Making silage Homemade silage fills feed gapss3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/media-aspermontlimited/...44 FARMING AHEAD No. 173 June 2006 Homemade silage fills feed gaps Producers

44 FARMING AHEAD No. 173 June 2006

Homemade silage fills feed gapsHomemade silage fills feed gaps

Producers are increasingly adopting silage to fill feed gaps, lift fertility and

finish livestock for target markets. But efficiency is the key to profitable

silage. This report examines the principles and benefits of making quality

silage, storage and feeding methods and how best to use them.

Producers are increasingly adopting silage to fill feed gaps, lift fertility and

finish livestock for target markets. But efficiency is the key to profitable

silage. This report examines the principles and benefits of making quality

silage, storage and feeding methods and how best to use them.

M a k i n g s i l a g eFl

eur

Mul

ler

Feeding livestock can account for up to halfa dairy enterprise’s operating costs and

impact significantly on profitability but beef,sheep and dairy producers making the move tosilage can save thousands of dollars annuallyby producing and storing silage on-farm.

During 2003–2004, Australian farmersmade more than three million tonnes ofsilage, an increase of one million tonnes overthe previous five years.

On average, 774t of hay or silage per farm is conserved, according to KondininGroup’s 2005 National Agricultural Survey,representing more than $77,000 worth of feedif valued at $100/t.

New South Wales, Victoria and Queenslandtogether produce more than 75 per cent of allsilage made in Australia (see Table 1).

Dairy farmers traditionally have been thelargest users of silage but many beef and sheep producers also have adopted silage to conserve feed for periods of pasture deficit, lift animal production,increase enterprise flexibility and improvemarketing opportunities.

New technology, increased storage optionsand more efficient machinery for making andfeeding silage have seen its popularity grow.

But silage is more expensive to producethan hay due partly to its lower level of dry

matter and can cost $30–$140/t, dependingon the harvesting system, storage method,machinery age, labour and feedout costs.

Role of silage

Silage is a valuable feed source providedquality is high and waste is low.

It is a way to save excess pasture for useduring feed gaps but it can be costly, soproducers first need to define enterprise goalsand how silage will be used (see Table 2).

Silage can be used in production feeding(opportunity feedlotting), supplementaryfeeding (filling feed gaps, during lactation,growing out weaners, managing bloat-riskpastures), drought feeding (to maintain herd fertility) and pasture management(maintaining pasture quality and controllingherbicide-resistant weeds).

While silage production has increased haystill dominates on-farm fodder productionwith more than $1.2 billion producedAustralia-wide during 2003 (see Figure 1).

Fodder boost: Feeding lambing ewes silage is one

way to boost their protein intake when green feed

is scarce.

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Producers need to consider the differencesbetween hay and silage in terms of quality,production, storage and marketability.

Quality at stakeHay and silage produced on-farm can vary

widely in quality due to the managementsystem in use, plant maturity, weather, lengthof harvest and storage method.

Silage is generally higher quality than hay(see Table 3, page 46) because it is harvestedwhen plants are at their peak, it is lessweather-dependent, has a shorter wiltingperiod and is less likely to be spoilt by rainfall.Digestibility (metabolisable energy) and crude protein levels also tend to be higher.Silage’s higher moisture content can reduceleaf shatter during pick-up.

Compared with hay, silage production cancontrol annual weeds with early cuttingtimes, increase pasture regrowth and can beused to manipulate pasture composition.

MarketabilityBut hay is more easily traded and moved

than silage. Its higher dry matter contentmakes it cheaper to transport and retains itsquality, whereas silage’s high moisturecontent increases transport costs per tonne ofdry matter and it deteriorates when exposedto air.

Individually wrapped silage can be sold but ensure the plastic seal is not damagedduring transport.

Silage can be sold directly from thepaddock as standing feed, freshly cut or baledfodder to be ensiled or wrapped on the buyer’s

property provided the buyer is nearby to avoidprohibitive transport costs.

Silage sales are best made on an energybasis or at the least on dry matter content.Moisture content and quality will affect thedelivered product’s final cost dramatically.

For example, if 200t of silage at ninemegajoules of metabolisable energy perkilogram of dry matter is increased to 10MJME/kg DM, it could potentially produce anextra $5500–$6500 in milk.

In terms of sheep, a study of crossbredlambs showed lifting metabolisable energyvalues 0.6MJ ME/kg DM by adding 25%barley in rations increased liveweight gain per tonne of feed by 39kg. This equates to anextra $96/t DM. Productivity gains in beefcattle also can be significant.

Long-term storageWell-made silage stored correctly without

air or water penetration will maintain qualityfor years with little loss in dry matter.

While quality pasture hay is competitivewith silage in the short term it is noteconomical for long-term storage as droughtreserves due to its rapid quality declinewithout weather protection.

M a k i n g s i l a g e R e s e a r c h R e p o r t

• High-quality silage is a valuable

feed for livestock, used in

supplementary and production

feeding, as drought reserves and as

a pasture management tool.

• The most popular method of storing

silage is in bulk (pits and bunkers)

followed by wrapped bales.

• Consider how silage will be used in

the operation and the labour and

machinery required to determine its

cost-effectiveness.

• Aim to produce silage with at least

10 megajoules of metabolisable

energy per kilogram of dry matter.

• Cut crops and pastures at the

correct growth stage to maximise

fodder quality.

• Ensile at the correct dry matter level

of 30–45 per cent for chopped

silage and 35–50% for bales to

reduce losses during fermentation.

Test dry matter level using the grab

test or a microwave oven.

• Inoculants and additives improve

silage quality and storage life as

well as animal liveweight gains.

• Reduce feedout losses by feeding

small quantities regularly, replacing

plastic over the pit or stack

promptly and planning a feedout

system that reduces animal

spoilage and waste.

A t a g l a n c e

1998–1999 1999–2000 2000–2001 2001–2002 2002–2003 2003–2004

10,000

5000

0

‘000

tonn

es

Year

Hay Silage

FIGURE 1 Australian hay and silage production

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

State 2002 2003

New South Wales 756,886 608,764

Victoria 1,082,991 958,636

Queensland 415,084 370,147

South Australia 222,279 129,628

Western Australia 234,112 244,687

Tasmania 253,191 237,508

Northern Territory 1000 0Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

TABLE 1 Silage production (tonnes)

Silage use Dairy Beef Lamb Wool

Improve animal product quality or market compliance X XXX XXX XX

Supply out-of-season product XXX XXX XXX

Access to new markets X XXX XXX X

Develop complementary enterprises X XXX XXX X

Increase stocking rate XXX XXX XXX XX

Supplement to increase production per head XXX XXX XXX X

Change calving or lambing time XX XX XX XX

Improve weaner survival or growth of replacement animals X XX X XX

Drought or flood reserve XX XX XX XX

Improve pasture management and use XXX XXX XXX XX

Weed management and control X XX XX XX

Reduce dependence on irrigation XXX X X X

Reduce dependence on purchased feed XXX XX X X

Legend: XXX = very important; XX = moderately important; X = important on some farms. Source: A.G. Kaiser, J.W. Piltz, H.M. Burns and N.W. Griffiths, NSW DPI and Dairy Australia.

TABLE 2 Role of silage in livestock enterprises

45FARMING AHEAD No. 173 June 2006

Hay in sheds loses 4–9% of total dry matterwithin one year and a further 2–5% duringthe second year.

Quality continues to decline in subsequentyears even without damage from rodents,weather, fire or leaking roofs.

Hay stored in the open in moderate-rainfallareas will lose 25–30% dry matter annually.

Drought reservesSilage can be cost-effective if extra quantities

are made for long-term drought storage at thesame time as short-term supplies.

Quality silage is cheaper to produce andfeed during drought than buying higher-priced fodder (see Table 4). High-qualitysilage can be used for livestock production

R e s e a r c h R e p o r t M a k i n g s i l a g e

46

Wrapped bales: New machinery and technology

has made wrapped square bale silage increasingly

popular on Australian farms.

Stacked: Hay is less cost-efficient as silage

when stored as a long-term drought reserve.

Dry matter losses of 25–30 per cent can occur if left

unprotected in moderate-rainfall areas.

Time to dry: Hay can be more weather-prone than

silage as it needs longer to dry to reach the correct

moisture content for baling. The maximum drying

time for silage is 48 hours.

Fodder type Dry matter digestibility Crude protein Metabolisable energy (%) (%) (MJ/kg DM)

Silage

Legume 67.0 (mean); 48.4–82.8 (range) 20.2; 10.5–31.4 10.1; 7.7–12.4

Legume–grass 68.7; 49.3–80.2 15.5; 9.5–25.9 10.4, 7.8–12.0

Grass 70.8; 57.4–79.9 16.0; 7.6–26.9 10.7; 8.2–11.9

Maize 74.0; 61.6–80.9 8.1; 5.9–20.3 11.0; 9.0–12.3

Cereal 64.0; 49.2–84.4 10.0; 5.8–17.7 9.7; 7.8–12.5

Hay

Lucerne 65.0; 37.8–79.0 20.2; 6.1–28.1 9.5; 5.0–12.0

Oaten 58.7; 34.1–85.9 7.2; 1.2–23.1 8.5; 4.2–13.2

Legume 63.2; 37.8–83.2 19.0; 4.0–28.1 9.2; 5.0–12.7

Grass 59.7; 47.4–70.1 9.0; 1.9–15.8 8.7; 6.5–10.4

Results of FeedTest records (August 2005–February 2006). Source: FeedTest, DPI Victoria. Derived from client samples reproduced to show the range in quality that can occur for given products..

TABLE 3 Feed quality for silage and hay

Metabolisable energy of silage (MJ/kg DM)1 7 8.5 10

Metabolisable energy requirement (MJ/cow/day) 53 51 49

Daily dry matter requirement (kg/cow) 7.6 6.0 4.9

Total forage to be harvested (t DM)2 160 126 103

Silage production costs (at $55/t DM) 8800 6930 5665

Interest on silage (at 7%/year for three years)3 1848 1455 1190

Feedout costs (at $15/t DM) 2040 1605 1305

Total production and feeding costs $12,688 $9900 $8160

* Based on 100 non-pregnant dry cows 450kg liveweight fed for six months at maintenance.

1. Protein supply is adequate. Cows on low-quality silage might not consume sufficient dry matter tomaintain weight. 2 .A total of 15% conservation (including feedout) losses. 3. Producers will regularlyturn over their fodder reserve with an average storage period of three years. Source: Alan Kaiser, NSW DPI.

TABLE 4 Effects of silage quality on drought feeding costs*

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and maintenance during drought but lower quality silage might only sustainmaintenance unless a high-energy, high-costfeed source is added.

Conservation costs and feedout costs per unit of energy will be higher for poor-quality silage.

Cost of production To obtain maximum benefit from silage

producers need to decide on the roles of silagein their system (pasture management, class oflivestock to be fed, production, maintenanceor drought feeding, targeting new markets).

Aim for high-quality silage to maximise the cost efficiencies of producing and feeding silage.

Generally, direct chopped systems are thecheapest and wrapped round bales are themost expensive.

Costs will depend on the system used,machinery age and crop type. Other factorsinclude labour costs, tractor operating hoursand hourly work rate, fodder growing costs,harvest, storage and feedout costs and losses.

Precision chopped silage especially directchopped crops such as maize and foragesorghum have no mowing or raking costs.

Wrapped silage can cost more to producethan precision chopped silage for the sameamount of conserved material.

See Table 5 for current contract rates formaking silage.


Euberta, New South Wales, dairy farmers Ken, Thelma, Neil and Simone

Jolliffe have saved about $16,000 in feedcosts since reintroducing silage.

During 2005, the Jolliffe family producedmore than 1200 tonnes of chopped silageon-farm, which they hope to increase to1800t during 2006. This will make them self-sufficient in fodder with grain the onlyfeed they buy for the 240-head Holsteinmilking herd.

The Jolliffes said the silage cost $25/t ofdry matter to produce plus $2/t for inoculantand $8/t in machinery. Buying silage wouldcost about $30/t plus transport.

First system

The Jolliffes first made silage about 10 years ago when they had surpluspasture following an above-average spring. Round bales were ensiled using a stretchwrap tubeline system, whichproduced quality silage but was expensivefor large quantities, labour intensive andplastic disposal was an issue.

The family formed a syndicate withneighbouring producers to pool equipmentand labour to make silage on each other’s properties. But the syndicate wasabandoned after deregulation.

Needing a ready supply of quality feed tomaintain milk production during dry periods,the Jolliffes returned to silage making.

Silage production

The Jolliffes used an existing foragewagon (bought during 2002 for $66,000) to make chopped fodder, which is stored in above-ground stacks. The stacks areconvenient and cost-effective for largeamounts of silage.

During 2005, the Jolliffes cut lucerneoversown with Graza oats at 40 kilogramsper hectare and Graza oats sown with short-term ryegrass and wilted it to 30–40 per centdry matter before harvesting.

During 2006, permanent pastures (clover,ryegrass and phalaris) and lucerne–oat andoat–ryegrass pastures will be cut to bulk upproduction and improve digestibility.

Forward planning is essential to ensurestacks are made and sealed quickly and atthe correct dry matter. The Jolliffes use amicrowave to monitor the wilting processand measure forage dry matter beforeharvest. Inoculants are sprayed onto thefodder as it enters the wagon when ensilingconditions are not ideal.

Chopped fodder (about 40 millimetreslong) is rolled, covered with plastic and alayer of tyres seals the stack airtight. Up to10% of silage is wasted due to spoilage,particularly on stack edges where rolling ismore difficult.

Stacks are checked regularly for holesfrom machinery, mice, birds or feral cats. Any damage is repaired quickly to prevent spoilage.

Feeding out

Silage is supplementary fed during theautumn feed gap via self-feeders.

Because cows need 5.5 megajoules ofenergy for every litre of milk produced, they have unlimited access to the silage.During 2005, average milk production was7700L/cow/lactation.

The self-feeders are filled regularly usinga Dieci telehandler and a silage grab. The telehandler replaced a tractor withloader bucket and has halved feedouttimes. Feedout costs are about $5/t. The Jolliffes plan to build a feed pad tostreamline operations.

Testing for quality

During 2005, FeedTest showed silage had8MJ of metabolisable energy/kg DM but fibrelevels were too high. As a result, the Jolliffeswill cut crops earlier this season to reducefibre content and improve digestibility.

If an above-average spring is recorded, thefamily will make large square bale silage tobe stored underground as drought reserves.

Farmers

Ken, Thelma, Neil andSimone Jolliffe

Location

Euberta, New South Wales

Property size

360ha (60ha irrigated)

Enterprise

Holstein dairy

Annual rainfall

550mm

Farm information

Save with silage: The Jolliffe family is making

significant savings on feed at their Euberta,

New South Wales, dairy property by reintroducing

silage production.

Cheaper to make silage than buy extra feed

Wrapped silage

Round bales $8–$13 each

Large square bales $15–$20 each, depending on size.

Mowing $37–$49/ha

Raking $20–$29/ha

Round bale wrapped $11 (can depend on number of wraps)

Square bales wrapped 1.8x1.2x0.9m: $15 1.8x0.9x0.9m: $12.50

Tube–sock system $10 per square bale

Forage harvested silage

Forage harvesting $23–$24/t DM$5.30/hour

Truck carting $14/t DM$90/hour

Rolling bunker $7.50–$8.50/t DM$110/hour

Inoculant $5–$9/t DM, $0.30/tto apply

Plastic $1/m2

* Prices vary depending on the area to beharvested, fuel prices and travel distance.Source: Kondinin Group.

TABLE 5 Contract rates*



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Incorporating silage into feed rations hasmeant Condamine, Queensland, beef

producers Godfrey and Spencer Morgannow can retain and finish cull cows duringdry periods for higher returns.

The Morgans have produced silage since the mid-1990s for their 1200-headShorthorn herd.

Although initially used as droughtreserves, silage is now used to fill autumnand spring feed gaps, finish cull females androutinely feed animals at weaning.

Better marketability

Using silage means cull females can befed a ration for finishing before sale whereaspreviously they were sold in store conditionto save limited feed resources for breeders,steers and bulls.

As a result, the Morgans have morecontrol over when cull animals are marketed to achieve higher prices, as pricepremiums are achieved by selling a morefinished animal.

Along with these liveweight gains that paytheir way for the cost of producing silage,increasing the value of cull animals that cost the same to breed as males is also asignificant benefit.

Silage production

The Morgans produce 3000–4000 tonnesof chopped silage a year from 150–250hectares sown with Pioneer Mega Sweet, a sweet forage sorghum specifically forsilage production.

Contractors harvest the crop, which is cutdirectly into trucks and rolled to remove airbefore sealing with plastic. The operationtakes several days with silage costing about$247/ha to produce and about $18/t tostore, depending on yield.

Storing feed

Silage is stored as covered stacks and ina bunker for long-term storage. The bunkerwas expensive to build with scrapers and agravel floor (costing $10/t of feed stored).

But the Morgans prefer to use the stacksas removing silage with a front-end loaderbucket is easier and disturbs the face less,while side access enables a day’s feedsupply to be shaved off.

There have been no significant problemswith plastic ripping, deteriorating or vermindamage in either the bunker or stacks.

Inoculants and testing

During 2006, the Morgans also appliedthe inoculant Ensile at chopping to improvesilage quality and reduce speed ofdeterioration of opened stacks by 3–4 days.

Ensile costs about an extra $3/t of drymatter compared with other inoculants.

Yearly FeedTest results show the silageaverages at about 10 megajoules ofmetabolisable energy and 9–10 per centcrude protein.

Feedout method

The Morgans initially used an old truckmounted with an auger to trail silage onto the ground under a single hot wire.

This was cheap and effective for droughtfeeding but inefficient for productionfeeding, so silage is now fed out using an RMH 420 mixer bought during 2004 for $60,000.

The mixer holds 4t of silage and grain andquickly transfers a formulated ration intolong cement troughs.

Feeding silage to bulls

As part of their 400-head seedstockoperation the Morgans sell about 90Shorthorn bulls annually.

Bulls are prepared on a daily ration of25kg silage, 1.5kg of barley and 1kg ofcottonseed during the feed gap of foragesorghum before going onto oats.

Because the bulls were fed silage atweaning they adapt to the ration quickly.

Improving cow production

Cull cows are fed about 50% grain and50% silage for various periods dependingon their condition score.

The ration can be manipulated to changeanimal performance, for example, some cull animals only need to gain 30–50kgliveweight to meet specifications.

Farmers

Godfrey and SpencerMorgan

Location

Condamine, Queensland

Property size

6000ha

Enterprises

Beef (commercial andseedstock), wheat

Annual rainfall

600mm

Farm information

Silage offers flexibility in finishing cattle


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More storage choices lift flexibility


With producers conserving about 774tonnes of silage and hay each year to

cater for low pasture seasons and feedingflexibility, how silage in particular is storedhas become vital.

According to a dairy industry review from1990–2002, the most popular storage methodis bulk chopped silage stored in bunkers orpits, followed by wrapped bales.

For either method, using correct harvestingand storage principles will prevent significantlosses in dry matter and quality.

Sealing fodder quickly after harvest isessential and will help maintain anaerobicconditions until feeding starts.

Forage harvested silageProducers who make large amounts of

silage annually often choose chopped silagesystems for the ability to handle and storesilage in bulk in stacks and bunkers aboveground or in underground pits.

Depending on crop type and machineryavailability, silage is chopped in the paddockfrom a standing crop or picked up frommown windrows. It can be stored for long- orshort-term use.

Storing in stacksChopped silage can be stored in the short

term as stacks, which allows for self-feeding. Stacks are simple and cheap to build.

Dump the silage on the ground and roll it with a tractor to remove air. Cover withplastic and bury the plastic edges then place alayer of tyres (touching each other) on top ofthe plastic to ensure an airtight seal.

Locate the stack conveniently, either nearwhere the silage is cut or where livestock are fed.

Form stacks by filling from one end orbuilding layers of silage over the length of thestack. Use tractor buckets, forks and blades to spread the material and shape the stack.

Take care when rolling to prevent tractorrollovers and do not build the stack too high,especially where there are no soil side-walls.

Bunker storageAnother storage method is rectangular

bunkers. These are similar to stacks but withpermanent walls at 1.5–2 metres high made ofconcrete, wood or steel.

Bunkers can be open at one or both endsand are commonly found where largeamounts of silage are produced or where soilconditions are unsuitable for undergroundstorage. Construction costs vary dependingon materials (concrete, timber, earth, steel).

Bunkers have lower plastic costs comparedwith above-ground stacks and can be adaptedfor self-feeding if they can be accessed fromboth ends to provide enough silage face.

Achieving an airtight seal can be moredifficult. If the top of the stack finishes belowthe tops of the walls, water and air mightenter the stack along the wall edges. Build the

stack in a concave shape so the sides arehigher than the middle to improve sealing.Install a strong pipe and rail system to the topof the walls to prevent tractor wheels slippingover the edge and to meet safety regulations.

Underground pitsSilage can be stored underground in pits

for extended periods. Pits are relatively cheapto build and are effective for drought storage.

Pits are usually dug into the side of a slopealthough some flat areas could be suitable butnot if rising watertables or surface water are aproblem. Using hillsides can reduce plasticcosts and if the base of the pit is solid, self-feeding with 24-hour access during dryweather is possible.

After filling the pit and compacting theforage, cover with plastic, followed by a 300-millimetre deep layer of dirt to exclude air (if long-term storage is required), then a tyre layer. A plastic cover prevents dirtcontaminating the silage and seals against air

Australian farmers favour storing silage in bulk in bunkers and pits but wrapped bales are also a popular option.

The best storage system for each farm depends on the way silage is to be used, available equipment and labour,

personal preference and feedout systems.

Bunkers: One storage option is a bunker, which has permanent walls often made of concrete and must

have a strong pipe and rail system attached to the top of the wall to prevent tractor rollovers.

Be careful: Individually wrapped bales are more

suited to short-term storage as the plastic starts to

deteriorate after 12 months.

Square bales: Silage stored as square bales can be

wrapped with plastic stretch film in a continuous

line. The system can save up to 30–40 per cent on

plastic compared with wrapping bales individually.

Silage plastic: Used silage plastic can be difficult to

dispose of but can be recycled provided producers

take care to keep dirt, bale twine and other

contaminants out when stockpiling the plastic.



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and water. When the pit is empty the floorcould need re-levelling and debris removedbefore refilling.

Stretch tubesThe stretchable tube or sock system suits

a range of silage types including wilted,chopped forage, maize silage and high-moisture grain and can be used for roundbales with the correct equipment.

Chopped or baled forage is forced into aheavyweight plastic bag and the end tied to prevent air entry. The bags range from50–150 metres long, so different batches ofsilage can be stored separately.

The system suits short-term storage (up tothree years) as rodents can chew holes in theplastic at ground level, particularly if thesilage contains grain.

Bales popularBaled silage is becoming more popular as

better plastics and new harvesting, baling andwrapping equipment have become available.

Baled silage can be stored individually or in groups above and below ground either asround or square bales.

Large square and round bales can bestacked under plastic. Round bales can bestored in single, double or triple rows(sausage) or stacked in groups on their ends.Square bales are easily stored 2–3 bales highin stacks or modules.

Storing bales in bulk can be less expensivethan individually wrapped or bagged balesand no specialised equipment is needed.

But quality decline is an issue with roundbales as large amounts of air can remainaround the bales due to their shape.

Stacks need to be used quickly whenopened to reduce spoilage. Design stacks so amodule of round bales contains only enoughfeed for 5–7 days but up to 2–3 weeks for largesquare bales. Ensure all plastic edges are well sealed by burying them 200–300mm intothe ground. Fold and bury excess plastic onmodule corners.

Plastic is available in 50m rolls of 6m, 10m,12m, 15m, 18m and 30m widths. A 6m rollcosts about $300.

Stretchwrapped bales Machinery is now available that can wrap

a continuous line of round or square bales in plastic stretch film, known as stretch-wrapping or line-wrapping. Although themachinery is expensive and bales need to bemoved to the baler to be wrapped, up to 30–40per cent can be saved on plastic costs.

Anew tubeline silage wrapper hasimproved silage quality and reduced

storage losses for Borambola, New SouthWales, farmers David and Chris Snowden.

The Snowdens, who run a 110-headmilking herd and 180 Angus and Angus-Holstein breeders, have tried various silageproduction systems including choppedsilage in bunkers and plastic-covered stacksof square bales but found silage becamemouldy as air entered the storage despiteefforts to achieve an airtight seal.

Their solution was tubewrapping.Although production costs including allmachinery and labour are estimated at $100 per tonne of dry matter — far moreexpensive than other systems used —tubewrapping produces better quality silageand the time between baling and coveringthe bales is reduced. It also enables theSnowdens to make silage earlier in theseason when it is not hot enough for

Farmers

David and Chris Snowden

Location

Borambola, New South Wales

Property size

577ha (44ha irrigated)

Enterprises

Dairy and beef cattle, cerealgrain, irrigated lucerne hay

Annual rainfall

600mm

Farm informationhaymaking and some pasture regrowth ispossible before summer.

New silage system

The Snowdens bought the tubelinewrapper during 2005 for $68,000 as it suitedtheir existing large square baler and othersilage equipment. The machine wraps largesquare or round bales using stretchwrapplastic, sealing them tightly in a longsausage. This system minimises air trapsbetween bales, reducing the risk of mould.Some silage already has been fed and withfew mould problems.

The main drawbacks are the time neededto check bales for possible damage frombirds, mice and hail.

Despite the large initial outlay theSnowdens believe the improved silagequality and reduced waste will make iteconomical in the long term. Contract workwill also help recover costs.

Making silage

Since buying the wrapper the Snowdenshave made more than 1100 bales(1.8x0.9x0.9 metres each) for on-farm useand wrapped 1200 bales for neighbours.The bales are brought to the machine andfed crossways two-high into the machine,which automatically moves, wraps and stopsready for the next two bales. The wrapperapplies nine layers of plastic, which extendstorage life to two years.

During the past four years the Snowdenshave established more than 243 hectares of permanent pasture with a mix of clover,lucerne, fescue, phalaris and chicory.

Despite dry years, about 160ha (includingextra hay cuts) has been cut for both silage and hay. Fodder is cut with a mower

Tubewrap: Chris and David Snowden are happy with

the improved silage quality using a tubeline wrapper.

conditioner and then wilted for 24–48 hours to achieve 45–-50 per cent dry matter before baling.

Feeding silage

The Snowdens use silage during feed gaps such as autumn. Bales are fed out via self-feeders or a square bale feeder. A secondhand bale feeder (costing $10,000)can transport up to three square bales and trails the silage on the ground afterseparating bales into smaller pieces.

Calving starts during late autumn and beefcows are fed silage to maintain conditionduring lactation. Angus cattle are yard-weaned during autumn and fed silage until theautumn break to maintain growth or for oldersteers to reach target weights. Angus steersare grown out to 500 kilograms for feedlots,while Angus–Holstein and Holstein steers aresold over the hook at 600kg.

When paddock feed is scarce, silage helpsmaintain dairy herd milk production — milktarget is one litre per kilogram dry matter.During 2005, the herd averaged 8300L/cow at3.8% fat and 3.3% protein.


Tubewrapping saves time, lifts quality

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Bales need to be uniform to reduce airpockets between bales and to avoid over-stretching the plastic. Square bales are usuallystacked two high before wrapping. Use atleast four layers of plastic on each bale with a75% overlap to store bales for 12 months.

Stretchable tubes Round and square bales can be stored in a

plastic tube or sock, which stretches an extra15% of its size to allow 23–35 bales to bestacked inside.

Bales can be stored for 2–3 years due to the stronger plastic and storage losses aregenerally low. For best results use similar-sized bales to minimise trapped air.

Specialised equipment is needed to placebales into the sock and, like the line-wrappedbales, each bale has to be moved to thestationary machine.

Bales suit pits tooBoth round and square bales can be stored

long-term in pits. Round bales can be laid ontheir side and stacked 2–4 high but could losetheir shape during storage, making feedoutmore difficult.

The shape and density of large square balesare ideal for pit storage but pits need to bedivided into smaller airtight compartments toavoid air entering the entire stack when theseal is opened. Cover bales with plastic andthen a layer of tyres or dirt to achieveanaerobic conditions.

Wrapped balesRound and square bales can be wrapped

individually using stretchwrap film for anairtight seal. This restricts any spoilage to onebale rather than a section of a pit or bunker.

High plastic and wrapping costs mean thisis the most expensive storage system but isalso the most flexible for handling, storingand feeding out. Producers can extendstorage life from 12 months to up to two yearsby applying two extra layers of plastic.

Bales need to be tight and uniformlyshaped to make wrapping more efficient andto reduce air pockets. Wrap immediately afterbaling and apply at least four layers of plasticwith a 50% overlap to prevent air penetration.Do not stretch the plastic by more than 55%.

Only wrap during dry weather as layers ofwet film do not adhere well.

Stretchwrap costs $89 for a 1500m-long and500mm-wide roll or $128 for 750mm wide.

Handling and storageHandle wrapped bales carefully to avoid

breaking the airtight seal. Store wrappedround bales on their end so the maximumnumber of plastic layers protect againstultraviolet sunlight and sharp objects on theground. This also reduces the risk of balesslumping. Store bales away from trees andfencelines and ensure livestock are excluded.

Plastic humming wires, tyres on bales and painting eyes on the end of bales candeter birds from damaging plastic wrapping.Keep the area bare of vegetation to reduce therisk of vermin.

Quality plasticBuy plastics suited to Australian conditions

and which contain ultraviolet protectant. Plastic for covering bunkers and stacks is

generally made of two plastic sheets (white andblack) laminated together for extra strength.Place the white side up to reflect heat.

Plastic sheets are durable but can bedamaged by machinery, animals and vermin.Builder’s plastic is not recommended unlessit is covered with soil.

Stretchwrap film is 25 microns thick and is available in 500mm and 750mm widths. Green, white and black plastics are available.Lighter colours absorb less heat, which candamage outer silage layers.

Pre-stretched products, usually 480mm or730mm wide, increase efficiency but requireparticular gearing for the wrapper. It alsocontains a tacky substance to stick the layerstogether when wrapping. Stretchwrap lastsfor 12 months with careful handling. Store unused rolls out of direct sunlight.

Damaged plasticCheck bales regularly for damage.

Consider rewrapping damaged bales iffeeding time is a few months away.

Patch damaged plastic immediately usingthe correct silage tape (duct tape will fall off

or disintegrate). Apply a patch of a similarcolour to the film to clean, dry and coolplastic, this ensures they will contract andexpand at the same rate. Feedout patchedbales first to minimise spoilage losses.

The correct disposal of used plastic can bean issue as burning on-farm is illegal andburying is undesirable, as the plastic lastsmany years in the soil before decomposition.

Disposal at the local landfill might bepossible but costly. Some companies recycleused agricultural plastics but ensure there areno contaminants such as dirt, hay, nylonnetting and hay bands in the plastic. Take carewhen unwrapping and stockpiling the plastic.

Stack it up: Silage can be stored in stacks of round bales under plastic but it can be difficult to achieve and

maintain quality due to the large amounts of air that can be trapped under the plastic. Inset: Stacks or buns

can be made at locations convenient to where fodder is harvested or where animals will be fed. Used tyres

apply sufficient weight to the surface of bulk storages to achieve an effective seal.

Stretchable tube: Forage is compacted as it is

forced into a heavyweight plastic bag for storage.


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Quality drives animal productivity



Producers can save $15 per tonne of drymatter by producing high-quality silage

and reducing storage and feedout losses,according to the Topfodder Silage programme.

High-quality silage costs the same toproduce as poor-quality silage. But high-quality silage can increase stocking rates,grow out weaners, supplement and finishyoung animals or be fed during lactation.

Poor-quality silage has few uses, might need other supplements to boost animalproduction when fed and can pose animalhealth risks if quality is very low.

The original green crop, when and howwell it is made and storage conditionsdetermine silage quality. Harvesting at thecorrect growth stage and dry matter levels,rapid wilting, effective compaction andairtight sealing are critical.

Losses from mowing to sealing in a well-managed silage system are less than 5–8 percent. But dry matter losses are high whendrying conditions are poor, if forage is over-dried or in a poorly managed system.

Quality is the keyAim to produce silage with metabolisable

energy levels higher than 10 megajoules perkilogram of dry matter as metabolisableenergy content mainly determines potentialliveweight gain per tonne of silage fed.

Animal responses to silages withmetabolisable energy levels lower than8.5MJ/kg DM are unlikely to cover productioncosts and might only maintain animals. A one unit increase in silage metabolisableenergy can boost milk production by morethan 1000 litres/t DM or steer liveweight gainby more than 48kg/t DM.

Start with qualityFeed value of the parent forage cannot be

improved during ensiling, so cutting at the

correct growth stage maximises fodderquality. Cut spring pastures 3–4 weeks beforethe typical hay-making period. Some forageyield will be sacrificed but pastures mightregrow if cut early enough (see Table 6).

Any delay in cutting forage reduces silagequality as digestibility, protein and energydecline as plants mature (see Table 7).Legume quality declines more slowly withmaturity than in grasses. In mixed pasturesuse grass maturity to guide cutting decisions.

Plant maturity also affects water-solublecarbohydrate content. During ensiling lactic acidbacteria ferment water-soluble carbohydrates,impacting on fermentation efficiency.

Both plant species and growth stage atcutting affect water-soluble carbohydrate;temperate legumes, tropical grasses andtropical legumes have lower water-solublecarbohydrate than temperate grasses such ascereal crops.

Wilting and silage additives can improvefermentation if water-soluble carbohydrate is low.

Buffering capacityBecause some plants have buffers that

resist acidification during fermentation,bacteria need to produce more lactic acid tolower silage pH for effective preservation.

Forages differ in their buffering capacityand water-soluble carbohydrate content.Forages with high to medium sugar contentand low buffering capacity such as sweetsorghums are easiest to ensile.

Poor fermentation is more likely whencrops such as lucerne with low sugar levelsand high buffering capacities are ensiled.One solution is to wilt rapidly to the desireddry matter.

Wilting foragesProducers can achieve the correct dry

matter content by removing excess moistureby wilting forages before harvesting or baling.

Ensile pit or stack silage at 30–45% drymatter to improve fermentation and maintainquality and quantity.

Wilt material to 35–50% dry matter forbaling. Wilting increases the concentration ofwater-soluble carbohydrate in the crop andreduces the amount of material to cart fromthe paddock. Wilting crops with very low levels of water-soluble carbohydrate such assome legumes and tropical grasses might not concentrate water-soluble carbohydrateenough for successful ensiling. But reducing

Producing silage with a high metabolisable energy content can lead to improved animal liveweight gains. Starting with

quality crops and ensiling at the correct growth stage are the foundations to making the best silage.

Crop quality: Maize is a high-yielding, high-energy

fodder crop suited to direct harvest for pit or

bunker silage.

Forage type Time of cut Management

Temperate pastures WiltGrass-dominant Early ear emergence or before stem elongation WiltLegume-dominant Vegetative or early flowering Wilt

Kikuyu pasture Leafy, 25–35 days’ growth Wilt

Tropical pasture Before ear emergence when short and leafy Wilt

Lucerne Bud to first flower Wilt

Legume forage crop Vegetative or early flowering Wilt

Whole crop winter cereals Boot to soft dough stage Boot: yes; dough: no

Winter cereal or legume Boot to dough stage for cereal component Wilt

Japanese millet Vegetative Wilt

Pearl millet Vegetative at about 1m Wilt

Forage sorghums Vegetative at about 1m Wilt

Sweet sorghum When in head. Milk to dough stage but this is flexible Direct cut

Grain sorghum Soft dough stage (determined halfway down Direct cutthe seed head)

Maize At half milk line stage of grain development Direct cut(milk line score = 2.5)

Source: Alan Kaiser, NSW DPI.

TABLE 6 Growth stage for cutting high-quality silage from fodder crops


moisture levels in forage will preventundesirable bacteria such as clostridia fromdominating fermentation. Bacteria stopoperating when forage reaches 35% dry matter.

Forage harvested at dry matter levels less than 30% can lose 4–6% of its dry matterin effluent, which is a potential waterpollutant. The wetter the silage, the moreeffluent produced.

Excessively dry forage also causes drymatter and quality losses due to mechanicaldamage during harvest and poor compaction(dry forage is difficult to compact). Air pocketsfrom poor compaction increase the risk ofmould and fungi.

Ensile legume and tropical grasses atslightly higher dry matter than temperategrasses because of their low water-solublecarbohydrate. Longer chopped material(cereals and grasses) needs more moisture toensure better compaction and air exclusion.

Precision chopped material can be harvestedat drier contents because shorter material canbe better compacted than longer material suchas that harvested by a loader wagon.

Length of wiltLong wilting periods substantially reduce

silage metabolisable energy and protein levels. When forage is cut plant enzymes

continue to use water-soluble carbohydrates

for respiration and break down plant proteinsuntil anaerobic and low pH conditions stopenzyme activity.

A forage that takes four days to reach 40%dry matter can lose about 10% dry matter.Losses can be halved if wilting is achieved inone day.

Dry matter targetsHow quickly the target dry matter is

reached depends on weather conditions, crop type, mechanical treatment and yield.Overcast or wet weather slows wilting.

The best time to mow is during themorning after dew has lifted, which ensuresplant sugar levels are rising and there isenough drying time. Direct sunlight increasesthe wilting rate and is more important thanplant sugar levels. If high temperatures areforecast, mowing in the afternoon to capturethe extra sugars is acceptable.

Use a mower conditioner and make widewindrows, spreading forage immediatelyafter mowing with a tedder rake for fasterwilting (up to 35% faster drying rates witheither a mower conditioner or tedder rake and up to 65% when combining both).

Wide mowers that cut a lot of herbage andcreate a dense windrow can make wiltingdifficult, as only the surface material dries.

Calculating dry matterEstimate dry matter using the squeeze or

microwave oven test.

Wilting: Many crops need to be wilted before

harvest. The maximum length of wilting

recommended is 48 hours to prevent dry matter

and energy losses.

Cutting fodder: To maximise silage digestibility,

protein and energy levels, cut fodder crops and

pastures at the correct growth stage (check using

the grab or microwave oven test).

Squeeze test — Take a representativesample of the mown forage across thepaddock, mix thoroughly and take a handful.Squeeze tightly into a ball for one minute.Use Table 8 to estimate dry matter content.

Microwave test — Weigh an empty container(A) using kitchen scales. Place 100–150 gramsof freshly cut silage into the container andrecord total weight (B). Place a cup of coldwater in the microwave (maintain water level toprevent charring), spread the sample on a papertowel and dry on ‘high’ for 2–3 minutes. If thesample is about 35% dry matter, microwave on‘low’ for 30 seconds. Remove the sample andmix before weighing. Continue to dry in 30-second periods, mixing and reweighingbetween drying until the sample feels dry andthere is no more weight loss.

When sample weight is unchanged aftertwo or three drying intervals it is 100% drywithin 1–2%. Weigh again (C) and calculatedry matter by:

(A) container weight 5g(B) fresh sample + container 20g(C) dry sample + container 15g

Calculated % = C–A/B–A * 100dry matter 15–5/20–5 = 10/15*100

= 67% DM

Compaction and sealingSilage needs to be compacted in bunkers or

stacks quickly to remove air and promoteanaerobic fermentation. Compact and sealthe stack within 1–3 days of the start of harvest

Compaction: Silage stored in pits, bunkers or

stacks needs to be well compacted to remove

excess air that can lead to a poor fermentation and

mouldy silage.

Time of cut Early Medium Late

Cutting date (days after first harvest) — 9 17

Silage digestibility 70.7 68.3 65.3

Silage crude protein (%) 14.4 12.9 12.6

Silage intake (kg/DM/day) 7.2 7 6.7

Liveweight gain (kg/day) 0.92 0.78 0.6

Liveweight gain (kg/t silage dry matter) 129 112 90

* Effect of cutting time on ryegrass silage andsteer performance Source: RWJ Steen, 1997.

TABLE 7 Effect of cutting time*

Dry matter Condition of the sample

Less than 25% Ball holds its shape. Lots of free juice. Hand is wet or moist.

25–30% Ball just holds its shape. Hand barely moist. Ideal for wilted, chopped stack or pit silage at drier end of range.

30–40% Ball falls apart slowly. No free juices. Makes excellent silage but because of springiness requires fine chopping or extra care to exclude air at drier end of range.

More than 40% Ball springs apart quickly. Suitable for round and square bale silage and precision chopping but total air exclusion is essential.

Source: Frank Mickan, DPI Victoria.

TABLE 8 Dry matter content (using the squeeze test)




otherwise plant respiration will continue andenzymes will break down plant proteins.

Most losses occur as surface spoilage.Depending on stack depth, 20–25% of silage inbunkers or stacks is often within the top onemetre, so total dry matter losses can be high.

Spread harvested fodder in thin layers(150–200 millimetres) then roll slowly withheavy equipment to remove air pockets,taking extra care near the edges of above-ground stacks.

Bale densities need to be high, especiallywith high dry matter silage to prevent airpockets. Chopper balers allow extra weightand increase compaction in same-sized bales.

Seal and wrap silage quickly and tightly asdry matter losses higher than 30% can occurin poorly sealed silage. Wrap baled silagewithin 24 hours of baling.

Crops for ensilingSelect crops that grow best in the area, have

the highest feed value and are easy to ensile. Crops with low sugar contents such as clover

and lucerne need to be well wilted for effectivefermentation. Grasses such as cocksfoot,phalaris and paspalum are low in sugar andneed to be wilted and compacted tightly toexclude air. Cereal crops, maize and foragesorghums have high sugar levels and are easyto ensile. Maize, whole-crop cereals and grainsorghum crops do not suit baled silage.

Maize — This crop suits direct harvest forpit or bunker silage. Harvest when the grainin the cob is half milky and half solid starch(milk line score 2–3). Harvesting too early(more milk in the grain) can reduce yield andfeed quality and the silage could be too wet.Assess the entire plant for stay-green varietiesas they could be too wet if the milk line onlyis used as a dry matter guide. Maize produces12–25t of dry matter per hectare and has thehighest energy content of all summer foragecrops (10–11MJ/kg DM).

Winter cereals — Cut at the boot stage andmow and wilt them quickly before harvest.But wilting these high-yielding crops during mild temperatures can be difficult.Wheat, barley and triticale can be grown tothe grain soft dough stage and directharvested. Energy levels will fall as the headdevelops but will be slightly compensated forby grain fill. Wholecrop cereal silage will behigh-yielding with excellent starch and fibrecontents but will have lower protein levelsthan early harvested cereals.

Sorghum — Conventional grain sorghumvarieties can be ensiled but specialist silagevarieties grow taller and produce more forage.Direct harvest when grain in the middle of theseed head is at the dough stage. Sorghum canbe grown in areas not suited to maize as ittolerates more moisture stress but can havelower yields (4–10t DM/ha) and metabolisableenergy (9.5–10.5MJ/kg DM) than maize.

Sweet and forage sorghums — Theseproduce a large bulk of silage (10–25t DM/ha)and are easy to store as pit or bunker silage but have an intermediate feed quality(9–10MJ/kg DM). Only cut forage sorghumsfor silage if they cannot be grazed and require aquick wilt for effective fermentation. Cut when1–1.2 metres high to avoid rapid quality decline.

Ryegrass pasture — This has high feedquality and is relatively easy to ensile. Cut atthe first sign of head emergence and wiltbefore ensiling. Pastures with high legumecomponents can be more difficult to ensile.

Lucerne — This is difficult to ensile due to its low water-soluble carbohydrate levelsand high buffering capacity. Wilt quickly to35–50% dry matter for baled silage and35–40% dry matter for chopped silage foreffective fermentation. Dry matter higherthan 45% will increase harvest losses frommechanical operation, causing leaf shatter.

Feed testing Knowing the silage’s quality and feed value

before opening the pit or bunker is valuablein reducing feedout losses, particularly if the silage has low palatability and requiresmixing with other feeds such as grain.

Tests for dry matter, metabolisable energy,crude protein contents and fermentationquality can determine a silage’s usefulness andindicate expected levels of animal production.One such test is Feedtest (contact [email protected] or phone 1300 655 474).

Animals will not eat poorly fermentedsilage even when other quality factors arehigh. A vinegar or rancid butter smell canindicate a poorly fermented silage.

A new test is ammonia-N (NH3-N) tomeasure protein breakdown during ensiling,which reflects fermentation quality. NH3-Nlevels of more than 10% of total nitrogenindicate poorly fermented silage.

Silages with dry matter contents less than35% can be tested for pH. Low pH showsdesirable lactic acid bacteria-dominatedfermentation. A high pH indicates poorerfermentation. Testing pH in silages with drymatter of more than 35% is not reliable.

Sampling procedureWhen feed testing, take a representative

sample of 10 handfuls from a freshly cut pitface and mix well. Place material in a plasticbag, squeezing out the air and seal. Keep thesample refrigerated before sending for testing(or freeze if it cannot be sent immediately).

Sample baled silage with a hay corer in a representative number of bales and mix the sample well. Sub-sample and place 500grams in a strong, airtight plastic bag andmail immediately. Send samples early in theweek to avoid weekend mail delays.

Feed test: Check dry matter, metabolisable energy, crude protein contents and fermentation quality to

determine a silage’s usefulness and its expected levels of animal production.

Topfodder Silage, a joint initiative ofNew South Wales Agriculture and

Dairy Australia, is a national project aimedat improving the quality of silageproduced on Australian farms.

Farmers, contractors, advisers andagribusiness can access comprehensivesilage information by participating in aTopFodder Silage course or obtaining acopy of the Successful Silage manual.

For information visit www.topfodder.com.auor contact local co-ordinators.

Topfodder set to improve silage

New South WalesNeil Griffiths (02) 4939 8948

Queensland Mal Martin (07) 4688 1288

South AustraliaTim Prance (08) 8552 8058

TasmaniaLesley Irvine (03) 6434 5428

VictoriaFrank Mickan (03) 5624 2222Gippsland: Natalie Nelson (03) 5624 2222North-east: Shelley Poole 0407 315 093South-west:Jo Hawker (03) 5592 2477

Western AustraliaRichard Morris (08) 9780 6100

Topfodder contacts

Inoculants lift liveweight gains



Feeding silages treated with inoculants andadditives can improve animal liveweight

gains and feed efficiencies, adding up to $25per tonne of dry matter to its value.

A 1998 New South Wales Department ofPrimary Industries trial found feedinginoculated maize silage to cattle produced anextra 15 kilograms of liveweight/t of silage dry matter (see Table 9). This gives a netbenefit of $20–-$25/t DM when inoculantcosts $5–$10/t DM and at a meat price of $2per kilogram liveweight.

Cost-effectivenessProducers need to target inoculant and

additive use carefully to achieve consistenteconomic responses.

While additives and inoculants canimprove the feed value of silage they cannotcompensate for late harvest, slow wilting orpoor sealing.

Inoculants are cost-effective if silagecomprises most of the feed ration and is fedfor animal growth rather than maintenanceor to fill feed gaps. The value of anyadditional meat, wool or milk produced needsto be higher than the cost of inoculants.

Additives can improve quality, extendstorage and reduce dry matter and nutrientlosses during harvest and storage. These arebest used in poor wilting conditions such aswhen parent forage has low dry matter, water-soluble carbohydrate and high bufferingcapacity or in poor weather.

Silage additivesFermentation stimulants and inhibitors

(see Table 10) control the fermentationprocess and either encourage lactic acidfermentation or inhibit microbial growth.

Aerobic spoilage inhibitors control thedeterioration of silage exposed to air.

When added to low dry matter crops suchas grain absorbents increase dry matter levelsand prevent effluent production.

Adding specific nutrients when ensilingcan increase the nutritional value of silage.

Bacterial inoculantsThe most common additives are bacterial

inoculants containing lactic acid bacteria.These reduce the risk of poor fermentation andincrease silage nutrient value and preservation.

Forages naturally have a range of bacteriapresent that produce acids including lactic acid during fermentation.

Spraying inoculants onto forage at harvestboosts lactic acid bacteria levels, allowingthem to out-compete the existing bacterialpopulation. The result is faster, more efficientfermentation with reduced energy and drymatter losses.

Bacterial inoculants are useful whenforage has low dry matter but still hasmedium-to-high water-soluble carbohydratecontent such as in poor wilting conditions.

Apply at least 100,000 colony-forming unitsof bacteria per gram of forage.

Select an inoculant with a range of bacterialstrains that can cope with different dry matter,temperature, pH and nutrient conditions.

Handle with carePoor handling can destroy bacterial

inoculants, so store in a cool dry place, awayfrom direct sunlight. Only mix what can beused in a day because mixed inoculants donot survive extended periods.

Apply inoculants uniformly to the crop as the swath passes through the pick-upmechanism of the baler or forage wagon.

Traditionally applied with 1–3 litres of water per tonne of silage, newer low water-volume systems use only 10 millilitres/t

applied as fine droplets for even coverage.Many inoculants contain enzymes whichbreak down cellulose and hemicellulose inthe plant cell wall to supply additional sugarsfor fermentation. With more sugar availableto be converted by the bacteria into lactic acid,pH levels will fall more quickly.

Stop mould and yeastsAerobic spoilage inhibitors stop yeast

and mould growth, thereby reducing drymatter losses and maintaining silage quality. Some animals fed mouldy silage can sufferabortions from organisms such as Listeria.

Spoilage organisms reduce silagepalatability and energy content (resulting inlower animal intake and production) andincrease storage and feedout losses.

Silage is more likely to spoil when there arehigh plant sugars, significant numbers ofyeast spores and high ambient temperatures.The first sign of spoilage is heating.

Using inoculantsIn Australia, the main aerobic spoilage

inhibitors are strains of bacteria that produceacetic or propionic acid (use has increasedwith the identification of specific bacterialstrains such as Lactobacillus buchneri).

If stability and heating are a problem checkfeedout management matches industryrecommendations before using inoculants.

For best results use inoculants on silageprone to spoiling (starchy crops like corn andbarley or very dry silages).

Dual-purpose inoculants have acombination of bacterial strains, for bothfermentation and stability properties. Crop-specific inoculants are available.

Control Inoculated silage silage

Feed intake (% liveweight/day) 2.9 2.8

Organic matter digestibility (%) 69.4 70

Liveweight gain (kg/day) 1.19 1.30

Feed efficiency (kg gain/feed DM) 132 147

* Effect on cattle production from maize silage. Source: NSW DPI.

TABLE 9 Effect of inoculant*

Additive Response1 Examples of additives

Fermentation stimulants

Fermentable carbohydrates, sugars A,B,C Molasses, sucrose, citrus pulp glucose

Enzymes1 A,B Celluloses, hemicellulose, amylase

Bacterial inoculants (or biologicals) A,B,C Lactic acid bacteria

Fermentation inhibitors

Acids and organic acid salts B,C,D Mineral acids, formic acid, lactic acetic acid, acrylic acid, calcium formate

Other chemical inhibitors A,B,C,D Formaldehyde, sodium nitrite

Aerobic spoilage inhibitors B,C,D Propionic acid, acetic acid, ammonia, some bacterial inoculants

Nutrients C Urea, ammonia, grain, minerals, sugar beet pulp

Absorbents B Grain, straw, bentonite, sugar beet pulp

1. Potential responses: A = improve fermentation quality; B = reduce in-silo losses; C = improvenutritive value; D = reduce aerobic spoilage. Not all additives listed are consistently effective. Source: A.G. Kaiser, J.W. Piltz, H.M. Burns and N.W. Griffiths, NSW DPI and Dairy Australia.

TABLE 10 Silage additives

Less waste maximises potential


Airtight storage and efficient feedoutmethods that minimise silage wastage

can help producers improve silage use cost-effectively.

While there are clear production benefitsfrom including silage in livestock diets dry matter losses of up to 50 per cent canresult from poorly designed and managedfeedout systems.

Feedout lossesAerobic spoilage (heating) of silage from

exposure to air or animal wastage duringfeedout (trampling and soiling) cause mostfeedout losses, increasing the cost per tonneof dry matter consumed by livestock.

Stored silage starts to deteriorate whenexposed to air as yeast, moulds and aerobicbacteria multiply and heat the silage.Excessive heat damages silage proteins andreduces energy and dry matter levels.

But careful feedout management andchoice of feeding system can reduce theselosses. The silage feedout system chosen will depend on animal numbers, feedingperiod and the amount of silage to be handled(see Table 11).

To reduce losses, minimise disturbance tothe pit or stack face and remove 250–350millimetres of silage from the face daily andreplace the plastic cover.

Design pits, bunkers and bale stacks so the silage face is moved back rapidly during

feedout. Remove one layer of bales from theface every two days and construct stacks andmodules so they supply 2–3 weeks’ feed.

Types of silage

Silages differ in their susceptibility toheating during feedout according to croptype, dry matter content, fermentation type,quantity of residual spores present, rate offeedout and removal method.

Starchy crops such as corn and barley andvery dry silages (more than 35% dry matter)are more prone to spoilage. Warm weatherduring feeding can also increase spoilage.

Significant losses occur when fodder on theground is trampled and fouled by animals orremaining feed in troughs is contaminated. If eaten, it can affect health and performance.Feed silage regularly in small quantities.

Chop lengthReducing fodder particle size at harvest can

improve silage quality, animal productivity andmake feeding stock easier. The fermentationrate increases as the chopped plants releasemore water-soluble carbohydrates.

Silages made from legumes or tropicalgrasses benefit from short chopping due totheir low water-soluble carbohydrate levels.

Reducing chop length (less than 50mm)makes compacting easier and reduces theamount of oxygen trapped, minimising lossesfrom aerobic respiration and the risk ofmould. Smaller particles are easier to handleand use less space for carting and storage.

Chopping is useful for fodder with drymatter levels higher than 40–45%, as thesesilages are difficult to compact.

But chopping low dry matter silages willproduce more effluent, due to moisturerelease from damaged cells.

Reducing chop length also affects animalintake. Lambs fed short chopped silage have

Preventing stored silage from heating and minimising the trampling and soiling of feed by animals go a long way to

reducing feedout losses. To achieve this, producers need to plan feeding systems and handle silage with care.

Stop waste: Bale feeders are moved easily and can reduce wastage when feeding chopped or baled silage.

Feeding system Capital Labour Feeding Accessibilityinvestment efficiency losses to the animal

Chopped silage in pit or bunker

Self-feeding Low High High Restricted

Fed on ground in a paddock Medium Medium High Easy

Fed in a self-feeder, trough or off a Medium Medium Low–medium Easytrailer in a paddock

Specialised area (feedlot, feed pad) High High Low Easy

Baled silage

Whole bale, fed on ground in a paddock Low Low High Restricted

Chopped, fed on ground in a paddock Medium Medium High Easy

Whole bale, fed in self-feeder or off a Medium Low Low–medium Restrictedtrailer in a paddock

Bale chopped, fed in self-feeder in Medium–high Medium Low–medium Easya paddock

Chopped, fed out in feed pad High High Low Easy

Whole bale, fed out on feed pad High Medium Low–medium RestrictedSource: A.G. Kaiser, J.W. Piltz, H.M. Burns and N.W. Griffiths, NSW DPI and Dairy Australia.

TABLE 11 Comparing feeding systems




Place troughs close to silage storages toreduce transport time and costs althoughspecialised equipment could be needed todeliver silage to the trough.

Basic troughs cost about $250–$300 forunits 2.4 metres long, 300–350 millimetreshigh and 280–450mm wide.

Bale feeders Portable silage and hay feeders are

inexpensive and also reduce waste of baled orchopped silage. Round bale feeders start at$700 and large square bale feeders start atabout $1100.

Usually designed to hold a round bale thesefeeders allow animals to access all sides of thebale while preventing it being trampled andsoiled. Baled silage needs to be eaten withintwo days to minimise secondary fermentation.

Baled silage can be fed out using hay feedingequipment or the bale can be left intact.Chopped silage also can be fed this way.

Ensure there are enough feeders to cater foranimal numbers — as a rough guide, allow for25 steers per 4.5m circumference feeder.

Ground feedingTrailling whole or chopped silage on the

ground is cheap, suits most silage types andall animals can access feed but trampling andsoiling by livestock causes significant feedlosses. An electric wire along the top of thewindrow can limit waste.

Another low-cost method is placing wholeround or square bales in the paddock but itcan disadvantage shy feeders and incurs thelargest losses of all feeding systems. Avoidover-feeding to reduce waste.

Feed pads Generally more suited to intensive feeding

systems such as dairies and feedlots, feedpads are permanent feeding sites whereanimals have continuous access to feed orfeed at specific times.

Feed pads can be expensive to set up butthey reduce contamination and waste bykeeping silage off the ground. Uneaten orspoiled silage can be removed from padseasily but avoid over-feeding to reducecleanout costs.

The pad is suitable for chopped silage,grain and other supplements but specialisedequipment is necessary for feed delivery.

Silage removalUnloading equipment that minimises

disturbance to the feeding face will reduceaerobic spoilage. Block and shear grabs arebetter than front-end loaders that tend to fluffthe silage face. Unloaders with rotatingcutters are useful for large quantities of silage,while specialised handlers move individuallywrapped bales.

Silage grabs — Two sets of tines (a stationaryhorizontal set and a rotating curved set) arepowered by one or two hydraulic cylinders.Usually mounted on front-end loaders, thestationary tines are thrust into the material toseparate the rest of the block from the silage.To remove the block from the stack the tractoris reversed and the silage torn out.

Shear grabs — Sharp knives rather thanmovable tines cut a block of fodder from thesilage face. Two knives at the sides and oneacross the front of the cutting frame bite intothe silage as it descends into the stack andshears the material. Long-chop silage tendsto leave a rough face if not completely severedand material partially embedded in the stackwhen the block is pulled away will tear awaysome of the face.

Block cutters —- These leave the silage facerelatively undisturbed but are more expensivethan silage grabs. Block cutters cut arectangular block of silage from the stackusing a mechanical knife (either vertical orhorizontal knives). The cutters are mountedon three-point linkages but can be attached tofront-end loaders.

Rotary silage cutters — Large mixingwagons are sometimes fitted with rotarysilage cutters at the rear. These machines usea high-speed rotating drum to strip silagefrom the face. The drum is mounted betweentwo hydraulically operated arms, used to alterdrum height. The drum throws the shreddedsilage into the rear of the feeding wagon fordistribution or mixing.

increased liveweight gains compared withthose fed longer chopped silage (see Table 12).

Young animals or those with poor teethusing a self-feeding system could struggle to pull long silage from the feeding face.

But when animal access is unrestricted high-quality and highly digestible longchopped silage also can produce adequategrowth rates.

Self-feeding silage A cheap way of feeding is providing

animal access to the end of a silage stack.This reduces machinery and labour costs butensures all animals have enough time andspace to consume an adequate ration.

Self-feeding systems do not suit largeherds, as shy feeders might not compete forfeeding space. Removing feed from denselycompacted stacks also can be difficult forsome animals. Baled silage is not suited tothis system due to high wastage.

Build the silage stack on a sloping, non-slipconcrete base to prevent animals bogging and feed contamination during wet periods.Make the stack 1.5 times the height of theanimals being fed so small animals are notsmothered if a stack face collapses.

A single electric wire, fence or bar controlsanimal access to the face, sides and top of thestack. Animals tend to eat more when a bar isused, so move the wire or bar frequently toensure 100mm is eaten every day and toreduce air spoilage and waste.

Livestock with 24-hour access to the stackrequire 50–80mm/ewe, 150mm/head foryoung cattle and 200mm/head for adultcattle. More space per animal is required forshort feeding periods. Clean the stack floorregularly to remove waste and residual silage.

Feed troughs Finely chopped or chopped bale silage can

be fed using troughs. Design troughs to keep fodder off the

ground, to reduce contamination and wastageand so as not to restrict animal intake.Smooth inner surfaces will prevent feedcatching and going mouldy.

Adult cattle feeding at a trough need700mm each, 570mm/head for 18-month-old cattle and 450mm/head for six-month-oldcattle and sheep. A bar or cable above thetrough prevents animals standing in thesilage. Remove spoiled and uneaten silagebefore adding fresh supplies.

01020

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FIGURE 2 Feedout system costs

Larger bales and the expansion of largesquare bale production have probablyreduced feedout costs for baled silage. Source: Kondinin Group’s 1997 National Agricultural Survey.

Long chop Short chopTrial 1 Trial 2 Trial 1 Trial 2

Silage intake (kg/DM/day) 0.57 0.45 1.13 0.72

Liveweight gain (g/day) –6 37 150 100Source: J. Fitzgerald, Apolant and Chestnutt.

TABLE 12 Silage chop length, lamb intake and weight gain



Wrapped silage cradle — This gentlyhandles and stacks wrapped round bales.Hydraulic arms firmly clamp the bale duringtransport or stacking. Cradles for largesquare bales are available.

Feedout costs A 1997 Kondinin Group survey showed the

average cost of feeding hay and silage was $34 per tonne of dry matter with labourcomprising more than 52% of the feedoutcosts (see Figure 2).

Feeding costs for the same system can varyfrom farm to farm and no one system will bethe best for every producer. Choose a systemthat is affordable and supplies feed whenneeded cost-effectively. Consider machinerytype, distance between storage and feedinglocation, time taken, throughput, labour costsand feedout losses. The best system willcompromise between the machinery on handand time available to feed livestock.

As feedout systems often use several piecesof machinery, allocate costs proportionallywhen calculating the final feedout cost andconsider other uses of the equipment on-farm.

Faster delivery systems such as specialistfeed and mixer wagons are required if feedinglarge amounts of silage daily over a long periodor over specific short periods like feed gaps.

But existing tractors and front-end loaderscan be suitable when feeding smalleramounts of silage over longer periods (everyfew days). Silage type will also influence themachinery needed.

Efficient mechanised feedout systems havea high throughput compared with traditionallabour-intensive methods. But using olderequipment to transfer feed from storage tofeedout can compromise the efficiency andspeed of new machinery.

Costs of mechanised systems include atractor and mixer wagon plus a front-endloader for filling and labour, as well as labourand equipment costs in moving silage fromstorage areas. The high operating costs couldbe justified by increased efficiency and lowerlabour costs. Feeding animals close to thesilage storage will help reduce costs.

Chopping and feeding out large squarebales has improved use of lucerne and

clover silage and reduced labour inputs forGraham Gooden, Osborne, New South Wales.

Mr Gooden and his sons Jason, David andAdam supplement their 1800 Merino and first-cross ewes with silage during autumn andstore excess on-farm for drought reserves.

Whoppa Choppa

The Goodens bought a Whoppa Choppafor $12,000 during 1996. Although designedfor round bales, it can also handle largesquare bales, saving time and reducingwaste. One person can transport andfeedout up to three square bales at a time,only exiting the tractor to cut bale strings.Two hydraulically driven feeders draw in thebale, which is chopped by two power take-off-driven chopping rollers with blades. Silage isleft in windrows, giving livestock including shy feeders adequate access. Sheep, evenyoung lambs, benefit from the shorter particlesize and leave little behind.

Module system

Silage is baled every year if the seasonpermits. The Goodens store about 30 tonnesabove ground in plastic-covered modulesand 100t underground as a drought reserve.Mixed lucerne and clover pastures are cut for silage and baled into 1.8x1.2x0.9-metresquare bales after wilting to about 30 percent moisture. Bales are stacked intomodules of 36 (six rows of six bales, threebales wide and two bales high) and coveredin plastic (12x50m plastic rolls are cut intofive lengths, each length covering a module).

The module system provides short-termstorage and silage is used by spring. The only problem encountered was during2005 when water seepage damaged baleswhere two modules joined.

Replacing green feed

During summer and autumn when sheepdo not have access to green feed, silage

provides protein and energy for autumn-lambing ewes.

Full rations consist of one kilogram ofsilage, 1kg hay and about 0.5kg barleyevery second day but the Goodens reducethe ration at the autumn break as newpastures become available.

Drought reserve

The Goodens still conserve hay as awinter roughage and to reduce red gut fromlucerne pastures.

But silage has proven a cost-effectivedrought reserve, costing only slightly moreto produce than hay, is significantly cheaperto store in a pit than a hay shed and isunlikely to be affected by fire, saving oninsurance costs.

The Goodens have built their pit into ahillside for effective drainage and silage iscovered with plastic from above-groundmodules to protect against contaminationand sealed with a dirt layer. Pits can beused for several seasons, although annualmaintenance is required.

Dual-purpose: Originally designed to chop and feedout round bales the Gooden family have found the

Whoppa Choppa also can be used on large square bales.

Sheep eager for chopped bales

Farmers

Graham, Jason, David andAdam Gooden

Location

Osborne, New South Wales

Property size

3000ha (66% cropped, 34% pastures)

Enterprises

Wheat, barley canola, fababeans and peas for greenmanuring, wool, prime lambs

Annual rainfall

450mm

Farm information

AcknowledgementsFrank Mickan, DPI Victoria; Ken Rich,Quality Silage Systems; Derek Lewington,Uranquinty, NSW; David Snowden,Borambola, NSW; Graham Gooden,Lockhart, NSW; Neil and Simone Jolliffe, Euberta, NSW;Spencer Morgan, Condamine, Queensland; NickAustin, Mundarlo, NSW and Vicki Langtry, Marrar, NSW.

Report authorFleur Muller (pictured) is a research officer and writer forFarming Ahead. Email: [email protected]

Further readingSilage and beef cattle performance, see Farming AheadNo. 125, page 68; fodder additives, see Farming AheadNo. 166, page 49 and No. 125, page 68; silage quality,see Farming Ahead No. 140, page 61.

alethea

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