I belong to five things; I do not belong to five things.I belong to good thought; I do not belong to bad thought.I belong to good speech; I do not belong to bad speech.I belong to good action; I do not belong to bad action.I belong to obedience; I do not belong to disobedience.I belong to the Righteous; I do not belong to the Drugwant, and even

from this (time) until in the end the victory of the two Spirits will takeplace.

17. Then Zarathushtra said: Reverence to Mazda-created Haoma! GoodMazda-created Haoma! Reverence to Haoma!

I praise all the Haomas, whether on the mountaintops, whether in theriver valleys, whether held in straits in the fetters of women.

I pour (Haoma) from the silver cup into the golden. May I not let(any) of you, so wealthy and valuable, fall to the earth.

18. These, O Haoma, (are) your gathas, these are (your) hymns ofpraise, these are (your) teachings (?), these are (your) correctly utteredwords (which) bring health (?), (are) victorious, counter enmity, (andare) curative.

19. . . . (?)May your intoxicating drinks go forth. May your luminous, intoxicat-

ing drinks go forth. The intoxicating drinks fly speedily.The victorious one praises the . . . ( ? ) with this gathic speech.

20. Reverence to the Cow! Reverence to the Cow! Benediction (?) forthe Cow! Protection (?) for the Cow! Food for the Cow! Fodder for theCow!

21. We worship lofty, yellow Haoma, we worship radiant, life-promoting Haoma. We worship Haoma who keeps death far away. Weworship the reward and the frawashi here of Zarathushtra Spitamid, therighteous.

Yenghe hatam . . . [Repeat prayer (p. 182).]

158 I Haoma

Yasna 111. Verily, three ashawans—the cow, the horse, and Haoma—shout

curses. The cow curses the zaotar: May you be both childless andaccompanied by ill repute, you who do not distribute me (when I am)cooked, but fatten me for your wife or your son or your own belly.

2. The horse curses the rider: May you not be a yoker of horses, nor amounter of hourses, nor a harnesser of horses, you who do not entreatme for (my) strength at the manifold assembly of the district (?) havingmany men.

3. Haoma curses the herdsman: May you be both childless and accom-panied by ill repute, you who keep me (when) pressed like a thief whosehead is forfeit. Indeed, I am not one whose head is forfeit, I who amrighteous Haoma who keeps death far away!

4. The father, righteous Ahura Mazda, vouchsafed for me, Haoma, assacrificial portion the jaw together with the tongue and the left eye.

5. Ye who would destroy me for this sacrificial portion, or would steal(it), or would take away (that sacrificial portion) which righteous AhuraMazda gave me, (namely) the jaws together with the tongue and the lefteye,

6. in this (his) house, shall be born neither a priest nor a warrior nor afarmer; rather in this (his) house shall be born Dahakas, Murakas, andWarshnas of many sorts.

7. Quickly cut out the sacrificial portion of the cow for swiftest Haoma,lest Haoma bind you as he bound the scoundrel, Frangrasyan the Tura-nian, surrounded by (his) metal (fortress), in the middle third of thisearth.

8. Then Zarathushtra said: Reverence to Mazda-created Haoma! goodMazda-created Haoma! Reverence to Haoma!

9. [Obscure.]10. O righteous Haoma, I dedicate to you this body (of mine) which

seems to me well developed—to swift Haoma for intoxication, forbeatitude, for possession of Truth.

O righteous Haoma, (you) who keep death far away, may you alsobestow upon me Paradise of the Righteous (which), shining, possessesall good things.

14. Atar

In the popular conception of Zoroastrianism, fire worship is one of themost prominent features of the religion. The characterization of Zoroas-trians as fire worshippers is quite old, as fire played an important role inZoroastrianism, especially as it evolved in Sasanid times. As important asfire is to the religion, its importance can be overstated. To judge by theevidence provided by our Old Iranian sources, fire was not an especiallyimportant component of the religion in terms, at least, of its intellectualexpression. Although there is a hazard in making an all too sharp divisionbetween a religion's intellectual expressions, its mythology and theology,and its ritual practices, the distinction can be useful in so far as often ritualactivities, which consume a great portion of a person's time and which areregarded as fundamental, may receive only slight mention in verbal ex-pression. Similarly, ritual, observed without reference to ideology, maygive a very one-sided picture of the religion as a whole.

To begin with, Atar, whose name means 'fire', is at once an elementand a divine being. Just as in the case of Haoma, so in that of Atar, thereligious person would have been unable to distinguish the fire itself fromthe god. The mystery of it is that, in all of its forms on earth, a fire isalways Fire. Although every fire is a manifestation of Fire, its true sancti-ty resided in the fire in the household hearth. Fire temples, abundantlydocumented during the Sasanid period, were unknown in ancient Iran.The domestic hearth had two functions: (1) the hearth fire cooked themeals (Y. 62.7); (2) it was a center of worship. It is the second functionthat is of concern here.

In Indo-Iranian religion, the god of fire was the intermediary betweenearth and heaven, between men and the gods. Irrespective of other con-siderations, this role itself made Fire a sine qua non of almost everysacrificial act. In the Rgveda, Agni (Fire) is frequently invoked either toconduct the gods to the sacrifice or to convey the offerings to the gods.Similarly, the role of intermediary is expressed in the Avesta in terms ofthe worshipper's access to God. For example, Y. 36.1 reads: "Throughthe efficacy of this (i.e., the sacrificers') fire we approach you first, OAhura Mazda." Like Vedic Agni who bears the epithet 'the insatiable'(anala), Iranian Atar required perpetual care, and it was considered aterrible offense to let the sacred fire die out in one's house. Yasna 62emphasizes not only the need for proper fuel, but also the necessity of

160 I Atar

proper care by a qualified member of the religious community whose dutyit is to tend the hearth, to please the god with incense, and to nourish himwith food offerings. (For the role of the fire in the broader context of theritual see the Introduction, pp. 14-15.)

As already indicated, the great fires of Sasanid Iran (Adur-Farnbag,Gushnasp, and Burzen Mihr) are not mentioned in the Avesta. There is aclassification of five fires, however (e.g., Y. 17.11), which, according tothe later notice of the Bundahishn (18.1-7), relates to the manifestations ofFire in various aspects of nature. These are: (1) the Barazisawah, "whichblazes in the presence of Ohrmazd," that is, the transcendent fire; (2) theWohu.frydna, "which is in the bodies of men and animals"; (3) the Urwa-zishta, "which is in plants"; (4) the Wazishta, "which is in the cloud";and (5) the Spdnishta, "which is kept for work in the material world." (1)and (5) are opposites, the transcendent and mundane fires; (2) and (3) arethe life forces in the animal and vegetable world; (4) is the agent of rain.

Another important function of fire was its use in judicial processes inregard to oaths and ordeals (see Yt. 12.3 [p. 79].) Oaths and covenantswere solemnized over the sacred element (see sect. 3). Ordeals involvingmolten metal and boiling oil seem to have enjoyed great favor as well.

From the Indo-Iranian perspective, Atar is scarcely to be separatedfrom Agni. The only problem is the difference of names. OInd agni 'fire'is an Indo-European word (cf. Lat ignis; Lith ugnis; OChSl ogn). Exceptperhaps for an ambiguous proper name Dashtaghni, this word for fire doesnot occur in Iranian; rather, atar, a uniquely Iranian word, is used. It is afacile move to attribute the Iranian avoidance of *aghni to Zarathush-tra's reform, as is so often done in Zoroastrian studies when somethingdefies explanation. In this case it explains nothing, for, if Zarathushtradisliked *Aghni, why should he have only changed his name withoutaltering his personality?

Finally, we should draw attention to two myths involving Atar. Thefirst occurs in the myth of Xwarsnah's flight (Yt. 19.46-50 [pp. 92-93]). Theother does not occur in the Avesta, but is alluded to in a late Pahlavi textwhere the hero Ksrasaspa is damned for having killed Fire, Ohrmazd'sson.47

Yasna 62

1. Yatha ahu wairyo. [Repeat prayer twice (p. 183).]I wish you, O Atar, son of Ahura Mazda, worship and praise and a

good offering and a desired offering and a praised offering.You are worthy of worship (and) praise.You ought to be worthy of worship (and) praise in the houses of men.

Atar I 161

Weal to this man who regularly worships you with fuel in hand, withbarasman in hand, with (a dish of) milk in hand, with a mortar in hand.

2. May you have the proper fuel, may you have the proper incense, mayyou have the proper food, may you have the proper hearth, may you beunder the care of an adult, may you be under the care of a member ofthe community, O Atar, son of Ahura Mazda,

3. in order to blaze in this house, in order to continuously blaze in thishouse, in order to shine in this house, in order to grow in this house fora very long time, until the mighty Frasho.kargti, along with the mighty,good Frasho.karsti.

4. May you give me, O Atar, son of Ahura Mazda, quickly felicity,quickly protection, quickly life, fully felicity, fully protection, fully life,(and) wisdom, increment, a quick tongue, understanding for (my) soul,moreover, intelligence (which is) great, massive, (and) stable,

5. moreover, (give me) Manly Valor, standing upright, unsleeping, seat-ed in his place wakeful, and (give me) nobly raised progeny havingjurisdiction over boundary lines, eloquent, growing up beneficent, sav-ing (the parents) from anxiety, intelligent, who (the progeny) shall makethe house and the settlement and the clan and the country and the fameof the country prosper for me.

6. May you give to me, O Atar, son of Ahura Mazda, (progeny) who willbe . . . (?) for me, now and forever.

(Give me) the Paradise of the Righteous, shining, containing all goodthings—in order that (I may) win a good reward and good repute andlong beatitude for the soul.

7. Atar, (the son) of Ahura Mazda, brings fame to all for whom he cooksthe evening and morning (meals).

From everyone he requires good offerings(s), desired offerings,praised offerings, O Spitamid.

8. Atar sees the hands of all passersby, (saying): What does the friendbring the friend, the moving one the reposing?

9. For if he brings him fuel brought in the proper way or barssmanspread in the proper way or a pomegranate plant, Atar, (the son) ofAhura Mazda, satisfied, not treated with enmity, blesses him accordingto his request.

10. May herds of cattle (and) a plurality of men attend you. May aneffective mind and an effective spirit attend you. May you live a happylife during all the nights which you will live. This is Atar's blessing (forhim) who brings him dry, bright-burning fuel (which) has been properlyprepared according to the rites of Truth.

15. Purity and Pollution

For religious man generally, and for the Zoroastrian in particular, thepaired concepts of purity and pollution play an exceptionally importantrole in daily life. Most activities are carefully circumscribed by ruleswhose purpose is to protect the individual, the religious community, andeven nature at large from pollution. It should be kept in mind from theoutset, however, that when one speaks of purity and pollution one is notnecessarily speaking with reference to hygiene as we understand it today.Although it is true that many rules concerning purity and pollution do infact correspond to modern scientific notions of hygiene, in most cases thisshould be regarded as an accident. This is because the concepts of purityand pollution take their place within the context of the religious worldview. The particular prescriptions are, therefore, often comprehensibleonly in so far as they form an integral part of a more general system ofthought. For example, one might reasonably suppose that the extremecaution exercised in the disposal of the dead was motivated by a fear ofcontagion from the decomposing body. Upon further investigation,however, one finds that only the corpse of an ashawan is contagiousbecause of its possession by the Corpse Demon (Nasu Druj), whereas thecorpse of a drugwant is not possessed by a demon and hence is harmless.Thus, demonology, not hygiene, is the determining factor.

There is little reason to doubt that Zoroastrianism received a complexsystem of rules of purity and pollution from its Indo-Iranian heritage, yet,like Rabbinical Judaism, it shows an ever-increasing concern for suchmatters, to the point of obsession in late Sasanid times. One has alreadyhad the opportunity incidentally to witness a tendency in the Yashtstoward a preoccupation with spells and demonology. This is part of alarger shift of emphasis from the more elevated religion of Zarathushtraand of the Old Iranian religion preserved primarily in the Yashts to thepriestly casuistry so dominant in the Pahlavi books. Nowhere is the latterbetter attested in the Avesta than in the Vendidad (see Introduction, p. 27).In an anthology one is constrained in respect to the breadth of details onecan include. As a result, I have limited the selections to the two mostimportant areas of pollution in the Zoroastrian world view. They are:(1) pollution from contact with corpses, and (2) pollution from women,especially from menstruation.

The primary key to understanding the notions of pollution exhibited

Purity and Pollution I 163

here is the fundamental Zoroastrian dualism of the Lie (Druj) and theTruth (Asha). In the older expressions of the religion this was an ethical,albeit cosmic, dualism. But as time passed the ethical dualism came in-creasingly to be understood more as a simple dualism of good versus evil.In the present context, this was translated to mean that the world of Ashawas synonymous with purity, the world of the Druj, with pollution. Andin this situation the world of Asha is constantly threatened with contagionfrom the world of the Druj. The sacred elements of fire, water, and theearth, no less than the community of the Righteous, must be protected orprotect themselves from pollution. Much pollution can be avoidedthrough diligent attention to religious law. Many cases of pollution areunavoidable, however, as they are the result of the inevitable processes oflife. Two such processes are death and female menstruation. Since theiroccurrence is inevitable, elaborate countermeasures were required to iso-late the source of pollution and to restore purity.

The first selection (Vendidad 5) deals mostly with the pollution of fireand water through accident or design, as well as with the handling ofcorpses in various situations. It is worth noting here that water is particu-larly susceptible to uncontrollable pollution and that, according to Indo-Iranian ideas of hydrology, the water supply was a finite, self-replenishingsystem. I have already discussed the beginnings of the hydrologic cycle(see sects. 9 and 12). At the end of the cycle is a sea called Puitika (theFilter). Into it pass all the rivers, which become increasingly polluted asthey reach their estuaries. After they are filtered, the waters return in animmaculate state to the Wouru.kasha sea.

The isolation of the corpse discussed in Vendidad 5 and its eventualplacement in the daxma (Vend. 7.53-58) belong to the uniquely Zoroas-trian funeral practices. One aspect of the funeral ceremonies is the carefor the soul (urwan) and propitiation of the frawashi of the deceased. Theother aspect is the disposal of the dangerous Druj-infested corpse.Zoroastrians were in a particular quandary over the means of disposal,since they could neither burn the dead nor bury them in water or earth lestthey pollute either the fire, the water, or the earth. As a solution, theyexposed the cadavers to be devoured by carrion birds and animals inopen-air enclosures (daxma) specially designed to isolate the earth fromdefilement. This practice is still observed today.

In the event of contact with carrion, especially in the case of the de-ceased, an elaborate purification ceremony was prescribed, which isknown as the barsshnum. This ceremony could also be employed in othercases in which purification was required. Today it is chiefly used bypriests as a general purification rite. Chap. 9 of the Vendidad gives anoutline of the ceremony whose details must be supplied by later sources.

164 I Purity and Pollution

The ceremony lasts nine days, during which the polluted person becomesgradually rid of contagion from the Nasu Druj, as he or she moves insuccessive three-day periods through the enclosure. The enclosure(maghd) is divided into three rectangular sections along a north-southaxis. Each section (also magha) contains three holes (again maghas), allon the central axis, and the entire enclosure as well as the individualsections are bounded by furrows, the purpose of which is to isolate theinner space of danger from the outside world. The magical furrows im-pose a barrier, which the polluting demon cannot penetrate. The holesserve as receptacles for the ablutions, first of cow's urine (the six north-ernmost holes), then of water (the three southernmost holes). Althoughwashing in cow's urine may be repugnant to our Western sensitivities, weshould bear in mind that, for many peoples the world over, especiallypastoralists, urine is commonly used as a disinfectant. In India and Iranwhere cattle are (or were) sacred, their urine is considered particularlyefficacious, more so than water, which, as shown here, is employed onlyafter the prior ablution with urine.

To facilitate an understanding of the barashnum, the accompanyingdiagram is offered for reference.

The last selection deals with the isolation of menstruating women andwith the punishments for men who have sexual relations with a womanduring menstruation. As in the case of carrion, menstruation is an occa-sion of daewa-infested pollution. The woman must be isolated in order toprotect the rest of the community. Any contact with the woman results inpollution. Obviously, all sexual relations must be diligently avoided, and,while some forms of sexual play can be expiated, coitus itself results ineverlasting pollution and eternal damnation for the man.

Vendiddd5.1-441. Now, a man dies in the river valleys. Then a bird flies up from the

mountain peaks (down) to the river valleys. It devours the corpse of thedead man. Then the bird flies up from the river valleys to the mountainpeaks. It flies to the tree with hard and (?) (or?) soft (wood). It vomitson it, it defecates on it, it pisses (?) on it.

2. Now, a man goes forth from the river valleys to the mountain peaks.He comes upon the tree which the bird (polluted). He is seeking fuel forthe fire. He fells it. He cuts it. He splits (?) it. He lights the fire, the sonof Ahura Mazda.

What is his punishment?3. Then Ahura Mazda said: Carrion brought to a man either by a dog or

a bird or a wolf or wind or flies does not render (him) sinful.4. If these (sorts of) carrion, namely, carrion brought by a dog or a bird

North

South

Plan of the Magha(Barsshnum Gah)


or a wolf or wind or flies, were to render a man sinful, (then) immediate-ly the entire material world of mine (would be) ... (?) in fear for itssoul, its body forfeit on account of the plenitude of these corpses whichlie upon this earth.

5. O righteous Creator of the material world! Now a man irrigates (his)grain field with water running along a ditch—a second (and) a third(time). Then the fourth (time the waters) drag under a dog or a fox or awolf.

What is his punishment?6-7. [Repeats st. 3-4.]8. O righteous Creator of the material world! Does water kill a man?

Then Ahura Mazda said: Water does not kill a man. Asto.widhatubinds him; Wayu conducts him bound. The water rises, the water falls,the water leaves (him exposed in the shallows). Afterwards birds de-vour him.

Here now (a man) goes forth.Now he meets his end, (all) by fate.

9. O righteous Creator of the material world! Does fire kill a man?Then Ahura Mazda said: Fire does not kill a man. Asto.widhatu

binds him; Wayu conducts him bound. Fire burns (him) body and soul(asta ushtansmcd).

Here now (a man) goes forth.Now he meets his end, (all) by fate.

10. O righteous Creator of the material world! Summertime has passed,now in winter what are these Mazdeans to do?

Then Ahura Mazda said: In each house, in each village they shouldprepare three rooms for the deceased.

11. O righteous Creator of the material world! How large should theserooms be for the deceased?

Then Ahura Mazda said: (Large enough so) that (the sides) do not hitthe head when its face is turned upward, nor forward against the feet,nor laterally against the hands. This, indeed, is the prescribed room forthe deceased.

12. Then they should deposit his senseless body either for two nights orthree nights or the duration of a month or until the birds fly forth, theplants sprout, the floods (?) flow away, (and) the wind dries up theearth.

13. Then when the birds fly forth, the plants sprout, the flood (?) flowsaway, (and) the wind dries up the earth, then the Mazdeans shouldexpose the body to the sun.


14. If the Mazdeans should not expose the body to the sun within ayear's time, you should prescribe a punishment equally (severe) as(that) for the murder of an ashawan—until the corpses have been rainedupon, and the daxmas have been rained upon, and the excretions havebeen rained upon.

15. O righteous Creator of the material world! Do you, Ahura Mazda,release water from Wouru.kasha at the same time as wind and clouds?

16. Will you, Ahura Mazda, convey (water) to the corpse?Will you, Ahura Mazda, convey (water) to the daxma?Will you, Ahura Mazda, convey (water) to the excretion(s)?Will you, Ahura Mazda, send forth (water) to the skeleton?Will you, Ahura Mazda, have what is polluted float forth?Will you have these float together to the Puitika sea?

17. Then Ahura Mazda said: It is verily as you have now said, O uprightZarathushtra. I, Ahura Mazda, release water from the Wouru.kasha seaat the same time as wind and clouds.

18. I, Ahura Mazda, convey (water) to the corpse. I, Ahura Mazda,convey (water) to the daxma. I, Ahura Mazda, convey (water) to theexcretion(s). I, Ahura Mazda, send forth (water) to the skeleton. I,Ahura Mazda, have what is polluted float forth. I, Ahura Mazda, havethese float together to the Puitika sea.

19. They stay in the middle part of the sea, flowing about violently.(Once) purified, the waters flow from the Puitika sea to the Wouru-.kasha sea, to the tree Hwapi (Having Good Water). Here all my plantsgrow in all species—by the hundreds, by the thousands; by the tenthousand ten thousands.

20. I, Ahura Mazda, make them (al)together rain down (as) food for therighteous man, (as) fodder for the beneficent Cow. [Man should eat mygrain; the fodder (is) for the beneficent Cow.]

21-38. [Omitted.]39. O righteous Creator of the material world! When we assemble in

(our) homes in this material world, O righteous Ahura Mazda, fire andbarasman and bowls and haoma (plants) and mortars, but then a dog ora man of the house should die, what are these Mazdeans to do?

40. Then Ahura Mazda said: They should remove, O SpitamidZarathushtra, the fire and barasman and bowls and haoma (plants) andmortars from these houses. They should remove the deceased as alaw-abiding man (who) is carried to a lawfully prescribed (place) and isdevoured (by vultures).

41. O righteous Creator of the material world! How should the Maz-deans bring the fire back into the house where this man passed away?


42. Then Ahura Mazda said: The Mazdeans should wait nine nights inwinter, but in summer for a month. Afterward the Mazdeans may bringthe fire back into the house where this man passed away.

43. O righteous Creator of the material world! And if the Mazdeansshould bring the fire back into the house where this man passed awaybefore the nine nights (or) before the month (are) up, what is their (lit.his) punishment?

44. Then Ahura Mazda said: (Since) he is apasho.tanu, one should lash(him) with two hundred lashes of the horsewhip (and?) two hundred ofthe sraosho.carana.

Vendidad 7.1-4, 9-15, 23-27

1. Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: O righteous Ahura Mazda, mostbeneficent Spirit, Creator of the material world! When does the NasuDruj fly upon the dead man?

2. Then Ahura Mazda said: Right after the death, O Spitamid Zarathush-tra, (when) consciousness (baodhah) has departed, the Nasu Druj fliesup from the north in the form of a . . . (?) fly crouching (on its frontlegs), its anus in the air, (covered) with unlimited filth like the mostghastly xrafstras.

3. 0 righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of thematerial world! Now how much time does it take the Nasu Druj to fly to(the body) after they (i.e., men) have been killed by dogs and by wolvesand by sorcerers and by enemies and by (falling over) a cliff and by menand by treachery and by strangulation?

4. Then Ahura Mazda said: The Nasu Druj flies to (the body) afterwardin the next watch.

5-8. [Omitted.]9. O righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of the

material world! To what extent does the Nasu Druj infect these two, thebedding and the pillow, with (its) pestilence and putrefaction and pollu-tion?

10. Then Ahura Mazda said: The Nasu Druj infects, outermost, thebedding and pillow, innermost, the shroud (?), with (its) pestilence andputrefaction and pollution.

11. O righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of thematerial world! Can the garments which have come in contact with thenasu of a dog or a deceased man be purified, O righteous Ahura Mazda?

12. Then Ahura Mazda said: They can be purified, O righteousZarathushtra.


Just when (can this be done)?If they are soiled with semen or blood or feces or vomit, then the

Mazdeans should cut the clothes off and bury (them).13. But if they are not soiled with semen or blood or feces or vomit, then

the Mazdeans should wash the clothes in cow's urine.14. If (the clothing) is of leather, they should wash (it) three times with

cow's urine, they should throw some earth (on it) three times, theyshould wash (it) three times with water, (and) they should air (it) forthree months at a window of the house.

15. But if it is of cloth, they should wash (it) six times with cow's urine,they should throw some earth (on it) six times, they should wash (it))with water six times, (and) they should air (it) for six months at awindow of the house.

16-22. [Omitted.]23. O righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of the

material world! Can men who eat the flesh of a dead dog or man bepurified, O righteous Ahura Mazda?

24. Then Ahura Mazda said: They cannot be purified, O righteousZarathushtra—and (in addition) those men who cut out the gall and whocut out the heart (from a cadaver), and men who pluck the eyeballs outof the sockets (of a cadaver). The Nasu Druj flies unto their necks.Afterward they become unpurifiable for ever and ever.

25. O righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of thematerial world! Can men who bring carrion (covered) with excrementto either water or fire, making them polluted, be purified, O righteousAhura Mazda?

26. Then Ahura Mazda said: They cannot be purified, O righteousZarathushtra. They give the greatest strength to spiders and locusts,those lying mutilators of corpses; they give the greatest strength to thepastureless drought, those lying mutilators of corpses.

27. They are the best givers of strength to the daewa-created, cattle-killing, very snowy, encroaching (?), terrible, evil, (and) maleficentwinter, those lying mutilators of corposes. The Nasu Druj flies untotheir necks. Afterward they become unpurifiable for ever and ever.

Vendidad 7.53-5853. O righteous Ahura Mazda, most beneficent Spirit, Creator of the

material world! Where is the daewa? Where the daewa worshippers?Where is the place where the daewas assemble? Where is the placewhere the daewas congregate? Where do the daewas assemble? With


one hundred blows for (every) fifty blows . . . [continue with Yt. 10.43from " . . . with one thousand blows" (p. 64)].

54. Then Ahura Mazda said: In the daxmas, O Spitamid Zarathushtra,which are erected on this earth as walled enclosures where dead menare deposited: that is where the daewa is, that is where the daewaworshippers are, that is the place where the daewas assemble, that isthe place where the daewas congregate, there the daewas assemble.With one hundred blows . . . [continue with Yt. 10.43 as above].

55. O Spitamid Zarathushtra, these daewas gobble (carrion) in the dax-mas and vomit it up, as in this material life you men eat cooked food. . . ( ? ) and cooked meat. . . . ( ? )

56. The (daxma), indeed, is the refuge of the daewas so long as thestench attends (it).

57. In the daxmas congregate sickness and mange (?) and fever andsickness (?) and chill (?) and ill health (?). [The hair is gray.]

58. After sunset the most destructive men congregate in the daxmas.

Vendidad 91. Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: O righteous Ahura Mazda, most

beneficent Spirit, Creator of the material world! Whither then in thematerial existence might men turn, they who would purify their body(possessed) by the nasu of a dead (man)?"

2. Then Ahura Mazda said: (They should turn to) a righteous man, OSpitamid Zarathushtra, who(se) speech is honest, (who) studies scrip-ture, (who) is an ashawan, who most of all is conversant with the officeof purifier of the Mazdean Religion.

He cuts away the plants on the surface of the earth to the length ofnine fathoms on each of four sides.

3-5. [Omitted.]6. You should cut out a first hole: after the onset of summer, two finger

(breadths) deep, after the onset of winter [frost], four finger (breadths).7. You should cut out a second hole. . . . [Continue with st. 6.]

(The sequence is repeated for a third hole through a sixth hole.)8. How far from one another?

One pace.How (is) one pace (determined)?As three feet.

9. You should cut out three other holes. . . . [Continue with st. 6.]How far from the preceding ones?Three paces.


How (are) three paces (determined)?As one adds paces together.How does one add paces together?As nine feet.

10. You should also draw furrows with a sharp metal (knife).How far from the holes?Three paces.How (are) three paces (determined)?As one adds paces together.How does one add paces together?As nine feet.

11. Now, then, you should draw twelve furrows. You should draw threewhich isolate three holes inside. You should draw three which isolatesix holes inside. You should draw three which isolate nine holes inside.You should draw three (which isolate) inside (the three holes which areisolated from) the other (six) enclosed (?) holes. You should bring to thethree (intervals) of nine feet stones or (else) a hoof or a wooden block(?) or clod of earth or some other kind of hard earth.

12. Next, the polluted (person) should approach the holes. Then you, OZarathushtra, should station yourself beyond the furrowed area andrecite these words: namascd ya armaitish Izhaca. The polluted (person)should respond to you (lit. him) (with the words): namasca ya armaitishizhaca.

13. Then the Druj is cast down with each of the words (which are suit-able) for smiting lying Angra Mainyu, for smiting Wrath with the terri-ble club, for smiting the daewas from Mazandaran, for smiting all thedaewas.

14. Next, the cow's urine—(you should use) a pitcher (?) either of ironor of lead. If a lead (pitcher is used) for besprinkling (the pollutedperson), you should get a staff, O Zarathushtra, with nine knots on it:you should fasten that lead (pitcher) to the tip of the staff.

15. First, his (i.e., those of the priest performing the purification; i.e.,Zarathushtra's) hands should be washed, for if his hands (were) notwashed, he would make his entire body impure. Now, when his (i.e.,your) hands are washed, then you should besprinkle the top of his head,in front, with (your) washed hands three times.

Then the Nasu Druj flies onto the space between his [the man (beingpurified)] brows.

16-26. You should besprinkle the space between his brows.Then the Nasu Druj flies onto the back of his head. You should

besprinkle the back of his head.


[This sequence is repeated for the following body parts in succession:the jaw (?), the right ear, the left ear, the right shoulder, the left shoul-der, the right armpit, the left armpit, the neck (?), the back, the rightnipple, the left nipple, the right (side of the) rib cage, the left side of therib cage, the right buttock, the left buttock, the groin, the right thigh,the left thigh, the right knee, the left knee, the right calf, the left calf,the right ankle, the left ankle, the right forefoot, the left forefoot, thearch under the foot—right and left, the right big toe.]

. . . Then the Nasu Druj flies to the left big toe. You should be-sprinkle the left big toe. Then the Nasu Druj turns away to the north inthe form of a . . . (?) fly crouching (on its front legs), its anus in the air,(covered) with unlimited filth like the most ghastly xrafstras.

27. And you should recite these words which are the most victoriousand the most curative: yatha ahu wairyo . . . [repeat prayer (p. 183)];ksmna mazda . . . (Y. 46.7); ks wsrathramja . . . [continue with Y.44.16 (p. 44)].

28. At the first hole, the man becomes free of the Nasu. And you shouldrecite . . . [continue with st. 27],

[This sequence is repeated for the second hole through the sixthhole.]

29. Thereupon the polluted (person) should sit down inside the magha(i.e., the third of the places of purification) (which is) outside the other(two) maghas, at a distance of four finger (breadths); and let him cleansehimself with . . . ( ? ) of earth of these (holes).

30. One should throw earth fifteen times (on one's head). One shouldwait until the hair on his head becomes dry to the roots.

31. When his body has become dry [dry (?) with dust], then the polluted(person) should go to the other magha. At the first hole, he shouldcleanse his own body once with water. At the second hole, he shouldcleanse his own body twice with water. At the third hole, he shouldcleanse his own body thrice with water.

32. Then he (the purifier) should fumigate him with sandal or benzoin oraloe or pomegranate or any other of the most fragrant plants.

Then he should put on his clothes.Then the polluted (person) should go into the living quarters.

33. He should quietly take his seat inside the house, (but) isolated fromthe other Mazdeans.

He should not be allowed to approach the fire nor the water nor theearth nor an animal nor a plant nor a righteous man nor a righteouswoman until three nights have passed. And after the period of three


nights he should wash himself (and his) clothing with cow's urine andwater.

One should be purified (again) in the manner (prescribed above).34. He should quietly take his seat. . . [continue with st. 33 to ". . . a

righteous woman"] until six nights have passed. And after the period ofsix nights he should wash himself (and his) clothing with cow's urineand water.

35. He should quietly take his seat. . . [continue with st. 33 to ". . . arighteous woman"] until nine nights have passed. And after the periodof nine nights he should wash himself (and his) clothing with cow'surine and water.

36. Afterward he may be allowed to approach the fire, the water, theearth, an animal, a plant, a righteous man, (and) a righteous woman.

Vendidad 161. O righteous Creator of the material world! How should the Mazdeans

act when, in the house of a Mazdean, there sits a woman who has hermenstrual period, her menstruation, her blood?

2. Then Ahura Mazda said: In this case the Mazdean should pick out anarea without plants and shrubs (which can be used as) fuel. He shoulddeposit dry dust as a place (for her to stay).

One should remove (it) from the front (part of) the house by a half ora third or a fourth or a fifth, lest the woman look at the fire, lest thewoman see the fire's flames.

3. O righteous Creator of the material world! How far from the fire?How far from the water? How far from the strewn barssman? How farfrom the righteous men?

4. Then Ahura Mazda said: Fifteen paces from the fire, fifteen pacesfrom the water, fifteen paces from the strewn barssman, three pacesfrom the righteous men.

5. O righteous Creator of the material world! How far away should onestand who brings food to the woman who has her menstrual period, hermenstruation, her blood?

6. Then Ahura Mazda said: He who brings food to the woman who hasher menstrual period, her menstruation, her blood should stand threepaces away.

In what should he bring the food? In what should he bring the beer?In either an iron or a lead (bowl) [the basest metals].

7. How much food should he bring? How much beer should he bring?


Two portions of bread, two portions of alcoholic drink, lest thewoman waste away.

If a baby should come in contact (with her), one should first wash its[the baby's] hands, (then the other parts) of its own body (polluted bycontact with the mother).

8. If the woman detects traces of blood when three nights have passed,she should sit quietly in her place until four nights have passed.

If the woman detects traces of blood when four nights have passed,she should sit quietly in her place until five nights have passed.

9-10. [Repetition of the same formula up to the ninth night.]11. If the woman detects traces of blood when nine nights have passed,

then (it is the case that) the daewas are bringing her (their) antagonismfor the worship and praise of the daewas.

In this case, the Mazdean should pick out an area without plants andshrubs (which can be used as) fuel.

12. There the Mazdeans should dig out three holes in the earth. Theyshould wash her with cow's urine at two holes, with water at one.

[A grammatically unclear sentence follows, enjoining the killing ofxrafstras in summer and winter.]

13. (If) a Mazdean should violate the period of a woman who has hermenstrual period, her menstruation, her blood, what is his punishment?

Then Ahura Mazda said: On account of him being pasho.tanu oneshould flog (him) with two hundred lashes of the horsewhip, two hun-dred of the sraosho.carana.

14. O righteous Creator of the material world! What is the punishmentfor (a man) who, by a premeditated act, has contact with the body of awoman who has her menstrual period, her menstruation, her blood, sothat . . . ( ? )

15. Then Ahura Mazda said: For the first time that he has sexual rela-tions, for the first time that he lies down (with her), one should flog(him) with thirty lashes of the horsewhip, with thirty of the sraosho.car-ana.

For the second time . . . fifty lashes. . . .For the third time . . . seventy lashes. . . .

16. What is the punishment for (a man) who for a fourth time has sexualrelations, for a fourth time lies down (with her), who penetrates (her)clothes, who penetrates (her) defiled loins without ejaculating semen?

17. He who ejaculates semen into a woman who has her menstrualperiod, her menstruation, her blood, is no better than one who commitsan act whereby he would cook the corpse of his own son on a spit (?)(and) offer (his) fat to the fire.

Yima I 175

18. All (these are) followers of the Lie, the Lie incarnate, who havedisrespect for the teacher. All those who disrespect the teacher aredisobedient. All those who are disobedient are not ashawans. All whoare not ashawans are tanu.pardthu.

Asham wohu . . . [Repeat prayer (p. 183).]

16. Yima

Yima has already appeared in numerous places (e.g., Y. 9.5 [p. 152] andYt. 19.31-38 [pp. 90-91]). It is now time to examine closely this com-plex and important figure. At the outset, one must be reminded that, as inso many cases, the Avesta does not provide one with a simple, primitivemyth, but develops a complicated mythic complex whose componentparts betray a multiplicity of origins and also of interrelated thoughvariant themes.

It is a firmly established fact that the myth of Yama (Av Yima) isproto-Indo-European in origin. Not only does he appear in the Indiansources from the Rgveda onward, as Yama the first mortal and then kingof the dead, but also in Scandinavian mythology as the giant Ymir and inRoman legend as Remus. For the reconstruction of the Indo-Europeanmyth, I am indebted to B. Lincoln's excellent study.48 Yama means 'twin'(IE *yemo) and as such he had a brother whose name we may recon-struct as *Manu. The world begins with these two, Twin and Man, thefirst king and the first priest. In the course of events Man sacrifices Twin,with the result that from Twin's dismembered body Man creates thecosmos. There is also a primordial Bovine who, in the Indo-Europeanversion, suckles the twins, whereas in the Indo-Iranian version she or heis also sacrificed in order to produce animals and plants. The ramificationsof the basic myth in Iran alone are manifold, as it was the subject ofconsiderable reinterpretation.

In the Avesta and, indeed, throughout Iranian literary history, Yima isprimarily celebrated as the first king, king of the golden age. Under hisrule men and animals did not die, plants did not wither, and there was anabundance of food. Water was plentiful. Although people reproduced, noone seems to have advanced beyond the ideal age of fifteen years. Unfor-tunately, Yima's paradisiacal kingdom, where there were extremes nei-ther of heat nor of cold, did not endure forever. There occurred a "fail."According to Vendidad 2, this took place after nine hundred years; and,according to Yt. 19.31, after "a very long time." The reasons for the fallare at odds. Vend. 2.22 suggests that "the evil material existence" was at

776 / Yima

fault, while Yt. 19.37 puts the blame on Yima himself in that he "intro-duced falsehood [untrue speech] to his mind." The latter version (Yt.19.33-38), substantiated not only by later popular tradition, but alsoreflected in Zarathushtra's (poorly understood) condemnation of Yima(Y. 32.8), has the kingly Glory (Xwarsnah) flee from Yima to become theobject of contest between Aryan and non-Aryan forces.

The other version recounted in Vendidad 2 requires particular atten-tion. The text, though it obviously contains much archaic material, isbetrayed as the work of late, probably Arsacid, redactors by its degener-ate use of the language and its excessive Zoroastrianization. Be that as itmay, the first part of the chapter (through st. 19) preserves a cosmogonicmotif of the successive overpopulation of the earth and subsequent ex-pansion until it has reached the size it now is. It is interesting to note, inthe light of the Indo-European myth, that Yima refuses to become apropagator of the faith. Instead he chooses to be king and to prosper in theworld. He accepts two tokens of what might appear to be royalty, butwhich in fact are pieces of cattle-herding equipment, a goad and a whip.These, coupled with his standing epithet 'rich in herds', show that whatone has here and in what follows is a remnant of an archaic pastoralistmyth. The second part of the myth, which involves the construction ofsomething called a wara, has been subject to the most diverse interpreta-tions. One should first try to understand as best we can what the text says.

Sts. 20-21 are fairly clear. At the time of the final overpopulation andexpansion of the earth, Ahura Mazda and Yima call a joint assembly forgods and men. Ahura Mazda then goes on to tell the assembled gods andmen that, because of the evil in the world, terrible winters will come todisrupt the temperate weather of Yima's realm (st. 22). As a result, a thirdof the livestock will die (st. 32). St. 24, I believe, has been generallymisinterpreted. It is generally understood to mean that such floods willresult from the spring runoff that one will be fortunate to be able to see afootprint anywhere. I read it as simple pastoralist poetry describing theabundance of grass watered by the spring runoff and the pleasure experi-enced at seeing the footprints of sheep in the thawed ground. Next, Yimais instructed to build a wara (sts. 25-26). The purpose of the wara is clearenough; it is to be a place of habitation for men and a barn for animals toprotect them from the cold and snow. Hay is also to be stored up there forthe winter. In what resembles the Noah's ark myth, couples of the best ofthe representative species of animals and plants, as well as couples of thebest people, are to populate the wara. A stream is to flow through it. Thebuilding instructions are, unfortunately, not clear at all, except that thewara is to be three-storied and four-sided, and to have the dimensions of acardtu (a measure borrowed from horse racing, meaning a full round of a

Yima I 177

course, approximately seven furlongs) per side. When Yima asks how heis to make the wara, Ahura Mazda tells him to kick away "some of thisearth" with his heels (sts. 31-32). The next instruction is unclear. Theverb, which occurs only here, has been etymologized as being relatedeither to a verb 'to dig' (OInd khan-) or to a verb 'to chew, eat' (OIndkhdd-). If one likes the idea that the wara was a cave of some sort, then'dig' gains favor. If one is not a priori dedicated to the cave theory, then'knead' becomes worthy of consideration, since kneading clay with thehands is a perfectly normal practice,49 whereas making a large excavationwith one's hands is not. The nature, number, and arrangement of theentrances is also a problem. The word used (psrstu-) means in a generalsense "crossing', but can indicate a bridge just as well as a ford. Thenumber of entrances for each story, being in multiples of three, is at oddswith the quadrangular shape. If there were an attempt at symmetry, howwere the entrances arranged? St. 30 also mentions a door (dwarom) whichwas self-luminous, but the text seems to be mutilated here. A redactorsaw fit to gloss dwaram with raocanam 'window', yet failed to supply asubject or a verb. Most modern interpreters have assumed on the basis ofcontext that the verb apt- mar9z- must mean something like 'put, install,furnish' and so translate as: 'install a door in the wara'. Of course, this isimpossible, as marsz- always has the basic meaning 'wipe, rub, clean' inIranian. Thus the phrase about the door either has no verb, or api- maraz-carries over to this phrase, which would then mean 'polish thedoor . . .'. Just as mysterious as the self-luminous door are the "lights"(i.e., stars) and the sun and moon (sts. 39-40). One assumes that somehowthese were inside the wara during the long hibernations. Finally, sts. 41-43imply, though somewhat ambiguously, that the duration of the hiberna-tion was long indeed and is probably not over yet. This accords well withthe later-attested Sasanid eschatology concerning the wara.

The richly suggestive nature of this myth leads to a number of analyses.There is an obvious Sintflut (universal inundation) motif present. As soonas one substitutes 'flood' for 'snow', the myth of a high god telling a manof impending disaster and the steps he must take to avoid it, becomes alltoo clear. Another motif is that of a paradise or Elyseum for the elect.Inside the wara everyone lives "a most beautiful life." There is also aneschatological motif at least paralleled in, if not the source of, i\\o,fimbul-vetr, the terrible winter attendant upon the Ragnarok of Scandinavianmythology. When one stops to consider that the myth of Yima's wara as itexists is late enough to have been shaped by any number of outsideinfluences as well as internal theological developments, I see no reason toreject the validity of these influences. Nevertheless, behind these therelies a simpler kernel rooted in the realities of the pastoralist yearly cycle.

178 I Yima

As I have noted, Yima is specifically a pastoralist in addition to beingfirst man and king. Typologically he fits well the common mythologicalrole of the "culture hero," usually a semidivine being or man whoseactions provide the paradigms by which men live. He is the one to havetaught mankind how to live and survive in the world. In geographicalareas that experience extremities of seasonal changes in weather, pastor-alist life is regulated by a pattern of spring-summer-fall nomadism andwinter sedentarism. The unending movement to new pastures in summercontrasts with the sedentary struggle against snow, cold, and lack offodder in winter. For this sort of seminomadic pastoralisrn, the welfare ofanimals and men depends on the ability to endure the hardships of winter.Now, it seems that at the root of Vend. 2.22-41 is a myth about thebuilding of the first winter shelter at the end of the wonderful age ofperpetual pleasant weather and prosperity. This original myth dealingwith a yearly cycle, later misunderstood out of context, underwent anumber of reinterpretations, the most significant of which was the trans-position from a yearly to a cosmic cycle as part of Zoroastrian eschatolo-gy-

In closing this long commentary, we should point out that the Rgvedaconfirms the interpretation of the wara as a shelter for animals and men.There is a Vedic myth, part of a cycle of cattle-raiding myths, about thevala (< *vara 'enclosure') where certain people (the Panis), hostile to thegods Brhaspati, Indra, and the Angirases, have their cows penned up.This vala is called in the most specific terms 'a cattle stall' (e.g., RV3.30.10). It is usually portrayed as a rock cave and has walls around it (cf.RV 1.52.5). With their magic powers the gods destroy the enclosure anddrive away the cows which they have thus stolen (see RV 10.67.6, "Indra. . . stole the cows"). In addition to the cows, the vala also contains thesun and the stars (rocana). It is hard to believe that this has nothing to dowith the presence of the sun, (moon), and stars (raoca) in Yima's wara(sts. 39-40), though the connection is obscure.

Vendiddd 21. Zarathushtra asked Ahura Mazda: O Ahura Mazda, most beneficent

Spirit, creator of the material world, righteous! To whom among mendid you, Ahura Mazda, first talk, other than to me, Zarathushtra? Towhom did you teach the ahuric Zoroastrian Religion?

2. Then Ahura Mazda said: O righteous Zarathushtra, I, Ahura Mazda,first talked to him among men, handsome Yima rich in herds, other thanyou, Zarathushtra. I first taught him the ahuric Zoroastrian Religion.

3. Then I, Ahura Mazda, said to him, O Zarathushtra: Prepare yourself,

Yima I 179

O handsome Yima, son of Wlwahwant, (to be) the rememberer andbearer of the Religion.

Then he, handsome Yima, answered me, O Zarathushtra: I havebeen neither created as nor taught to be a rememberer and bearer ofthe Religion.

4. Then I, Ahura Mazda, said to him, O Zarathushtra: If, O Yima, youare not prepared to be the rememberer and bearer of the Religion, thenprosper my world, then augment my world. Then stand ready as protec-tor and guardian and overseer of my world.

5. Then he, handsome Yima, answered me, O Zarathushtra: I shallprosper your world, I shall augment your world. I shall prepare myselfto be the protector and guardian and overseer of your world. In mykingdom there will be neither cold wind nor hot, neither sickness nordeath.

6. Then I, Ahura Mazda, gave him two pieces of equipment: a goldengoad and a whip adorned with gold.

7. [Obscure.]8. Then Yima's rule lasted three hundred years (lit. three hundred win-

ters came to Yima's rule).Then the earth became for him (too) full of livestock and draft ani-

mals and men and dogs and birds and blazing red fires. They did not findspace (enough)—livestock and draft animals and men.

9. Then I informed Yima: Handsome Yima, son of Wlwahwant, theearth is (too) full through the crowding of livestock and draft animalsand men and dogs and birds and blazing red fires. They do not findspace (enough)—livestock and draft animals and men.

10. Then about midday Yima went into the lights along the sun's path.He drove this earth with the golden goad. He lashed her with the whipsaying, "Dear Spsnta Armaiti, go forth and spread out, O Bearer oflivestock and draft animals and men!"

11. Then Yima made this earth expand to one-third larger than before.They made their home here—livestock and draft animals and men—according to their own will and pleasure [in whatever way was hispleasure].

12-14. Then Yima's rule lasted six hundred years.Then the earth became for him (too) full . . . [continue with sts. 8-10

from". . . of livestock"].15. Then Yima made the earth expand to two-thirds larger than before.

They made their home here . . . [continue with st. 11 from "—live-stock"].

180 I Yima

16-18. Then Yima's rule lasted nine hundred years.Then the earth became for him (too) full . . . [continue, repeating

sts. 8-10 as above].19. Then Yima made the earth expand to three-thirds larger than before.

They made their home here . . . [continue wtih st. 11 as above].20. The Creator, Ahura Mazda, together with the spiritual deities, set up

an assembly—[Ahura Mazda who is] renewed in Aryana Waejah of thegood Daitya.

Regal Yima of rich herds, together with the best men, set up anassembly—[Yima who is] renowned in Aryana Waejah of the goodDaitya.

21. To that assembly came the Creator Ahura Mazda, together with thespiritual deities—[Ahura Mazda who is] renowned in Aryana Waejah ofthe good Daitya.

To that assembly came regal Yima of rich herds, together with thebest men—[Yima who is] renowned in Aryana Waejah of the goodDaitya.

22. Then Ahura Mazda said to Yima: O handsome Yima, son ofWlwahwant, winters will come upon the evil material world, onaccount of which (will come) the hard, crushing (?) frost. Winters willcome upon the evil world on account of which, from the first, it willsnow snows from the highest mountains to the valleys (?) of Aradwi.

23. And a third of the livestock will survive here, (namely) what will bein the most terrible of places and what will be on the mountain tops andwhat (will be) in the river valleys, in roofed stalls.

24. Before this winter (sets in,) the land will bear grass. Much water willflow (?) to it (i.e., the grass) after the (spring) runoff of snow. And, OYima, it seems to be wonderful here for material life when one can seethe foot(prints) of the sheep.

25. Then make the wara the length of a carstu on each of its four sides.Thereupon, bring in the seed of (each kind of) livestock and draft ani-mals and men and dogs and birds and blazing red fires.

Then make the wara the length of a carstu on each of its four sides forthe habitation of men; (and make it) the length of a caratu on each of itssides as a barn for cattle.

26. Thereupon have water flow forth (into the wara) along a course thesize of a hathra.

Thereupon store up hay.[Always (this food) yellow in color, always (this food), undimin-

ishing, is eaten.]

Yima I 181

Thereupon set up houses [and a storeroom (?) and a portico (?) and averanda (?) and a garden (?)].

27. Thereupon assemble the seed of all men and women who are thelargest and the best and the most beautiful of this earth.

Thereupon assemble the seed of all species of livestock who are thelargest and the best and the most beautiful of this earth.

28. Thereupon assemble the seed of all plants which are the tallest andmost fragrant of this earth.

Thereupon assemble the seed of all foods which are the best tastingand most fragrant of this earth.

Make those (become) couples so that their seed will be inexhaustibleas long as these men are in the structures (?).

29. (Let) not (enter) here (the following): neither a chicken-breasted(person) nor a hunchback nor . . . ( ? ) nor a fool nor a . . . (?) nor adeceiver (?) nor a (woman) with an itch (?) nor a spasmodic nor onewithout teeth nor a leper who has been outcaste nor yet any other of(those so) marked who belong to Angra Mainyu.

30. In the first area make nine entrances, in the middle six, in the lowestthree. Assemble the seed of a thousand men and women in the first(area in the nine) entrances, in the middle six hundred, in the lowestthree hundred. Drive those (couples) into the wara with the golden goadand clean the wara. . . . a door [window] shining by itself from within.

31. Then Yima thought: How shall I ever make the wara which AhuraMazda told me about?

Then Ahura Mazda said to Yima: Handsome Yima, son ofWlwahwant, with (your) heels kick away some of this earth. Knead (?)it with your hands just as now men mix (?) soft clay.

32. Then Yima did just as Ahura Mazda had required him (to do). Hekicked away some of this earth with his heels. He kneaded (?) it with hishands just as now men mix (?) soft clay.

33. Then Yima made the wara the length of a carotu on each of its foursides. Thereupon he brought in ... [continue with st. 25, makingnecessary changes].

34. Thereupon he made water flow . . . [continue with st. 26 as above].35. Thereupon he assembled the seed of all men and women . . . [con-

tinue with st. 27 as above].36. Thereupon he assembled the seed of all plants . . . [continue with

st. 28 as above].37. (There entered) not here (the following): neither a chicken-breasted

(person) . . . [continue with st. 29 as above]

182 I Yima

38. In the first area he made nine entrances . . . [continue with st. 30 asabove].

39. O righteous Creator of the material world, what then were theselights, O righteous Ahura Mazda, which shine in such a way in thesestructures (?) which Yima made.

40. Then Ahura Mazda said: (They were the) autonomous lights and thematerial (lights). Only once (a year) does one see the stars [and themoon and the sun] in their setting and rising.

41. And they consider a.day to be a year.After forty years, from two people were born two people, a couple

(consisting of) a woman and a man, as (also) among those which be-longed to the species of animals. And those people lived a most beauti-ful life in the structures (?) which Yima made.

42. Righteous Creator of the material world! Who then propagated theMazdean religion in the structures (?) which Yima made?

Then Ahura Mazda said: (It was) the Karshiptar bird,50 O SpitamidZarathushtra.

43. Righteous Creator of the material world! Who is their ahu and ratu?Then Ahura Mazda said: Urwatat.nara, O Zarathushtra, and you,

Zarathushtra."

17. Miscellanea: Sacred Prayers

In the reading selections, three sacred prayers, occurring frequently, havebeen identified with their opening words, namely: the Yenghe hatam, theYatha ahu wairyo (Ahuna wairya), and the Asham wohu. In addition tothese, another formula of worship has been identified as Ny. 1.16. Thesacred prayers are in the Gathic dialect, but there is doubt that they areZarathushtra's compositions. Although they are extremely obscure inmeaning and seem to have functioned basically as "mantras," I havethought it necessary to give an approximate rendering in English. Theformula identified as Ny. 1.16, ending with the Yenghe hatam, is in YoungAvestan. It occurs at the end of the Kardahs (sections) of the Yashts.

Yenghe hatamWe worship the (male) and the (female) (Entities) in the worship of whichEntities Ahura Mazda knows what is good according to Truth.

Miscellanea: Sacred Prayers I 183

Yathd ahu wairyo (Ahuna wairya)As an ahu is to be chosen, so a ratu (is to be chosen) in accordance evenwith Truth, (as) the implementer of the deeds of Good Mind; and AhuraMazda's Dominion over life (is to be chosen) which is given as shepherdto the poor.

Ash^m wohuTruth (is) good, it is Best Truth. According to (our) wish it is, according toour wish it shall be. Truth belongs to Best Truth.

Ny. 1.16On account of X's* rayi and xwaranah, I shall worship him/her/them withaudible worship, X with libations. We worship X with haoma containingmilk, with barasman, with skill of tongue and with thought (mathra), andwith speech and action and libations and with correctly uttered words.Yenghe hatam.

*With the substitution of X for Hwaraxshaeta.

Notes

1. Here I follow the classification of I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra(Cambridge, 1959).

2. I shall use the word 'cow' throughout in a generic sense to cover cows, bulls, oxen,and heifers. This is in keeping, with the ancient texts, which use the cognate word gaw-,which is feminine in gender, to refer to bovines in general.

3. The controversy is focused mainly on the question of the so-called tripartite structureof society. The literature is extensive and I refer the reader only to G. Dumezil, L'ideologietripartie des indo-europeens (Bruxelles, 1958). The theory was ably discussed and criticizedrecently by J. Gonda, Triads in the Veda (Amsterdam, 1976), pp. 125-205.

4. Here I support the thesis of L. DeVries, Vedic rta- and asa, doctoral dissertation,University of Minnesota, 1979, against the one-sided interpretation of H. Liiders, Varunna(Gottingen, 1951-1959), though I translate asa contextually as 'Truth', rather than etymolog-ically.

5. Histories 1.131.6. See especially P. Thieme, Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft

107 (1957): 67-90.7. M. Boyce, Zoroastrians (London, 1979), p. 18.8. W. B. Henning, Zoroaster (Oxford, 1951), pp. 35^3.9. Histories 1.132.10. Journal of Indo-European Studies 3 (1975): 337-362.11. The Gathas of Zarathustra (Tehran-Liege, 1975), pp. 141ff.12. Indo-Iranian Journal 21 (1979): 104-113.13. Cf. Rgveda 7.88.5-6.14. The Gathas of Zarathustra pp. 251-252.15. P. Thieme, Journal of the American Oriental Society 80 (1969): 308-309.16. Perhaps some sort of curved or hooked weapon.17. Identity unknown.18. Die Religionen des alien Iran, 2nd ed. (Osnabriick, 1966).19. Etudes mithriaques (Tehran/Liege, 1978), pp. 345-393.20. Journal Asiatique 248 (1960): 421-430.21. The Avestan Hymn to Mithra pp. 54-58.22. Probably the plain of the upper Helmand river, dominated by the K6h-i Baba in

modern Afghanistan.23. The region south of modern Merv.24. The region around modern Samarkand and Bukhara.25. The Oxus region south of the Aral Sea.

184

Notes I 185

26. Journal Asiatique 271 (1953): 8-18.27. The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, pp. 166ff.28. In the Pahlavi texts it is the ratu offish, but its identity is unknown (sturgeon?).29. A species of vulture, apparently with a ringneck.30. The name seems to mean 'he who has wyambura as god'; that is, 'one who worships

wyambura' or perhaps 'he whose gods are wyambura.' Unfortunately, we cannot safelyeven etymologize the word. The Wyambura daewas are mentioned only here.

31. Mythe et epopee, vol. Ill (Paris, 1973), pp. 21-89.32. Perhaps a javelin.33. W. F. Leemans, Ishtar of Lagaba and her Dress (Leiden, 1952).34. Asiatica, Festschrift Friedrich Weller (Leipzig, 1954), pp. 404-413.35. Although it is identified with Lake Urmia (northwestern Iran) in Pahlavi texts, it may

have been the Avestan name for the Aral sea.36. Probably the mountains in the vicinity of Tashkent.37. Identity unknown.38. A History of Zoroastrianism I (Leiden, 1975), pp. 61-62.39. See Yt. 10.104.40. Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachforschung 82 (1968): 37-61.41. Identity unknown.42. Perhaps the Oxus river.43. Identity of both mountains unknown.44. Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality (New York, 1968).45. Duraosha, a standing epithet of Haoma, has never been satisfactorily explained,

although many ingenious suggestions have been made. My translation simply follows theinterpretation of the Pahlavi commentators.

46. Identity unknown.47. See N. S. Nyberg, "La legende de Keresaspa," in Oriental Studies in Honour of

Cursetji Erachji Parvy (London, 1933), pp. 337-352.48. History of Religions 15 (1975): 121-145.49. Note that English 'make', German 'machen', etc., originally meant 'to knead'. The

general meaning 'make' derives from the importance of wattle-and-daub construction.50. Probably some kind of hawk or other bird of prey.

Glossary

Achaemenid. The Persian dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great (559 B.C.) and overthrown byAlexander the Great (330 B.C.).

ahu. (1) A term used especially with reference to the religious community, meaning 'lord,master', often found in conjunction with ratu; (2) one of the human "souls" (seep. 104).

Airyana Waejah. The Aryan land, Iran.Alburz. (1) The cosmic mountain, called either Haraiti or Hara Barazaiti; (2) an actual

mountain range in northern Iran.Arazahi. See karshwar.Arsacid. The Parthian dynasty, which dominated Iran from 247 B.C. to c. 226 A.D.ashawan. A technical religious term meaning 'possessing, associated with Truth', used to

designate anyone or anything connected with Truth; often rendered in English as 'right-eous'; opposite of drugwant.

Asto.widhatu. A demon of death.athrawan. A general term for 'priest, clergy'.avatara. Properly one of the ten incarnations of the Hindu god Visnu, used to designate any

established incarnation or manifestation of a god, e.g., Tishtrya, Warathraghna.Bavri. Perhaps Babylon.baga, bagha. A characteristically Persian word for 'god'.baodhah. The faculty of consciousness, one of the human "souls" (see p. 104).barasman. Originally, sacred grass or twigs strewn on the ground as a seat for the gods at the

sacrifice; later, a bundle of sticks or rods held by the priest during the ritual.Brahmana. A member of the Hindu priestly caste; (2) a kind of later Vedic text dealing with

the symbolism and esoteric meaning of the sacrifice.Bundahishn. A ninth-century Pahlavi text.Bushyasta. Demoness of sloth, stupor, and sleepiness.caratu. A term of measure borrowed from chariot racing; a complete circuit of the race-

course or about seven furlongs (see hathra).Cista. A goddess of paths, both physical and spiritual; her name probably means 'Instruc-

tion'.daena. (1) In the Gathas, the good Vision; in later Zoroastrianism, simply the word for the

Religion; (2) one of the human "souls" (see p. 104).Dahaka. (1) A member of a Scythian tribe, the Daha; (2) an epithet of the daewa Azhi

Dahaka.dahyuma. (1) The genius of the country; (2) the human ratu of the country.Damoish Upamana. A curious deity who appears to be Warathraghna's alter ego.Danu. A tribe of Scythians living along the Yaxartes river.

186

Glossary I 187

Daitya. A sacred river in Airyana Waejah.Denkard. A ninth-century Pahlavi text.drugwant. Normalized spelling of Avestan dragwant, 'possessing, associated with the Lie';

opposite of ashawan.Druj, Drug. (1) The Lie as archdemon whose opposite is Truth; (2) a word for 'demon'

(= daewa).Fradadhafshu. See karshwar.Frasho.karati. The name for the state at the end of time, when the forces of evil under Angra

Mainyu will be overcome and the kingdom of god established eternally; the literal meaningis The Making Wonderful, Excellent', often translated as The Renovation'.

Gaya Maratan. The name of the first mortal.Gaokarana. The name of a mythical cosmic tree.Garo.nmana. The 'House of Song', i.e., heaven.god. See baga and yazata.Hapto.iringa. Ursa Major.Hara. See Alburz.Haraiti. See Alburz.hathra. A measure equal to one-half a caratu, i.e., about three and one-half furlongs.hawanan. The name of the particular priest in charge of the haoma-press (hawana).kaidhya. A kind of evil person, perhaps the same as kayadha.kardah. A section (given in the text in Roman numerals) or division of most Yashts.karshwar. In Iranian cosmography the earth consists of seven continents (karshwar) as

follows: (1) Arazahl (west), (2) Sawahl (east), (3) Fradadhafshu (southeast),(4) WIdadhafshu (southwest), (5) Wouru.barashti (northwest), (6) Wouru.jarashti (north-east), (7) Xwaniratha (the central continent where Airyana Waejah is situated).

Kasaoya. The HamQn sea in Seistan.kayadha. A type of evil person, perhaps 'astrologer'.Khotanese. The Middle Iranian, Scythian (Saka) language of Khotan in Central Asia.Kushan. The ruling dynasty of much of eastern Iran, Iranian Central Asia, and northwestern

India during the first to third centuries A.D.Mahabharata. One of the great Indian epics.mathra. Originally this word meant 'thought' or its verbal expression, that is, 'sacred utter-

ance'. In many contexts, however, it is best translated as '(magical) spell'. See also SpantaMathra and tanu.mathra.

Mazandaran. A region of northern Iran famous for its irreligion.Muraka. Some sort of demonic being or person.Median. (1) The first great Iranian dynasty, overthrown by Cyrus; (2) the language of Media,

preserved only in words and names attested to in other ancient languages.Nairyo.saghha. A minor deity of prayer.nmanya. (1) The genius of the house; (2) the human ratu of the house.Nyayishn. A section of the Avesta, here abbreviated Ny.Old Persian. The language of the Achaemenid inscriptions.Pahlavi. The Middle Persian language of the later Zoroastrian texts.pairika. Witch, sorceress.Paoiryaenis. The Pleiades.Parsndi. The goddess 'Plenitude'.Parsis. The Zoroastrians who settled in India.Paurwanya. A constellation of uncertain identity.pasho.tanu. A legal term for certain grievous sins or the sinner; meaning 'whose body is

forfeit' (see tanu.psratha).

188 I Glossary

Ramayana. One of the great Indian epics.Rangha. A mythical river.ratu. A term for 'judge' used especially in reference to the religious community; found often

in conjunction with ahu.rayi. Avestan possessed two homonyms rayi meaning 'wealth, opulence' and 'insight'. The

word appears frequently in the phrase "on accout of/through X's rayi and xwarsnah(glory)" where it is usually difficult to tell which meaning was intended. I have left theword untranslated both to indicate the ambiguity and to emphasize that, as far as theredactors of the Avesta were concerned, the phrase was little more than a meaningless(though sacred) mantra.

Razishta Cista. See Cista.Rgveda. The most ancient Indian text, containing one thousand seventeen hymns and dated' c. 1300-900 B.C.Sasanid. The dynasty that ruled Iran c. 226-651 A.D.Satawaesa. Perhaps Fomalhaut.Sawahl. See karshwar.Sogdian. The Middle Iranian language spoken in the ancient province of Sogdiana.Spanta Mathra. The Beneficent or Holy Word, the hypostatization of the divine revelation.sraosha.carana. An instrument for inflicting punishment.Staota Yesnya. A portion of the Yasna.tanu.mathra. A technical term of uncertain meaning, perhaps 'whose body consists of

mathras,' used to describe certain holy persons and deities.tanu.pdrstha. A technical legal term for a grievous sin punishable by two hundred lashes and

excommunication (see pasho.tanu).Tishtryaeinis. Canis Minor.Tura, Turanian. Originally probably a Scythian tribe, later applied to all Central Asian

nomads.Upa.paoiri. 41 Arietis.Urwatat.nara. Zarathustra's youngest son.Ush.dam, Ushi.darana. Two names for a sacred mountain.Vasistha. A Vedic poet-seer (rsi).Wanant. Vega.Warsna. Perhaps modern Buner, a district northeast of Peshawar, Pakistan. The name often

appears in an adjectival derivative wardnya 'coming from Warana'; in Pahlavi, however, itis consistently glossed with waranig 'greedy, concupiscent'. It is difficult to know which ismeant in the Avesta. It may be that warsnya represents two homonyms.

warshna. Name of a kind of demonic being or person.WIdadhafshu. See karshwar.Wispe Ratawo. A section of the Avesta (= Visperad).wisya. (1) The genius of the settlement; (2) the human ratu of the settlement.Wouru.barashti. See karshwar.Wouru.jarsshti. See karshwar.Xwaniratha. See karshwar.xrafstra. A term for noxious creatures—frogs, ants, spiders, etc., and especially snakes.yazata. The common Zoroastrian term for 'god, deity' (see baga).zantuma. (1) The genius of the tribe; (2) the human ratu of the tribe.zarathushtrotama. The title of the highest ecclesiastic (?) authority.

Bibliography

The following is a select bibliography. Extensive documentation can be found in M. Boyce'sHistory (Cited below) and B. Schlerath, Awesta-Worterbuch, Vorarbeiten I, Wiesbaden,1968.

General WorksBoyce, M. A History ofZoroastrianism, vol. I, Leiden, 1975.Duchesne-Guillemin, J. La religion de I'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962.Frye, R. N. The Heritage of Persia, Cleveland, 1963.Widengren, G. Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965.Zaehner, R. C. The Dawn and Twilight ofZoroastianism, London, 1961.

Old Iranian Religious Literature and Textual CriticismBoyce, M. "Middle Persian Literature," Handbuch der Orientalistik, 1. Abt., 4. Bd., 2.

Abschn., Lf. 1, Leiden, 1968.Geldner, K. F. Avesta, the Sacred Books of the Parsis, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1889-96 (esp. the

Prolegomena).Gershevitch, I. "Old Iranian Literature," Handbuch der Orientalistik.

Indo-Iranian Religion (in addition to the general works cited above)Benveniste, E. Le vocabulaire des institutions indo-europeennes, 2 vols., Paris, 1969.Dumezil, G. L'ideologie tripartie des Indo-Europeens, Bruxelles, 1958.Gonda, J. Triads in the Veda, Amsterdam, 1976 (chpts. III-IV).Thieme, P. "The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties," Journal of the American Oriental

Society, 80, 1960.Thieme, P. "Vorzarathustrisches bei den Zarathustriern und bei Zarathustra," Zeitschrift

der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, 107, 1957.De Vries, L. J. Vedic rtd- and Avestan asa- Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1979.

ZarathushtrianismDuchesne-Guillemin, J. The Western Response to Zoroaster, Oxford, 1958.Dumezil, G. Naissance d'archanges, Paris, 1945.Geiger, B. Die Amasa Spantas, Wien, 1916.Henning, W. B. Zoroaster, Politician or Witch-doctor, London, 1951.Lommel, H. Die Religion Zarathustras, Tubingen, 1930.Nyberg, H. S. Die Religionen des alien Iran (reprint), Osnabriick, 1966.

189

190 I Bibliography

The Reading Selections. (In addition to the handbooks,H. Lommel, Die Vast's des Awesta, Gottingen, 1927, containsexcellent summaries of all the Yast's and Vendidad II. Where no

bibliography is given, consult these works.)

Ahura MazdaKent, R. G. Old Persian, New Haven, 1953.Lommel, H. Die Religion Zarathustras, (1930).Liiders, H. Varuna, 2 vols., Gottingen, 1951-59.Thieme, P. "The 'Aryan' Gods" (1960).

ZarathushtraDuchesne-Guillemin, J. The Hymns of Zarathustra, Boston, 1963.Insler, S. The Gathas of Zarathustra, Tehran-Liege, 1975.

MithraBenveniste, E. "Mithra aux vastes paturages," Journal Asiatique, 248, 1960.Gershevitch, I. The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959.Schmidt, H.-P. "Indo-Iranian Mitra Studies: the State of the Central Problem," Etudes

Mithriaques, Tehran/Liege, 1978.Thieme, P. Mitra and Aryaman, New Haven, 1959.

WsrsthraghnaBenveniste, E. & L. Renou, Vrtra et Vrthragna, Paris, 1934.

XwarsnahBailey, H. W. Zoroastrian Problems in the Ninth-Century Books, Oxford, 1971.Duchesne-Guillemin, J. "Le xvaranah," Annali dell'Istituto Orientate di Napoli, 5, 1963Dumezil, G. Mythe et epopee, III, Paris, 1973.

WayuWikander, S. Vayu I, Uppsala, 1941.

Frawashi'sMalandra, W. W. The Fravasi Yast, Dissertation University of Pennsylvania, 1971.Modi, J. J. The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees, 2nd ed., Bombay, 1905.

Ardwl Sura AnahitaWeller, H. Anahita, Tubingen, 1938.

TistryaForssman, B. "Apaosa, der Gegner des Tistria," Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachfors-

chung, 82, 1968.Henning, W. B. "An Astrological Chapter of the Bundahisn," Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society, 1942.MacKenzie, D. "Zoroastrian Astrology in the Bundahisn," BSOAS, 27, 1964.

Bibliography I 191

HaomaBrough, J. "Soma and Amanita Muscaria," BSOAS, 34, 1971.Gershevitch, I. "An Iranianist's View of the Soma Controversy," Memorial Jean de

Menasce, Louvain, 1974.Wasson, R. G. Soma, divine mushroom of immortality, New York, 1968.

VendidadDarmesteter, J. Le Zend-Avesta, vol. 2, Paris, 1892 (pp. v-xxiv).

YimaChristensen, A. Les types du premier homme et du premier roi, II, Leiden, 1934.Hertel, J. Die Himmelstore im Veda und im Awesta, Leipzig, 1924.Lincoln, B. "The Indo-European Myth of Creation," History of Religions, 15, 1975.Mole, M. "La guerre des geants," Indo-Iranian Journal, 3, 1959.

Index

Achaemenid: inscriptions, 4, 44-51, 88;kings, see Artaxerxes, Cyrus, Darius,Xerxes

Adityas, 20, 46Aeshma, see WrathAgriculture, 57, 141-42, 146, 147Ahu: authority, 38, 55, 70; life soul, 104,

115Ahuna wairya, 95, 139Ahura(s), 13-14, 35, 46, 72, 103Ahura Mazda (Ahuramazda), 18-23, 24,

35-55, 76, 103, 113, 131, 137, 160ff.Alexander the Great, 17, 30Amarstat, 20, 54, 69Amssha Spantas, 19-20, 35, 46, 65, 69, 75,

90, 113, 131, 135-36Amulets, 82, 85Anahita (Arsdwl Sura), 24, 47, 117-30, 131,

142Ancestors, 103-5, 110Angirases, 105, 136, 178Angra Mainyu (Evil Spirit), 19, 22, 23, 53,

55, 70, 73, 92, 97, 98, 106, 112, 133, 140,147, 152. See also Two Spirits

Apam Napat, 89, 93, 115, 143, 147Apaosha, 140-43, 145-46Arsdwl Sura, see AnahitaArmaiti, 20, 43, 54, 55, 69, 105Artaxerxes II, 24, 47, 55, 117; III, 55Arya(n), 6, 14, 29, 86, 87, 94, 106Asha, see TruthAshawan (righteous), 44 et passimAshi, 64, 65, 66, 117, 130-35, 136, 137, 147,

155Asmo.xwanwant, 54Asto.widhatu, 70, 98, 166

Astwat.grata, 96Asura, 13-14, 45,46Atar, 59, 159-61. See also FireAthrawan, 8, 126Avatara, 81Avesta(n), 4, 6, 16,25,27-31

Baodhah,104, 115Bardiya, 48Barasman, 15, 79, 108, 129, 135, i37, 161Barssnum, 163, 170-73Beaver, 119, 130Benveniste, E., 58, 81Boar, 67, 74Boyce, M., 136Brahman, 8Brahmana, 8, 9, 21Brhaspati, 136, 178Buddha, 3Buddhism, 3Bushyasta, 70, 74

Camel(s), 42, 44, 83Chaos, 11-12Christ, 3Christianity, 3, 4, 6, 17Cinwat-bridge, 104, 136Cista, 73Corpses, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168Cosmic mountain, 11. See also KaraCosmic sea, 12. See also Wouru.kashaCosmogony, 10-11Cosmography, 11-12Cosmology, 9-12Cosmos, 11-12Covenant, 56ff., 160. See also Mithra

192

Index I 193

Cow(s), 7, 60, 63, 69, 83, 143, 155, 157, 158,176; Fashioner of, 18, 21; Lament of,35-39; Soul of, 18, 21; urine of, 164, 168

Creation, see CosmogonyCyrus the Great, 16, 18, 23, 48

Daena: religion, 66, 69, 115, 121, 131, 139;soul, 37, 38, 112, 115; vision, 37, 38, 41,43

Daewa, 5, 13-14, 21, 24, 37, 38, 44, 47, 51,65, 101, 103, 170

Dahaka(s), 158; Azhi, 81, 88, 92-93, 96, 99,122, 152

Daitya, 98Damoish Upamana, 66, 67, 74, 79Danus, 109Darius I, 4, 24, 44-51, 55; III, 17Daxma(s), 163, 167, 170Death, 104-5Denkard, 16, 26, 77Dominion (Xshathra), 20, 39, 54, 69, 136Drugwant(s), 40, 44 et passimDualism, 11-14, 19-20, 22, 163-64Dumezil, G.,78, 89

Earth, 43,70, 105, 107, 163, 179Entities, 19. See also Amasha SpantasEschatology, 22-23, 177

Falcon, 82, 84, 85, 91Falsehood, 13, 19ff., 24, 37. See also LieFire, 10, 15, 74, 89, 92-93, 159-61, 163,

164. See also AtarFire-worship, 3Frangrasyan, 88, 93-95, 123, 158Frashaoshtra, 18, 42Frawashi, 59, 66, 102-17, 147Free-will, 20, 40Funerary rites, 163, 166-68

Gaokarana, 54Gandarava, 91, 100Gathas, 16, 17, 27, 35-44, 135, 137, 157Gathic, 27Gaumata, 48Gaya Maratan, 113-14Gershevitch, 81Gnosticism, 3Good Mind (Wohu Manah), 20, 35, 38, 42,

43, 44, 54, 69, 92, 97, 156

Haecat.aspa, 17Haoma(Soma), 15, 21-22, 69, 132, 151-58Haoshyangha Paradhata, 90, 98, 122Haosrawah, 95, 100, 123Hapto.iringa, 111, 144Hara, HaraitI, 11, 65, 69, 122, 139Haurwatat, 20, 54, 69Hawanan, 69Heaven, 9-11, 43, 97, 105, 107, 135Herodotus, 14,24, 117, 118Hinduism, 4, 5, 21Holy Word (Mathra Spanta), 51, 54, 62, 79,

113, 115, 132, 139Horse(s), 42, 44, 60, 61, 64, 67, 73, 74, 83,

85, 93, 95, 99, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128,129, 130, 133, 139, 141-42, 143, 145^6,148, 158

Hospitality, 14-15Hotar, 17Hutaosa, 101Hwaraxshaeta, 9. See also SunHydrology (rivers, rain, snow melt, etc.), 7,

10, 11,57, 109, 110, 111, 117, 120,141^2, 144ff., 163

Hymns, 15

India, 7, 23Indo-Aryan(s), 4, 6, 9, 10Indo-European(s), 6, 7, 36, 39, 84Indo-Iranian(s), 4, 6, 8, 9, 15Indra, 12,21, 57,81, 136, 178Insight, 103Insler, S.,37,42Iran, 3, 5-6, 29Iranian: language, 5, 6, 25; people, 4, 6;

religion, 4, 5, 6, 26, 45Ishtar, 118Islam, 3, 30, 135, 136

Jamaspa, 18, 42, 125Jesus,5Judaism, 3, 22, 25Judge, 56, 76. See also Rashnu, Ratu

Karapan, 18Karshwar(s), 60, 66, 74, 95Kawi (Kavi), 18, 88, 94Kayadha,61,138Karssaspa, 82, 91, 100, 123, 152, 160Kingship, 8, 29, 48-51, 56, 88, 107, 175Kushan, 58

194 I Index

Lie, 40, 41, 44, 47, 48, 50, 68, 106, 112, 163.See also Falsehood

Lincoln, B., 36, 175Lommel, H., 119

Magus (Magi), 3, 8, 24, 25, 26, 29Mahabharata, 56Manichaeism, 3, 58Maruts, 105Media(n), 26, 29Menstruation, 162, 163, 169, 173-74Missionaries, 24ff.Mithra (Mitra, Mihr), 9, 10, 24, 47, 55-75,

86,91,97, 103, 105, 115, 136Monotheism, 19Moon, 42, 75, 106, 143Muhammad, 3

Nairya Sangha, 65, 137Nanghaithya, 21Naotarids, 101, 131, 134Nasatya, 21Nasks, 26, 154Nasu Druj, 162-64, 169, 171, 172Nature-mythology, 8-9Nebuchadrezzar, 48Nietzsche, F., 3Nirangistan, 27Noah's Ark, 5, 176Nomads, 6-7, 16Nyberg, H. S., 55

Old Persian, 26, 45Ordeals, 76, 79, 160Oxus, 49

Pahlavi, 26Pairikas, see WitchesParandi, 66, 147Parsis, 3, 50Pasturalism, 6, 7, 176-78Persia (Persis, Parsa), 26, 29, 50Plato, 3,17Pollution, 162-75Pourushaspa, 17, 121, 153Priest(hood), 8, 17-18, 69Purity, 162-75

Rajanya, 8Ramayana, 36

Rangha, 71Rashnu, 56, 64, 68, 71, 73, 75, 76-80, 86,

105, 133, 136Rathaeshta, 8. See also WarriorRatu, 38, 44, 55, 70, 137, 141, 148Renovation (Frasho.karaiti), 104, 111Rsi(s), 29Rudra-Shiva, 21

Sacrifice (yajna, yasna), 14-16, 21, 27, 37,87, 122, 150-51, 158, 159-61

Saoshyant(s), 22-23, 89, 90, 96, 106, 131SaraswatT, 119Sasanid, 26, 30Satawaesa, 97, 109, 141, 144Saurwa (Sharva), 21Schmidt, H-P., 37, 56Scythians, 24, 49Sexuality, 131, 134-35, 164Social organization, 7-8Sondergotter, 9Soul, 43, 104-5, 112. See also Ahu,

Baodhah, UrwanSpells, 47, 53,54, 61,86, 101, 102Spanta Mainyu, 19, 20, 36, 41, 43, 54, 58,

66, 92, 98, 105, 106, 108, 149Spies, 64Sraosha, 57, 65, 70, 77, 115, 131, 133,

135-40, 155Stars, 106, 111, 141-43, 147, 148. See also

Satawaesa, TishtryaSun, 9, 42, 58, 60, 75, 89, 106, 113

Taxma Urupi, 90, 99Thraetaona, 81, 91, 96, 100, 122, 124Thvorashtar, 36, 56. 58, 137TIr, 140, 142Tishtrya, 9, 75, 82, 97, 140-49Truth, 11-13, 19ff., 25, 35, 38, 42, 43, 44,

46, 69, 92, 136, 156, 163Turan, 22, 109, 124. See also FrangrasyanTvastr, 36Twins, 19, 22, 39-40Two Spirits, 39-40, 106, 113, 138, 153, 157

Urwan, 104-5

Varuna, 20, 41, 45-46, 55, 57,78-79Vasistha, 36, 41,45Vedas, 4, 29, 37, 45, 55, 105, 136, 150

Index I 195

Vendidad, 25, 26, 27, 162-75Visnu, 78, 81Visvamitra, 36Vrtra, 12,80-81, 143

Wara, 5, 176-78, 180-82Warfare, 7, 23, 36, 59, 60, 63, 64, 65, 71,

86, 103, 108, 110Warrior(s), 8, 42, 57, 103, 107Wata, 9, 10,81,97, 147Wayu, 9, 10, 81,.97-102, 104, 166Weapons, 53, 61, 63, 64, 70, 71, 72, 74, 110,

112, 139Warsthraghna, 66, 67, 80-88, 97Wlshtaspa, 18, 23, 36, 42, 50 (Darius'

father), 96, 101, 115, 128, 129, 131, 135Witches, 62, 141, 144, 147, 149Wohu Manah, see Good MindWomen, 7, 62, 95, 101, 120, 126, 132, 135,

157

Worship, see SacrificeWouru.kasha, 88, 93, 94, 103, 111, 120,

123, 141. 144ff., 163Wrath, 22. 38, 55, 74, 92, 137, 140, 156

Xerxes, 4, 24, 47,55, 117Xusrou I, 30Xwaranah, 58, 60, 66, 74, 82, 88-97, 103,

111, 147

Yashts, 27Yasna, 27. See also SacrificeYima (Yama), 5, 82. 88, 90-91, 99, 122,

152, 175-82

Zaotar, 17,21,69, 135Zarathushtra (Zoroaster), 3, 17ff., 23, 24,

25,35-44, 109,111, 114, 121, 134,136-37, 151

Zarathushtrianism, 4, 16ff., 25Zoroastrianism, 3, 4, 17, 23-26

William W. Malandra earned a B.A. in philosophyat Haverford College, an M.A. in religious studiesat Brown University, and his doctorate inIndo-Iranian studies at the University ofPennsylvania. He is an associate professor ofSouth Asian languages at the University ofMinnesota, where he also serves as chairman ofthe program in religious studies.

Documents

Malandra 1983 an Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion, Readings From the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions