CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General:

In this modern age more and more energy is required for daily consumption in all works

of life. Sources and quantum of fossil energy are dwindling day by day and getting exhausted

at a very fast rate. Hence conservation, tapping new sources of energy and harnessing of the

same from the various non conventional sources, is an important aspect of energy

production/conservation and utilization all over the world.

The sky-rocketing price of crude oil has ruined the economy of many a country, hence there

is a crying need for production of energy from non conventional sources at the earliest. The

present concept is one of the answers to this problem, as the said induced wind into useable

electric energy which can be utilized straight away or stored in batteries.

1.2. Energy Requirement:

World primary energy demand grows by 1.6% per year on an average between 2006 and

2030 - an increase of 45%. Demand for oil rises from 85 million barrels per day now to 106

mb/d in 2030 - 10 mb/d less than projected last year. Modern renewable energies grow most

rapidly, overtaking gas to become the second-largest source of electricity soon after 2010.

With increasing environmental concern, and approaching limits to fossil fuel consumption,

wind power has regained interest as a renewable energy source. This new generation of wind

mills produce electric power and are more generally used for all applications, which requires

power.

1.3. Field Of Invention:

1.3.1. Back Ground :

The fixed wind powered electricity generation systems in use, till now are dependent on wind

direction and the force of the wind. But the wind is not available at all place and all time

throughout the year. Therefore, there exists an immense need of a system for generating

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electricity from wind induced by moving vehicles, trains or airplanes, which is available

throughout the year at various places and with sufficient force of wind. Therefore this

invention provides a solution to the problem for generating electricity in this manner.

1.3.2. Method:This invention relates to a method for generating electricity using high wind pressure

generated by fast moving vehicles channelling the induced wind in the direction of the wind

turbine. A fast moving vehicle compresses the air in the front of it and pushes the air from its

sides thereby creating a vacuum at its rear and its sides as it moves forward.

Figure 1.1. Typical Train Model

The kinetic energy of the wind movement thus created can be used to generate electricity.

The moving vehicles encounters wind may be railway trains or airplanes, will sweep off it, in

a faster manner making heavy winds.

During this, when a wind turbine, if fit to the moving vehicle will generate adequate amount

of energy. The air flow will cause turbine to rotate and thus electricity can be produced. It

provides a system for generating electricity by using high wind pressure generated by

moving vehicles, using this free renewable input namely air and independent of the vagaries

of seasonal winds having the variation in direction and wind speeds when they do flow and

that too neither at all times or places nor having the necessary force of wind to operate wind

mill to generate electricity as required.

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Suggested place for turbine

Flow of air inlets

1.4. Description Of Project:

WIND PRESSURE

COMPRESSED AIR

ROTATE TURBINE

GENERATE ELECTRICITY

1.4.1. Capturing Wind Induced By Moving Train:

The moving vehicles may be all types of light or heavy vehicles running on road, such as

two, three, four wheelers or even bigger vehicles. The moving vehicles could be railway train

running on railway track. The vehicles could also be aircraft moving on to the runway, taking

off or landing; when testing the propellers in the workshops, proceeding to or standing bye in

the holding area before taking off. These induces fast winds in all it direction of propagation.

1.4.2. Routing The Induced Wind In The Direction Of The Wind Turbine:

If the wind is properly directed towards the wind turbine blades, optimum electricity may be

generated. The desired direction of wind is obtained by a means for channelling wind, in the

direction of the wind turbine. Channelling of wind in a desired direction may be obtained by,

at least one truncated cone or pyramid shaped housing or a pair of planar members

converging towards the blades of the wind turbine.

Aerodynamics is the science and study of the physical laws of the behaviour of objects in an

air flow and the forces that are produced by air flows. The shape of the aerodynamic profile

is decisive for blade performance. Even minor alterations in the shape of the profile can

3

greatly alter the power curve and noise level. Therefore a blade designer does not merely sit

down and outline the shape when designing a new blade.

Fig.1.2. Aerodynamic of wind

The aerodynamic profile is formed with a rear side, is much more curved than the front side

facing the wind. Two portions of air molecules side by side in the air flow moving towards

the profile at point A will separate and pass around the profile and will once again be side by

side at point B after passing the profiles trailing edge. As the rear side is more curved than the

front side on a wind turbine blade, this means that the air flowing over the rear side has to

travel a longer distance from point A to B than the air flowing over the front side. Therefore

this air flow over the rear side must have a higher velocity if these two different portions of

air shall be reunited at point B. Greater velocity produces a pressure drop on the rear side of

the blade, and it is this pressure drop that produces the lift. The highest speed is obtained at

the rounded front edge of the blade.

The blade is almost sucked forward by the pressure drop resulting from this greater front

edge speed. There is also a contribution resulting from a small over-pressure on the front side

of the blade. Compared to an idling blade the aerodynamic forces on the blade under

operational conditions are very large. Most wind turbine owners have surely noticed these

forces during a start-up in good wind conditions.

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The wind turbine will start to rotate very slowly at first, but as it gathers speed it begins to

accelerate faster and faster. The change from slow to fast acceleration is a sign that the blades

aerodynamic shape comes into play, and that the lift greatly increases when the blade meets

the head wind of its own movement .The fast acceleration, near the wind turbines operational

rotational speed, places great demands on the electrical cut-in system that must capture and

engage the wind turbine without releasing excessive peak electrical loads to the grid

Fig.1.3. Rotation of rotor

The desired direction may be transverse or parallel to the direction of plane of rotation of

blades depending upon the type of wind turbine used or the direction of wind, or it the design

of the wind turbines. The turbines are connected to electricity generator to generate

electricity. The generated electricity may be used directly or stored in batteries which can be

used at the time of need

1.4.3. Converting The Energy Of The Wind Into Mechanical Energy By

Using Wind Turbine:

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There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the wind.

These are through the creation of either lift or drag force (or through a combination of two).

Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion, these being the forces felt by a

person (or object) exposed to the wind. Lift forces are the most efficient means of propulsion

but being more subtle than drag forces are not so well understood.

Lift is primary due to the physical phenomena known as Bernoulli's Law. This physical law

states that when the speed of an air flow over a surface is increased the pressure will then

drop. This law is counter to what most people experience from walking or cycling in a head

wind, where normally one feels that the pressure increases when the wind also increases. This

is also true when one sees an air flow blowing directly against a surface, but it is not the case

when air is flowing over a surface. One can easily convince oneself that this is so by making

a small experiment. A is the swept rotor area in square metres (m2) & V is the wind speed in

metres per second (m/s).

Fig.1.4. Bernoulli's law

Take two small pieces of paper and bend them slightly in the middle. Then hold them as

shown in the diagram and blow in between them. The speed of the air is higher in between

these two pieces of paper than outside (where of course the air speed is about zero), so

therefore the pressure inside is lower and according to Bernoulli's Law the papers will be

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sucked in towards each other.

One would expect that they would be blown away from each other, but in reality the opposite

occurs. This is an interesting little experiment that clearly demonstrates a physical

phenomenon that has a completely different result than what one would expect.

1.4.4. Converting That Mechanical Energy Into Electrical Energy By Using

A Generating Device:

The generator is the unit of the wind turbine that transforms mechanical energy into electrical

energy. The blades transfer the kinetic energy from the wind into rotational energy in the

transmission system, and the generator is the next step in the supply of energy from the wind

turbine to the electrical grid.

The wind turbine may be connected to an electricity generator. The generated electricity may

to be stored in pluralities of batteries from which energy may be used as per the need.

These turbines have been designed to power small units like compartments of train,

recharging batteries, although we should mention that it is also quite easy to imagine how a

specially designed wind turbine like this could sit on top of the train or at front and power its

engine as you cruise along on the rail/road. This wind turbine was developed to be used as an

alternative means to recharge communications equipment too.

1.5. Power Production:

The kinetic energy of the wind is the source of the driving force of a wind turbine.

That kinetic energy can be depicted by the formula

E = f. mspec .v3 .................................................... Eq-1.)

In this formula:

E = the kinetic energy

mspec =the specific mass (weight) of air

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v = the velocity of the moving air (the wind)

f = a calculating factor without any physic meaning

The power in the wind is proportional to:

a)the area of windmill being swept by the wind

b)the cube of the wind speed

c)the air density - which varies with altitude.

The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is shown below:

Power = (density of air x swept area x velocity cubed)/2

P = ½. ρ(A)(V)3 .................................................................................Eq-2.)

Where,

P is power in watts (W)

ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic metre

(kg/m3)

A is the swept rotor area in square metres (m2) & V is the wind speed in metres per second (m/s).

8

CHAPTER: 2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND COMPONENT LAYOUT

2.1. Circuit Diagram:

Fig 2.1. Circuit Diagram

MOBILE CHARGING

DC SUPPLY

LED LIGHT

9

D C SUPPLY TO LOAD CONNECTED

CAPACITOR 1000 µFDIODE BRIDGE

1N4007 DIODE

AC SUPPLY FROM DYNAMO

2.2 Component Layout And Description:

The description of several components used in the project is as follows:-

2.2.1. Dynamo:

A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a

commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for

industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion

devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the

rotary converter. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for

efficiency, reliability and cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical

commutator. Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices

(vacuum tube or more recently solid state) is effective and usually economic.

2.2.1.A.) Etymology:

The word dynamo (from the Greek word dynamics; meaning power) was originally another

name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the

word generator. After the discovery of the AC Generator and that alternating current can be

used as a power supply, the word dynamo became associated exclusively with the

commutated direct current electric generator, while an AC electrical generator using either

slip rings or rotor magnets would become known as an alternator.

A small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power lights is called a

hub dynamo, although these are invariably AC devices and are actually magnetos.

2.2.1.B.) Development:

The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created

a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric

current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through

the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the

disk through the axle.

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The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–

1832 by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive

force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux.

He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of

homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe

magnet. It produced a small DC voltage. This was not a dynamo in the current sense,

because it did not use a commutator.

This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counter flows of current in regions that

were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly

underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside

the influence of the magnetic field. This counter flow limited the power output to the pickup

wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would

solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to

maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current

path through the magnetic flux. Faraday and others found that higher, more useful voltages

could be produced by winding multiple turns of wire into a coil. Wire windings can

conveniently produce any voltage desired by changing the number of turns, so they have

been a feature of all subsequent generator designs, requiring the invention of the

commutator to produce direct current.

Independently of Faraday, the Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting in 1827 with

the electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the

prototype of the single-pole electric starter, both the stationary and the revolving parts

were electromagnetic.

About 1856 he formulated the concept of the dynamo about six years before Siemens and

Wheatstone but did not patent it as he thought he was not the first to realize this. His

dynamo used, instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets placed opposite to each

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other to induce the magnetic field around the rotor. It was also the discovery of the

principle of dynamo self-excitation.

2.2.1.C.) Early Dynamo:

Early the commutator is located on the shaft below the spinning magnet. The first dynamo

based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument

maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet was

positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with

insulated wire.

Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a

pole passed the coil. However, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents in

opposite directions. To convert the alternating current to DC, Pixii invented a commutator, a

split metal cylinder on the shaft, with two springy metal contacts that pressed against it.

This early design had a problem: the electric current it produced consisted of a series of

"spikes" or pulses of current separated by none at all, resulting in a low average power

output. As with electric motors of the period, the designers did not fully realize the seriously

detrimental effects of large air gaps in the magnetic circuit.

Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian physics professor, solved this problem around 1860 by replacing

the spinning two-pole axial coil with a multi-pole toroidal one, which he created by

wrapping an iron ring with a continuous winding, connected to the commutator at many

equally spaced points around the ring; the commutator being divided into many segments.

This meant that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing

out the current.

Fig.2.2. Early Dynamo design

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2.2.1.D.) Practical Designs:

This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts DC. Available

1917. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of the commutator

needed for high power applications.

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The

modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir

Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a

patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their

discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal

Society.

The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather

than permanent magnets to create the stator field. Wheatstone's design was similar to

Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in

series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel. The use of

electromagnets rather than permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a

dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first time. This invention led directly to

the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used

electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and

other materials.

The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which

provides the magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On

larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets,

which are usually called field coils.

Zenobe Gramme reinvented Pacinotti's design in 1871 when designing the first commercial

power plants operated in Paris. An advantage of Gramme's design was a better path for the

magnetic flux, by filling the space occupied by the magnetic field with heavy iron cores and

minimizing the air gaps between the stationary and rotating parts. The Gramme dynamo

was one of the first machines to generate commercial quantities of power for industry.

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Further improvements were made on the Gramme ring, but the basic concept of a spinning

endless loop of wire remains at the heart of all modern dynamos.

Charles F. Brush assembled his first dynamo in the summer of 1876 using a horse-drawn

treadmill to power it. Brush's design modified the Gramme dynamo by shaping the ring

armature like a disc rather than a cylinder shape. The field electromagnets were also

positioned on the sides of the armature disc rather than around the circumference.

Fig.2.3. Structural Design Of Dynamo

2.2.1.E.) Description:

The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation

into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law of induction. A dynamo machine

consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic

field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. The

motion of the wire within the magnetic field causes the field to push on the electrons in the

metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic

field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the

constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called

field coils.

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2.2.1.F.) Commutation:

The commutator is needed to produce direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a

magnetic field, the potential induced in it reverses with each half turn, generating an

alternating current. However, in the early days of electric experimentation, alternating

current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating,

used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries. Dynamos were invented as a

replacement for batteries. The commutator is essentially a rotary switch. It consists of a set

of contacts mounted on the machine's shaft, combined with graphite-block stationary

contacts, called "brushes", because the earliest such fixed contacts were metal brushes. The

commutator reverses the connection of the windings to the external circuit when the

potential reverses, so instead of alternating current, a pulsing direct current is produced.

2.2.1.G.) Excitation:

The earliest dynamos used permanent magnets to create the magnetic field. These were

referred to as "magneto-electric machines" or magnetos. However, researchers found that

stronger magnetic fields, and so more power, could be produced by using electromagnets

(field coils) on the stator. These were called "dynamo-electric machines" or dynamos. The

field coils of the stator were originally separately excited by a separate, smaller, dynamo or

magneto. An important development by Wilde and Siemens was the discovery (by 1866)

that a dynamo could also bootstrap itself to be self-excited, using current generated by the

dynamo itself. This allowed the growth of a much more powerful field, thus far greater

output power.

2.2.1.H.) Various Uses Of Dynamo:

(A.) Electric Power Generation:

Dynamos, usually driven by steam engines, were widely used in power stations to generate

electricity for industrial and domestic purposes. They have since been replaced by

alternators.

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(B.) Transport:

Dynamos were used in motor vehicles to generate electricity for battery charging. An early

type was the third-brush dynamo. They have, again, been replaced by alternators.

(C.) Modern Uses:

Dynamos still have some uses in low power applications, particularly where low voltage DC

is required, since an alternator with a semiconductor rectifier can be inefficient in these

applications .Hand cranked dynamos are used in clockwork radios, hand powered

flashlights, mobile phone rechargers, and other human powered equipment to recharge

batteries.

2.2.2. Diode Bridge:

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration

that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most

common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a direct

current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave

rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a

rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding

The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same regardless

of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as the Graetz circuit after

its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz.

Fig.2.4. Diode Bridge

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2.2.2.A.) Basic Operation:

According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin

Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow

through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free

electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast

majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore,

in the discussion below the conventional model is retained.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is positive,

and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the upper supply

terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower

supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

Fig

2.5.Flow of Current Through Diode

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since

this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output from an

AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". 

2.2.3. Rectifiers:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically

reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is

known as rectification. Various types of rectifiers are:-

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A.) Half Wave Rectifier:

In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of

the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input

waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single

diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply. Rectifiers yield a

unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than

full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC

frequency from the output.

Fig.2.6. Half Wave Rectifier

B.) Full Wave Rectifier: A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant

polarity(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of

the input waveform to DC (direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two

diodes and a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC

source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single semiconductor diodes,

double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are

manufactured as single components.

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Fig.2.7. Full Wave Rectifier

C.) Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave

rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown

and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Fig.2.8.Bridge Rectifier

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2.2.4. Capacitor:

The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also

functions as filter, passing AC, and blocking DC. The capacitor is constructed with two

electrode plates separated by insulator. They are also used in timing circuits because it takes

time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They can be used to smooth varying DC supplies by

acting as reservoir of charge.

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also

functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This

symbol ( )is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed

with two electrode plates facing each other but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode.

While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the

capacitor has fully charged.

Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the dielectric. The most used are

mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors use a molecular thin

oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large capacitance values. There is no required polarity,

since either side can be the most positive plate, except for electrolytic capacitors. These are

marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the internal electrolytic action that

produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should be noted that the polarity of

the charging source determines the polarity of the changing source determines the polarity of

the capacitor voltage.

2.2.4.A.) Actual Capacitance:

This is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more

charge can be stored. It is measured in farad, F. 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show

the smaller values.

Three prefixes are used, u (micron), n (Nano), and p (Pico).

1uf=10-6 f

1nf=10-9 f

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1pf=10-12 f

Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two ways

in which the capacitance can be written one uses letters and numbers, the other uses only

numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n] and [103] denote the same

value of capacitance. The method used differs depending on the capacitor supplier. In the

case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st and 2nd digits from the left

show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how

many zeros are to be added to the capacitance. Pico farad (pF) units are written this way.

For example, when the code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF = 10 nano-farad (nF)

= 0.01 microfarad (µF).

If the code happened to be [224], it would be 22 x 104 = or 220,000pF = 220nF = 0.22µF.

Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For example, 47 would be 47pF.

The capacitor has an insulator (the dielectric) between 2 sheets of electrodes. Different kinds

of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.

2.2.4.B.) Breakdown Voltage:

When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be

used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of

capacitor being used. You must be especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because the

breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic capacitors is

displayed as Working Voltage.

The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric (insulator)

inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the failure can be

catastrophic.

2.2.4.C.) Types Of Capacitors:

There are various types of capacitors available in the market. Some of them are as follows:

Mica Capacitor

Paper Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitor

Variable Capacitor

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Electrolytic Capacitor

Tantalum Capacitor

Film Capacitor

Here we used only two types of capacitor i.e. ceramic capacitor & electrolytic capacitor.

1. Polarized capacitors

2. Un-polarized capacitors

2.2.4.D.) Polarized Capacitor:

These are the capacitors having polarity. Basically these are of larger values than 1uf. For

example below is the diagram of capacitor of 220 microfarad and having breakdown voltage

25V.

Fig.2.9. Polarised Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at

least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each

end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture).

Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is

easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their

capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it

should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list

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does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's

power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

2.2.4.E.) Unpolarised Capacitor:-

Small value capacitors are un-polarized and may be connected either way round. They are not

damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high

voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of

these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling

systems.

Fig.2.10. Unpolarised Capacitor

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to

use experience to work out what the multiplier should be.

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

2.2.4.F.) Variable Capacitor:

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called

'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and

500pF (100pF = 0.0001µF).

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Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard

knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable

knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.

2.2.5. LED:

2.2.5.A.) Introduction:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator

lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical

electronic components early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are

available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine

with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is

called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the

photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area

(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation

pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower

energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster

switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require

more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of

comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive

lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video

displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in

advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control

units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic

appliances.

2.2.5.B.) Features And Benefits:

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Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of

LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or

tubes.

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional

lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily attached to printed circuit

boards.

On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full

brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even

faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps

that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that requires a long time before restarting.

Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering

the forward current.

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR

that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat

through the base of the LED.

Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of

incandescent bulbs.

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000

hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes

typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use,

and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have

shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy

savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external

shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

Focus:- The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and

fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable

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manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the

same effect. However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are usually

deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.

2.2.5.C.) Applications:

In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major parts, the public lighting and

indoor lighting. LED uses fall into four major categories:

Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human

eye, to convey a message or meaning.

Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these

objects.

Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.

Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to

incident light, instead of emitting light

The Terminal Identification Of The LED :

1. Check the biasing through multi-meter. In forward bias the Led will glow that is

positive connected to the positive (anode) and negative connected o the negative that

is (cathode)

2. The big terminal is anode (+) and the small leg is cathode (-).

3. Third way is to check the upper surface of the LED the flat surface is always cathode

and the spherical surface is cylindrical.

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Fig.2.11. LED

2.2.6.) Copper Wires:

Copper has been used in electric wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the

telegraph in the 1820s. The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for

copper wire as an electrical conductor.

Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. Copper wire is

used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications,

electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment. Copper and its alloys are

also used to make electrical contacts. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important

market for the copper industry. Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture

electrical wire and cable conductors.

2.2.6.A.) Properties of copper:

Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material transports an electric charge. This

is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest electrical

conductivity rating of all non-precious metals: the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78

nΩ•m at 20 °C.

1.) Tensile strength:F connectors attached to coaxial cables are used for TV aerial and satellite dish connections

to a TV or set top box.

Tensile strength measures the force required to pull an object such as rope, wire, or a

structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the

maximum amount of tensile stress it can take before breaking

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2.) Ductility:

Ductility is a material's ability to deform under tensile stress. This is often characterized by

the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Ductility is especially important in

metalworking because materials that crack or break under stress cannot be hammered, rolled,

or drawn (drawing is a process that uses tensile forces to stretch metal).

3.) Strength And Ductility Combination:

Usually, the stronger a metal is, the less pliable it is. This is not the case with copper. A

unique combination of high strength and high ductility makes copper ideal for wiring

systems. At junction boxes and at terminations, for example, copper can be bent, twisted, and

pulled without stretching or breaking.

4.) Creep Resistance:

Creep is the gradual deformation of a material from constant expansions and contractions

under “load, no-load” conditions. This process has adverse effects on electrical systems:

terminations can become loose, causing connections to heat up or create dangerous arcing.

5.) Corrosion Resistance:

Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and weakening of a material due to chemical reactions.

Copper generally resists corrosion from moisture, humidity, industrial pollution, and other

atmospheric influences. However, any corrosion oxides, chlorides, and sulfides that do form

on copper are somewhat conductive.

6.) Coefficient Of Thermal Expansion:Metals and other solid materials expand upon heating and contract upon cooling. This is an

undesirable occurrence in electrical systems. Copper has a low coefficient of thermal

expansion for an electrical conducting material.

7.) Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high

thermal conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at terminations and

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connections. Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than aluminium, so it is

better able to reduce thermal hot spots in electrical wiring systems.

8.) Solder Ability:

Soldering is a process whereby two or more metals are joined together by a heating process.

This is a desirable property in electrical systems.

9.) Ease Of Installation:The inherent strength, hardness, and flexibility of copper building wire make it very easy to

work with. Copper wiring can be installed simply and easily with no special tools, washers,

pigtails, or joint compounds. Its flexibility makes it easy to join, while its hardness helps keep

connections securely in place.

2.2.6.B.) Applications Of Copper Wire:

Used for buildings and homes, there is almost nothing copper can’t conduct. In fact, copper is

so prevalent in homes and businesses that buildings can simply be labeled “all-copper” to

signify that every wire running through the structures is comprised of copper. From circuit

breakers to heavier appliances, copper is a major material used in just about every area of the

home. That’s how reliant we are on this stuff. Forget about if the Internet disappeared; if

copper did now, we would still be in a lot of trouble.

Speaking of the Internet, copper wire can also be found in computer system mainframes.

Because of its versatility, its ability to be solid, stranded, or even braided makes it useful for

just about any application imaginable. Each use can benefit from a uniquely produced wire

type.

2.2.7.) DIODE:

A Diode is the simplest two-terminal unilateral semiconductor device.  It allows current to

flow only in one direction and blocks the current that flows in the opposite direction. The two

terminals of the diode are called as anode and cathode. The symbol of diode is as shown in

the figure below. 

 

29

 

Fig.2.12. Symbol Of DiodeThe characteristics of a diode closely match to that of a switch. An ideal switch when open

does not conduct current in either directions and in closed state conducts in both directions.

Fig.2.13. Electrical Behaviour Of A Switch                                           

Ideally, in one direction that is indicated by the arrow head diode must behave short circuited

and in other one that opposite to that of the direction of arrow head must be open circuited.

By ideal characteristics, the diodes is designed to meet these features theoretically but are not

achieved practically. So the practical diode characteristics are only close to that of the

desired.    

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  Fig.2.14. Diode Characteristic

2.2.7.A.) Working Of Diode:The diode operates when a voltage signal is applied across its terminals. The application of a

DC voltage to make the diode operate in a circuit is called as ‘Biasing’. As already mentioned

above the diode resembles to that of a one way switch so it can either be in a state of

conduction or in a state of non conduction.

The ‘ON’ state of a diode is achieved by ‘Forward biasing’ which means that positive or

higher potential is applied to the anode and negative or lower potential is applied at the

cathode of the diode. In other words, the ‘ON’ state of diode has the applied current in the

same direction of the arrow head. The ‘OFF’ state of a diode is achieved by ‘Reverse biasing’

which means that positive or higher potential is applied to the cathode and negative or lower

potential is applied at the anode of the diode. In other words, the ‘OFF’ state of diode has the

applied current in the opposite direction of the arrow head.

 

During ‘ON’ state, the practical diode offers a resistance called as the ‘Forward resistance’.

The diode requires a forward bias voltage to switch to the ‘ON’ condition which is called

Cut-in-voltage. The diode starts conducting in reverse biased mode when the reverse bias

voltage exceeds its limit which is called as the Breakdown voltage. The diode remains in

‘OFF’ state when no voltage is applied across it.   

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 A simple p-n junction diode is fabricated by doping p and n type layers on a silicon or

germanium wafer. The germanium and silicon materials are preferred for diode fabrication

because:

1.)  They are available in high purity.  

2.)  Slight doping like one atom per ten million atoms of a desired impurity can change the

conductivity to a considerable level.

3.) The properties of these materials change on applying heat and light and hence it is

important in the development of heat and light sensitive devices.

2.2.7.B.) Diode As A Rectifier:

The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC power to

DC power. Using the diodes, we can construct different types of rectifier circuits. The basic

types of these rectifier circuits are half wave, full wave center tapped and full bridge

rectifiers. A single or combination of four diodes is used in most of the power conversion

applications. Below figure shows diode operation in a rectifier.

Fig.2.15. Diode As A Rectifier

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During the positive half cycle of the input supply, anode is made positive with respect to

cathode so the diode gets forward biased. These results to flow a current to the load. Since

the load is resistive the voltage across the load resistor will be same as the supply voltage

that means the input sinusoidal voltage will appear at the load. And the load current flow

is proportional to the voltage applied.

During the negative half-cycle of the input sinusoidal wave, anode is made negative with

respect to cathode so the diode gets reverse-biased. Hence, no current flows to the load.

The circuit becomes open circuit and no voltage appears across the load.

Both voltage and current at the load side are of one polarity means the output voltage is

pulsating DC. Very often this rectification circuit has a capacitor that is connected across

the load to produce steady and continuous DC currents without any ripples.

2.2.7.C.) Diodes In Clipping Circuits:

Clipping circuits are used in FM transmitters where noise peaks are limited to a particular

value so that excessive peaks are removed from them. The clipper circuit is used to put off

the voltage beyond the present value without disturbing the remaining part of the input

waveform. Based on the diode configuration in the circuit, these clippers are divided into two

types; series and shunt clipper and again these are classified into different types.

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Fig.2.16. Clipping Circuit

The above figure shows the positive series and shunt clippers. And using these clipper

circuits, positive half cycles of the input voltage waveform will be removed. In positive series

clipper, during the positive cycle of the input, the diode is reverse-biased so the voltage at the

output is zero. Hence the positive half-cycle is clipped off at the output. During the negative

half cycle of the input, the diode is forward-biased and the negative half cycle appears across

the output.

In positive shunt clipper, the diode is forward-biased during the positive half cycle so the

output voltage is zero as diode acts as a closed switch. And during negative half cycle diode

is reverse-biased and acts as open switch so the full input voltage appear across the output.

With the above two diode clippers positive half-cycle of the input is clipped at the output.

2.2.7.D.) Diodes In Clamping Circuits:

A clamper circuit is used to shift or alter either positive or negative peak of an input signal to

a desired level. This circuit is also called as level shifter or DC restorer. These clamping

circuits can be positive or negative depends on the diode configuration. In positive clamping

circuit, negative peaks are raised upwards so the negative peaks fall on the zero level. In case

of the negative clamping circuit, positive peaks are clamped so that it pushes downwards

such that the positive peaks fall on the zero level.

Look at the below diagram for understanding the diode application in clamping circuits.

During the positive half-cycle of the input, diode is reverse-biased so the output voltage is

equal to the sum of input voltage and capacitor voltage (considering the capacitor is initially

charged). During the negative half-cycle of the input, diode is forward-biased and behaves as

a closed switch so the capacitor charges to a peak value of the input signal.

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Fig.2.17. Clamping Circuit

2.2.7.E.) Types Of Diode:

Various Type Of Diode Are :-

1.) Small Signal Diode

2.) Large Signal Diode

3.) Zener Diode

4.) Light Emitting Diode

5.) Constant Current Diode

6.) Shockley Diode

7.) Varactor Diode

8.) Laser Diode

9.) Gold Doped Diode

10.) Schottky Diode

11.) Super Barrier Diode

12.) Peltier Diode

13.) Avalanche Diode

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14.)Vacuum Diode

15.) Pin Diode , Etc.

CHAPTER 3

WORKING OF THE PROJECT

Wind energy is harnessed in a place where there is no obstruction of wind ,so as the train,

here in this project we try to show that by utilising the velocity of train we generate electricity

with the help of dynamo that could charge mobile as well as glow light.

In our project we provide mechanism that maximum air can pass to the dynamo so that it

could rotate the blades well enough to provide the rated current ,it depends upon the rating

of dynamo that how much air it requires to produce rated current ,so here we use blower of

340 watt to rotate a small dynamo that charges one mobile and glow two lights,

The mechanism is simple air enters in our model of train to rotate dynamo thereby producing

electricity, moreover it is a project just want to show that we harness wind energy by

utilising train velocity to generate electricity. blades are kept inside in our model just to

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protect from wear and tear that take place outside the model ,it is set in a position so that it

get maximum air to rotate the dynamo .two separate dynamos are used for the generation of

electricity ,one for the lights and the other one for the mobile charging point .we use blower

for one dynamo at a time, so that maximum air is received ,blower just play the role of

moving air what we get from train when it is moving.

3.2. Actual Model Of The Project:

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CHAPTER 4

RENEWABLE ENERGY AND WIND ENERGY

4.1.) Introduction:

Renewable energy is classified as energy that comes from resources like sun light (known as

solar), wind, geothermal heat and rain that are constantly replenished. Renewable energy can

serve as a replacement to electricity, motor fuels, rural energy and heating. Many people

might discount renewable energy sources right off the bat just by looking at the definition.

They wouldn’t hesitate to question why it is necessary to switch to sources like

sunlight, wind, or rain. The way they see it, these are not very reliable sources of energy.

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There are certainly advantages and disadvantages to switching to renewable energy, it is quite

arguable that the benefits of using such sources outweigh the shortcomings of it, especially in

the future.

Of course, the shortcomings are all things that can, with time and money, be fixed due to the

rapid technological advancements our country makes on a nearly annual scale. The benefits

of renewable energy sources are breathtaking, and while we may not quite be in a position to

fully switch over to renewable energy sources just quite yet (requiring a balance of renewable

energy and other sources for now), it is imperative that we look ahead to the future.

4.2.) History:

Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was

renewable. Almost without a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of

traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from 790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not

become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later, sometime between

200,000 and 400,000 years ago.

Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive

ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships on the Nile.

Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy

were human labour, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills,

and firewood, a traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United States up until 1900

shows oil and natural gas with about the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in

2010.

By 1873, concerns of running out of coal prompted experiments with using solar energy.

Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance

of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant

future, natural fuels having been exhausted [solar power] will remain as the only means of

existence of the human race".

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The theory of peak oil was published in 1956. In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the

development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as

well as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity generating wind

turbines appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were

too costly to build solar farms until 1980.

The IEA 2014 World Energy Outlook projects a growth of renewable energy supply from

1700 gig watts in 2014 to 4550 gig watts in 2040. Fossil fuels received about $550 billion in

subsidies in 2013, compared to $120 billion for all renewable energies.

From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60%

annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies,

growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years.

4.3.) Growth:

Wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology.

However, grid-connected PV increased the fastest of all renewable technologies, with a 60%

annual average growth rate.  In 2010, renewable power constituted about a third of the newly

built power generation capacities.

Projections vary, but scientists have advanced a plan to power 100% of the world's energy

with wind, hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030.

According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators

may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of

greenhouse gases that harm the environment. Cedric Philibert, senior analyst in the renewable

energy division at the IEA said: "Photovoltaic and solar-thermal plants may meet most of the

world's demand for electricity by 2060 – and half of all energy needs – with wind,

hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation". "Photovoltaic

and concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity", Philibert

said.

4.4.) Advantages Of Renewable Energy:

1. Renewable energy is, well, renewable: This means it has infinity of sustainability and we

will never run out of it. Other sources of energy like coal, oil and gas are limited and will run

40

out some day. Renewable energy can reduce our dependence on fuels and energy from

foreign governments. Strong winds, heat within earth, moving water, shining sun can provide

a vast and constant energy resource supply.

2. Environmental Benefits: It is clean and results in little to no greenhouse and net carbon

emissions. It will not deplete our natural resources and have minimal, if any,

negative impacts on the environment, with no waste products of Co2 and other, more toxic

take with different sources of energy. The environmental benefits of renewable energy are

innovative in that they will dramatically scale back on the amount of toxic air

pollution released into the atmosphere by other methods. Enables us to protect the

environment from toxic pollutions, which in turn keep people healthier.

3. Reliable Energy Source: Our dependence on fossil fuels has increased considerably in

last few decades. The result is that our national security continues to be threatened by our

dependence on fossil fuels which are vulnerable to political instabilities,  trade disputes, wars,

and high prices. This impacts more than just our national energy policy. Also, solar and wind

plants are distributed over large geographical area and weather disruptions in one area

won’t cut off power to an entire region.

4. Economic Benefits: Renewable energy is also cheaper and more economically sound than

other sources of generated energy. It is estimated that as a result of renewable energy

manufacturing, hundreds of thousands of stable jobs will be created. Thousands of jobs have

already been created in numerous European countries like the United Kingdom and Germany,

who have adopted measures to manufacture renewable energy. Renewable energy amenities

require a less amount of maintenance, which reduces the costs. Switching to renewable

energy sources also means that the future of our energy is returned back to the people: to

communities, families, farmers, and individuals.

5. Stabilize Energy Prices: Switching to renewable energy sources also means steady

pricing on energy. Since the cost of renewable energy is dependent on the invested money

and not the increasing or decreasing or inflated cost of the natural resource, governments

would only pay a small amount in comparison to the needlessly heavy pricing of the energy

prices we are witnessing currently.

The United States of America has the best wind resources in the entire world. Now that wind

energy is the most cost effective source of energy, and the technology of wind turbines has

improved as well as the cost has gone down. This permits more manufacturing plants that are

cost effective. Wind is a reliable source of electricity, as is solar power for similar reasons.

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4.5.) Disadvantages of Renewable Energy:

1. Reliability of Supply: One shortcoming is that renewable energy relies heavily upon the

weather for sources of supply: rain, wind, and sunshine. In the event of weather that doesn’t

produce these kinds of climate conditions renewable energy sources lack the capacity to

make energy. Since it may be difficult the generate the necessary energy due to the

unpredictable weather patterns, we may need to reduce the amount of energy we use.

2. Difficult to Generate in Large Quantity: Another disadvantage of renewable energy is

that it is difficult to generate large amount of energy as those produced by coal powered

plants. This means that either we need to set up more such facilities to match up with the

growing demand or look out for ways to reduce our energy consumption.

3. Large Capital Cost: Initial investments are quite high in case of building renewable

energy plants. These plants require upfront investments to build, have high maintenance

expenses and require careful planning and implementation.

4. Large Tracts of Land Required: To meet up with the large quantities of

electricity produced by fossil fuels, large amount of solar panels and wind farms need to be

set up. For this, large tracts of land is required to produce energy quantities competitive with

fossil fuel burning.

4.6.) Wind Energy:Wind Energy has been used since several years to power homes, sail boats, pump water from

wells or heating and cooling homes and offices. Today with the ever increase in the demand

for fossil fuels and with the prices soaring all time high numerous resources have been

invested in the wind energy.

Wind energy has its own advantages and disadvantages. While on one side it is renewable

source of energy and cause less air and water pollution, on the other hand it also dirupts the

ecological balance as it poses threat to wildlife. Also, Wind energy can not be produced

everywhere since you need strength of wind to produce energy from it.

Today less than 5% of total world energy demands are met by wind energy and in the years to

come this figure is going to be much higher. This article covers the topic of “How Wind

Turbines Work” and basic understanding of the generation of electricity through out wind

turbines.

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4.6.1.) Wind Turbines:Wind Turbines are rotating machines that can be used directly for grinding or can be used to

generate electricity from the kinetic power of the wind. They provide the clean and renewable

energy for us of both home and office. Wind Turbines are a great way to save money and

make the environment clean and green.

Basically there are two types of wind generators, those with vertical axis and those with

horizontal axis. They can be used to generate electricity both onshore and offshore. Wind

Turbines can be combined to form clusters called “wind farms” which are used by large

companies to use that power as their backup. Apart from generating electricity they can also

be used for grain-grinding, water pumping, charging batteries.

Historically, wind turbines were used for sailing, irrigation and grinding-grains. It was in the

early 20th century that it was used for generating power. Today, large wind turbines can be

seen in the rural areas or near the sea coast where speed of the wind is generally throughout

the day. Device called wind resource assessment is used for estimating the wind speed.

4.6.2.) Future Of Wind Turbine:

Over 20,000 mw of wind turbines were installed in 2007 bringing world- wide capacity to

94,112 mw, up 27% from 2006. Cheap, Low efficient wind turbines are available in the

market for home use. Five nations – Germany (22,300 mw), the US (16,800 mw), Spain

(15,100 mw) India (8000 mw) and China (6,100 mw) account for 80% of the world’s

installed wind energy capacity. Wind energy continues to be the fastest growing renewable

energy source with worldwide wind power installed capacity reaching 94,112 MW in the year

2007. In terms of economic value, the global wind market in 2007 was worth about $36

billion, according to Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC). In capacity addition, the US was

in the lead in 2007, followed by China and Spain.

4.6.3.) Working Of Wind Turbine:

Basically there are two types of wind Turbines: vertical axis wind turbine and horizontal axis

wind turbine. Both of them work in the exactly same way except the difference in their

design. The process of producing electricity is

the same in both the turbines.

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Fig.4.1. Wind Turbine

Wind Turbines consists of a rotor or blades which converts the wind’s energy into

mechanical energy (turbine). The energy that moves the wind (“kinetic energy”) moves the

blades. They(blades) spin a shaft that leads from the hub of the rotor to a generator. The

generator turns that rotational energy into electricity which is then stored in batteries or

transferred to home power grids or utility companies for use in the usual way. If you place an

object like a rotor blade in the path of that wind, the wind will push on it, transferring some

of its own energy of motion to the blade. This is how a wind turbine captures energy from the

wind. At its essence, generating electricity from the wind is all about transferring energy from

one medium to another. How wind Turbines work have to do with the size and shape of the

rotors, the location of the turbine, height of the blades. Two or three bladed turbines are most

popular now days because of more thrust and less wind resistance. wind Turbines can be

made cheaper if more people opt for it. Mass production in case of wind energy will bring

down the material and installation cost, which today is not possible for average consumer

who needs cheap electricity

4.6.3.A.) Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:Rising sea levels and escalating pollution levels has generated worldwide interest and has

given rise to new wind turbines designs. Wind turbines mainly are of two types: vertical

axis(VAWT) and horizontal axis(HAWT). HAWT are the most common type of wind

turbines built across the world. VAWT is a type of wind turbine which have two or three

blades and in which the main rotor shaft runs vertically. They are however less frequently

used as they are not as effective as HAWT.

The main difference between the VAWT and HAWT is the position of blades. In HAWT,

blades are on the top, spinning in the air and are most commonly seen while in VAWT,

44

generator is mounted at the base of the tower and blades are wrapped around the shaft. The

main advantage of VAWT over HAWT is it’s insensitivity to wind turbines and therefore can

be mounted closer to the ground making it effective for home and residential purpose.

Fig.4.2. Vertical Axis Wind TurbineThis is vital information for those looking to install HAWT in their home. Whether they are

looking for turbines that will be ideal for when they’re sleeping or entertaining guests,

HAWT is the better choice. Vertical turbines spin on the vertical axis and comes in various

shapes sizes and colors. It’s movement is similar to a coin spinning on the edge.

Here are some of the advantages of VAWT:

1. The turbine generator and gearbox can be placed lower to the ground making maintenance

easier and lower the construction costs.

2. The main advantage of VAWT is it does not need to be pointed towards the wind to be

effective. In other words, they can be used on the sites with high variable wind direction.

3. Since VAWT are mounted closer to the ground they are more bird friendly and down not

destroy the wildlife.

4. VAWT quiet, efficient, economical and perfect for residential energy production,

especially in urban environments.

4.6.4.) Process Of Wind Energy Conversion:

There are some low pressures as well as a high pressure area in the atmosphere. The air blows

from the higher pressure parts to the lower-pressure ports, in this way wind currents get

45

formed. This situation is generally happening around the coastal areas, because they are very

windy areas.

It is the type of energy that we produce by the wind currents, which are present in the

atmosphere and this wind energy is captured by utilizing wind-turbines. These wind-turbines

convert the wind energy into electrical and mechanical energy. The latest wind energy

technologies are being devoted for developing efficient methods to produce electricity. The

aim of wind farms builders is to replace the other sources for producing electricity with wind

energy.

4.6.5.) Kind Of Wind Farms:

Fig.4.3. Wind FarmThere are three kinds of wind Farms: near shore, off shore and land wind farms. Near shore

wind farm are built in water, they take benefit of wind traveling continuously in one

direction; they are more effective than the land wind farms and solid energy production

source.

Offshore farms are installed 10 kilometers away from the land. Their construction and

maintenance is very expensive, being near the ocean, wind turbines, can corrode by salt

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content. However, the oceanic winds travel quickly, so, these farms are effective for

producing energy.

Land wind farms are built about 3 kilometers inland. The scientists identify the places that get

the more wind pressure. Wind turbines are adjusted in the wind direction for maximizing the

energy generation.

4.6.6.) Planet Friendly Wind Energy:

Wind energy is environmental friendly and also free, in 2010, 40 gig watts free electricity

produced in the United State. There are a lot electricity generating methods, but all have

some drawbacks, like fossil-fuel power plants produce much more energy than wind energy,

but they release million of tone carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The wind energy is

renewable energy.

As wind turbines don’t produce pollution, so it is a clean energy generation source. If we

built more wind farms, we can lessen the burden on other energy sources, which are creating

pollution and causing global warming.

4.6.7.) Advantages Of Wind Energy:Excessive heating of earth due to burning of fossil fuels have forced people across the globe

to generate power through wind. It is being used extensively in areas like USA, Denmark,

Spain, India and Germany. Like any other source of power generation, wind energy has its

own advantages and disadvantages.

1. Renewable Energy : Wind energy in itself is a source of renewable energy which means it

can be produced again and again since it is available in plenty. It is cleanest form of

renewable energy and is currently used many leading developed and developing nations to

fulfill their demand for electricity.

2. Reduces Fossil Fuels Consumption : Dependence on the fossil fuels could be reduced to

much extent if it is adopted on the much wider scale by all the countries across the globe. It

could be answer to the ever increasing demand for petroleum and gas products. Apart from

this, it can also help to curb harmful gas emissions which are the major source of global

warming.

3. Less Air and Water Pollution : Wind energy doesn’t pollute at all. It is that form of

energy that will exist till the time sun exists. It does not destroy the environment or release

toxic gases. Wind turbines are mostly found in coastal areas, open plain and gaps in

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mountains where the wind is reliable, strong and steady. An ideal location would have a near

constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of

sudden powerful bursts of wind.

4. Initial Cost : The cost of producing wind energy has come down steadily over the last few

years. The main cost is the installation of wind turbines. Moreover the land used to install

wind turbines can also be used for agriculture purpose. Also, when combine with solar

power, it provides cheap, reliable, steady and great source of energy for the for developed and

developing countries.

5. Create Many Jobs : Wind energy on the other hand has created many jobs for the local

people. From installation of wind turbines to maintenance of the area where turbines are

located, it has created wide range of opportunities for the people. Since most of the wind

turbines are based in coastal and hilly areas, people living there are often seen in maintenance

of wind turbines.

Despite these advantages there few disadvantages too which makes wind turbines not suitable

for some locations.

4.6.8.) Disadvantages Of Wind Energy:Wind turbines provide clean an effective way of producing power for home or business.

Wind turbines are built in the form of vertical axis and horizontal axis. The more common

type of wind turbines built across the world is the horizontal wind turbine. Wind turbines

have its own impact on wildlife and surrounding environment which contribute towards

disadvantages of wind turbines.

Here’s are some of the major disadvantages of wind turbines.

1. Noise Disturbances : Though wind energy is non-polluting, the turbines may create a lot

of noise. This alone is the reason that wind farms are not built near residential areas. People

who live near-by often complaint of huge noise that comes from wind turbines.

2. Threat to Wildlife : Due to large scale construction of wind turbines on remote location, it

could be a threat to wild life near by. Few studies have been done by wind turbines to

determine the effect of wind turbines on birds and animals and the evidence is clear that

animals see wind turbines as a threat to their life. Also, wind turbines require them to be dig

deep into the earth which could have negative effect on the underground habitats.

3. Wind Can Never Be Predicted : The main disadvantage of wind energy is that wind can

never be predicted. In areas where large amount of wind is needed or winds strength is too

low to support wind turbine, there solar or geothermal energy could prove to be great

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alternatives. That is one of the reasons that most of the companies determine wind turbine

layout, power curve, thrust curve, long term wind speed before deploying wind turbines.

4. Suited To Particular Region : Wind turbines are suited to the coastal regions which

receive wind throughout the year to generate power. So, countries that do not have any

coastal or hilly areas may not be able to take any advantage of wind power. The location of a

wind power system is crucial, and one should determine the best possible location for wind

turbine in order to capture as much wind as possible.

5. Visual Impact : Though many people believe that wind turbines actually look nice but

majority of them disagree. People consider wind turbines to have an undesirable experience.

Petitions usually comes in court before any proposed wind farm development but few people

think otherwise and feel they should be kept in tact for everyone to enjoy its beauty.

Although these disadvantages make it look that wind energy may not suitable for every

country but its advantages make it a great source of energy.

4.6.9.) Facts On Wind Energy:

Fact 1: Wind power consists of turning energy from the wind to other energy forms. There

are different ways to harness it. For example windmills produce mechanical energy, enable

sails to move boats and generate electricity.

Fact 2: Windmills have been in use since 2000 B.C. and were first developed in Persia and

China. Ancient mariners sailed to distant lands by making use of winds. Farmers used wind

power to pump water and for grinding grains. Today the most popular use of wind energy is

converting it to electrical energy to meet the critical energy needs of the planet.

Fact 3: Wind energy is underutilized as of now and holds tremendous potential for the future.

Though there has been a 25% increase in wind turbine use in the last decade, wind energy

still provides only a small percentage of the energy of the world.

Fact 4: Wind energy is mostly harnessed by wind turbines which are as high as 20 story

buildings and have three blades which are 60 meter long. They resemble giant propellers of

airplanes mounted on a stick. The blades are spun by the wind which transfers motion to a

shaft connected to a generator which produces electricity.

Fact 5: The largest turbines can harness energy to power 600 American homes. These

turbines form wind farms and hundreds are arranged in lines in windy spots like a ridge. A

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small turbine in the back yard can easily power a small business or a home. A wind farm is a

collection of wind turbines in the same location. Many wind farms provide rental income to

rural communities where they are situated.

Fact 6: Wind energy is valued because it is a clean source of energy and causes

minimum pollution. Operational costs are minimal after the erection of turbines. Mass

production and advances in technology are making turbines cheaper than never before. Wind

energy is also receiving subsidies and benefits from governments keen to popularize

this clean source of energy.

Fact 7: Wind turbines have been criticized for some reasons. It is claimed that wind turbines

cause noise and disturb nearby residents. The slowly moving turbine fans are also accused of

harming bats and bird populations of the locality but this accusation is unfounded as more

number of birds is killed by other factors such as power lines, cars and high rise buildings.

Another criticism is that wind energy is variable- if there is no wind due to some reason, the

generation of electricity stops.

Fact 8: The wind energy industry is burgeoning by leaps and bounds. Global generation saw

quadrupling from 2000 to 2006. In 2012, more than 70,000 mega watts of global capacity

were generated. A single mega watt is enough to power 250 homes. The most installed

capacity of wind energy is in Germany followed by Spain. The US and China are also

catching up. If this growth momentum is sustained, wind energy will be able to meet one-

third of global energy demands by 2050.

Fact 9: Wind energy is the fastest growing mode of electricity production across the planet.

In 2012, $25 billion was spent on wind energy investment. Modern turbines harness over 15

times the electricity generated in 1990. Wind power in the U.S. is a $10 billion a year

industry. The biggest source of new generation capacity for electricity in 2012 was wind

energy accounting for 40% of total capacity.

Fact 10: Wind power is also unique for the fact that it does not use any water. By 2030, wind

power will save around 30 trillion bottles of water in the U.S.

Fact 11: Wind farms can be constructed in off shore locations. Winds are steadier and

stronger in offshore locations but setting up infrastructure is costlier.

Fact 12: Isolated locations are provided power by small onshore wind farms. Power from

small wind farms are purchased by utility companies.

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Fact 13: Wind energy is renewable and pollution free source of energy. It is mostly used to

generate electricity and is abundant source of energy in many parts of the USA.

Fact 14: Wind energy can be a great source of alternative to fossil fuels and has been

growing trend in many countries, especially in Europe.

Fact 15: Most of the modern wind turbines have 3 blades which can reach speeds at the tip of

over 320 kph (200 mph).

Fact 16: The largest wind turbine in the world is located in US in Hawaii. It stands 20 stories

tall and has blades the length of a football field.

Fact 17: According to NREL, 1MW of wind energy can offset approximately 2,600 tons of

carbon dioxide (CO2).

Fact 18: The first modern wind turbine was built in 1940’s in Vermont.

Fact 19: Wind turbines can even be installed on floating structures that cans end the

electricity back to land with the help of undersea cables.

Fact 20: As per the information released by Center for Biological Diversity, as many as

1,300 eagles, falcons, hawks and other predatory species are killed each year due to wind

turbines that were constructed along a critical migration route.

Fact 21: In the year 2009, U.S. generated 1 percent of total nationwide electricity production

at the time. The energy generated was approximately 52 billion KW hours in 2008.

Fact 22: Wind energy produces more than 20% of the total electricity production in countries

such as Denmark and Portugal.

Fact 23: The major drawbacks of wind energy are: high installation costs, change in wind

speed and not suitable for all areas.

Fact 24: Large groups of wind turbines called wind farms have been installed in 38+ states of

U.S. and are currently operating utility-grade wind installations.

Fact 25: In the last quarter of 2012, Texas led the nation in new wind installations (with

1,289 megawatts), followed by California, Kansas, Oklahoma and Iowa.

Fact 26: The tips of very large wind turbines can reach eights up to 200 m (650ft).

Fact 27: Albert Betz, was a German physicist and a pioneer of wind turbine technology. He

discovered wind energy theory and published in his book Wind-Energies.

Fact 28: 60,007 MW is the total installed wind capacity in the U.S. by the end of year 2012.

Fact 29: Approximately $25 billion of investment was done in 2012 in new wind projects

and it brought the 5-year annual average investment to $18 billion.

Fact 30: As much as 20% of electricity consumed by U.S. could come from wind energy by

2030 but need for clean energy tax credits is must for achieving this target.

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Fact 31: More than 45,100 of wind turbines were operating by the end of year 2012.

Fact 32: Various myths related to wind farms are: wind farms are ugly and popular, they are

noisy and produce energy only 30% of the time.

Fact 33: Approximately 80,700 people were involved in various wind related jobs at the end

of 2012 across fields such as development, setting, construction, transportation,

manufacturing, operations, services.

Fact 34: A wind turbine has as many as 8,000 different components.

Fact 35: Smaller wind turbines can be used to charge batteries or as backup power in

caravans and sailing ships.

Thus wind energy is a clean, pollution free, abundant and free source of energy. Crucially, it

is a renewable source of energy unlike fossil fuels which are non renewable and cause

pollution.

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4.6.10.) Wind Supply Characteristics:

A.) Wind Speed:

Though the force and power of the wind are difficult to quantify, various scales and

descriptions have been used to characterise its intensity. The Beaufort scale is one measure in

common use. The lowest point or zero on the Beaufort scale corresponds to the calmest

conditions when the wind speed is zero and smoke rises vertically. The highest point is

defined as force 12 when the wind speed is greater than 34 metres per second (122 km/h, 76

mph). as occurs in tropical cyclones when the countryside is devastated by hurricane

conditions.

Small wind turbines generally operate between force 3 and force 7 on the Beaufort scale with

the rated capacity commonly being defined at force 6 with a wind speed of 12 m/s. Below

force 3 the wind turbine will not generate significant power. At force 3, wind speeds range

from 3.6 to 5.8 m/s (8 to 13 mph). Wind conditions are described as "light" and leaves are in

movement and flags begin to extend.

At force 7, wind speeds range from 14 to 17 m/s (32 to 39 mph). Wind conditions are

described as "strong" and whole trees are in motion. With winds above force 7 small,

domestic wind turbines should be shut down to prevent damage .Large turbines used in the

electricity grid are designed to work with wind speeds of up to 25 m/s (90 km/h, 56 mph)

which corresponds to between force 9 (severe gale, 23 m/s) and force 10 (storm, 27 m/s) on

the Beaufort Scale.

B.) Wind Consistency:

Wind power has the advantage that it is normally available 24 hours per day, unlike solar

power which is only available during daylight hours. Unfortunately the availability of wind

energy is less predictable than solar energy. At least we know that the sun rises and sets every

day. Nevertheless, based on data collected over many years, some predictions about the

frequency of the wind at various speeds, if not the timing, are possible.

C.) Wind Speed Distribution:

Care should be taken in calculating the amount of energy available from the wind as it is

quite common to overestimate its potential. You cannot simply take the average of the wind

speeds throughout the year and use it to calculate the energy available from the wind because

its speed is constantly changing and its power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed.

(Energy = Power X Time). You have to weigh the probability of each wind speed with the

corresponding amount of energy it carries.

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Experience shows that for a given height above ground, the frequency at which the wind

blows with any particular speed follows a Rayleigh Distribution.

Fig.4.4 Graphical RepresentationAn empirical Formula developed by D.L. Elliott of Pacific Northwest Labs gives thwind

speed V at a height H is given by:-

V = Vref ( H / Href )α

Where Vref is the reference wind speed at a reference height Href and the exponent α is a correction factor dependent on obstacles on the ground, the density of the air and wind stability factors. In wind resource assessments α is commonly assumed to be a constant 1/7th . The histogram below shows this relationship.

Fig.4.5. Graphical Representation

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CHAPTER: 5

55

Top 10 Wind power Countries Of World

CountryCapacity

(MW) % of Total

China 114,763 31.0

United States 65,879 17.8

Germany 39,165 10.6

Spain 22,987 6.2

India 22,465 6.1

United Kingdom 12,440 3.4

Canada 9,694 2.6

France 9,285 2.5

Italy 8,663 2.3

(rest of world) 64214 17.4

World total 369,553 100%

ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF PROJECT

5.1. Advantages:

There are 14,300 trains operating daily on 63,000 route kilometres of railway in India. This

technique would be capable of producing 1,481,00 megawatt (MW) of power in India alone.

There are some specially designed wind turbines. Traditionally wind turbines have three-

blade open rotor design. A common method of this design is that even small turbines require

a fast wind before they start operating. Small turbines can be used to generate more power

and can be used for commercial applications as we store the retrieved energy in batteries. The

sky-rocketing price of crude oil has ruined the economy of many a country, hence there is a

crying need for production of energy from non conventional sources at the earliest. The

present concept is one of the answers to this problem, as the said induced wind into useable

electric energy which can be utilized straight away or stored in batteries.

5.2. Limitations:

In this developed world whatever is invented has some restrictions or disadvantage whether it

is electrical appliances or flights or vehicles, though at the time of invention several

restrictions are taken into account.

So this project of ours also has some limitations which may arise due to some uncertainty ,it

can be failure of dynamo or atmospheric effect on wind blade which can reduce the

efficiency ,failure of circuits and many more, but from the general point of view these

restrictions are minimum which can be discarded by considering its advantages.

So limitations are part of invention but its impact on the working of device should be

minimum ,to increase the efficiency of device.

5.3. Future Scope:

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In today’s era of world with lots of development ,various types of energy are required to fulfil

the demand and general needs ,with this need several non renewable sources of energy are

used to produce several types of energy like chemical energy, electrical energy and many

more ,but due their severe demerits that they take millions of years to form as well as they

create environmental imbalance in nature ,it is a severe threat to the humans because once

they get replenished it will also create imbalance in nature.

So in order to curb this threat renewable or alternative sources of energy should be used

which is plenty in nature and do not create economic imbalance. There are various types of

alternative sources of energy like solar, wind, ,hydro etc , but in this project of ours we

harness wind energy by utilizing the velocity of train to produce energy that to be electrical

energy.

Now a days trains run at an average speed of 110-120km/hr ,this energy could be utilized to

produce some sort of electrical energy that will be enough to provide current for lighting,

fan ,mobile charging point etc. This innovative idea could reduce the burden of electricity

produced by conventional sources of energy for trains , as the demand of producing energy

increases day by day so in order to check its impact renewable type of producing devices

should be invented to provide awareness as well as maintaining economic balance in nature

and this innovation would help a lot in future and will provide a aid to the electrical problem.

CONCLUSION

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There are huge potential for producing electricity from renewable sources. The achievement

so far is about 10406.69 MW, as against global installed capacity of approximately 200000

MW of renewable electricity generation .With this method, the whole unit can be supplied

with electricity for lighting, fans etc. The technology is expected to contribute to the cause of

the environment as it helps to reduce carbon emissions and also assists the government in

saving on fuel too.

So in general we can say that by utilising wind energy we can save conventional sources of

energy ,as its cost is more and are exhaustible ,we should provide our weight age to the non

conventional energy resources, so this project of ours is future scope of power generation

because the present scenario provokes us to provide our concentration on type of energy

resources which is plenty and eco friendly

So this project of ours creates awareness to the people that do utilise alternative sources of

energy ,because they are inexhaustible ,plenty, pollution free and very easy to recycle.

REFERENCES

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[1]“A method for generating electricity by capturing tunnel induced winds” by REKHI,

Bhupindar, Singh.

[2] C.J. Baker (1986), “Train Aerodynamic Forces and Moments from Moving Model

Experiments”, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 24(1986), 227-

251.

[3] Wilson, R.E. and Lissaman, P.B.S., “Applied Aerodynamics of Wind Power Machines”,

NTIS PB 238594, Oregon State University, 1974.

[4] Stephane Sanquer, Christian Barre, Marc Dufresne de Virel and Louis-Marie Cleon

(2004), “Effect of cross winds on high-speed trains: development of new experimental

methodology”, Journal of Wind .

[5] International energy agency(2012),"Energy technology perspective".

[6] "Renewable global futures(2013) , "Analysis of wind energy in the Eu-25".

[8] Non Conventional Energy Resources By S. Hasan Sayeed And D K Sharma.

[9] Internet And Various Electrical Engineering Books.

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