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M A K I N G M A C R O S P A C E E F F E C T I V E
IVAN FLORES*
Baruch College, City Uni~ersit? o[" New York
(Receiced 9 March 1977: in revised form l I J,dy 1977: receiced for publication [ September 1977)
Abstract--Macros can provide an important assembly language feature which makes the power of assembly language when multiple levels of nesting are permitted, comparable to that of procedure oriented languages. The problem with macros is that each time one is invoked, it produces a considerable amount of code when anything complicated is done. To retain the power of the macro while at the same time eliminating most of the space consuming property, closed subroutines are nested within the macro. A minimum amount of code is required for the closed subroutine, specifically its calling sequence and housekeeping functions. It is possible to reduce the length of code for the macro which is necessary in the caller's control section by moving the closed subroutine to an entirely different control section. These functions taken together enable the assembly language programmer to keep his modules compact so that a minimum of base register, allocation and manipulation is required.
Macros Closed subroutines Open subroutines Assembly language programming Nest- ing Program space
INT RODUCTION
THIS PAPER shows a way long and complex macros which contain great power can be used effectively by the assembly language p rogrammer without consuming inordinate quantities of space and without having the space which is used interfere with the plan- ning and efficiency of his program.
In the first section macros are defined and their functions explained. The purpose here is to provide consistency for the remainder of the paper. The closed subroutine is nex t described, followed by an examinat ion of how to place such a routine into a macrodefinition.
The specific problems of the IBM System 370 with regard to addressabili ty and control sections are examined , and it is shown why it is attractive to keep the closed subroutines belonging to all macros in one control section which is used exc lus i ve l y for that purpose. The method for defining a macro which contains a closed subrout ine is then examined. Nesting, an impor tan t feature, can be maintained and effectively used with this tool.
The coding of two macros, each of which includes a closed subrout ine stored in the special control section, is presented and anno ta ted ; and, it is shown how nesting is compat ible with this technique. The approach is summarized in the conclusion.
THE MACRO HAS THREE ASPECTS
The macro was developed to make assembly languages more powerful by providing assembly language shor thand for a set of codes: The p rog rammer places the macroname in his p rogram and the assembler substitutes for it the set of codes which the program- mer has defined. Thus, "macro" is itself shor thand for four different entities:
(1) The macroname is the name which the p rog rammer uses for the set of codes; (2) The macrodefinit ion is the definition of the code to be substi tuted; (3) The macrocall is the means by which the p rogrammer requests the substitution
in his p rogram; (4) The macroexpansion is the code produced by the assembler to substitute the
macrocall (sometimes called macrogeneration).
* Professor of Statistics.
95
96 [ v .,,.,," FLORES
In this paper, the assembly language examples provided use BAL. the assembly lan- guage for the System 370.
The macrodefinirion
Figure l is an example of a macrodefinition. The definition begins with the header containing only the word MACRO, which is a communication to the assembler that what follows is a macrodefinition. This appears on line number 6 of Fig. 1 (thereafter the number in parentheses will refer to the line in the figure).
The prototype statement (7) follows. The first field of this statement may convey a label to one of the statements that follows. The next field contains the macroname, the name by which this set of codes will be known thereafter. The next field is a series of parameter names, distinguished by beginning with "&". Parameter names may be used in any of the model statements which follow, and each indicates where a par- ameter value supplied in the macrocall will be entered in the resulting macroexpansion.
A set of model statements (8-32) now appears. These will become the expansion when the macro is called, with, perhaps, the substitution of the parameter value for a parameter name which might appear in any one of these statements.
The macrodefinition ends with the trailer statement, MEND, which conveys to the assembler that the macrodefinition is now complete.
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Fig. 1. A macrodefinition.
Fig. 2. A macrocall and its expansion.
Making macrospace effective 97
The macrocall
The macrocall is a directive to the assembler to enter, at this point, the code corre- sponding to the macrocall definition which has appeared earlier, substituting the par- ameter values supplied in the call for occurrences of the parameter names in the defini- tion. An example of such a call appears in Fig. 2 (780). The call consists of the mac- roname followed, in order, by the values of the parameters which are to be substituted.
The macroexpansion
The macrocall in Fig. 2 (780) does not itself produce any code but is a request for substitution of code. Hence, to the left of this line. no code appears. The code which follows (78[-805) is that which is generated by the assembler in response to the macrocall. All statements produced in the expansion have + following the statement number to indicate that this is not the original code supplied by the programmer. but one substituted by the assembler.
At this point it is interesting to compare the macrodefinition with the macroexpansion in order to see where substitutions are provided by the assembler and where commands are duplicated in toto. When operand locations are numerical, symbolic or literal, they are maintained; when a parameter name appears (names prefixed with an ampersand), then a substitution is made.
The reader may be concerned about another substitution which appears in the figure. This substitution is performed by the assembler and enables the programmer to provide unique labels in expansions when the same macro is called several times in the program. For example, the label in line 18 is AS&SYSNDX. The assembler removes the suffix &SYSNDX and substitutes a numeric value unique to this particular macrocall. Thus on line 791 in the expansion is found the label A50057 where the 0057 is provided by the assembler. The number 57 is the ordinal number of this macrocall as encountered by the assembler in reviewing this program with reference to all macrocalls which have appeared so far.
T H E C O M P A C T C L O S E D S U B R O U T I N E (CSR)
The advantage of the closed subroutine (CSR) over the macro is that CSR appears only once in the program regardless of how many times it is used. This provides a tremendous space saving for a routine which is used many times. Figure 3 shows in a graph form how the procedure works. A closed subroutine is placed at the end of
CALLI
R
CALL2,
R 2
-t0-0 i "-s u~-~m~-~i.i n~-~ -J"
Fig. 3. Only one copy of the closed subroutine is in the program and control goes back and forth to it when it is called.
C.L 3 2--C
98 IVAN FLORES
C...A L L I LA 14, RTI LA 1 5 , S R ~ ~ u ~ ,,~s~ , - ' ~ DC A(X) / SR LR IX: A(Y} ( [ ...
oc .(z, ; I ' "
V_J/ CALL2 LA 14,RT2
BALR 1,15 ~ / . , ,
RT2 ST 5,XYZ..I--'- " ~ "~
5'15 I
14 I
Fig. 4. Subroutine linkage and the calling sequence.
the user's program. A request is made for the CSR at CALLI. At this point, the program is left by the path called L! and goes to the CSR which is executed; then return is made by path 1R to approximately the point of departure in the program. Another request is made in the program at CALL2 for the same CSR. It is now entered by PATH 2L and return made by PATH 2R.
Two important features appear in assembly language to expedite the use of the CSR:
• linkage enables the closed routine to return to the place in the program where it is requested; • calling sequence provides parameters or data for the closed routine to operate on.
Figure 4 shows an example of how the routine, called SR, is linked to and data furnished to SR. The calling sequence portion begins by making the routine available by loading the return point into register 14 and the entry point into register 15. The programmer can leave the program for the subroutine with the command BAL. Follow- ing this are the parameter addresses which comprise the calling sequences. These are accessible to the CSR because register 1 points to them. When the CSR has finished, the linkages are maintained and a branch is taken back to the cal!er, referencing register 14, which contains the return point. It is easy to see that the same technique can be supplied earlier in the program, as for instance at CALL2, thus making the CSR reusable and conserving space.
P U T T I N G THE CSR INTO THE M A C R O
The advantage of the macro is its ease of use; its disadvantage is the amount of space it occupies. The disadvantage can be reduced of even eliminated by incorporating
CALl MACSR A,B,C
c col~g ~q~ce linkage
'
° . o
CAL2 MACSR X,Y,Z
c I
Fig. 5. Code produced by a macrocall for a definition which includes a closed subroutine, showing two instances.
Making macrospace effective 99
the CSR into the definition of the macro. The philosophy is to put the major code in the CSR and to produce the CSR selectively (that is, only once), which produces vestigel codes for each macrocall, since the main code is in the CSR.
Figure 5 provides a picture of the desired goal. The name of the macro is arbitrarily MASSR, and it is assumed that the first request for the expansion occurs at CALL Expansion produces three segments:
C is the calling sequences and linkage section; SR is the closed subroutine; E is the epilogue containing cleanup operations. The next time that MACSR is needed at CALL a new and different copy of C
and E is produced. However, no copy of SR is required; the existing copy is used. Hence, at the end of the segment C. a command links the program to the closed subroutine in a dot dashed line. It is executed and return is made from the subroutine to the segment E produced at CAL2. Register 14 provides the linkage mechanism.
Definition
Figure 6 illustrates a possible definition of a macro which includes a closed subroutine. The calling sequence segment takes the parameters from the call and enters them into the calling sequences, which provides linkage to the major segment containing the main code and named CSR in the figure. The address of this segment is entered into Register 15 with the LA command.
Notice the AIF statement at the end of segment C. Its purpose is to produce one and only one copy of the closed subroutine. The assembler examines the switch, &SW, which is initially set to 0. If the switch is set to 1, the assembler eliminates the entire segment and resumes assembly at segment E. The first command of this segment is prefixed by the sequence symbol "'.E". Notice that the first command executed by the assembler is to set the switch on, which will inhibit future production of the main segment, SR.
Returning to Fig. 5, the programmer sees that the macrodefinition requests expansion of the call at CALL1 into the three segments C, SR and E, while at CALL2 only the two segments C and E are produced.
CONTROL SECTIONS FOR SYSTEM 370
When an assembly language program is submitted to the assembler, the machine language output produced is called the object module. However, the smallest unit of independent code is the control section. Thus in Fig. 7 the assembler working on Program I to produce an object module of three control sections labeled A, B and C. For Program II, the assembler produces another object module containing the control sections (CSECT) labeled P, Q, R, and S. The fact that each control section is an independent
SR
BN
C &N
CSR
E .E 8~SW
MACRO MACSR 8~PI, 8~P2,&P5
. . .
LA 15, CSR BALR 1,15
Kt~ (~SW),E
LR 5ol5 o . ,
ANOP SETB I
. , .
. . .
MEND
Fig. 6. Definition of MACSR containing the closed subroutine. CSR.
100 IVAN FLORES
Object Module I ~.~embly lar~uacJe
ONect Module 11" Assembly ta~jua~e ~ / prcxjrarn "in"
Looct Module
R
M ~ Other modules on user's load library
Fig. 7. Control sections in object modules produced by two assemblies and how the linkage editor produces the load module of selected control sections.
entity means that a selection of control sections can be assembled together to make a running program. The utility which does this is called the linkage editor. In the figure the linkage editor has for input the two modules produced by Programs I and II respect- ively and other modules in the user library. Upon directions, the linkage editor produces a load module which is runable. In the figure this load module is composed of A, B, R, and M.
Addressability
The structure of the System 370 command provides addressability of only 4 K bytes. This unit of storage can be called a paoe. Each page requires a separate base register to make it accessible to the rest of the program. It is the programmer's responsibility to assign base registers for each page of his program and to notify the assembler of this assignment by employing the USING statement. The programmer must also fill the register with the proper runtime address at the top of the page to which it is assigned.
Communication between pages requires the establishment and filling of base registers corresponding to each page, which is illustrated in Fig. 8. The communication referred to means the availability of a command on one page to reference data stored in another page.
A control section has its own base registers assigned and filled and provides communi- cation among all its pages when necessary. Occasionally, a very large control section may require the reuse of base registers, which will put limits on the number of pages which compromise the control section.
MEMORY
I ,
Pages
Fig. 8. Base register allocations are required for each page of each control section.
Making macrospace effective 101
Communication.between different CSECTS is provided by mechanisms discussed else- where. These are familiarly referred to as variable address constants or VCONS.
KEEPING ALL CLOSED SUBROUTINES IN ONE CSECT
It is very useful to assemble all the closed subroutines from all macrocalls regardless of where they were issued in the program and place them in a single CSECT. Otherwise, when a macro is called, it produces a continuous and large set of codes and these codes are all placed in the caller's CSECT. This causes the CSECT to grow. Recall that the CSECT requires the establishment and maintenance of base register for each of its pages. The larger the CSECT. the more base registers must be allocated and monitored. Placing a portion of the code produced by the macro outside the caller's CSECT allows a limitation of the size of the CSECT and improve the maintenance of the base registers, because fewer may be required.
Plan
Figure 9 conveys a portion of a program, namely three of its control sections. There are two main control sections, named IF1 and IF2, and an auxiliary control section, MSECT, containing all closed subroutines from macroexpansions regardless of from where they are called. The closed subroutine named SR is found in MSECT, but it is accessible to callers in any CSECT. In the figure, IF1 calls out macro MACSR at two points, CALl and CAL2; IF2 has a call at CAL3 for MACSR. It is not important which of these calls the assembler encounters first. However, the first call encountered causes the creation of SR in MSECT. Of course, no duplicate of SR is required and will not be created. Shown in the figure is an entire closed subroutine labeled SR2, which goes with some other call, and which merely conveys that MSECT is used to hold all such closed subroutines.
D E F I N I N G M A C R O S WITH C L O S E D S U B R O U T I N E S IN A
SEPARATE C O N T R O L S E C T I O N
Figure l0 gives some idea how the macrodefiner will set up the definition to comply with the needs described. As before, the first part of the definition contains the calling sequence, and the linkage section labeled C will be produced for each call. It terminates with the AIF statement which references the switch &SW, so that the subroutine code SR will be produced once and only once.
IF1 csE.cr ] CALl M~SR A,e,C I ~ M S E C T CSECr
222 sR
• . . I , '" / _ ~ BR 14 CAL2 ~csR x,¥,z I / ..'11- .'/I /
I :. ../ s . 2
Fig. 9. Removing the closed subroutines from the macroexpansions and putting them in a single exclusive control section.
It)" IVAN FLORES
M~CRO BN MACSR 8PI, BP2, BP3
L IS,=V(CSR) L )4,RT BALR I, 15 AIF (8,SW), E
SR [ MSECT CSECT ENTRY CSR
CSR BALR I0,0 USING ",I0 . . .
BR 14
E ~SYSECT CSECT .E ANOP
~SW , . ,
MEND
Fig. 10. Defining MACSR which contains the closed subroutine called CSR which is put in the CSECT called MSECT.
The subroutine proper, SR, begins with the command CSECT; CSECT directs the assembler to put the code which follows in the named CSECT, which appears as the label for the CSECT command. On the next line appears ENTRY. Its purpose is to name CSR as the entry point for this subroutine, which is necessary to distinguish different subroutines which occupy MSECT. Recall that this is a foreign CSECT, and the mechanism for making communication possible is ENTRY. Only labels thus dis- tinguished can be referenced from the caller's CSECT.
The two statements which follow, BALR and USING, establish and fill a base register just for the use of this subroutine. Following them are the model statements which comprise the subroutine and which are indicated only by dots in the figure. The sub- routine terminates, following the linkage convention, with the BR command which goes back to the caller's code.
The epilogue, E, which is produced for every call, begins with a CSECT statement to tell the assembler to place the subsequent commands in the caller's CSECT. The problem, however, is that this macrodefinition could be used by a caller from any control section. Therefore, the writer of the definition cannot name a particular control section;if, for instance, he names IFI and the macro is called by IF2, then C is produced in IF2, SR in MSECT, and E in IF1. To facilitate matters and make expansion indepen- dent of the name of the caller's CSECT the assembler is equipped with a mechanism for keeping track of the CSECT which issues a macrocaller's name.
Figure i0 reminds the programmer that the SETB command appears in the epilogue, E, to set the switch &SW so that the next time any CSECT issues a call, the middle portion of code will not be generated.
N E S T I N G
Nesting, which is the inclusion of one subroutine within another, is an extremely powerful tool facilitating the creation of larger and larger amounts of code with a single name. Nesting is described here for a macrodefinition which contains one or more macrocalls. Many levels of nesting may occur which are not immediately obvious to the observer. The macrodefinition for some call (the inner macro), which itself appears in a macrodefinition (of the outer macro), may itself contain macrocalls. Thus the defini- tion of MACA (outer macro) contains a call to MACB (second level), MACB contains call to MACC (third level), and so for th--MACC is nested into MACB which is nested into MACA.
The principle of breaking out closed subroutines and placing them elsewhere holds even when nesting takes place. It is useful to have a picture of how this procedure takes place.
Making macrospace effective 103
l MSECT CSECT
N 14
Fig. It. Simple nesting of MACII and MACI2 into O1SR, the closed subroutine produced by MACO1.
¢
Simple case
A simple case is illustrated in Fig. 11, where the macrodefinition for MACOI contains a closed subroutine called SRO1. Nested in this subroutine are calls to two macros, namely MACI and MAC2. Each of these is a simple macro which does not contain any closed subroutines; they may contain macrocalls to other simple (no CSRs) macros.
Figure t l shows the expansion of MACO1, which creates a calling sequence and an epilogue in the user's control section. The closed subroutine SRO1 appears in another control section (MSECT) and is reached by the linkage in OIC. The inner macrocalls are expanded, and all the resulting calls are incorporated in OISR and kept in MSECT as shown in the figure.
Complex example
The reader can now consider a more complicated case which refers to two macros named MACO (outer) and MACI (inner), where MACI is called within MACO. Further, MACI has a non-nesting definition; that is, MACI does not contain macrocalls. However, since MACI is large, it is defined so as to contain a closed subroutine kept in a separate control section.
MACO is a user macro which contains a closed subroutine. Within this closed subrou- tine, there is a call to MACI which is hence said to be nested within the definition of MACO.
Notice that MACI can be called alone (without involving MACO). For example, the main CSECT may issue a call as appears at CAL6 in Fig. 12. Since this is a non-nesting macro, the call produces the calling sequence IC and the epilogue IE, both in the caller's CSECT as shown in the figure. The call also produces a closed subroutine SRI in MSECT, and if it were not yet produced, linkage occurs to and from this routine.
When MACO is called at CALL the calling sequence and epilogue OC and OE are produced. The closed subroutine SRO for MACO appears in MSECT (in the upper
MSECT CSECT I S ~ . , .
~CI ~X, ~Y
BR 14
SRI -,.
6&" ,4
Fig. 12. Complex nesting.
CSR for MACO
104 IVAN FLORES
right-hand corner of Fig. 12). This closed subroutine has a call to MACI. and this call produces a calling sequence and epilogue SROIC and SROIE in the subroutine SRO. This provides linkage back and forth to the closed subroutine portion of MACI which also resides in MSECT.
EXAMPLE
An example is presented here to clarify the concepts and to show how they are employed in a BAL program. Two macrodefinitions were designed. One of these simply takes the square root of a floating point number using the Newton-Rapheson approxi- mation formula and is called ESQ.
The other macro is called EQD and finds the roots of a quadratic equation.
ax 2 + bx + c = O. (1)
The two roots, (r ~ and r 2) are found using the two formulas
rl = [ - b + esq(b 2 - 4ac)]/2a (2)
r2 = [ - b - esq(b 2 - 4ac)]/2a. (3)
Here "esq" stands for the square root function which in turn is provided by the macro, ESQ. In other words, the macrodefinition for EQD contains a call to the square root macro ESQ.
The macrodefinitions and the subsequent calls appear in the very long accompanying figure designated as Fig. 13. In referring to this figure, the numbers in parentheses indicate the statement(s) which are pertinent in the .discussion.
The definition of EQD begins with the pseudo MACRO (I). Of special interest is the global switch &SW2 (3). It controls the production of the closed subroutine placed in the control section designated MSECT (27).
Production of this control section (30) begins by setting up an entry point named CSRQD (31). This entry point was entered into GPRI5 in the calling sequence (13) and the return point to the end sequence is similarly set up (14). The closed subroutine belonging to EQD contains a call to ESQ (72). Since the assembler removes the macro- call when it prints the expansion, documentation is needed to point this up (71, 73).
When the closed subroutine has been produced, the remaining code is to be placed in the caller's control section (113). An assembly branch sequence symbol for skipping the closed subroutine is provided just before this (I 12), which is the object of the AIF statement (27). The first action performed in this segment is to set the global switch (114). The remainder of the macrodefinition contains several commands which print results. Some of these use the system macro, PUT, while others use a special printing command, LOC.
Definition of ESQ
This macrodefinition begins as usual (152). It uses the global switch &SW1 (154). Loading of registers is done in the calling sequence (162, 163) and then the closed subroutine is established just as we saw with EQD (174, 177). The rest of the definition should be self-evident.
Calls
The caller's control section is named $MAIN (245). We noticed the first call (262) and its expansion (263) which is placed in a callers module at location 22 (as noted in the LOC column). When the special control section, MSECT, begins (287), we see that it is created way down in the program at location D40. The call to EQD has been deleted by the assembler, but the documentation makes us aware of its presence (315). Since the caller is the closed subroutine, the linkage appears in MSECT. The closed subroutine for ESQ will be directed up to MSECT (339). Return from this closed subroutine continues to produce code in MSECT (392). Return from the closed subrou-
Making macrospace effective 105
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tine for EQD 1426t is made via register 14. The remainder of EQD is put in the main caller's control section {4371. A lot of code is produced for the LOC macro which has been removed. The next call of EQD appears immediately after the previous one (8181. It consists of the calling sequence and linkage. The closed subroutine is absent: we pick up the third portion of the code produced by EQD (848). Terminal processing follows.
Call of EQD i, another control section
After the second call of EQD. the main program gives control to another control section (966-98l). We see this control section established (1136) and another call of EQD is issued here {l 147). E(en though this call appears in the control section named SAL'X. it refers to the same code next produced should be in SAUX (I170).
Call of ESO
Although so far ESQ has been appearing as a call within EQD, it is essential that we be able to use it as a stand-alone routine. To make sure that this is possible, we issue a call to ESQ in SMAIN (983). The linkage and calling sequence is produced in SMAIN (986-999). The closed subroutine which was produced for the call of ESQ which appeared within EQD will be reused for this call (991). Upon return from the closed subroutine, the remaining code is placed in SMAIN (1004-1008).
C O N C L U S I O N
This paper has presented a method for writing very large macrodefinitions which, at the same time, conserve space in the program and produce little or no interference with the programmer's main code. Each control section will be smaller, which in turn reduces the number of base registers involved in the construction of each control section.
R E F E R E N C E S
1. I. Flores, Assemblers and BAL, p. 420. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (197l). 2. W. G. Rudd, Assembly hlnyuaye Proyrammin~l and the IBM 360 and 370 Computers, p. 553. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood cliffs. N.J. 11976). 3. IBM, system' 370 Assembler Language, Form GC33-4010. 4. IBM. System 370 Principles of Operation, Form GA22-7000. 5. IBM. Assembler Programmer's Guide, Form GC33-4021.
About the Author--lvAx FLORES holds a B.A. from Brooklyn College, an M.A. from Columbia University and a Ph.D. from New York University. He has been working in the computer field since 1950. In 1960 he established Flores Associates, which has done consulting in computer design, programming, software and systems design for many firms, large and small, including Ford. Raytheon, United Aircraft, AMF, NCR, CAI and IBM. He has taught in the Electrical Engineering Department of Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, New York University and Stevens Institute of Technology, and is now Professor of Statistics at the Baruch College, City University of New York where he has been teaching Computer Methodology since 1967.
Author of almost fifty papers, he has done research in many areas of computer science, including mass memories, the latter being supported by a grant from the Atomic Energy Com- mission. He has published fourteen texts on both hardware and software. Titles for Prentice-Hall and Allyn and Bacon include The Logic of Computer Arithmetic, Computer Software, Computer Proyramminy, Computer Design, Computer Sortino, and Computer Organization, Data Structure and Manayement, Assemblers and BAL, Job Control Lan(juaye and File Definition, OS/MVT and Peripheral Devices.
Dr. Flores has been a reviewer for many scholarly journals in the computer field and was a consultant to the U.S. Army Scientific Advisory Panel. He is listed in many directories includ- ing American Men of Science, Who's Who in the East and Contemporary Authors. Professor Flores is a member of Sigma XI and a fellow of the British Computer Society. He was sent to India by the United Nations to assist them with their computerized Water Resources Simula- tion project.
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