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PART-I1
MAJOR ESSENTIAL OIL
CONSTITUENTS IN
ZINGIBERACEAE
LNTRODUCTION
Contemporq interest in the chemical constituents of plants is now turning
towards various biological topics such as chemotaxonomy, enzyme studies,
pharmacognosy and chemical ecology (Chase and Olmstead, 1988; Harborne,
1982, Harborne and turner, 1984; Mann, 1987; Singh and Varma, 1987;
Umadevi, et al. 1988). The Zingiberaceae family has held a place of importance
for hundreds of years because the infusions and the tinctures of numerous
aromatic species have been, and are still used as components of herbal treatments
for a variety of ailments. There are evidences of plant related aromatic
compounds being used by almost all ancient civilizations-the Indian, the
Egyptian, the Babylonian, the Persian, the Jewish, the Chinese and even the
Greek and the Roman civilizations (Bakhru, 1992).
The essential oils which belong to the so-called natural products of commerce are
heterogeneous groups of complex mixtures of organic substances (Hegnauer,
1963; 1969 7; 1982). There is barely any group of naturally occurring substances
where the number of possible components is as great as the essential oil
constituents. One finds here the most varied chemical components;
hydrocarbons, and AI kinds of oxygen containing compounds like aldehydes,
ketones, alcohols, esters, ethers, lactones, oxides and peroxides (Svendsen and
Scheffer, 1986)
The term 'essential oil' is open to wide interpretation and may include products
obtained by traditional methods of distillation, and those obtained by very
selective solvent extraction or mechanical expression. These include concretes,
absolutes, resinoids, and various extracts, most of which are applicable to the
field of perfumery than to flavorings and seasonings (Meyer -Warnod, 1984).
Essential oil containing taxa is found not only on different levels of angiosperms
but also in a relation to its whole range of l1 lfamilies (Gildemeister and
Hofhan, 1958-1961). Essential oils, the odoriferous volatile materials of plant
origin found in intimate association with resins as well as gums are synthesized in
special secretory structures. The presence of characteristic secretory structures are
an important salient feature of botanical families, well known for essential oil
production (Heath, 1986). In Zingiberaceae many members are aromatic oming
to essential oils that are located in highly specialized secretory structures known
as translucent globules in cortical cells or oleoresin containing idioblasts present
in rhizomes and glandular trichomes in leaves.
Essential oil contains numerous aromatic chemicals, the relative proportions of
which are usually characteristic of a given genus but may vary significantly
depending on the plant species, it's geographical source and the environmental
conditions of it's growth, harvesting and predistillation handling (Gerhardt, 1972;
Green ef al. 1980). The essential oils give protection for the plant from microbial
attack, help pollination by attracting insects, or act as insect repellents (Daniel,
1991). Thus the essential oils are not directly involved in growth and
reproduction but in replenishing life. In other words secondary metabolites are
more involved in the ecology than in the physiology of plants (Hegnauer, 1982).
Of the different plant constituents, secondary metabolites have been shown to
perform vital roles in plant-plant, plant-herbivore and plant-insect interactions
which finally ensure the continued survival of a particular plant species. The
secondary metabolites are perhaps as much indispensable to the plants as any
other metabolic product (Bell, 1981; Harimme, 1982; Halsam1985; Vickery and
Vickery, 1981). The analysis of these compounds is also of special interest in the
study of evolution. The elucidation of the structure and configuration of natural
compounds will always remain a matter of great importance but it is true that, the
main interest in natural product research is now gradually changing from
problems of a purely chemical character to those of a biochemical and biological
one.
Economically many memben of Zingiberaceae are of outstanding importance
since their volatile oils form indispensable ingrediailt of perfumery, flavour,
fragrance and pharmaceutical industries. The family is of great ethnobotanical
value being employed in many indigenous medical systems. Many members of
Zingiberaceae are used in Ayurvedic, Unani, and Homoeopathic systems of
medicine. The most ancient Indian books on medicines namely 'Carakasamhita'
and 'Susmta Samhita'describe the ivonderful curative properties of memben of
Zingiberaceae especially Z~ngiber and Curcuma due to their chemical principles.
Moreover,the medicinal and aromatic qualilties of Indian Zingiberaceae members
are very well described in Materia Indica (Ainslie, 1826). The discovery of
biologically active compounds in the Zingiberaceae such as diterpenes open up a
new realm of medical investigation (Itokawa, et al. 1988 a; Morita and Itokawa,
1988; Aclarz and Rios, 1991). Recently some members are successfully
employed in aromatherapy, a branch of herbal medicine, which exploits the
therapeutic properties of herbs and herbal oils to cure many ailments.
In India- about 20% of the 4000 tonnes of chemicals, estimated to be used
annually in perfumes and flavours, is obtained from essential oils which form an
important class of indigenously developed starting material for perfumery and
flavour industry. Some of them are used in pharmaceutical and other industries
as well. The importance of aromachemicals and essential oils in microbiology as
antimicrobial agents is also well established (Kabara, 1984). Although more than
2000 varieties of medicinal and essential oil bearing plants are grown in our
country, only a few of them have become prominent on a commercial scale. The
medicinal, aromatic and various other values added properties attributed to the
presently investigated taxa of Zingiberaceae are listed elsehere in the
dissertation. Howevsr many of these activities are not commonly utilized at
present. This may probably be due to the gradual change over from hehals to
synthetic drugs during the last century (Binding, 1972). The gradual substitution
of natural aromatic oils with synthetics derived from petrochemicals is very much
clear (Wagh, 1980; Zutshi, 1980).
Systematic investigations have been carried out by various scientists, with the
intention of characterizing the large groups of plants coming under
Zingiberaceae, by means of their pattern of chemical constituents. Being end
products of plant cell metabolism they can be used as good markers in
chemokx~onomical studies, The role of chemical constituents of plants in
phytotaxonomy is well accepted (Harbome and Turner, 1984;.Stace, 1980).
Some of the chemotaxonomical classifications attempted on Zingiberaceae were
made on the basis of distribution of essential oils (Mandi and Sharma, 1994) and
flavanoids (Varma et U/ . 1991 ,Mandi and Sharma, 1994).Remarliably, very few
studies deal with the essential oils from the point of chemotaxonomy. The
difficulty of using essential oil in chemotaxonomy studies is that not all products
become volatile under steam pressure or hydrodistillation. Therefore, the
selection of products of plants whose boiling points are between 150°C and
350°C as keys to identification is very arbitrary. In 1973 Flake and Turner
evaluated the utility and potential value of various volatile constituents as
taxonomic characters and concluded that terpenes were ideal characters for
systematic purposes especially, at and below the generic level. By using terpenes
considerable insight can be obtained about speciation and adaptational processes
occurring within a given taxon Terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic
markers at the subfam~lial and intrageneric level (Cole, 1992).
Eventhough a considerable amount of work has been done among the various
members of Zingiberacme on the chemistry of essential oils they have focussed
only on a few economically or commercially valuable species. The screening of a
large number of lesser oil-yielding plants of great medicinal importance, has not
been attempted so far. It appaus from the previous literature that only less than
five percentage of the total number of the species of the family Zingiberaceae has
so far been phytochemically screened. The data on the chemistry of essential oils
of Zingibemceae too'are very meager. Most of the previous studies were based
on the extracts from rhizomes and seeds of a few important species. As things
stand now,knowledge on the chemistry of essential oils of Zingiberaceae and
allied taxa is very uneven and inadequate for a serious comparative discussion.
Considering the richness of this family in the vegetation of India, particularly in
Western Ghats and the various uses of its members, it has been thought that a
systematic work with regard to its essential oil constituents and their significance
may lead to a better understanding of these plants.
Thus the present investigation was carried out with the intention of characterizing
the large group of aromatic plants coming under South Indian Zingiberaceae by
means of their major essential oil constituents. An attempt is also made to
discuss the chemota?tonomical aspects and ecological chemistry of terpenoids of
the various essential oil possessing species. The various taxa are class~tied under
distinct chemotypes in order to understand the interspecific variation patterns in
defining species relationships. It is with this objective that the data of major
essential oil constituents of the species of the family Zingiberaceae have been
presented here. It also analyses their uses, their possible role in evolution ,and
their relationships and affinities.
Materials and Methods
Plant materials
For the extraction of essential oils, the raw materials were collected from all the
aromatic members, which were grown in the experimental botanical garden under
similar agro-climatic conditions. Some of the species represented in the first part
of the work were noticed as non-aromatic and in some cases those species whose
plant part was not available in sufficient quantity to contact the extraction works
are not included in this study. Various taxa are represented in Table-48. The
rluzomes, leaves, flowers and seeds were collected since they contained higher
concentration of essential oil (Vokou and Margaris, 1984). In the case of
scarcely aromatic members the whole plant body was collected to get maximum
yield of oil.
The collection was made at different time of the year depending on the plant
species and plant parts selected for extraction purpose. In the case of perennials
the mature rhizomes were collected during December-February. In the case of
Elertaria the seeds were collected during October November. But in many other
plants the mature leaves or rhizomes were collected during the flowering time.
Moreover, the plant materials were collected from the garden during early
afternoon, because maximum content of volatile oil occur at the period (Clark
and Menary, 1980 ).
The plant materials collected were cleaned thoroughly. The fleshy rhizomatous,
materials were dried in a solar tunnel 'drier (Esper and Muhlbauer, 1996)
implemented in our institute. The rhizomes used for drying were unpealed,
because the essential oil glandular cells are located below the epidermal layer.
The leaves, flowers etc were shade dried at room temperature, because shade
@ng reduces the weight of the herb to one third of the fresh weight and
maximises oil yield without affecting the quality of the essential oil (Hazra et al.
1990).
Isolation of essential oil
Separation of the volatile oils from the dried flaked and powdered plant tissue
was conducted by hydrodistillation in a Clevenger apparatus (Clevenger, 1928)
for 4-5 hours as prolonged extraction normally Increases the yield (Gildemeister
and Hof ian , 1961). Extraction was carried out at ambient temperature to
necessitate economy (Guenther, 1949). The percentage of essential oil is
calculated on a dry weight basis to avoid faulty estimations that may arise due to
different water content of the tissue analysed each time. (Von Rudloff, 1972).
The isolated oil is then dried over unhydrous sodium sulphate and stored at 4 - 6%.
The essential pils are then examined for various physical constants as per the
methods of Indian sbdards (1978). The odour profiles were determined after
Jellinek (1959) and the flavour profiles, after Heath (1978).
Qualitative and quantitative analysis
Qualitative estimation of the essential oils are done by Gas Chromatography. For
each plant GC analysis was performed by using a Perkin Elmer Austosysem gas
chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and connected to
a P.E. Nelson 1022 GC plus integrator. The GC was carried out on an OV - 17
column. Nitrogen was used as camer gas at 10 psi (inlet pressure) with a flow
rate of 30 mllminute. Temperature progamming in oven was performed from
70% to 220°c at the rate of 5% per minute.
Major components are identified by retention time (RT) analysis (Finar, 1978)
and peak enrichment by CO-injection with authentic standards (Jeffery et al. 1989)
and by comparison with literature data. In GC, the quantification of the peak
areas were done by the P.E. Nelson 1022 GC plus integrator having a built-in
computer. The quantitative data, obtained thereby are based on computer
integrated peak area calculations.
Cbemotaxonomic evaluations
The data obtained kom the qualitative analysis of various essential oil yielding
taxa were subjected to numerical analysis to understand the possible chemical
affinities of pairs of species by arriving at a numerical constant, the coefficient of
similitude (vide Table-52) using the following formula based on Sokall and
Sneath (1963)
Coefficient of similitude (CS) = No. of similar components xlOO
Total number of components
Evaluation of ecological role of terpenoids *
The role of terpenoids in the ecology of different plant is evaluated based on the
field survey and observations noted during the collection of plants from original
localities and cultivation of the different plants in the botanical garden. The
available literature data is also being used to correlate these information to
discuss the role of these chemical components in the well being of these plants.
OBSERVATIONS
In the present study, it is found that some species are aromatic while few others
are non aromatic. Essential oils extracted from he thirty aromatic taxa of South
Indian Zingiberaceae exhibit wide variation in their yield. The percentage of
essential oil ranges from 0.28 to 11.31 in various species. From this study it is
revealed that the highest amount of oil is found with Eletturiu cardamotn CV.
Vazhukka and the least amount with Alpinia malaccensis. The essential oil in
each plant was found to possess specific physico chemico properties. The
physical examination was done according to the availability of essential oil. The
physical and chemical characterization made on thirty taxa are listed here,
supported by the gas chromatogram representing qualitative analysis and pie
chart representing quantitative estimation of essential oils. As regards the
chemical exploration the principal components mainly fall under monoterpenoids
sesquiteepennoids and phenols. The taxa with a percentage yield of 1 and above
are considered as oil rich. The chemotypes of different plants were determined
on the basis of their major component. The name of the major component is
given for those chemical races, when the component occupies in a significant
amount in the total composition. Others were designated as mixed chemotypes.
Those taxa, which show codomineae of two or three components, were also
considered as mixed chemotypes.
The terpenoids were proved to be utmost importance in plant chemotoxonomy.
The members of subfamily Costoideae and tribe Globbeae of the sub family
Zingiberoideae are not possessing any essential oil yielding taxa. Also certain
species, especially some exotic plants of even some aromatic genera are found to
be non aromatic. All the South Indian species of Amomom are non aromatic.
Thus a clear delimitation between the various species on the account of presence
or absence of essential oil is noticed. Moreover, the taxonomic doubts in the
identity of few species of very complicated genera like Cuarcuma (viz., c". ucrugiso.~~, C. caesia, and Malafurica) have been cleared in the present study.
The affinity between the various aromatic taxa on the basis of terpenoid patterns
\.as studied. The similarity coefficient CS between each species is represented in
the Table 52. Various species are found to be inter-related chemically. Also
among the various genera few Inter intra generic and specltic relar~onsh~ps
hetwren species habe been obsrned
The ecolor~cal role of various tcrpenoid components is well noticed from the
fizld observations as \\ell as from li~erature data. Each and m e n component
present in a plant has their onn particular ecological role for the well being of
various plants. The t e r ~ n o l d molecules are found to he involved in many plant -
plant. plant-animal and plant-rn~cro organism interactions. The~r ecological role
such as ph~toalesius. inscct antifeedants, anti herhivoq, defenss agents
allelochemical, pollinator attraction. insecticidal and antirnlcrobial properties are
noticed in the present study.
Zingiber cernuum ( p-caryophyllene chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage y~eld : 0 85
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour ,. mildly spicy, earthy, with a rooty topnote
Flavour tlat, bitter, dirty with unpleasantly harsh after taste
Solubility in 2 volume 804/ alcohol ensity
Density 0.8936
Refractive index : 1.3
Chemical components identified (Fig. 5e, 5 f j
a-penene (1.25x), sabinene (2.05O,0), limonene (1.16%), l ,l-cineole (1.66?0), camphor (3.4%), geraniol (5.9196), p-bisabolene (3.62%). P-canophyllene (29.9590). isoeugenol(593?0), hurnulene (5 .213)
Zingiber neesanum (Mixed chemotvpe)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.82
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour warm, penetrating, pungent, mildly spicy, strongly
musty with eucalyptus topnote
Flavour bitter, barsh, slightly woody with a spicy after taste
Solubility in 3 volume of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8742
Refractive index : 1.4638
Chemical components identified (Fig. 6e, 6 0
a-pinene (6.79%), sabinene (20.84%), limonene (0.91%), 1,8-cinwle (2.06%), linalyl acetate (10.41%), ar-curcumene (3.15%), humulene (23.05%), cadinene (8.01%), zerumbone (2.46%)
Zingiber o/ficinule (Zingiberene chemotype)
Plant part used : rkomes
Percentage yeld : 1.39
Physical propertias
Colour pale yellow
Odour sweet, spicy, pungent with lemony topnote
Flavour pleasantly warm, bitter, slightly, irritating with a Fresh after taste
Solubility sparingly in 2 volume of 90% alcohol
Density 0.8738
Refractive index : 1.490 1
Chemical components identified (Fig. 7e, 7f)
a-pinene (1.65%), camphene (5.40%), sabinene (l.02%), limonene (2.87%), l,& cineole (3.52), linalool (l. l6%), bomw1 (1.93%) a-teepineol (0.9 l), zingiberene (39.12%), ar-curcumene (1 3.85%) and nerolidol(3.13%)
Zingiber purpureum (mixed chernotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.26
Physical properties
Colour Pale yellow
Odour sweet, slightly flowery, middly spicy ~ i t h a fruity topnote
Flavour slightly bitter, terpeney with a spicy aAer m e
Refractive index : 1.4694
Chemical components identified (Fig. &, 8f)
a-pinene (1.89%), sainene (24.76%), camphene (2.47), limonene (1.63%), 1,8- cineole (4%). linalool (2.17%), terpineol (20.06%), p-caryophyllene (1.48%). p- bisabolene (2.25%), humulene (2.73%), zerumbone (l .51%)
Zingiber zem& (Zerumbone chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield ,: 2.87
Physical properties
Colour wlourless
Odour warm, spicy, balsamic, slightly fruity with a
camphory topnote
Flavour bitter, warm, irritating, pungent and u n p l m t i y
harsh
Solubility in 4 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8965
Refractive index : 1.4935
Chemical components identified (Fig. IOe, 100
u-pinene (1.49%), camphene (7.21%). 1,8-cineole (3.97%), linalyl acetate (I.07%), camphor (7%), Bcaryophyllene (10.52%), huneulene ( 12.6%), cadinene (1.90%). zerumbone (34.71 %)
Curcuma aerugenosa (ar-turmeron chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.94
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour fairly fresh green, camphoraceous and spicy wit5 a
woody note
Flavour bitter, W-, pungent with an unpleasant after taste
Solubility in 3 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8874
Refractive index : 1.4985
Chemical components identified (Fig. 1 le, 1 If)
a-pinene (1.09%), p-pinene (4.55%), linalyl acetate (1.77??), camphor (6.14%), germacrone-D ( 4 . 1 % ) ar-tunnerone (37.85%), curzerenone (6.58%), xanthorrhizole (8.68%)
- Curcuma amada (Ocimene chemotype)
Plant parts used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.53
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour fresh, Slightly rosy with a fruity topnote of raw
mangos
Flavour sweet, mildly spicy, cooling , with the taste or raw
mango
Solubility 2.5 vol. Of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8925
Refractive index : 1.4972
Chemical components identified (Fig. 12e, 120
P-pinene (2.3S0,6), ocimene (41.260%). B-Phellandrene (1.59%), iinalool (3.73%), citronellal (3.02%). camphor (1.81%), terpineol (3.35%), Belemene (1.82%), curterenone (2.84%)
Cureumn aromalico (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.93
Physical properties
Colour greenish brown
Odour pungent , warm, woody-rooty with a camphory topnote
Flavour bitter flat earthy and mildly spicy
Solubility 3 vol. of 90% alcohol
Density 0.9165
Refractivce index : 1.5085
Chemical components identified (Fig. 13e, 13f)
a-pinene (3.77%), limonene (1.53%), 1,8cineole (9.93%), P-cymene (2.6%), terpenolene (2.23$), camphor (18.33%), bomeol (4.44%), zingiberene (1.89%), a-curcumene (2.55%), curzerene (5.32%), germacrone-D (2.8%), ar-twmerone (3.92%)
Curcuma eaesia (mixed chemotype)
Plant parts used rhizomes
Percentage yield 1.41%
Physical proporties
Colour colourless
Odour warm, mildly spicy, camphoraceous with a woody
topnote
Flavour slightly bitter, warm, with a spicy after taste
Solubility in 2 volume of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9265
Refractive index : l .4983
Chemical components identified (Fig, l4e, 149
ocimene (1.95%), 1.8-cineole (25.03%), camphor (9.6%) L-terpiniol (3.78%), borne01 (2.77%), curzxrenone (22.83%)
Curcuma decipiem (eugenol chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.2%
Physical properties
Colour wlourless
Odour sweet lightly flowery, warm, smooth with eucalyptve
small.
Flavour slightly bitter, wann, spicy
Solubility in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8874
Refractive index : 1.5016
Chemical components identified (Fig. 16e, 169
a-pinene ( l .35%), l,&ineole (26.37%), camphor (2.44%), engenol(38.15%)
Curcuma longa (turmerone chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 3.6
'Physical properties
Colour
Odour
Flavour
Solubility
Density
colourless
spicy, mildly earthy, smooth warm with a rooty
topnote.
pleasantly warm with a spicy after taste
in 4 vol. of 80% alcohol
0.9318
Refreactive index : 1.5116
Chemical components identified (Fig. 18e, 180
sabinene (4.60%), 1,8-cineole (4.25%). zingiberene (3.93?/0), arcurcumene (2.59%), ar-turmerone (25.44?/0), p-tunnerone (l4.64O4)
Curcurno mnlabarica (Cineole cemobpe)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.86
Physical properties
Colour pale greenish brown
Odour warm penetrating, Camphoallous, with a rooty
topnote
Flavour bitter, harsh, flat with a spicy after taste.
Solubility in 3.5 vol of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9124
Refractive index : 1.4872
Chemical compon'ents identified (Fig. 19e, 199
a-pinene ( l .43%), camphore (3.15%), p-pinene (3.14%), limonene (l .44%), 1.8- cineole (30.27%), camphor (17.86%) a-terpineol(2.42%), ar-turmerone (1 1.27%)
Curcumn raktacanta (mixed chemotype)
Plant parts used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.36
Physical properties
Colour pale brown colour
Odour camphoraceous, with earthy and woody topnote
Flavour bitter, irritating, punghtt, with a spicy after taste
Solubility in 2.5 v01 of 80.7% alcohol
Density 0.9327
Refractive index : 1.4901
Chemical components identified (Fig. ZOe, 200
P-pinene(3.185?6), limonene (0.8146), 1.8-cineole (l3.64%), camphor (17.98%), bomeol (1.25%), zingiberene (4.24%), curzerene (7.46363, germacrone-D ( 1.27%), curzerenone (7.93%)
Curcuma zedoaria (Curcumene chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 4.76
Physical properties
Colour light yellow colour
Odour warm, penetrating plasant, campheraceous with a
flowery topnote
Flavour slightly bitter with a spicy after taste
Solubility in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9786
Refractive index : 1.5061
Chemical components identified (Fig. 21e, 210
camphone (2.22%), camphor (5.06%), Fbisabolene (2.22%). zingberene (3.71%), Curcumene (41.21%), cunerene (4.68%), germacrone-D (2.29%), curzerenone (5.79%), xanthorrhizol(12.60%)
Hedychium coronarium (diploid cytotype)
(1,8cineole chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.67
Physical properties
Colour pale greenish yellow colour
Odour pungent, penetrating camphoreleris with a woody
topnote
Flavour warm bitter spicy with a fresh after taste
Solubility in 2.5 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.843 1
Refractive index : 1.4582
Chemical components identified (Fig. 22e, 220
a-pinene (6.09%) P-pinene (14.80%), limonene (3.07%), 1,8cineole (35.74%), linalyl acetate (2.85?/0), camphor (5.46%) a-terpineol (l 1.2196)
Hedychium corotcarium ( tnploid cy~otype)
(1,8 cineole chemobpe)
Plant parts used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.31
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour pungent, campharaleuus with a woody topnote
Flavour warm, spicy, but harsh and bitter
Solubility in 2.5 vol. of 80 alcohol
Density 0.8492
Refractive index ' : 1.4591
Chemical components identified (Fig. 23e, 230
a-Pinene (8.83%), p-pinene (19.27%), limonene (3.68%) 1.8-cineole (27.57%), linalyl acetate (l .3 l%), camphor (5.56%), a-terpineol (l 0.17%).
Hedychiumflavesce (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used rhizomes
Percentage yield 0.4
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour smooth, warm with a piney topnote
Flavour bitter, slightly spicy, mildly bitter and fresh green
Solubility in 2 vol. of 8096 alcohol
Density 0.8612
Refractive index : 1.4461
Chemical components identified (Fig. 24e, 240
a-pinene (6.68%), p-pinene (1 5.45%), limonene (2.09%), 1,s-cineole (15.46%), linalool (0.56%), linalylacetate (16.76%), camphor (5.86%), a-terpineol ( 1 1 .85%), famesal (3.8%)
Hedychium spicatum var. amminaturn ( l ,X-cineole chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 1.76
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour pungent, Penetrating, warm with a medicinal topnote
Flavour warm, slightly biter with terpency after taste
Solubility in l .S vol. of 90% alcohol
Density 0.8923
Refractive index : 1.4861
Chemical components identified (Fig. 25e, 250
a-pinene (0.71%), sabinene (1.07%), limonene (1.02%), l,&ineole (27.29??), terpinen4-01 (0.90/0), a-terpineol (1.44%) cinnamaldehyde (0.95%). B, bisabolene (1.26%), ethyl cinnamate (7.56%), pentadecane (3.52%), etbyl-p- methoxy cinnamate (l7.37%), cadinene ( l 1.3 1%)
Kaempferia galanga (Mixed chernotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yiled : 1.33
Physical properties
Colour
Odour
pale yellowish brown
pleasant carnphoralous and slightly \voody with a
medicinal topnote
Flavour warm, spicy, with a fresh after taste
Solubility in 3 vol. of 8096 alcohol
Density 0.8874
Refractive index : 1.483 1
Chemical components identified (Fig. 26e, 266
a-pinene ( l .36%), sabinene ( l .99%), P-carene (9.87%), limonene ( l . 1 l%), 1,8, cineole (6.62%), camphor (3.48%) a-terpineol (0.85%). a-terpinylacetate (2.25%), ethyl cinnamate (22?4), pentadecane (15.04%), ethylo-p-methoxy cinnamate (17.30%)
Kaempfeh rotunda (ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate chemotype)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.83
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour camphoracerus, woody with and medicinal
Flavour fresh green, musty with a spciy after taste
Solubility in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9 134
Refractive index : 1.5002
Chemical components identified (Fig. 28e, 280
a-Pinene (1.46%). p-pinene (4.43%), A' -carene (6.67%), limonene (0.93%), 1,s-cineole (4.13%), camphor (5.89%) ethyl cinnamate ( 1 l.@%), pentadecane (12.44%), ethyl pmethoxy cinnamate (27.08%)
'4lpinia calcarata (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used
Percentage yield
Physical properties
Colour
whole plant
0.96
pale greenish yellow
135
Odour snect. strongly aromatic, herbaceous with medicinal
topmate
Flavour strongly spicy, warm, bitter with a fresh aftertaste
Solubility in 1.5 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9528
Refractive index . 1.4962
Chemical components identified (Fig. 29e, 29f)
a-pinene (4.14%). carnphene (6.04%), P-pinene (8.99%), myrcene (2.94%), 1,8- cineole (19.79?/0), camphor (6.20%), myrcene (2.94%), borne01 (2.88%), methyl cinnamate (3.69%). engenol (5.82?6), bomyl acetate (2.90%), a-terpineol (2 I .20%)
Plant part used : rhizomes
Percentage yield : 0.78
Physical properties
Colour golden yellow
Odour mildly comphoraceons, sweet, warm, with a terpency
topnote
Flavour bitter, slightly harsh, earthy with a spicy after taste
Solubility in 1.5 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9672
Refractive index : 1.5124
Chemical components identified (Fig. 30e, 300
a-pinene (5.19%), sabinene (2.2%), limonene (l.71%), l.8cineole (42.54%), L- terpineol (l.51%), eugenol (l0.36%), methyl cimamate (4.69%)
AIpinin malaccensis (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used : whole plant
Percentage yield : 0.28%
Physical properties
Colour
Odour
Flavour fresh
Solubility
Density
Refractive index :
pale yellow
warm, penetrating slightly woody with a medicinal
top note
slightly bitter, flat, fresh green with a pleasantly
aftertaste
in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
0.8625
1.4816
Chemical components identified (Fig. 31e, 31f)
a-Pinene (8.61°h), P-pinene (8.32%). sabinene (1 1.64%), mycene (3.14%), limonene (4.85%), 1,8cineole (21.14%), camphor (18.7%). a-terpineol (3.47%), methyl cimamate (2.79%)
Alpinia mgm (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used :
Percentage yield :
rhizomes
0.4%
Physical properties
Colour golden yellow
Odour warm, penetrating with the smell of eucalyptus with a
woody topnote
Flavour slightly spicy, bitter, warm and imtating
Solubility in 4 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.9446
Refractive index : 1.4528
Chemical components identified (Fig.32e, 320
a-pinene (6.1 1 %), p-pinene (2.74%), carnphene (1 5.69%), mqrcene (14.6%), limonene (4.42%), 1,8-cineole (24.27%), linalyl acetate (2.42%). camphor (5.88%), a-terpineol (1.6%), citronellol (3.6%), methyl cimamate (2.52%), P- caryophyllene ( l 65%)
.4lpinia smithiae (eugenol chemotype)
Plant part used : whole plant
Percentage yield : 0.32
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour grassy, slightly lemony, warm with a flower?; topnote
Flavour strongly spicy bitter with a fruity after taste
Solubility in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8653
Refractive index : 1.4912
Chemical components identified (Fig. 34e, 34f)
a-pinene (5.22%), camphene (1 4.44%), myrcene (14.36%) lirnonene (3.80%), 1,8-cineole (1 1.57%), linalyl acetate (2.15%), camphor (1.21%), a-terpineol (0.81%), engenol (29.98%), methyl cimarnate (7.87%), isobomyl acetate (2.04%)
Alpinia zerumbet (mixed chemotype) . Plant part used : flowers
Percentage yield : 1.17
Physical properties
Colour pale yellow
Odour mildly spicy, camphore ceous with a peppery topnote
Flavour warm, spicy, little earthy, triter harsh with an
impleasant after taste
Solubility in 2.5 vol. of 80% alcohol
Density 0.8871
Refractive index : 1.4862
Chemical components identified (Fig. 35e, 350
a-pinene (3.03963, camphene (1.25?/0), sabinene ( I 2 1 1?/0), myrcene f 3.7%). limonene ( l .97?b), 1,8-cineole (19.75%), a-terpinene (7.29%), linalool (3.06?'0), P-cymcne (1.53%), linalyl acetate (1.71%), terpinenil-ol (3%), camphor (18.6296). engenol (l .7%), methyl cinnamate (1.24%)
Alpinia zerumbet var. varigata (Cineol chenotype)
Plant part used : whole plant
Percentage yield : 0.42
Physical properties
Colour
Odour
Flavour lemony
Solubility
Density
Refractive index :
colourless
slightly spicy, pungent, camphoraceous with the
smell of eucalyptus
warm, bitter, harsh mildly herbaceours with a
aftertaste
in 2 vol. of 80% alcohol
0.8674
1.4318
Chemical componknts identified (Fig..36e, 36f)
a-pinene (4.52%), f.3-pinene (4.69%), limonene (3.%%), 1,s-cineole (35.62%), linalyl acetate (2.77%), camphor (14.86%), l-terpineol (4.01%), citronellyl acetate (2.52%), geraniol (2.21%), humulene (3.5 1%)
Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Malabar (mixed chemotype.)
Plant part used : seed
Percentage yield : 10.34
Physical properties
Colour
Odour
colourless
strong penetrating musty cineolic with
comphoraceous, warm, spicy notes.
smooth, warm, spicy \nth a cooling and slightly
astringent aftertaste
l 39
Solubiliv in 3 vol. of 70% alcohol
Density 0.9308
Refractive index : 1.4638
Chemical components identified (Fig. 41e, 41f)
a-pinene (3%), sabinene (6.82%), myrcene (3.12%), limonene (5%), 1.8-cineole (30.35%), linalool(l.l5%), linalyl acetate (l.03%), l-terpineol(3.72%), a-terpinyl acetate (3 1.6%)
Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Mysore
Plant part used :
Percentage yield :
seeds
9.86
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour penetrating, spicy, sweetly aromatic with
campluralesus and wheolic ovemotes
Flavour warm, spicy with a cooling and slightly asmngment
after taste
Solubility 5 in 3 vol. of 70% alcohol
Density 0.9301
Refractive index : 1.4688
Chemical components identified (Fig. 42e, 420
a-pinene (2.18%), sabinene (6.670/0), myrcene (2.65%) limonene (3.44%), 1,8- cineole (29.06%), linalool (1.38%) linalyl acetate (0.76%), a-terpineol (4.19%) a-terpinyl acetate (34.34%)
Elettaria cardamomurn C.V. Vazhukka (mixed chemotype)
Plant part used : seeds
Percentage yield : 11.31
Physical properties
Colour colourless
Odour spicy, sweetly aromatic, wholic with a a limphim
ceous note
Flavour warm, spicy with a cooling and slightly astringent
after taste
Solubility in 3 vol. of 70% alcohol
Density 0.9281
Refractive index : 1.4622
Chemical components identified (Fig. 43e, 439
a-pinene (1.04%). sabinene (3.57%), myrcene (1.87%), limonene (3.88%), 1,8- cubeik (3074%), linalool (1.23%), linalyl acetate (0.97%). a-teepineol (3.88%), a-teepingl acetate (36.85%)
~
m Caryophy llene m Others D Unidentiled .-p-pp----- - ~~
Sabinene Linatyl acetate Hurmlene
Cadinene Others Unkientiied p-
~~ ~~ ~~~~- ~-~ ----- ~~
zngiberene ar-Curcumne C] Others C] Unidentified-~ -pp- ~ ~ ~-p--
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 5f. Zingiber cernuum, Fig.6fZingiber neesanum, Fig.7f. Zingiber oficinale
~~~~~. ~ -~~~ ---
m Sabinene m~er~enen-4-01 D & e r ~ D Mientified ~ ~ . --
-- - n k m l e n e Zerurrbone Others Ihldenbfied --
~p ~ ~ ~- p-
a ar-Turmrone aXanthorrh~ol m Others U Unidentified ~- ~ ~ - - -~ p---
Composition o f major essential oil components in : Fig. 8f. Zingiber purpureum Fig. 1 OfZingiber zerumbet, Fig. 1 1 f. Curcuma oerugenosa
If I: 5-501mt. lD-aPi ,wr~, I 1 .(lPimm. 35 .L~,II.IT.YY. 1 9 . camphor. 1 5 a .l.rpr-l. 31. curan* . W. Gnmrrs* D. 35. .I ~ u r m r o n t . 36 . CUNRWII.. I 7 - Ianthorrtll*..
11 1: S . S0lrnl . I I .,l. P,nonc. IO.O.im.nc. 12. P;nllandrane, ! l . Linolool. 18. Cilr.mll.l. IS. Camphor. Z O u . Rrplneol. 28 - Elemsne. 30 - Cunemnone.
~~ p----
Ocirnene Others ~nientified-~ . . .. - - - -p
~- -- pp - P - - l .S-Cineole m Canphor 0 Others Ulidenhfied
7 ~
~ ~.
-p p- -- m 1.8-Cineole m Canphor a Curzerenone
Others Ulidentified .- p-
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 12f. Curcuma amada Fig. l3fCurcuma aromatics, Fig. 14f. Curcuma caesia
- - -- ---.- - -- - -- m 1,8-Cineole m Eugenol m Others a Unidentified
Fig. l8f p-~ P-.. ~
m ar-Turmerone m b-Turmerone a Others m Lhienti id ~ --
Others Unidentified - ----p ---- -
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 16f. Curcuma decipiens Fig. l8f.Curcuma longa, Fig. 19f. Curcuma malabarica
I
20 I?: S - Solvbnt, 8 - p- Pi-, 11 - L i m o m , 12. I , w i m i e , 21 R: S - Solwnt. 6 -a-Pimne, b - Camphew, I S - Camphor. 19
16 - Cmmphor, 21 - Bormol, 23 - Lingib~na, 28 - c u a w e ~ - p- Bimabolen, 21 - Z ln~ikr- . 23 Curcumm. 24 - ( i f i o f b t r n w m u r e m } 30 - CormutowD, 32 - t u m n n o m .
Currumr (iaohrrbnogurnacrenr). 20 - CormutonD, 30 - Cunwanon, l3 - Xmthwrhirol.
22 c: S - h l w n l , 5 - 0-Pimno. 7 - p Pi-. 0 . iimonm, 10 . 23 c: S - SQIHnt. S - Pinon, 11 - p -Pinno, t 3 - L ~ m o m , ( 4 - t.@Cincok, (1 - Linmlyl rocate, l4 - Cam hot. l 5 -U -Terpiml, 19 Q 1.6-Cinaok. 16 - Linalyl ueuW, H) - Cbmphw. 21 -fw~iwol-
- Cerbnyl uatata.
24 c - S - hlwonl. 6 -U- P~nene, 8 -11-Ptnene, 10 - Lirnoncne, l t - 1.8-Clfleol0, l 2 - Linalool, 11 - Linalyl acelblm. 1 7 - Cmmphor, 10 4r. Tofp~nool, 34 - Fummal.
25 c: S - Solvent. 9 - Sbbinm, l 1 - Limo-. 11 - 1 ,a. CIWOI~. I 0 - T o r p o ~ - o l . 10 - U- T u p b n ~ ~ I , 25 - C~nn.m.ldehybr, 16 - ( \ - Biarbolerm, 30 - Ethyl Clnnambt., 31 - h n i a &cur. 33 a E ~ h v t P -
Flg- 2(k - 25. : chromblogrrmr o l varioun e8senlial oil yielding plrnts o l Zingikraceme. 2 b - Curruma n k f ~ c ~ n r 8 , 210 Cwrurna ~ C d o N i o , 220 . Udychium coronarium diploid plant. 230 - Mdychium coronanum tr~plotd plant. 34e - Hcdychtum Hawtcenr. 2% Hbdychium rpicatum vu. ~uminatum.
Curzerenone Others Midentified
................................. - - - ... -.
bRnene m l ,&Oneole 0 a-Terpineol Others H Ulidentifted ......... . . . . . . .
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 20f. Curcuma raktacanta Fig.2 l f. Curcuma zedoaria, Fig.22f. Hedychium coronarium
a-Terpeniol Others Unidentified . . . . - . - -- - -- .- --
--p -P-
b- Anene l ,&Cineole g Linaly l acetate
a-Terpeniol Others UnaenMied
. . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . - - ,- .... - - -.
l ,bCmeole Rhy l cinnamte
Bhyl pnethoxy cinnamte g Cadinene
Others Unidentified
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 23f. Hedychium coronarium (3x) Fig.24f. Hedychiumflavescens, Fig.25 f. Hedychium spicatum var.acuminatum
26 L: S - Solwnl, 5 - a - Plnano, 6 - S . b i n O ~ , 9 - - Carem, 10 Limonans, 11 - 1,8-Cinaole. l8 - Camphor. 20 - - Terpiml . b6 - - Ter~inyl acetate, 26 - Ethyl Cinnamrte, 31 - Penm decrno, 43 -
r 28 t: S - Solwnl. 6 - (G Pinene. 7 - p- Pinene, I 0 - - Carene, 11 - Llmonene. 12 - 1,s - C~neols, 10 - Camphor, 27 - Elhyt Cinnamrte. 33 - Pantadserne. 45 - Ethyl - P - methory cinnamrte.
2 9 ~ : S-Solvcnt.13-~-Plmne,14-Camphsnc.l5-~-Pinene 30 8: S - Solwnt, 8 -a- Plnene. 10 - Sabinene, 13 - Lirnonene, 17 - Myrcmne, 1 B - 1.0 -Cineole. 24 - Cemphor, 25 - a -TerplneoI. 14 - 1.8 Clmole, l 6 - Linatml, 20 - Camphor, 21 a -Tarpincol. 20 - eormol, 33 - Methrl cinnamrte, 36 - Iso euganol, 39 - Bornyl 30 - Eugwtol. 31 - Mathyl cinnamrte. acelate.
10
31a: S - S g l u m t , 1 0 - a - P l m ~ , 1 1 P im,12-S .b inene , 11 - Uyrcene. 14 - Litnoner*. 15 - l .8-&mola. 12 - Cemphor. 23 - u - Yerpiml, 3S - Methyl cinnamrto.
l
32 &: S - Solmnt, 6 -a- Pinsno, 7 -p- Pimne. U - Camphene, 9 - Myrcene, l0 - llmonena, 11 1 ,&Clmob, 13 - Linmlyl acetate, 17 - Camphor, 18 -a - h r p i m l . 24 - Citronallml, 28 - Methyl cinnamata, 31 - P - Caryophvllam.
Fig. 260 - 326 : Car chrommlogramm 01 various esrential oit yloldlng plmnt. of Zlngibsrac6ee. 26s - K A ~ m p h f l ~ g8longa. 2Bc - Kmmpkria rotunda, 29. - AIplda c8lcuafa, 3 b - Alpinia galanga. 310 - Alpinia m.l.ccen#i& 320 - A l p m i ~ nigra.
- -- _-_ -. ---
m C3-Carene Ethyl cinnamte
kntadecane 0 Ethyl gmethoxy cinnamate
Others Unidentifed -. .- . . . - . . . -..-.-..._...--p-.p-.... -.
--I- -. -- -.-I_p--
¤ ahyl cinnamate kntadecane
0 Bhyl p-rnethoxy cinnamte g Others
Ulkientfkd t _ .. . - . _ - - . . - - -- - -
-p--- +--
m b P inene m l, &Cineole U a-Terpineol
0 Others Unidentified - - - - - - - - - -
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 26f. Kaempferia galanga Fig.2 8 f.Kaempferia rotunda, Fig. 29f. Al'pinia calcarata
- ............. .... .-...-.-.. ..... .... - - - p
l ,&Clneole m hgenol Others Unidentified ........... -.. .......... P p v - --
--p -- p --p p - a -- m a- Rnene m b- Rnene Sabinene g l, SCjneole
Carrphor Others m Unidentified
.. . . . --
Canphene 1 Myrcene 0 1 ,&Oneale Others . hidentifled - , ----p- . ............. .
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 30f. Abinia galanga Fig. 3 1 fsllpinia malaccensis, Fig. 3 2f. AIpinia nigra
34 c: S - Solvent, 0 - U - Pinene, 11 - Cunphsm, 12 - Myram, 13 - Limboneno, 14 - I ,B Gineolc. 16 - Linalyl .csmls. 21 - Cm. phor. 22 -U- Twpineol, 18 - Eugrnol, 31 - Mlthyl tinnamab, 35 - l10 Horny1 acetate.
36 m: S - Solwant, l 0 .U- Pinene. t l -B - Pinrm, 14 - Llmoncns. 15 - l.&Cinaole, l ? - Linalyl acetate, 21 . Camphor, 22 -U- Terpmeol. 28 - Citfonellyl acetate, 33 - Germiol, 37 - H u r n u k ~ ,
I - -- 35 B: S p Solvent, 8 a - Pinetwt. 10 - Camphsna. 11 - S l b i m , 12 Myrmn, 13 - Llmomne, 14 - 1,8Cinaofe, 15 - U .
Twpimno, 16 - L i n d d . 17 - P Cymm, l8 - Linrlyl acetate, 20 - Camphor. 21 - Torpinone 4 4 2 8 - Eug.nol. 32 - Methyl cimmmtm.
S 12 25
4 1 ~ S-%lvent.7+a.Plnme.Q-Slbinane, 10-Myrcem, 11 Limclnans, 12 . 1.8 Cimoh, 13 - Linrlool, 14 - Linslyi netmm. 20 -a- T@rpinsol, 25 .a- Tsrpinyl umu.
42 4: S - Solvent, 9 - U - Pinrnr, 11 . Sabincna, 12 - Myrcene, t3 - Lkmoncne, 14 - 1.8-Cineole, 15 - Linrlool. 16 - Linalyl acetate, 1 2 -U- Tarp~neol. 26 -U- Terprnyl acetate, 2 G - (;armiol.
1 -- -- 43t: S - Solvent. 6 -B- Pimnr. 8 - Sabinanr, 9 - Myrcene. !I . Limonene. I2 - 1,e lnmle. 13 - Linrlool, 14 - L~nalyl acetmte. 1(1 - a - Terpirmol, 25 u - Tupind rotate.
Fig. 340 - 43t : Gas chromstagrams a l various ersbnlibl oil yielding plants of Zingiberrceae. 34c - AIpin~. smithire. 3 k - Alpinia zerumbet. 36s - Alpinia mrumbst war. vmrigai4 410 - Elenrd& crrd.momum C". Malsbrr, 428 - Elcmanr crrdmnomum CV. Mywm, 4- - Ektiaria cardrmomum CV. Vnzhukk~
I~l,&Cineole .a-TerpinenegCanphor 1 ! I
i Others Unidentified
l ,&Cineole Canphor Others Unidentified '
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 34f. Alpinia smithiae Fig.35f.Alpinia zerumbet, Fig.36f. AIpinia zerumbet var.varigata
. . . -. . . - . . . . . - .- p . . -
m l ,8-Cmeole m a-Terpinyl acetate C] Others U Unidentified
,.. -- -. .. . - A-- --
M l $8-Cmeole m a-Terpiny l acetate m Others 0 Ulidentified
m 1 .B-Cineole m a-Terpinyl acetate g Others g Unidentified
Composition of major essential oil components in : Fig. 41 f. Elettwia cardamomurn CV. Malabar, FigA2fEIettaria cardamomurn CV. Mysore, Fig.43 f Eleffariu cardornomum CV. Vazhukka
DISCUSSION
a. Essential oil quantification in the taxa investigated
In the present investigation the percentage yield of essential oil found to vary
considerably in thirty different taxa studied. Aromatic essential oi 1s are present
in most of the members. The sub family Costoideae possesses no aromatic oil
cell. Hence essential oil is not reported fiom this group. The tribe Globbeae
under the subfamily Zingiberoideae also does not possess any essential oil
components. Authentic reports are not available in the members of this tribe.
Out of the taxa investigated 53.3% m found to be oil rich and 46.7% are oil poor
taxa. In some genera both aromatic and; non aromatic species are also found.
Both oil richness and oil poor ness is prevalent in the members of the genus
Zingiber (vide Table-48 ). The species Zzerumbet shows the highest quantity of
essential oil (2.87%) whereas, Zneesam possesses least quantrty (0.82%). Z
oficinole and Z purpureum is moderately oil yielding plants. There are many
reports of the essential oil of Z oficinale from different localities wit h difference
in oil yield and components (vide Table-50). Thus it is rather clear that, in
Zzngiber the quanw and quality of essential oil may vary considerably even
within the same species (Guenther, 1952). The oil of Z of ic ide is commercially
valuable. Even though few other species are medicinally being used, the
essential oil of other species are not produced on a commercial scale.
Among the four taxa of Hedychium the triploid cytotype of H. coronmium
possesses only 0.31% of oil while in the diploid *type 0.67% of oil is present.
This indicates that an increase in ploidy level clearly reduced the oil percentage
in H. coronurium. This may be due to the genic rearrangement occurred in the
tri ploid taxa. In various species the triploid cytotype of H. coronarium possesses
the least quantity of oil while H. spicutum var. acuminuium has the maximum oil
yield ( 1 -76%). Only the oil of H. spicatum is being utilized commerc.ially and
from the other species no essential oil is produced on a commercial scale.
The various species under the genus (7urcu1nu are found to be more or less oil
rich taxa. Among these CI zedouriu is the highest oil yielding plant with 4.76%
oil. Whereas on C .muluburica only 0.86% of oil is present. C'. I q p is another
oil rich plant with3.6% of oil. Unlike the genus Hedychium in Curcuma, the
triploid species are comparatively more oil yielding plants. Thus C. uromufica,
CZ lango and C. zedouria which are triploid species are more oil yielding taxa.
Hence, in the genus Curcuma it is true that an increase in ploidy level clearly
favoured the increase in oil yield This might have probably been due to the
genic rearrangements in the hiploid taxa compri ng with their diploid ancestors.
The essential oils if only C. zedouria and C. longo produced on a commercial
scale.
In Kaempfeiu galunga 1 -33% of oil is found w?mas, in K. rotunda only 0.83%
of oil is detected. Even though these two species showed oil richness in K.
puichra no essential oil is detected. This species is an exotic species. Thus in
this genus both aromatic and non-aromatic plants are there. This may be due to
the geographical isolation, dere species emerged with or without aromaticity .
The oil both species is not being produced on a commercial scale.
In AIpinio all the s k i e s studied were show aromaticity except A. purpuratn. In
A. =erurnbet 1.17% of oil is detected in the flowers. While in A. galnngo the
dried rhizome possesses 0.78% of oil. In A. malc~ccensis least amount of oil
(0.28%) is present. In general most of the species ofAlpinia are oil poor plants.
However, these plants show high aromaticity. This inhcates that not the
percentage yield but the chemical components present control the aromaticity of a
plant. All these species are tropical plants. In the exotic members, A. zerumhet
var. vurigotu possesses essential oil whereas, in a A. purpuruta no essential oil
was found in hydrodistillation. None of the species of Alpinia are used for
essential oil production on a commercial scale.
In An~ornurn none of the species were possessing essential oils. Even though
Arnomum subulatum (Bengal cardamom or large cardamom) is a very good
essential oil yielding plant, the other species found in South India not possess any
essential oil. 143
In El~rturiu, the three cultivars of E. curdumomum studied show oil richness. E.
curdumomum is the best essential oil yielding plant among the various species of
Zingberaceae studied. Of the different cal tivars, cult ivar Mysore possesses least
amount of oil (9.86%). Whereas, cultivar Vazhukka possesses 1 1.3 1 % of oil.
Cultivar Malabar yields 1 0.34% of oi l . The oil is produced on a commercial scale
and is being used for many purposes (vide Table-5 1 ).
b. Physic+cbernical characterization of essential oils in the hxa investigated
Various characteristics of essential oils such as colour, odour, flavour etc. were
studied and it is clear that each oil sample has its own properties. The colour of
the samples varies depending on each taxa and the plant part used for distillation
purpose. Some samples are colourless. Most of the samples have a
camphoraceous odour while some are spicy or medicinal or strong aromatic with
different notes. The flavour also varies widely. Most of the samples are bitter,
o h warm with a spicy after taste. Various physical properties such as
solubility, density and refractive index of each sample checked for assessing the
purity of the sample.
The major essential oil components identified broadly belong to rnonoterpenoids,
sesquiterpenoids and few phenols. Various aromatic taxa possess oils that are
rich in odoriferous monoterpenoids linal ool , l inaly l acetate, camphor, K-terpiny l
aatate citronellyl acetate, geranjol etc. Few phenols and its derivatives such as,
-terpineol, eugenol and isoeugenol are also contribute towards the peculiar
aroma and flavour of various taxa. The flavour qualities of these compounds are
also well known (Shirokov et al 1 980). Fragrant rnonoterpenes,oxy genated
monoterpenes,monoterpene derivatives, phenols and related compounds are
probably more widely responsible for characteristic plant odours (Miller, 1 973).
However, some taxa are poor in these odoriferous compounds instead they
contain high amounts of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like P-bisabolen, p- cargophy llene, a-humulene, curcurnene, and the oxygenated sesqui terpene
xumhot ie etc. Thus in Linglbrraceae there exists a clear-cut phytochemical
icarisr ni.
The genus is characterized by the occurrence of' a large number of different
terpenoid molecules. Previous chemical reports were found to be absent in some
tasa (vide Table-50). In Z cernzrum the bicyclic sesquiterpenoid P-caryophyllene
( 29.95%) is the major co~nponenent identified. Thus this species belongs to the
caqophel lene chemotype. The sesquitrrpenes predominate in the oil sample. In
the Z neesurlum essential oil contain nearly 50% of monoterpenoids and
monoterpene hydrocarbon sabinene (20.84%) i s one major component. The
chcrnotvpe of this species seems to be mixed type. The srsquiterpene
hydrocarbon, a-humulene (23.05%) is another major component identified. The
report on these two species seem to be novel. Previous chemical reports are not
met with in these species. The oil of Z oflcinole contains fifty percent or more
sesq ui terpene hydrocarbons. In addition to this sesquiterpene alcohols,
monoterpenoids and associated components are also present in the oil. The major
essential oil component identified is a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon Zingberene *
(39. l 2%). Another major component is ar-curcumene ( 13.85%). Zingberene is
a reputed chemical compound well known for its medicinal, aromatic and
flavouring properies (Merck Index , 1 989). The medicinal properties reported
(vide Table - 5 1 ) on this species owe to the presence of various essential oil
components. In 7- purpureum the chernotype is appear to be a mixed one. The
monoterpene hydrocarbon sabi nene (24.76%) and monoterpene tertiary alcohol
terpinen-4-01 (20.06%) are the major components identified. The oil of Z.
plrrpurc.um may be used as a source of terpinen-4-01, which is widely employed
in perfurnep and flavour compositions (Wealth of India, 1948-76). The chemical
components present in the oil might have been the major factor responsible for
the medicinal and other value added properties reported on this species (vide
Table - 5 1 ) as revealed from the study Z rerumhet belongs to the zerumbone
c hernotype. Here the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, a-h urn ulene (, 1 2.6%) and the
monocyclic sesquiterpene ketone zerurnbone (34.71%) which is an oxygenated
humulene derivative, are the major components identified. Zerumbione is a
potential antimicrobial component (Kishore and Dwivedi, 1992). The various
value-added properties reported (vide Table-51) on different species of Zingiber,
owe it to their chemical constitution. Moreover, most of these have been reported
to possess, medicinal aromatic and flavouring qualities (Heath, 1 98 1 ; Lawrence,
1988).
The nine species studied under this genus show clear interspecific variations, as
regard the chemical constituents. The chemotype in C. aeruginosa is seem to be a
turnerone chemotype. More than fifty percent of the oil contains sesquiterpenes.
The major essential oil constituents identified are ar-turmerone (37.85%), a
sesquiterpene ketone curzemone (6.58%) and xanthorrhizole (8.68%) which is a
phenolic sesquiterpene. While in C. amado monoterpenoids show predominance
and monoterpene hydrocarbon ocimene (41.26%) is the major component. The
plant has thus an ocimene chemotype and this agrees with the previous literature
(vide Table-0). This hydrocarbon seems to be imparhng the rhizome tbe odour
and taste of raw mango (Rao et d. 1989). C. aromoticu on the other hand shows t
a mixed chemotype. Unlike the previous reports on plants of the same locality
(vide Table-SO) the present study reveals the presence of oxygenated
monoterpenes 1,8-cineole (9.93%) and camphor (18.33%) as the major
components. This may be due to the wrong identification of the correct plant by
earlier workers. The significant amount of camphor in the oil may explain why
the plant is considered ethnobotanical l y very important (vide Table-5 l ), probably
for the same reason as camphor is used in medicine (Merck Index, 1989). The oil
also possess few monoterpenes such as a-pinene (3.77%) pcymene (2.6%) and
borne01 (4.44%) and sesquiterpene curzerene (5.32%). In C. caesio also mixed
chemotype noticed the major components identified are l-8cineole (25.03%),
camphor (9.6%) and the sesquiterpene ketone cuzerenone (22.83%) .Whereas, in
C. deczpiens the chemotype is with eugenole, (38.15%), since it is the major
component. The other major component noticed is l,&cineole (26.37%). A
mixed chemotype is found with C longo. The essential oil conatins more
sesq uiterpenes than m onoterpenes. The major components iden ti fied are ar-
tunnerone (25.44'30) and p-turnerone ( 14.64%) sabinene and 1,8cineole are the
major monoterpenes present in significant amount. The medicinal properties,
arornaticity and other value added properties reported on this plant (vide Table-
5 l ) are attributed to the presence of these chemical constituents. The chemotype
in C mukuhunca belongs to i,8-cineole (30.27%) as it is the major constituent
along with substantial quantities of camphor (17.85%) and ar-turnerone
(1 1.27%). No previous reports are available on this taxa. More than fifty percent
of the oil consists of monoterpenes. In C. raktacanta mixed chemotype is noted.
1,8-Cineole ( 1 3. M%), capmphor (1 7.98%) and sequiterpene curzerene (7.46%)
and curzerenone (7.93%) are found to be present in significant amounts. The
presence of camphor in substantial amount gives the oil the peculiar odour. C.
~edourra belongs to curcumene chemotype. The monocyclic sesquiterpene
curcumene (41.2 1 %) present in the oil sample is actually a mixture of at least two
hydrocarbons, viz., arcurcumene and ~curcurnene (Catalan et al. 1989).
Sesquiterpenes dominate in the oil of C. zedoaria Camphor (5.06%), curzerene
(4.68%), cunerenone (5.79%) and xanthonhizol (12.%) are other major
components present. Of the various essential oils of Cwcuma, only C. arornatico,
C. longa, C. purpurea and C. zed- are prpduced on a commercial scale. In *
general the various species of Curcuma contain more sesquiterpenes than
rnonoterpenes (Ctalan et al. 1 989). The medicinal, and other economically usem
properties reported on the different species of Cwcuma might have been probably
due to the presence of both monoterpenoids and sequiterpenoids with reputed
qualities in their essential oils. The medicinal properties of these chemicals are
very well enumerated in literature (Guenther, 1949; 1952).
Of the three species of Hedychium investigated, two are characterized by 1,8-
c i neole chemotypes while H. jlovesence shows mixed chemotype. Eventhough
there is a difference in the oil yield between the diploid and triploid cytotype of
H. coronurium, no such variation is found in the chemical components of the oil.
Tne two cytotypes are 1,8-cineole chemotypes (35.74 & 27.57%). Other major
compounds identified are p-pinene ( 14.8 & 19.27%) and a-terpineol ( 1 1.2 1
8 10.1 7%). The oil is evidently rich in monoterpenoids. A mixed chemotype is
noted in H. jluve.ccence and monoterpenes predominate over sesquiterpenes in the
oil sample. P-Pinene ( 1 5.45%) 1,8cineole ( 15.46%), linalyl acetate ( l 6.76%) and
a-terpineole ( 1 1.85%) are the major components present. Previous chemical
reports were found to be absent in this taxa. Nevertheless, chemically the oil of
H. flavescence does not bear wide variations with other species of Hedechium.
All the identified major components are more or less same and the only
difference is in their percentage in the oil samples. Like H. coronurium, H.
spicatum var. ocuminotum is also characterized by a 1,gcineole chernotype. The
major components identified in their taxa are l,&cinwle (27.29 %), ethyl-p
methoxy cimamate (17.37%) an ester of cinnamic acid and sesquiterpene
cadinene (1 1.31%). Thus rnonoterpenoids are the major fraction of oil of various
tawa of Hydcchium and however there is a clear similarity between the species as
regards the chemical composition of essential oil.
The two species studied under the genus Kaempferia also show marked 3
similarity. K. gu/anga is characterized with a mixed chemotype. The identified
major components of the oil ~~-carene (9.87%), i,tcineol (6.627%), ethyl
cinnamate (22%), pentadecane (15.04%) and ehtyl-prnethoxy cinnamate
(1 7.30%). Whereas, in K. rotunda the chernotype belongs to ethyl-pmethoxy
chamate since it's the principle constituent (27.08%) of the essential oil, A~ - carene (6.67 %), 1,8 cineole (4.13 %), camphor (5.1 8 %), ethyl cinnamate ( l l .64
%), pentadecane (12.44%) etc. are the other components identified in substantial
amount. Ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate the ethyl ester of pmethoxy cinnamic acid,
is a potential medicinal component of these two tuca. The medicinal properties
and aromaticity reported on these plants (vide Table - 51) are attributed to the
major essential oil components. The chemical components like ethyl cinnamate,
camphor and ethyl p-rnethoxy cimarnate and are reputed medicinal principles
(Merck Index, 1989).
Out of the seven species of Alpinia studied four show mixed chemotypes. The
various taxa are characterized by the predominance of rnonoterpenes. In A.
culcurura which has a mixed chemotype, the major constituents identified are p - pinene (8.99 O h ) , l ,8-cineole (19.7 %), camphor (6.2 %), and a- terpineol (2 1.2
%) with significant amount of bomeol (2.88 %), methyl cinnarnate (3.69 %),
isoeugeenol (5.82 %), and bomyl acetate (2.9 %). Chemical components like
bomeol, methyl cinnamate, and isoeugenol are reputed medicinal principles
(Merck index, 1989) as well as perfumery compounds (Poucher, 1959). In A.
gakunga. the major component identified is 1,8 cineole (42.54 %). Hence the
plant falls under a cineole chemotype. Besides cineole a- pinene (5.19 %),
camphor (3.6 %), and methyl cinnamate (4.69 %) are also present in substantial
quantities. All these constituents are of potential medicinal and flavour
properties. This may be the reason why A. ~13lcaratro and A. g h n g a plants are
widely used in many traditional medicinal systems (vide Table - 51). In A.
rnalaccensis mixed chernotype is found. This oil poor taxa, however, possess
monoterpenoids as the major essential oil constituents. a-pinene (8.61 %), P- pinene (8.32 %), 1,8 -cineole (2 1.14 %),and camphor (18.7 %) are major
components identified. Like A. malaccensis, A. nzgra also exhibits a mixed
chemotype and monoterpenes possess the major portion of the oil. a-Pinene
(6.1 1 %), camphene (15.69 %), myrcene (14.6 %), and camphor (5.88 %), are the
major components identified. The species A. smithiae falls under a eugenol
chemotype, since this phenol accounts for a major constituent of the oil. The
major components identified are camphene (14.44 %), myrcene (14.36 %), 1.8 - cineole (1 1.57%), eugenol (29.98 %) and methyl cinnarnak (7.87 %). Previous
chemical repons are found to be absent in h s tawa. Because of the presence of
these potential mechcinal principles this plant can be used as an alternative for A.
calcaruta and A. gakunga. The report on this plant seems to be novel. Now t lus
plant is being used only by some tribal people.
The two varieties studied for the species A. zerumbet show variations in their
chemotypes and chemical components. In A. z e m h e t the major components
identified are sabinene (12.1 1 ?h), 1,8 cineole (19.75%), a-terpinene (7.29 %)
and camphor (18.62 96). But in .-l. :erun~b'l var. varigutu, the plant belongs to
the 1,8 -cineole chemotype. The major components identified in this plant are
1,8 -cineole (35.62%) and camphor (14.86 %). In theseplants certain
components such as linalool, terpinen-4-01, linalyl acetate, eugenol, cirtonellyl
acetate and geraniol are present in substantial amounts. The aromatic and
medicinal qualities (vide Table-5 1 ) attributed to these taxa may probably be due
to these chemical components as they coincide with those properties exhrbited by
their oti ginal compounds. Also the components like citronell yl acetate, terpinen-
4-01 and geraniol are reputed medicinal principles (Merck Index, 1989). Many
species of the genus Alpinia are being used medicinally and in pharmaceutical or
perfumery industries and for flavouring food items. Thus it is clear that the value
added properties reported (vide Table-51) on different species of Alpinia owe it
to their chemical composition.
All the three cultivars of EIel~aria cardamomurn studied show mixed
chemotypes. 1,8- Cineole and a- terpenyl acetate are the major components 3
identified in these taxa. U- Terpenyl acetate is the characteristic corn ponent which
contribute towards the aroma of cardamom. Previous reports (vide TableSO)
quote i.8- cineole and a- terpenyl acetate as the major components in this
species. The three cultivars show only minute differences in their chemical
composition. In the present study the cultivar Vazhukka has got the highest
amount (36.85%) of a- terpenyl acetate whereas in cultivar Malabar the least
amount (3 1.6 %) was noticed Cardamom oil is used in flavouring beverages
curries and other food products. Various value added products are listed in the
Table-51). It is quite sure that cardamom owes its aroma and therapeutic
properties to the volatile oil components in the seeds (Guenther, 1 949; 1 952).
Table 48 - List of van'ous taxa investigated for their oil yeild, major essential oil mmponents and chemotypes
SI.No Taxa investigated %yield of oil Major components identified Chemotype
1 Zingiber cernuum 0.85 p. Caryophyllene (3. Caryophyl lene
2 2. neesanum 0.82 Sabinene Linalyl acetate Humulene Cadinene
Mixed
1 -39 Zingiberene ar - Curcumene
Zingiberene
1 -26 Sabinene Terpenen - 461 Mixed
2.87 Humulene Zerumbone
6 Curcuma aerugemsa 0.94 ar - Turnetone Xanthorrhizole
7 C. amada 1.53 Ocimene Ocimene
8 C. aromi3tica 1.93 1,8 - Cineole Camphor
Mixed
1.41 1,8 - Cineole Camphor Cwzeremne
Mixed
1.2 1,8 - Cineole Eugenol
0.86 1,8 - Cineole Camphor ar - Turnerone
C imle
Mixed
Curcumene
1.36 1,8 - Cineole Carnphor,Curzerene Curzerenone
14 C. zedoaria 4.76 Curcumene Xamthorrh izol
1 5 Hedychium coronanun 0.67 P-pinene (diploid plant) 1,8 - Cineol
a-{erpi neat
Cineole
0-pinene a -p tnene 1,8-Cineole a-terpineol
P-pinene, l ,8-Cineole Linaiyl acetate, U-terpineol
Mixed
Cineole 18 H, spicatum var. acuminatum
1 ,&Cineote Ethyl unnamate Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate
2 9 Kaempferia galanga A3 arene Ethyl cinnarnate Pentadecane Ethyl p-rnethoxycinnamate
Mixed
Ethyl unnamate PentadaXne Ethyl pmethoxycinnarnate
20 K. rotunda 0.83 ,
Mixed
22 A. galanga 0.78
23 A. malamnsis 0.28 a-Pinene Mixed P-Pinene, Sabinene, l ,&Cineole, Camphor
24 A. nigra
l 1 7 1,8-Cineole, a-Terpinene Mixed Camphor
27 A-rerumbet var. 0.42 l ,&Cineole, Camphor van'gata
Cineole
28 Eleitarial cardamomurn CV Malabar 10.34 1,8-Cineole
U-terpiniyl acetate Mixed
29 E. cardamomurn 9.86 1,8-Cineole CV. Mysore a-Terpinyl acetate
Mixed
30 E. cardamomurn 1 1 -31 a-TerpinyI acetate Mixed cv.Vazhukka
Table 49 - D~str~bution of essential oil components in the taxa investgated
LirrPsne Lnakol caKmek4 Camphor T w p c n e n - 4 Bornd chndkd Clib0ceQtl-t- a-TerWny(- W- Geranrd W- T-
-- I
- : Not wecw p--
tr : Traces +:Preserrt ++ . Akmdent -
Table 50: Previous repocts on mjur essential oil constihrentJ in Zi-
S1 No. Name of the taxa Previous u w i m R- 1 angiber ofi~nale a-pinene, camphene, b-pinene, Karrrit et&. 1972
sabinene, mytesne, p- plwhdrene, 1 ,-,
GeranyIamMe, A3carene, a-terpim, Sakamura et al. 1 978 a-terpmeoi, W, l,&moIe, neral, gefand, Angibmm
C m d (1 W), bald (3%), neral 1(26%) S m i i h a n d R m , seraniai (m), -w-q== h- 1981 -1 3%
a-Pinene, sabbem, camphor, bphm4d Tamemet&. 1991
L e c h a t - v m et al. 1993
t-f umulene (27%), zerumbone (37.5%), WeatthoBIndia, 1948t0 a-pinene, p-pinene, A3 carene, hmonene, 1976 aneole and campher camphene
4 Curcuma amada p-pinene (0.62%), adehydrocimene 91 4.22%), Rao et al. 1 989 trans-di hydroocimene (1 4.9%), myn;ene (1 4.9%). linalool(13.37%), nonan-2- (5.38%). a-terpineol(1.3846). p-elemene 91 .a%)
5 C. aromabca camphene (0.91 %), camphor (3.91 %), Catalan et al. 1988 p-arcurnene (28.44), ar-arrcumene (23.35%) ringiberene (3.7%), currerene (4.55%) germacrone (3.63), wmnene(7.25%) xanthorrhizol(8.01%)
u m d parcumenes (65.5%), monocydic terbary sesquiterptne akohols (22%), d-camhor (2.5%), camphene (0.8%)
l ,Mnede (9.06%), ocimene (1 5.66%), dempher (1 8.88%), linalool(20.42%), d-born- (7%), and zingiberol (12.6%),
d-campher (76.6%). mpkm and bomylene Weafth of India, 1948 -76 (8.2%), sesquiterpmes (1 0.5%)
a-ghdlandrene (l %), sabinene (90.6%) Wealth of India tineole (WO), b o w (0.5%), zingibemne (25%) turmerone (58%)
kmonene, cinede, atnxrmene, angibeme, Gopalam and Ratnambal, brsabdene, p - phehdrene, ar-turmerwre. 1987 tumemne
8 C. zedoaria a-- 91.5%0, dcamphene (3.5%) Wealth of India cineoe19.6%), camphor (1 0.1 %) sesquiterpene alcohol (48%)
9 H. mmnarium p-plnene (24.8%), l ,8-cineole (40.2%) Lechat-Vahirua et al. 1993
10 N. spicatum ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate (67.85), Wealth of India ethyl annarnate (10.2%), d-sabinene (4.2%) ?,4crnede (6%), cadininene (5.5%)
l l K. galanga a-thujene, a-pinene, carnphene, benzaldehyde, Ding et al. 1985 sabinine, b-pinene, a-phellandrene, A3-earene, Fymene, limonene i ,hneole, b-phellandrene pmethoxy styrene, bomeol, terpin-4-01 a-terpind, eucarvone, anisaldehyde, bornylacetate, hymol, a-terpinyi acetate, as-ethyldnnamate, b-selinene, trans-ethyl cinnamate, pentadecane, a-cadinene, cispmethoxy%~oxy cinnamate
Rui et al. 1982
Wir et al. 1 98 1
Charles et a1 19920
Purohit et al. 1976
1 ,-, acebxy CMVW acetate, linaloor, Mori et al. 1995 acetate, eugenoi, c h a U Bcetate,
a h d y l acetate methyl eugenol
14 A. rerumbet tqheM=d, 1,8&wole, sabinene, a-terpinene Pooter et al. 1995 (A- speai;osa)
u ~ , amphem, p+hem, cineole, camphor G b r t o et al. 19?7 kme&
~ c h a n p h , d-cmphene, dnede, chmmic ester
Weafth of India
15 El~riacarrlammumaplnene(1.2%),&plneneandsabim(2.7Y0) CiccioandFranctsco, Guademah mymm (1.4%), dhmonene and 1,84neok 1977
(43.3%), linaW(5. l), linabl acetate (2.6%) rMerpineol(2.7%), a-terpineol(2.8%) a4qmyi acetate (32.9%)
a--l {44.84%), myrcene (27.14%), Shaban et al. 1987 Heptem, u-pinene, sabinene, bplnene,fimonene l ,&chde, p-pfPe#andrane, menthone
Cbreole, ?erpiW, terpinene, limonene, Wealth of India, 1948 to sabinene 1976
AB a ntimutagent
Antiinflammatory, anslgrslc, antlpyrstlc, rntimlcrobisf and hy poglycemic rctlvrty
Antifungrl
lnsecticldal property 4
Antlrrhinovlral property
The raw ginger ir acrid, thennogenic,, camin~ ive , laxative and digestive, wful in anorexlr, vitiated condttions of vata and kapha, dysp@prie, pharyngoprthy rnd inflammatlonr. The dry ginger In =rid therrnogenlc, emollient, appetiuer, lmtlve, stomach,s~mulant, mbefaclsnt, anodyne, rphrodislrc, expetorant, rnthdrnlntlc and crrminat i~ . It is useful in dropsy, oblglr, caphalotgin asthma,cough,colic diarrhoea, flatulence, anorak, vltlated condltionb of vrta @nd kapha, dyspeprlr crrdlopMhy, pharyngopathy, cholera, nensea, varnitlng, dephantrlsrls and inflarnmatrons.
In flavouring food preparation; as stimulant and carminative; in diarrhoea and colic; using medicinally as a substituent for common ginger
Antihistamine property and antiasthmatic; in Thai traditional medicines
As Uterine relaxant
Antioxidant praperty
Rhlzome ractnct Nanir and Kodu (1W7) Shetty ot rl(1969) Endo et e! ( 1990)
Rhizome Varier ( l 990)
Rhizome Wealth of India ( 1848-76 )
Rhlzome Piromrat et d. (1966)
Rhizome Kanjanapothi d d. (1 987)
Rhttorne extnct JRoe el d. (1 092)
Antimflammstory activity
lnsectrcidal constituents
Employed medicinally for cough, stomachache, asthms, against worms, in leprosy and other skin dioeorss
Medicinal use in traditional system, ,
In card10 vascular diseases
Curcume eerugenoss Antiulcrl activity .d
Antioxidant
Gastro intestinal remedy and as a spice
Antivirsl activity
Hepateprotective elfects(pr0tecting liver injury)
Antifungal actlvlty
In culinary preperetions; therapeutical application as carminative and stomachic; topical use over contunlous and sprains
As grain protectants agalnst pests & insects
Antioxidant prperty
f he rhizomes are brttw, sweet, sour, aromatic cooling. eppetiser, ~rminative.digestive,stamechic, demulscent, vulnerary,febrituge,eIexeteric,aphrodiniac,~ax~ive diuretic,cutpectomnt,anti-innammatory,and antipyretic used In vitiated conditonc of prtte enerwk dyrpepsia, flatulence, colic,brui8bs,wounds,chranic ulcen,skln dhemtes, pruntus,Mr , conrtipation,strbngury, hlccough~,cough, bronchitis,sprain~,goal,hriitosls,otalgla end inflammations
Rhizome Mrsuda and Jtoo (1884)
Rhizome Bombang el d. (lQ96)
Rhizome
R h izome
R h izome
Rhizome axtract
Rhizome extract
R hlzomr
Rhizome axtrrct
Rhkoma sxtnd
Rhizome
Wealth of lndla (1946-76)
Duve ( 1980)
8iddiqui d al. (1 880)
Watanr be (1 988)
Jitae et d. (1Q92)
Icthro et et. (1995)
Tom et d. ( 1 905)
KoJi et al, (18Qe)
Qupta and Banorjea ( l 972)
Rhizome Rao et d. (1 989)
Rhizome Ahmad st at. (1981)
Rhizome mtrrd Jltoe et d (1 982)
The rhizomes are bitter,acrid,thermogenicI emoltlsnt, anody ne, enti-inflamrnetory, wlnsra~,depuretive,antiseptic,eppsti~rI carminetive,stomachic,anthdrnintic,lexative,diuraClc, expeclorant, harmetlnic,styptic,anti+odIc,attW, alexeteric, de4srgd,stimulant,~rlfuge,op~slm)c and tonlc, usefuf in vitiated conditions of kapha and pltte, lnflernmatlons, ulcers,wounds, iepmry,skin diseases, pruritus,allsrglc conditions, and discolouratlon of the skin,anorexla,dy?pep~ta,(IrtuI(~ce colic. helminthiasie,constipation,strengury,cough,s~thma, bronchitir, hiccough,cetarrh,anaemia, hamorrhrgsl, hmmoptysis, hepatomsgaly,oplenom~ely,fever,giddlnerr ,arathronhw, R hizorne Varier (1 884) elrphantlaslr.dropry, hysteria ,apilep~y, cffronlc otorrhoea, ringworm,gonorrh~a,rmsnorrhoee,jaundlm, conjuctlvltk, general debillty and diabetes.
Antifungal property Rhuomr Gupta and Bansrjes (1972)
Antifungal and cytotoxic activities Rhizome attract Saito d et. (l 979)
Anticancer components and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells Rhizome extract Hwang et d.(lQ8Q)
Antiulcer activity Rhioma extract Watanebe et d. (1908)
Antiturnor activity Rhizome extract Yokota et a/. (1 986)
As hepatic drugmetabolism inhibitor Rhizome Shin ef et. (1080)
As grain protectsnts against pests end insects Rhizome Ahmad et d. (fgQ7)
Hedychium coronerrum Used In Hawai as a remedy for foetid nostrlb used as e febrifuge;entirheumatic,tonic and encitant,used as gargle Rhizome Wealth of India ( 1948-76)
Antihypertensive and diuretic effect Rhizome Ribeiro (1 986)
H sp~caium As an article of commerce; corrninetive, stirnutent rtomechic Rhizome Wealth of India (l 048-76)
Antiinflammatory and analgesic activity Rhizome Srlrnal et al. (1084)
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c. Chernotaxonornical aspects o f terpenoids in Zingiberaceae
Tackling taxonomic problems from several directions to find a solution is the
current trend in plant bio - systematic research, which may be traced back to an
earlier period of the later half of this century. Thus plant chemistry was also
found to be an important criterion that can be exploited for asserting the
systematic position of certain ambiguous taxa (Heghnauer, 1 963, 1 969; Sorensen,
1963; Ram, 1 983). The role of chemical constituents of p1 ants in phytotaxonomy
is well accepted today (Hambore and Tumer, 1984; Stace, 1980). investigations
into chemical variation of plant groups are applied mainly for two purposes.
Firstly, to provide taxonomic characters which may improve existing plant
classification, i.e strict taxonomic purpose, and secondly, to add to the knowledge
of phylogeny or evolutionary purposes Vaik, 1992). Structurally similar
compounds derived from difierent plant species with a common biological
pathway may serve as viable parameters for identifying affinity of broader and
smaller taxa. Such biogenetic correlation often indicates the degree of accuracy
of the classification of plants at the generic or familial level already accepted by
taxonomists. Biosynthetic pathways leading to particular w m p d are
expressions of genome just as are morphological features; indeed so called 9
morphological features are a1 l in some sense themselves expressions of
biosynthetic pathways.
Flake and Tumer (1973) evaluated the utility and potential value of various
volatile constituents as taxonomic characters and concluded that terpenes were
ideal characters. For systematic purposes especially at and below the generic
level. By using terpenes considerable insight can be obtained about speciation
and adaptational processes occurring within a given taxon. The dificulty of
essential oil chernotaxonomy rests on the fact that not all products become
volatile under steam or hydro distillation (MC Kern, 1965). In view of this one
must take into consideration, whether certain essential oil components may serve
as 'genuine taxonomic tracers'. Moreover, to conduct studies on essential oils
from the point of view of chemotaxonorny is often dificult; because to draw
taxonomic conclusions from the oqxrrence or non-occurrence of a single
compound in a single part of a plant is always found to be uncertain. Also
identical substances in different species may be developed lhrough entirely.
different biosynthetic routes and thus the formation but never the substance has
chemotaxonomic val ues (Tetenyi, 1 986). However, in the present work the
constituents identified in various taxa are mostly the terminal products of
biosynthetic pathways and they accumulate in the plant tissues gving a greater
chance for the reproducibility of these results. Hence a possible comparison
between different taxa of Zingiberaceae on account of major essential oil
constituents is being made.
The present discussion deals with the taxonomy of the family Zingiberaceae; its
taxonomic position and specific inter-relationships on the grounds of essential oil
chemical constitution of the various species. The members of the family are
classified broadly into aromatic and non-aromatic species. The aromatic plant
species are again grouped into distinct chemotypes (vide Table - 48). The
terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic markers. They have a major role
in classifying the complicated genera like Cwcuma, AIpinia etc. Also in various
other genera and their respective species the presence or absence df essential oil,
the distribution of terpenoids, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons etc. are
very much helpful for studying both inter and intrageneric and specific *
relationships within the family.
Under the order Scitamineae only the family Zingiberaceae possesses aromatic
members as a distinctive feature. Other families viz., Marantaceae, Cannaceae
and Musaceae have no aromatic members. Schumann (1904) mvided
Zingiberaceae into two sub farnil ies namely Zingiberoideae and Costoideae. The
sub family Costoideae does not possess aromatic oil cells and no aromatic species
are present in the family. But in the sub family Zingiberoideae the plants are
aromatic which is a common character in many members. Presence of absence of
essential oils regardless of their composition represents a very valuable
taxonomic character (Hegnauer, 1982). An examination of the present results
(Table-49 and 52 ) reveals that the earlier classification of various species can be
justified on the basis of chemical differences noted. Rurtt and Smith (1 972)
modified Schumann's (1904) classification of the family Zingiberaceae and
proposed a new infra familial classification of the family Zingiberaceae.
\G6
The absence of o lcoresin cotltinui ng ideoblasts and the presence of steroid
saponins (diosgenin and sapogenin) are strong additional arguments in favour of
proposed excl usion of Costoideae from Zingiberaceae (Hegnauer, 1 982).
According to Panchaksharappa ( l 962 ) morphologically the Costoideae is distinct
from Zingiberoideae and form a natural group that deserves the status of sub
family. But Tom linson ( 1 956), based on the deviating characters exhibited by
('ostus, suggested that the group Costoideae may possibly be raised to a family
rank. Such data on other genera of Costoideae are lacking. Ilence in order to
decide such an issue, it is necessary to study the features of all other genera of
Costoideae instead of depending on the results obtained only from Costur.
The tribe Globbeae of the sub family. Zingiberoideae also does not possess any
aromatic plants. This tribe under the sub family Zingiberoideae thus stands as a
distinctive group of non-aromatic plants.
The monogeneric tribe Zingibereae possesses aromatic species of Zingiber. In
the present study five species were analysed for their essential oil constituents. Z
neesunum and Z purpureum possess mixed chernotypes. A Bcaryophyl lene 9
chemotoype is identified in Z cenruum; Z oficinole and Z zerumber possess
zingiberene and zerumbone chernotypes respectively. Eventhough the
chernotypes are different, fiorn the Table-52 it is clear that Zcernuum, Z
purpureum and Z zerumbet show an increased affinity. Also 2. ncesuntm and 7-
zerumbet show a close interspecific chemical relationship. The least resemblance
is noticed between Z cernuum and Z ofticinale. The species Z neesunum and
Alpinid zerumbet show some sort of intergeneric chemical similarities.
Regarding the very complicated genus C'urcumu an examination of the present
results reveals that the various species studied are distinct by the presence or
absence of one or two groups of the constituents (vide Table49). The various
species of the genus were quite distinct with regard to their constitution
expounded by virtue of their terpenoid patterns. The distinctions of even the
related species were also quite visible in their chemical profiles. An examination
of the coefficients of similitude (vide Table-52) reveals that the species C'.
gerugcnosu, ( '. ruktacuntu and C. zedoariu are more or less related in someway.
The coefficient of similitude varied between 367.36 to 37.50 (' caesia and C.:
ruk~ucanfa also show some sort of chemical resemblance. The coefficient of
similitude is 37.5. However, all these species relationships are not strong enough
to consider them as varieties of a single species. The taxonomically complication
between the species C uerugenosa Roxb., Ccuesia Roxb. and C. malaburicu
Velay., Arnal & Murali., has been cleared in the present study. Sabu (199 1)
treated C. malaburica as same plant for C aerugenosa. Later Mangaly and Sabu
(1993) treated C: rnalobnrica as C caeasio considering that the former same as
the later. But fiom the present study it is obviously clear that these three species
are quite distinct chemically in their terpenoid composition. In C oerugenosa the
chemotype is an ar-tunerone and in C. caesia a mixed chemotye is noted. In C.
malaharica the chernoty pe is with 1,8 cineole. Hence these species can be
considered as separate species and the classification made by Velayudhan et d
(1990) also gains support from the present study.
From the Table-52 it is clear that the affinity between the two cytotypes of H.
coromrium is very strong. The coefficient of similitude is 85.7 1. Also the two
cytotypes of H. co~omriurn show strong resemblance with H. jlavescens. The
coefficient of similitude varies from 75 to 87.5. However, H. spicatum var. is
quite distinct fiom the above two species and show the least chemical affinity.
The coefficient of similitude varies from 8.33 to 10. The species H. coronnrium
and H. fravescens show a probable intergeneric chemical resemblance with
A Iipina malaccemis and Al'pinio =er urnbet var. var igata.
The two species of Kaempferia studied show high affinity between them. The
coefficient of similitude is 75. Also these two species are quite distinct From
other species of various genera in having ethyl p-methoxy cinnamate as a major
constituent of the essential oil. The exotic species K. pulchm studied in the first
part of dissertation does not possess essential oil.
Of the seven species of Alpinia studied the pairs A.culcurato Rosc., - A-ndccensis (Burman) Rosc., and A. malaccensis-A. nigru (Gaertn. ) Nburtt.,
show more chemical relationships than other species. The various species are
however more or less related in their chemical patterns. Among the species four
show mixed chemotypes. A. galunga and A. zerunbef var. varigata show a
cineole chemotype and eugenol chemotype is identified with A. srnitlziae. AS
discussed above a few species reveal a kind of resemblance with the species of
He&chium. This may probably be due to the parallel evolution of various taxa or
may be due to a distant chance for the members of the tribe Hedychieae to take
their orgins from the more primitive tribe Alpinieae. As discussed in the tint part
of the dissertation the tribe Hedychieae is more advanced than tribe Alpinieae.
From the karyomorphologcal study also some evidences can be found in this
regard. The basic chromosome number of most of the members of the tribe
Alpinieade is X= 1 2 whereas in various members of the tribe Hedychieae the basic
chromosme number is found to be x=12, 13, 14, 17, 21 and 25 which were
considered to be originated from the primary number x=12 condition. The species
A. purpurata which is an exotic species is found to be a non-aromatic plant.
The various species of A m o m m studied karyomophologically are not aromatic
species. Thus these species stand apart from other aromatic genera and their
species. In Amomm the North Indian species A. subalatum is an aromatic piant.
However all the ~ d u t h Indian species are not aromatic.
The three cultivars of E h r t a show high affinity between each otheg The
coefficient of similitude is varylng from 71 -42 to 100. cr-Terpinyl acetate is a
major component in these taxa and they are quite distinct from other member of
the family in this regard.
It is dificult to comment on the relationship of this family on the basis of the
c hernial data available today. Nevertheless, it has been observed earlier (Gibbs,
1974; Williarns and Ilarbome, 1977) that the p u p has fairly distinct chemical
patterns. Morphologically the order Zingiberales (Sensu Huchinson, 1959) is
well-defined group, the relationships of which with other plant groups have been
much debated. After a detailed study of various secondary rnetabolites Pugialli
( 1996) pointed out certain evidences demonstrating chemical relationships
between the super orders Zingiberi florae and Magnoliflorae. of Dahlgren (1 980)
and su~gested the existence of a common ancestor for Monocotyledoneae and
primitive Dicotyledoneae. The order is associated with the Bromeliales and;or
the Commelinales (Takhtajan, 1 969; Thome 1 992; Clarke et al. 1 993). Cronquist
(1988) placed these pants within his Commelinik while Takhtajan (1969)
considered Zingiberales to belong to his Liliideae. The phytochemical data on
this group however, do not support the relationshi p with Commelinales, since its
members are not aromatic. By the flavanoid analysis of Zingiberaceae (Harborne
and Williams, 1976; Williams and Hahrne, 1977) it has been found hat a
possible taxonomic affinity between Zingiberales, Fluviales and Bromel iales.
I-lowever, the conclusions on the affinity of the Zingiberaceae on the basis of
photochemical grounds are rather tentative. A thorough investigation on the
chemical constituents of these plants is necessary to arrive at any valid
conclusion to explain affinity of this family with other groups.
To sum up, in the present work thirty taxa were studied for their essential oil
constituents. The study was limited to identify only the major essential oil
constituents of each taxa. These essential oils contain principally mom, and
seq ui terpenoi ds. Their taxonomic relevance is already discussed. Even though a
detailed chemotaxonomic study of these taxa is not possible without a
substanceous knodedge on the biochemical pathways for each component and
the role of minor components, a possible comparison on 8ccount of major
essential oil constituents is conducted In the various genera some taxa are not
aromatic. The members of the tribe Globbeae are not possessing essential oil.
The exotic species of Kaempferia (R. pulchra) and Alpinia (A. purpurau,, and
South Indian species of Amomum (A. cannicaotpum, A. hypoeunun. A.
muricatum and A. pterocarpum) are quite distinct from other manben of the
same genera in not having any aroma constituents. Thus it seems that the theory
of continental drift is reflected in the mode of appearance of essential oil
constituents in plants now growing in different continents (Fujita, 1967). And
also an important part of the theory of Vavilov (1920) on gene centers and
geographical isolation can be well explained. During the course of evolution
such species turned to produce or not to synthesize such secondary rnetabolites
by phy s io lo~c accumulation of plants to different climatic biologtcal and
geographical conditions. Also some of the species which show close
169
resemblance are in homologous line of evolution. Later Nilove ( 1 937) extended
ihe theory of Vavilov to the biochemical characters of the related species on the
basis of their similarity in chemism and the homologous lines in evolution were
well established. This also can be explained by viewing certain parallelism in
essential oil production as in many cases of Zingberaceae plants and different
ways of chemically homologous lines.
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d. Chemical ecology of terpenoids in Zingiberaceae
Chemically terpenoids are usually unsaturated hydrocarbons, with varying
degrees of oxygenation in the substituent groups (alcohol, aldehyde, lactone etc.)
attached to the basic skeleton. The terpenoids are known to have as diverse
functions as their chemical structures. They have specific role in many of the
p1 ant-animal, plant-pl ant and p1 ant-micro organism interactions as p hytoalexins,
insect anti feedants, defence agents, pheromones, a1 lelochem ical S, signal
molecules and so on. Some are highly toxic to animal systems while others have
the ability to interfere hormonally with insect metamorphosis and with animal
growth and reproduction (Harbome, 1991). My attempt here is to discuss the
role of terpenoids in the chemical ecology of plants of Zingiberaceae, and to link
the present findings with the earlier works in this field
The various species coming under the family the Zingiberaceae show different
levels of chemical adapfations to their environment. Most of the members of this
family are aromatic and there should be a clear function for these secondary
metabolites in the well being of these plants in their surrounding environment.
Nature has been the biggest architect of heterogeneous c hernicals especial l y in
case of pjant kingdom where they have been used to ward off unwanted insects,
pests, rodents, predators or to defend against various diseases, herbivory or even
to attract polli nators. The various terpenoid molecules identified in the essential
oil samples of respective taxa are listed (vide Table-49).
One of the noted features of various aromatic species is that, they show
antiherbivory and this may be due to the terpenes present in the leafy and shoot
portions. Herbivorous animals are not often eating plants of Alpinia, Curcum,
Zingiber etc. In fact, gracing animals find these species unpalatable and
normally avoid them. Among the tribal people, it is a common belief that snakes
\Fill not come to the place where Curcuma longu plants are grown. Various
species of AIpiniu are very resistant to many diseases. They are not even affected
by many bacterial, viral and fungal diseases. The leaves and shoot portions of
most of these plants are richly blended with terpenoids. This may effectively
give them such a high defence against microbial attack. The essential oil of
Alpmia zerumhet has strong antibacterial properties (Yu et ul. 1993). The
chemical corn ponents isothymol, th ymol and eugenol of A. zerumbet possess
strong antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi (Taira et al. 1995) and
gerani ol and isothymol possess strong antimicrobial activity against plant
pathogenic bacteria (Taira et al. 1994). But in Alpiniapurpuru~u, which is not an
aromatic plant, the flowers are often infested with ants, banana aphids, cotton
aphids and cardamom t hrips (Hata et al. 1995). Rats and rabbits seldom attack
the plants with even fleshy rhizomes like Kaempferia, Zingiber, Curcurnu etc. in
which all these rhizomes are rich in terpenes. Blast disease due to &ridaria
zingiberi Nishikado occurs on ginger plants but not on plants such as Indian shell
flower (Alpiniajuponicu Miq.) and turmeric (Cwcuma l o n p Linn.) which grow
around ginger fields (Kotani, 1994). In this case it is clear that the leaves of
gtnger plants are not aromatic while the leaves of Alpinia and Curcuma are
aromatic and the terpenes present in them may be the reason for protecting these
plants from blast disease. A species of trypanosoma is reported to be caused the
decay of Alpinto purpumta rhizomes (Muller et al. 1995) which is a non-
aromatic species. The other aromatic species are often found to be resistant
It is quite remarkable that juice sucking insects such as mosquitos are rare in
plants like Zingiber ~erumbet and various AIpinza species. Plants like A[pinia
galango, Curcum amado. Curcuma zedooria and Curcurno longa proved for
heir insecticidal antiovipsitional and ovicidal properties against certain beetle
species (Ahamed and Ahrned, 1992). The chemical components such as
carnphene, cineole, eugenol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, B - phe~~andrene and a-
pinene have been reported for their insecticidal and ovicidal actions (Sharrna and
Saxena, 1 974). Some of the sweet smelling terpenoids are attractants to insects
for oviposition on the one hand and ovicidal on the other hand. Some terpenoids
attract the scavengers who f e d on plant eating insects. a-Pinene which is
present in many members show high repellent activity agains certain insects
while gennacrene-D, a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon is reported to be a male sex
stimulant for certain cockroaches (Satoshi et al. 1 975). Limonene and a-pinene
has the property to mimic, alarm or alter pheromones of certain termites (Moore,
1971). Geraniol is found to be very useful intermediates for the synthesis o fc l7
juvenile hormones. Dutta er al. ( 1985) reported that the Andaman aborigines use
.41~1omum muleaturn for tmquilising the gant rock bees Apis dorsu~u and harvest
honey from their hives without protective apparel, while the bees remain daile.
It is sure that the terpenoids present in this plant undoubtedly attract the bees in
someway or other. In the present observations it has been seen that many insects
and ants are acting as pollinators in various species of AIpinia and Kuempfieriu.
In Alpinia smithiae pollination is by insects and ants mainly by weaver ants
Oecuphylla smaradina F. They make nests on this plant by weaving together its
leaves during the flowering seasons. They help in pollination and leave the piant
when the flowering is over. . In Alpinia zerumbet and Akiniu galango the
pollination is by bees and wasps. Whereas in Alpinio culcura~a and Kaempfiria
gulungu it is by the insects of the order Diptera-In these cases the flowers do not
possess any nectar glands. Hence it can be assumed that different terpewids
present in these plants and their flowers are attracting the insects and ants for
their pollination purpose.
The underground rhizornatous portion of many Zingiberaceae plants, seen to be
closely associated ' with the vesicular arbuscular rnycorrhizal fungi. This
associated fungal species alter the host metabolism in such a way that the plants
develop defense mechanisms by the enhanced production of secondary
metabolites like essential oils (Sharma et al. 1996). Hence it is worth noting that
the increase in essential oil components in rhizomes will naturally provide a
resistance against various microbial diseases
Monoterpenes occur widely in Zingberaceae plants. Their ecological role as
pollinator attraction i s clearly proved (Bergstrorn, 1991). These tepenes also
accwnulate in quantity in leaves and stems. Most of these components have a
defensive role against hehivory. They are either toxic or deterrent to a range of
herbivores and represent a real bamer to feeding. Limonene (Wada and
Munakata, 1971) and camphor (Sinclair et 01. 1988) possess strong feeding
inhibitory activity. P-cymene, terpinen - 4-01 and u-terpineol often exert great
antifeedant effect by contact amon (Gombus and Gasko, 1977). The production
of these terpenoids in the leafy shoot region protects plant tissues from herbivory
and the concentration of these components increases in response to hehivory. In
many Zingiberaceae plants especial1 y in Alpinia and Curcumu the leaves possess
significantly these components particularly camphor. This may protect these
plants against herbivory and insect grazing. There is little doubt, therefore, that
cornphor together with other secondary constituents provide competitive
advantage to thee species in nature by limiting their consumption by large
herbivores. It is also worth remembering that rnonoterpenes are toxic to
microorganisms and have a lle lopat hic effects on plant tissues (Fischer et al.
1988). The various species of Alpiniu are found to be allelopathic to many of the
surrounding undershurbs. The monoterpeoes present in the leaves of such plants
may be released into the environment and exert an allelopathic influence on other
plant species preventing their growth. Cineole and camphor are particularly
effective in this regard (Mandi and Shama, 1994). The distribution of these two
monoterpenes in different species of Curcurno and AIpinia are represented in the
Fig.55 and Fig. 56.
Sesquiterpenes also have a common occurrence in the essential oil of
Zingiberaceae members. The sesquiterpene lactones have a wide range of
demonstrated biol Agical activities such as cytotoxic compounds, vertebrate
pi sons, insect feeding deterrents, sc hi stosumicidal substances and al l ergic
agents (Rodriyz et al. 1976). The biolopic8I activities associated with
sesquiterpenes are many and varied, from plant growth regulation (abscisic acid)
to interference with insect metamorphosis. Eventhough, there is much indirect
evidence that sequiterpene lactones cause insect herbivores to avoid plants
containing such components, ecological data confirming the defensive role of
these lactones in the plants are still relatively limited. The rhizomes of Zingiber
purpureum exhibit strong fungtoxic action. The antifidingal component is
identified as zerumbone-a sequiterpene (Kishor and Dwivedi, 1992) and this
esygenated hurnulene derivative substance is also the major component of
Zingibrr zerumbet rhizomes. And, it has been well evident that both these
Zingiber species are highly resistant against fungi Pythium and Fusoriurn species
which cause rhizome rot disease in Zingiher ofticinale, in which zerumbone is
totally absent. Sesquiterpenoid like caryophyllene protects plants From insect
attack because of thei r anti micorbial properties. Caryophy llene is repel lent to
certain leaf-cutting ants. The ants reject the leaves because this sequiteqxne
damages the fungus upon which they depend for their food (Hubbel et al 1983,
Howard et ul. 1989). In Zingiher cernuum and Z =erurnhet caryophyllene is
found to be a major component.
Very little is known regarding the role of diterpenoids and triterpenoids and in
the present study none of them is identified as their occurrence is in trace
amounts. A number of diterpenoids that the earlier workers (Harborne, 1986 a;
1986; 1991 ; Rao et al. 1989). Most of the hterpenes are notable for their irritant
and co-carcinogenic properties. Various ecologcal functions of the diterpenes in
the plant kingdom such as, defense against herbivory (Eisner et al. 1974),
hormonal interference in insects (Elliger et al. 1976) antifeedant activity (Kubo
et al. 1976), phytoallexin defense (Harborne, 1986 a), antifungal defense
(Harborne, 1986 b Roa et al. 1 989) etc. are reported. The plant growth regulator
gibberellic acid is still not reported in the plants of Zingiberaceae. An antifungal
di terpene was isolated fiom Alpinia gaIlinga (Har8&uchi et al. 1 996). Galanals A
and B, the cembrane diterpenes, galanolactone and other labdane derivatives
from Alpinin. galanga show strong anti fungal properties (Mori ta and Ito kawa,
1 988). From ~edy>hium coronar ium c ytotoxic labdane diterpenes coronari n A,
B and C have been isolated and they show antineoplastic activity against Chinese
hamster V-79 cells (Itokawa et d. 1988) There are no reports available so far on
the triperpenoids among these plants.
In conclusion, the natural purpose of the synthesis and accumulation of
terpenoids in the plant kingdom still possess a considerable question mark to
phytochemists .As discussed above, they have some role in plant growth
regulation. In pollination biology, in various interactions with other plants,
animals or insects, in defense against diseases and in other attacks, However, the
studies on the chemical defensive mechanisms of terpenoids is still at an early
stage. Ilence, it is high time to collect sufficient data and to emphasis duly the
ecological role of terpoenoids as primarily defensive agents against over grazing.
This topic therefore, offers ample scope for future research programmes.
The thirty different aromotic taxa were analysed chemically for their essential oil
components. Members of Zingiberaceae varying considerably as regard the
percentage yield of essential oils. Most of the members are lesser oil yielding
plants. Some of the members are not even aromatic. The genus Zingiber exhibits
oil richness and oil poorness among the various species studied. The quantity of
essential oil ranges from 0.82% to 2.87% in various species. Similarly both oil
poor and oil rich taxa were found in the genera Curcurnu, Hedychium and
Kaemderia. The percentage of oil yield among these genera, ranges from 0.86 to
4.76, 0.31 to 1.76 and 0.83 to 1.33 respectively . The genus AIpinia is
comparatively oil poor and the percentage of oil varies from 0.28 to 1.17 among
various species. EZeifaria curdurnomum is the best oil yielding plant in this
family. The yield varies from 9.86 to 1 1 .3 1 ./o in various cultivan.
Various physical properties of the essential oils distilled from different taxa were
checked for assessing the purity of the samples. Colour, odour, flavour, density,
solubility and refractive index of oil samples are studied and each sample has a
specific character. The various aromatic taxa posses oil that are rich in
odoriferous monoterpenoids like a and P-pinene, sabinew, 1 -8, cineole,
oci mene, myrcene, ci tral, lirnonene, linalool, camphor, terpinen - 441 1, a-terpinyl
acetate, geraniole etc. Phenols and their derivatives, which contribute towards
the aroma of the various tax% are eugenol, methyl cimamate, ethyl cinnamate,
isoeugenol etc. The sesquiterpcnoids like gemacrene-D, zerumbone, p- bisabolene, zingiberene, ar-curcumene, p-curcumene etc. are found to impart
strong odour to some taxa.
The various taxa of the family Zingiberaceae are characterized by wide variations
in their chemotypes. Majority of them shows a mixed chemotype. Out of the
five species investigated in Zingiher two species show mixed chemotype whereas
the other three represent, zcrurn bone, Pcaryoph y l l ene and zingrberene
chemotypes. In Curcuma mixed chemotype is found with three species. The
major chemical components recognised in the different chemotypes of Curcumn
are u - pinenc, P-pinrne, sabinene, ocimene, limonene, camphor, 1,8 - cineole,
ar-curcumenc, p-curc umene, ar-turnerone, xanthonhizol, camphene,
gerrnacrone-l) etc. In Kaemp/ccriu the two sjxcies show mixed chemotypes with
n- pentadecane, ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate, ethyl cimarnate, A3-carene,
camphene, 1 ,g-cineole, camphor etc. as major components. In He4chium three
tasa are cineole chemotypes and the other one is mixed chemotype. In Abinia
out of the eight species studied, mixed chemotypes are in clear majority with
cam phene, pinene, methyl cinnamate, camphor, geraniol, citronel lyl acetate, fl - caryophyllene, cincole etc. as major components. In all the cultivars of
Cardomum mixed chemotype is found with 1,8-cineole and U-terpinyl acetate as
major components.
The members of the family are classified broadly into aromatic and non-aromatic.
The aromatic plant species are awn grouped into distinct chemotypes. The
terpenoids are of great importance as taxonomic markers- They have a major role
in classifying the complicated genus like Curcuma Also in various other genera
and their respective species the presence or absence of essential oil, the
distribution of terpenoids, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons etc. are very
much helpful for studying both inter and intra generic and specific relationships
within the family. However, to conduct studies on essential oils from the point of
view of chemotaxonomy is often difficult; because to draw taxonomic
conclusions from the occurrence or nonmcurrence of a single compound in a
single part of the plant is always found to be uncertain. Also identical substances
in different species may be developed through entirely different biosynthetic
routes and thus the formation but never the substance has chemotaxonomic value.
Nevertheless, a possible comparison between different taxa on account of major
essential oil constituents is being made.
P1 ant terpenoids have dominated the subject of chemical ecology. The terpenoid
molecules have been implicated in almost every possible plant-animal, plant-
plant and plant-microorganism interactions. The various terpenoid molecules
present in Zingiberaceae members have clear ecological role such as
phytoalexins, insect antifeadants, antiherhivary, defence agents, pheromones,
a l leloc hemicals, poll i nator attraction, insecticidal and antimicrobial properties.
Some terpenoids are highly toxic to animal systems and feeding insects. The
sesquiterpenoid abscisic acid has a plant growth regulation role. The role of
many of them is yet to be defined. These substances are often caught up in plant-
animal interactions.Thcir major purpose in those plants are investigated and
proved to be as a defensive one; which protects tissues from both herbivory and
microbial infection. However, we are still at an early stage in gathering clear
evidences for such an ecological role.