Making of the Modern WorldMaking of the Modern World

War, Violence and Modernity (2): Civil Violence

Terror, Genocide and Massacre in the Twentieth Century

ScheduleSchedule

1. Introduction: State Terror1. Introduction: State Terror

2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror

3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide

4. The Holocaust4. The Holocaust

5. Conclusion5. Conclusion

HimmlerReichsführer SSChief of Police

SSOrdnungspolizei

(order police)Municipal police

SipoSecurity Police

Heydrich

SDSecurity Service

Heydrich

KripoCriminal Police

GestapoSecret state police

Foreign intelligence

Domestic intelligence

Nazi Germany

Heinrich Himmler, 1900-1945 Reinhard Heydrich, 1904-1942

Stalinist terrorStalinist terrorSecret Police (Cheka, GPU, OGPU, NKVD, Secret Police (Cheka, GPU, OGPU, NKVD, MVD) was a terror instrument to control society MVD) was a terror instrument to control society and to intimidate all potential enemiesand to intimidate all potential enemiesCollectivisation and de-kulakisation forced upon Collectivisation and de-kulakisation forced upon peasantry by means of terrorpeasantry by means of terrorPolitical purges from 1934 to 1938 were called Political purges from 1934 to 1938 were called the Great Terrorthe Great TerrorShow trials, with coerced confessions and Show trials, with coerced confessions and summary executions, from 1936 to 1938.summary executions, from 1936 to 1938.During Stalin’s rule, one million direct killings & During Stalin’s rule, one million direct killings & at least 12 million deaths in Soviet prisons & at least 12 million deaths in Soviet prisons & slave labour camps.slave labour camps.

Nikolai Jezhov (1895-1940), Head of the NKVD (Soviet Ministry for Domestic Affairs and Police, 1936-1938).

Lavrenty Beria (1899-1953), Head of the NKVD/MVD (1938-1946)

Some dates and figures on the Great Terror

• 1108 of the 1966 deputies to the 17th Party Congress held in 1934 were later executed as ‘enemies of the people’

• In 1939 about 3.5 million people lived in Soviet concentration camps and forced labour camps

• 1936-1937 there were 680,000 death sentences

• 1936-1938 45% of the upper ranks and political commissars of the Red Army and the Red Fleet were executed or released, among them

• 720 of the 827 commanding officers (from colonels to field marshalls)

Forced Labour Camps in Stalinist Soviet Union

Nazi and Stalinist TerrorNazi and Stalinist Terror

Focused more on clearly Focused more on clearly identifiable groups identifiable groups (Communists, active enemies (Communists, active enemies of the regime, homosexuals, of the regime, homosexuals, persons considered to be persons considered to be ‘work shy’, gypsies, Jews)‘work shy’, gypsies, Jews)Social groups not specifically Social groups not specifically targetedtargetedOnly a small part of the Only a small part of the population affected by the population affected by the terrorterrorConformity could protect you Conformity could protect you from repressionfrom repressionFor Jews no escape possibleFor Jews no escape possible

Terror was omnipresent Terror was omnipresent (active enemies of the regime, (active enemies of the regime, former members of different former members of different parties, old Bolsheviks, parties, old Bolsheviks, national groups, managers, national groups, managers, former kulaks etc.)former kulaks etc.)Targeted capitalists, wealthy Targeted capitalists, wealthy peasants, all who might peasants, all who might constitute a basis for the constitute a basis for the restitution of capitalismrestitution of capitalismA large part of the population A large part of the population was affectedwas affectedConformity could not protect Conformity could not protect you from terroryou from terrorEveryone could become a Everyone could become a victimvictim

ScheduleSchedule

1. Introduction: State Terror1. Introduction: State Terror

2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror

3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide

4. The Holocaust4. The Holocaust

5. Conclusion5. Conclusion

From the Serbo-Croatian: etničko čišćenje

Ethnic cleansing is “the expulsion of an ‘undesirable’ population from a given territory

due to religious or ethnic discrimination, political, strategic or ideological considerations, or a

combination of these”

Andrew Bell-Fialkoff

Ethnic Cleansing

Bosnia- HerzegovinaBosnia- Herzegovina

Examples in the 20Examples in the 20thth c. c.““National operations“ in the Soviet Union 1936-1939: rNational operations“ in the Soviet Union 1936-1939: resettlement esettlement of so called “Diaspora nations” in Soviet Union 1936-1940of so called “Diaspora nations” in Soviet Union 1936-1940German policy in parts of Eastern Europe 1939-1945 (expulsion of German policy in parts of Eastern Europe 1939-1945 (expulsion of Poles from Western Poland, resettlement of “Volksdeutsche” Poles from Western Poland, resettlement of “Volksdeutsche” (ethnic Germans living outside the borders of the German Empire) (ethnic Germans living outside the borders of the German Empire) in those territoriesin those territoriesWolhynian massacres (mass killing of Poles by Ukrainian Wolhynian massacres (mass killing of Poles by Ukrainian nationalist partisans) in Western Ukraine – expulsion of Poles nationalist partisans) in Western Ukraine – expulsion of Poles 1943/441943/44Population exchange between Poland and the Soviet Union 1945-Population exchange between Poland and the Soviet Union 1945-19471947Expulsion of Germans from Poland and Czechoslovakia 1944-1946Expulsion of Germans from Poland and Czechoslovakia 1944-1946Resettlement of Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingushetians after Resettlement of Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingushetians after 1945 in Soviet Union1945 in Soviet Union1992- 1995: Bosnia-Herzegovina: “Ethnic cleansing” by Serbian 1992- 1995: Bosnia-Herzegovina: “Ethnic cleansing” by Serbian nationalists of territory inhabited by Bosnian Muslims - 200,000 nationalists of territory inhabited by Bosnian Muslims - 200,000 deathsdeaths

GenocideGenocide

Genos – Greek, birth, race, family, tribe

Geno-cide

Occidere – Latin,

to fall, die

United Nations Convention on Genocide, approved by the General Assembly on December 3, 1948

Article IIIn the present convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as:

(a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

UN definition of genocide

Examples for 20Examples for 20thth Century genocide or Century genocide or massacresmassacres

1915-1916 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire – 1915-1916 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire – 1,500,000 deaths1,500,000 deaths

1938- 1945: Holocaust – 6,000,000 deaths1938- 1945: Holocaust – 6,000,000 deaths

1941-1945: Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia – 1941-1945: Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia – 500,000 - 1,000,000 deaths500,000 - 1,000,000 deaths

1937-1945 Chinese after Japan invaded 1937-1945 Chinese after Japan invaded mainland China – 20,000,000 - 30,000,000 mainland China – 20,000,000 - 30,000,000 deaths; 200,000 - 250,000 in Nanking massacre deaths; 200,000 - 250,000 in Nanking massacre alone alone

1994: Rwanda – 800,000 deaths1994: Rwanda – 800,000 deaths

The Armenian Genocide

ScheduleSchedule

1. State Terror1. State Terror

2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror

3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide

4. The Holocaust4. The Holocaust

5. Conclusion5. Conclusion

Prelude to the Final SolutionPrelude to the Final Solution

April 1933 Boycott of Jewish shopsApril 1933 Boycott of Jewish shopsApril 1933 Removal of Jews from civil serviceApril 1933 Removal of Jews from civil serviceSeptember 1935 Nuremberg laws: racial September 1935 Nuremberg laws: racial discrimination, loss of German citizenshipdiscrimination, loss of German citizenship1933-1938 Aryanisation of Jewish property, 1933-1938 Aryanisation of Jewish property, exclusion from most professionsexclusion from most professionsSince 1939 plans for large-scale emigration Since 1939 plans for large-scale emigration and resettlement of Jews (for example in and resettlement of Jews (for example in Madagascar)Madagascar)

The War and the ‘Final Solution’The War and the ‘Final Solution’

Autumn/Winter 1939 Mass executions of Polish Autumn/Winter 1939 Mass executions of Polish JewsJews1939/40 Deportation of Jews in ghettos in 1939/40 Deportation of Jews in ghettos in PolandPoland1941/42 Mass execution of Jews in Occupied 1941/42 Mass execution of Jews in Occupied Territory of the Soviet Union by Territory of the Soviet Union by EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen, inspiring local pogroms,, inspiring local pogroms,21/1/1942 Conference in Wannsee (Berlin) on 21/1/1942 Conference in Wannsee (Berlin) on the “Final Solution of the Jewish question in the “Final Solution of the Jewish question in Europe”Europe”1942-1944 Deportation of Jews from all 1942-1944 Deportation of Jews from all occupied European countries to *Camps in occupied European countries to *Camps in Eastern EuropeEastern Europe

Wannsee ConferenceWannsee Conference

Final Solution

Shooting not effective enough, psychological

consequences for perpetrators

All Jews were brought to ghettos in Eastern Europe, and

isolated

Jews in ghettos – cheap labour force.

Seeking the participation of Jews in their own destruction – Jewish Councils, Jewish Auxiliary Police

in ghettos

Jews in ghettos and in camps had to undergo

‘selection.’

Extermination camps

Women, children, the old & the sick should

be killed first (unproductive)

Exploitation of young and fit through forced labour,

undernourished - ‘destruction through work’

Mass murder by Mass murder by EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen 1941/42 1941/42

A Jewish man wearing the yellow A Jewish man wearing the yellow star walks along a street in Germanystar walks along a street in Germany

Extermination CampsExtermination Camps

The work of the Einsatzgruppen

Jewish families from the Warsaw Ghetto before they Jewish families from the Warsaw Ghetto before they were sent to be gassed at Treblinka extermination were sent to be gassed at Treblinka extermination

camp. camp.

Entrance to the Concentration Camp in

Auschwitz

Entrance to Auschwitz Entrance to Auschwitz - Birkenau- Birkenau

The Gas ChambersThe Gas Chambers

Survivors in Mauthausen open one of the Survivors in Mauthausen open one of the crematoria ovens for American troops who are crematoria ovens for American troops who are

inspecting the camp.inspecting the camp.

SS Guards at Belzec death SS Guards at Belzec death campcamp

InterpretationsInterpretations

Implementation of Hitler’s plans and intentions – Implementation of Hitler’s plans and intentions – Holocaust as his central goal (traditional view, for Holocaust as his central goal (traditional view, for example Joachim C. Fest)example Joachim C. Fest)No systematic plan, result of a spiral of inevitable No systematic plan, result of a spiral of inevitable radicalisation (cumulative radicalisation) (Hans radicalisation (cumulative radicalisation) (Hans Mommsen)Mommsen)Not a barbaric regression but connected with modernity Not a barbaric regression but connected with modernity (Zygmunt Baumann)(Zygmunt Baumann)Ordinary Germans participated: reflection of Ordinary Germans participated: reflection of eliminationist German anti-Semitism (Daniel Goldhagen) eliminationist German anti-Semitism (Daniel Goldhagen) or due to specific extraordinary situation (war, group or due to specific extraordinary situation (war, group pressure, indoctrination) in which those people found pressure, indoctrination) in which those people found themselves (Christopher Browning)themselves (Christopher Browning)

ScheduleSchedule

1. State Terror1. State Terror

2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror2. Nazi and Stalinist Terror

3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide3. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide

4. The Holocaust4. The Holocaust

5. Conclusion5. Conclusion

ConclusionConclusion

Terror is used as a tool by many dictatorial and Terror is used as a tool by many dictatorial and revolutionary regimesrevolutionary regimesEthnic cleansing is a widespread phenomenon in 20Ethnic cleansing is a widespread phenomenon in 20thth c. c. history and can be implemented by a state or by a history and can be implemented by a state or by a nationalist movementnationalist movementThe differences between ethnic cleansing and genocide The differences between ethnic cleansing and genocide are fluidare fluidWhile genocides are not uncommon in history, Nazi While genocides are not uncommon in history, Nazi crimes are unique because of the goal of universal crimes are unique because of the goal of universal annihilation and the modern methods used: the factory-annihilation and the modern methods used: the factory-like destruction of lives and the bureaucratisation of like destruction of lives and the bureaucratisation of destructiondestruction