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The first new book on psychoactive mushrooms in 10 years. Introducing a rich variety of psychoactive mushrooms from around the globe -including some rare and little-known species - the author describes dozens of species and covers a broad range of mushroom- related topics, from distribution maps to comparisons of cultural attitudes to laboratory analyses of active ingredients. One of the book's most remarkable features is its multi-disciplinary approach: chemistry, botany, biology, history, anthropology, religion, pharmacology, medicine - all of these are among the fields contributing a diversity of data, questions and information that are assembled into one of the most comprehensive and intriguing portraits of psychoactive mushrooms ever created.

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JOCHEN GARTZ

MAGIC MUSHROOMSAround the World

A Scientific Journey Across Cultures andTime

The Case for Challenging Researchand Value Systems

* LIS PUBLICATIONS * LOS ANGELES, CA*

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Figure 1 - Water Color Painting of Psilocybe semilanceata (Germany, 1927)

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TABLE OF CONTENT (With Active Links' Just Click On A Subject To Go To The Page)

"Who Was the First Magician?" - Foreword by Christian Ratsch 71. Introduction 92. Reflections on the History and Scientific Study of Magic Mushrooms 103. The Current State of Knowledge About European Species 14

3.1 Psilocybe semilanceata: The Classic Species Among European Psychotropic Mushrooms 163.2 Psilocybe cyanescens: Potent Mushrooms Growing on Wood Debris 293.3 Panaeolus subbalteatus: Mycology and Myths about the Panaeolus Species 373.4 Inocybe aeruginascens: Fast-Spreading New Arrivals 443.5 Gymnopilus purpuratus: Magnificent Mushrooms from South America 513.6 Conocybe cyanopus: Tiny Mushrooms of Remarkable Potency 553.7 Pluteus salicinus: A Little-known Wood-Inhabiting Species 58

4. Mushroom Identification: Taxonomic Confusion and the Potential for Deadly Mistakes 615. The Bluing Phenomenon and Metol Testing: Reality vs. Wishful Thinking 636. Mushroom Cultivation: Classic Findings and New Techniques 667. Psychotropic Mushroom Species Around the World 77

7.1 Spotlight on North America and Hawaii 797.2 Mycophilia in Central and South America 827.3 Australia's Mycoflora Attracts Attention 847.4 European Customs and Conventions 877.5 Japanese Experimentation 937.6 Intoxications and the Oldest Known Mushroom Cult in Africa 957.7 Usage in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific Islands 98

8. Some Comments on Effects of Mushrooms from the Category Phantastika 1029. Psychotherapy 10810. Outlook 11411. Bibliography 120

Index 129

Figure 2 - Psilocybe cubensis from Australia

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Figure 3 - Water color painting of Panaeolus subbalteatus (Germany, 1927).

Figure 4 - Fresh Panaeolus subbalteatus mushrooms.

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FOREWORD

Nobody knows precisely when the first magicmushroom emerged from the shadows ofprehistory to enter the light of consciousness.Nobody knows when the first magic mushroomwas eaten by a human being. Nobody knowsjust who the first magic mushroom eater was. Inseeking answers to these questions, we can onlyspeculate. Mycophobes, however, are quick tovoice their conviction that only a fool would bereckless enough to want to attain a higher stateof consciousness beyond the boundaries ofeveryday reality. And only a fool would attemptto do this by ingesting those odd little things thatmysteriously thrive on decaying, humid soil,rotten wood and malodorous mounds of cowmanure.Historically, magic, mushrooms havebeen feared and hated` since antiquity: magicmushrooms were thought to be made frompoisons that had dripped from serpents' fangs;they were considered to be unclean emissions ofevil spirits; moreover, mushrooms were a knowncause of death and disease, bloated stomachs andinsanity. Beliefs such as these have survived tothe present day. They persist, for example,,, asfigures of speech, s u c h as the slick Austriandescription of a societal misfit as someone "whoate those madness-inducing mushrooms." But, there is another, very different,magic mushroom legacy as well.

Flesh of the Gods for Devil Worshippers

The Old World. Mycenaean civilizationbegan with a mushroom trip -Mushrooms werean ingredient in the ambrosia of Dionysus.Porphyrius, the fourth century Latin poet andcontemporary of Emperor Konstantin, knewthat magic mushrooms were the children of thegods.

W H O W A S T H E F I R S T M A G I C I A N ?

A quasi-cannibalistic ritual, the act of eating thechildren of the gods unlocked one's power toexperience the truly divine. But not allmushrooms enable human beings to enter therealm of divine consciousness. This magic powerresides in only those fungi known as "fool'smushrooms", which were considered poisonousand believed to be the spawn of the Devilthroughout the late Middle Ages and well intomodern times.

The New World: The Aztecs in Mexicoreferred to a number of small, inconspicuousmushrooms as teonartacatl, or "flesh of theGods." These sacred mushrooms were eatenduring the course of rituals intended to contactthe Gods in order to learn about the world and therealm of the divine. These magic mushroomrituals thoroughly spooked the CatholicSpaniards. The mushroom eaters, commonlythought of as Devil worshippers, were houndedby the Inquisition. Still, all good things survivethe tests of time, so the cult of magic mushroomeaters did not become extinct. Like myceliaunderground, the cult continued to flourish, andat the proper time in recorded history, in 1957,the fruit of the fully grown mushroom re-surfacedto draw widespread public attention. Valentineand Gordon Wasson became the heroes of themodern neo-mycophilic movement.

Back to the Old World: The revelationsand insights gained from the use of psychoactivemushrooms were so magically wonderful, thatour native European "fool's mushrooms" - whichwere gene ; considered inedible - had to berecognized as closely related to the magicmushrooms of Mexico, the flesh of the AztecGods. The souls of magic mushrooms in Mexicoand Germany are essentially made from the samesubstance: psilocybin.

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Jochen Gartz has made an extraordinarycontribution to the field of mycology by embracingGermany's magic mushrooms and the scientificstudy and testing of these fungi. The researchefforts upon which this book is based requirenothing less than a fearless, brave and courageousconsciousness, free of prejudice and mycophobia. Iam convinced that a researcher's consciousnessinfused by the spirit of the magic mushroom iscapable of far deeper scientific insights than wecan ever expect from the usual ivory toweracademics, isolated from reality, and who gorgethemselves on our tax dollars.

I met Jochen Gartz shortly after the fall ofthe Berlin Wall at the third symposium of theEuropean College for the Study of Consciousness(ECSC) in Freiburg, Germany. Our encounter wasmy first contact with a researcher from the formerEast Germany. Jochen Gartz's enthusiastic lecturewas a truly consciousnessexpanding event, hiswords breaking down traditional borders andcrossing over into new territory. The magicmushrooms spoke through him - with no trace ofdogma or ideology - in

the tradition of true anarchy that is the hallmark ofmushroom magic. What I heard was unbelievable.Jochen spoke of a "new" psychedelic mushroomand its migration. The mycelia had spread inconcentric circles outward from Leipzig, jumpingall political borders. Finally, when the myceliareached West German soil, the hated Berlin Wallcrumbled. Could there possibly be a connectionbetween the evolution of the magic mushroom andthe evolution of our consciousness? Could amushroom have contributed to the resolution ofour political conflicts?

In the past, politicians, even popes, hadtheir own jesters and magicians, who functioned aspressure release valves in the machinations ofpolitical power struggles. It is obvious that acountry whose chancellor is being pelted witheggs, urgently needs a new breed of magician whoare able to readjust reality. But today, no aspiringmagician should go about this task without thisbook as a guide for the wondrous journey into therealm of magic mushrooms.

Christian Rdtsch

Figure 5 - "Anthropomorphic Beings Engaged in Mushroom Dance"10,000-year-old rock drawing in Tassili, Sahara (Algeria)

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CHAPTER 1

I BELIEVE THE TIME HAS COME FOR A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF NEWFINDINGS FROM THE FIELDS OF MYCOLOGY, TAXONOMY AND NATURAL

PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY

When R.G. Wasson, R. Heim and A.Hofmann began their interdisciplinary researchprogram to study the Mexican species ofmushrooms and their usage in Mexicanmushroom cults, their efforts culminated in a1958 landmark report that described the isolation,molecular structure and synthesis of themushrooms' active ingredients: psilocybin andpsilocin. Several years later, these substanceswere also identified in a species of mushroom inEurope, Psilocybe semilanceata, which became thefirst in a series of newly discovered species. Sincethen, psychoactive mushrooms from other generahave been reported with increasing frequency.

As part of my analytical work dedicatedto the identification of naturally occurringchemicals, I had the good fortune to be part of aresearch team that studied alkaloids found in avariety of mushroom species. Now I believe thetime has come for a comprehensive review of

new findings from the fields of mycology,taxonomy and natural products chemistry.Wasson and his successors have already provideddetailed accounts pertaining to the history andstudy of the Mexican mushroom species, so thatthese materials need not be repeated in thiscontext. However, certain aspects concerning themore recent uses of these mushrooms as well astheir conditions of growth will receive moredetailed attention in later chapters.

The main purpose of this book is toinspire further study of these mushrooms,particularly basic research efforts and medicalapplications of magic mushroom ingredients.

The extensive bibliography will helpscientists and other interested mycophiles tofurther immerse themselves in this complex areaof study.

Jochen Gartz

Figure 6 - Bronze doors with mushroom motif entitled "Trial andJudgment" at Hildesheim Cathedral, Germany (ca. 1020).

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CHAPTER 2

REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORY

AND SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF MAGIC MUSHROOMS

It is remarkable that cultures native to theAmerican continent knew about a relatively largenumber of natural mind-altering substancescompared to early cultures that evolved in Europeor Asia. Botanical evidence does not support thenotion that Europe is home to fewer hallucinogenicplants than other regions. Furthermore, thegrowing number of recently discovered Europeanmushroom species containing psilocybin indicate aflourishing psychotropic mycoflora in Europesimilar to those found in other countries.

It is unlikely that early European cultureslearned less about local plants and mushroomsthrough usage and experience than cultureselsewhere in the world. Most likely, early culturalknowledge of European psychoactive plants andmushrooms was lost or destroyed at some time inhistory, probably as early as several hundred yearsago.

The discovery that the fly agaricmushroom (Amanita muscaria) was known for itspsychoactive properties in Siberia invited theconclusion that this mushroom was used as apsychotropic agent in medieval Europe as well. Infact, there is very little evidence from the MiddleAges to indicate widespread knowledge of theeffects of specific mushrooms on humanconsciousness. However, I believe that past reportson psychoactive mushrooms were causally linkedto Amanita muscaria simply because this was theonly known psychotropic mushroom in Europe atthat time.

While the usage of Amanita muscariaamong Siberian tribes has generated reports ofspectacular hallucinations, European accounts offly agaric intoxications do not generally includedescriptions of such intensely hallucinatoryeffects.

Accordingly, the potent hallucinogeniceffects of specific Psilocybes and related speciesare likely to have had a much more significantinfluence on early European cultures than thedelirium-like visions induced by Amanitamuscaria, a species that is also known to induce

unconsciousness and severe somatic side effects.This hypothesis is corroborated by data fromcomprehensive field studies conducted in Mexico.I believe that historic accounts including thosedescribed below - indicate a knowledge of andfamiliarity with psychotropic mushrooms inEurope that is most likely derived from usage ofPsilocybes and related species, rather thanexperience with Amanita muscaria. However, it isextremely difficult to reject or confirm thishypothesis, due to the lack of conclusive dataavailable for analysis today.

Bwyd Ellylon: A Feast of Fairies inCelebration of the Spirit World

Tales of ritualistic mushroom usage havefound their way into the realm of myths andlegends. For instance, one legend describes apeculiar poisonous mushroom in Wales (BritishIsles) with the strange name of Bwyd Ellylon,which was considered a delicacy by fairies feastingin celebration of the spirit world. Psilocybesemilanceata is the most important psilocybin-containing mushroom in Europe and it thrives inparts of Great Britain, where the mushroom growsabundantly all across the Welsh countryside duringfall season.

I would like to thank G. Samorini forpointing out that the Inquisition was unusuallycruel and vicious in the Alpine valleys ofValcamonica, Valtrompia and Valtellina (locatedin the provinces of Brescia and Sandrio inNorthern Italy). Many books chronicle countlesswitch burnings in that region, with particularemphasis on the witches' meetings at the "Montedel Tonale", located at an altitude of 2000 m (ca.6,000 ft). Field research has shown that plants ofthe nightshade family ("witching herbs") do notgrow at this altitude; even the fly agaric mushroomis rarely found there. By contrast, pastures in thearea abound with Psilocybe semilanceata duringthe fall. Given this historical context, it wouldseem likely that Psilocybe

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semilanceata played an important role as apsychotropic agent in the region (see Figure 58,Chapter 7.4).

In light of medieval accounts describingthe practice of witchcraft, it is interesting to notethat a subjective sensation of flying or levitation isamong the commonly reported effects ofpsilocybin intoxication.

Berserk Rage of Nordic Warriors

In the course of the ideological powerstruggle between Christianity and the remnants ofpagan religions that worshipped Nature, manysources of knowledge were lost. The aggressiverepression and eradication of pre-Christiancustoms all but destroyed the continuity ofEurope's original cultural heritage, along withmuch historic evidence documenting early culturalpractices, including the usage of plants andmushrooms for the purpose of temporaryalterations of consciousness.

Some authors went so far as to blame thefly agaric mushroom for proverbial fits of "berserkrage" attributed to Nordic warriors. Many accountsdetailing this phenomenon allude to a "deceptionof the eyes" (i.e. visual hallucinations). After theNordic legal system banished the practice of"going berserk", it disappeared quite suddenlyduring the 12th century. At about the same time,Saxo Grammaticus speculated that the Berserkersmay have used magical potions.

It is just as plausible, however, to suggestthat the hallucinogen of choice among earlyNordic cultures was Psilocybe semilanceata, amushroom species quite common in Norway.Neither Amanita muscaria nor Psilocybesemilanceata are generally known to cause statesof intense rage. However, given the historiccontext, it is possible that, at the time, people hadalready begun to internalize negatively biaseddistortions and the demonization of psychoactivemushrooms and their effects, in order to justify thecreation of new laws intended to destroy repulsivepagan customs such as the ritual use of mind-altering plants.

It is important to note the existence ofancient Northern European rock drawings thatdepict various mushroom themes, along with thediscovery of bronze-age vessels decorated with

mushroom-related artwork. The drawings ofteninclude renditions of zoomorphic entities as wellas mushrooms. Significantly, they predate anyreports and speculations about the Berserkers byover 2,000 years.

These ancient images suggest theevolution of early European mushroom cults - acultural practice that most likely vanished duringthe early Iron Age, as did many other customs andsocial practices from that era. Still, the discoveryof ancient Northern European mushroom cults is apowerful piece of evidence supporting the notionthat psychoactive mushroom usage has beencontinuous throughout history.

In addition, a traditional Swedish customhas survived to the present day, revealing an earlyknowledge of a certain mushroom believed toevoke "visions of spirit entities". As part ofsummer solstice celebrations, a poisonousmushroom species ("Baran") was cast into thebonfires. Even though nothing is known about thisfungus today, the ritual burning of a poisonousmushroom was intended to weaken the powers ofgoblins and other evil spirits. The mushroomswere viewed as symbolic incarnations of noxiousspirits. The mushrooms' ritualistic destruction byfire thus destroyed the powers of evil andmischievous spirits. The assumption that somemushrooms are physical links to the intangiblepowers of the spirit world may have evolved fromancient fragments of knowledge about thepsychoactivity of specific types of mushrooms.

There are a number of written reportsabout psychotropic mushrooms that date back tothe late Middle Ages. While this collection ofdocuments includes a variety of different sourcesfrom several countries, they provide remarkablysimilar descriptions of psychoactive mushroomsand the general nature of their effects.

Love Potions Brewed from Bolond Gomba

Clusius (1525-1609), for example, thegreat physician and botanist, discovered "bolondgomba" in Hungary. This mushroom was knownunder the German name "Narrenschwamm"("fool's mushrooms"). It was used in rural areas,where it was processed into love potions by wisemen or "javas asszony". At about the same

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time, this "fool's mushroom" was documented inSlovakia as well. In addition, the mushroom foundits way into the verses of Polish poet VaclavPotocki (1625-1699), who refers to its potential of"causing foolishness much like opium does ".

Similarly, in England, John Parkinson's"Theatricum Botanicum" (1640) includes detailsabout a 'foolish mushroom ".

The Austrian colloquial expression "Heate those madness-inducing mushrooms" refers tostates of mental confusion.

Historic source materials such as theseare scarce and widely scattered. Undoubtedly, theyrefer to psychotropic mushrooms, but lacksufficient information to permit clear identificationof a specific species. However, considering thehabitats and occurrence of Psilocybe semilanceataand Psilocybe bohemica, these two species areamong the most likely candidates (see page 16 ff.).It is remarkable that these historic portrayalsrevolve around just one aspect of the mushrooms'overall effects: the occasional semi-schizophrenicreaction which can at times be quite dramatic.None of these accounts reflect a distinctappreciation of mushrooms in the tradition of theMexican Indians ("teonanacatl" = flesh of theGods).

Between Reverence and Fear

By contrast, in Europe we find that thesymptoms of mushroom intoxication have alwaysbeen compared to symptoms of mental illness.Such cross-cultural differences in value judgmentscan be explained in terms of two conceptsintroduced by R.G. Wasson and his wife:mycophilia and mycophobia. This distinction sub-divides cultures with different traditional attitudestowards mushrooms into two groups. For instance,an entrenched dislike for mushrooms (mycophobia)in Britain indicates traditional beliefs vastlydifferent from those found in Slavic countries,where mushrooms are generally cherished(mycophilia). The origins and evolution of suchdiverging attitudes remain lost in the shadows ofhistory.

The development of early cultural taboosand prohibitions against psychotropic mushroomsmay be the root cause of enduring mycophobicbehavior. On the other hand, it is possible that,

thousands of years ago, the process of harvestingmushrooms as a food source caused alarmingclusters of regionally isolated cases of fatalmushroom poisonings. Such experiences may wellhave seeded a potent and lasting aversion towardsan entire country's mycoflora.

Similarly, the mycophilia typical ofancient Mexican cultures goes hand in hand with ageneral social acceptance of the effects ofPsilocybe mushrooms and their established ritualusages. Among Mexican Indian tribes, the effectsof psilocybin have never been causally linked toany type of known mental illness. It is interestingto note that the Indians of Mexico were the onlyIndians in the Americas who also harvested a largenumber of mushroom species for food.

Unfortunately, our current socio-politicalclimate is - strongly biased against newlydiscovered hallucinogens, which are often definedin terms of negatively loaded labels. Even worse,such prejudicial thinking distorts an objective,scientifically neutral approach to the study of thesesubstances. The label "fool's mushroom" firstappeared during the 1930s, along with "Mexicanmushroom of insanity". In the 1950s, the CentralAmerican mushroom cults were discovered and themushrooms themselves were renamed "Mexicanmagic mushrooms", in recognition of theirpsychotropic effects and to emphasize thesignificance of the mushrooms' early integrationinto the social fabric of the cultures that cherishedthem.

Later on, the relatively neutral label"hallucinogenic mushroom" came into use in themycological literature. Other designations thatgained and lost popularity over time include thesomewhat derogatory term "intoxicatingmushrooms" and the essentially meaningless "drugmushrooms".

Scientifically Unbiased Hallucinations?

Following his experiments with magicmushrooms in Mexico during the summer of 1960,T. Leary returned to Harvard University and beganto study psilocybin as a variable in theadministration of standard psychological testbatteries. His initial focus was diluted when hecontinued to expand his experiments to includeincreasingly broader settings and applications. In

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reaction to Leary's markedly unorthodoxapproach, the American press began to portraypsilocybin mushrooms in terms of slanderousterminology that far exceeded the negativeconnotations of labels such as "fool's mushrooms".Descriptions of the mushrooms' effects includedclaims that users experienced "death-like states".

Proponents of psilocybin research wereaccused of denying that the alkaloid caused "semi-permanent brain damage". This pseudo-scientificjumble of meaningless jargon was symptomatic ofthe sharply escalating controversy surroundinghallucinogenic substances. Increasingly, newsreports on psilocybin were eclipsed by massiveamounts of publicity about LSD - the most potenthallucinogen ever discovered. The subsequentfrenzy of legislative attempts to control LSDresulted in ever tighter restrictions on the scientificstudy of not only LSD, but psilocybin as well.Mind-altering substances were no longer thoughtof in terms of their specific effects and properties,but rather were lumped together into a singlegroup of dangerous chemicals. As antidrughysteria continued to intensify, scientific andpharmacological distinctions became all butirrelevant: hallucinogens were no longer viewed asdifferent from other classes of dangerous andphysically addictive drugs, such as heroin or theopiates. This demonization of hallucinogens wassuccessful in spite of massive research efforts thatbegan when Sandoz Pharmaceuticals decided todistribute psilocybin to qualified scientists forexperimental and psychotherapeutic purposes. Byemploying the method for synthesis of psilocybindeveloped by A. Hofmann, Sandoz Pharma-ceuticals manufactured about 2 kg (ca. 4.4lbs) ofpure psilocybin for scientific research purposes.

The results of pharmacological testingsoon revealed psilocybin as an alkaloid that wasperfectly safe for human subjects under controlledexperimental conditions. Despite this evidence, theanti-drug legislative framework of the mid1960sfirmly established an "official mycophobia", amisguided, yet entrenched policy that still prevailstoday and effectively prevents the scientificinvestigation of promising potential applicationsfor psilocybin and other alkaloids. At the sametime, mycological and biochemical

research studies have shown that psilocybin-containing mushrooms thrive all over the worldand can be found on all continents. Thesemushrooms are no different from any othermycoflora and must not be excluded fromscientific investigation because of their alkaloidcontent.

In addition to overall variations in valuesystems across cultures, individuals tend todevelop their own personal attitudes towardsmushrooms in general. Oftentimes, the evolutionof specific opinions about mushrooms can betraced back to childhood events, even though suchearly experiences seldom account for thedevelopment of prevailing biases and valuesystems later in life.

I recall an incident from my ownchildhood, which occurred when I was about fiveyears old. I was playing in a grassy meadow, whena girl pointed to a brown mushroom and earnestlyexplained that it was inedible and poisonous.While I have never forgotten this encounter, I didgrow up to become a devoted mushroomenthusiast. On the other hand, a differentchildhood event has left me with the vivid memoryof discovering a landfill virtually covered withvast numbers of gilled bluing mushrooms and thesense of awe I experienced contemplating thissight. In general, the unusual characteristics ofthese mushrooms are most likely responsible forstrong impressions formed early in life, which thenmay develop into various attitudes or beliefs lateron.

An enduring personal interest inpsychotropic mushroom species can serve toamplify or diminish mycophobic as well asmycophilic dispositions, depending on theinfluence of other factors. After all, judgmentsabout the benefit or folly of deliberately alteringone's state of consciousness are also colored byindividual preferences, biases and opinions.

The following chapters are meant toillustrate this diversity of attitudes towardspsychotropic mushrooms. Descriptions of plannedand involuntary experiments with specificmushroom species offer convincing evidence thatthe effects of psychoactive mushrooms are open tomany possible interpretations.

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CHAPTER 3

THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT

EUROPEAN SPECIES

Figure 7 - Distribution pattern of Psilocybe cyanescens across Europe and North Africa(according to Krieglsteiner). Black dots indicate approximate locations where Psilocybe

cyanescens was found.

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Mr. E Branl, on a poisonous Species of Agaric

To the Editors of,,t h e M e d i c a l a n d P h y s i c a l J o u r n a l .

Ge n t l e m e n ,

IF the following account of the deleterious effects of a verycommon species of agaric, not hitherto generally suspected to bepoisonous, appears to you likely to prove useful or interesting to thepublic, you will oblige me by its insertion; should its length be anyobstacle to this, I beg you will omit whatever you may thinksuperfluous. I remain,

G e n t l e m e n ,

N o . 1 0 , Arlington -Street, Yours, most obediently,

Nov. 16th, 1799. EVERARD BRANDE.

J. S. gathered early in the morning of. the third of October, inthe Green Park, what he Supposed to be small mushrooms; there hestewed with the common additions in a tinned iron saucepan.* Thewhole did not exceed a tea saucerful, which he and four of hischildren ate the first thing, about eight o'clock in the morning, asthey frequently had done without any bad consequence; theyafterwards took their usual breakfast of tea, &c. which was finishedabout nine, when Edward, one of the children, (eight years old,)who had eaten a large proportion of the mushrooms, as theythought them, was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, norcould the threats of his father-or mother restrain him. To thissucceeded vertigo, and a great 'degree of stupor, from which he wasroused by being called or shaken, but immediately relapsed. Thepupils of his eyes were, at times, dilated to nearly, thecircumference of the cornea, a n d scarcely contracted at theapproach of a strong light ; his breathing was quick, his pulse veryvariable, at times imperceptible, at others too frequent and small tobe counted; latterly, very languid; his feet were cold, livid, andcontracted, he sometimes pressed his hands on different parts of hisabdomen, as if in pain, but when roused and interrogated as to it, heanswered indifferently. yes, or no, as he did to every otherquestion, evidently without any relation to what was asked. Aboutthe same time the father, aged forty, was attacked with vertigo, andcomplained that every thing appeared black, then wholly

* This accuracy may seem trivial, but I have met with people whosupported the following symptoms might have arisen from the use ofa copper vessel.

Figure 8 - Reproduction of a report from the mycological literature (1799)describing a case of Psilocybe semilanceata intoxication.

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CHAPTER 3.1

PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA: THE CLASSIC SPECIES AMONGEUROPEAN PSYCHOTROPIC MUSHROOMS

Listen Well to this Frightful Story from St.James's Green Park....

About 200 years ago, E. Brande publishedan account about a remarkable case of mushroomintoxication in London. On October 3, 1799 animpoverished family picked some mushrooms in St.James's Green Park and prepared them for a meal(see Figure 8, p. 15).

Shortly after eating the mushrooms, thefather and his four children developed symptoms ofintoxication, such as markedly dilated pupils,spontaneous laughter and delirium. The progressionof symptoms was experienced as wave-like, withcycles of increasing and fading intensity. Inaddition, the father's visual perception was affectedso that everything around him appeared to be black- a frightening experience he believed to presage hisimpending death.

Even though two family members (ages 12and 18) consumed only small amounts of thecooked mushrooms, the ensuing symptoms ofintoxication were no different from those observedin family members who had eaten comparativelylarger portions. After several hours, the psychic andperceptual disturbances subsided and finallydisappeared, without any lingering side effects.Attempts to treat acute symptoms includedadministration of emetics and fortifying tonics. Inthe end, these potions were heralded as the crucialtreatment that "cured" the family.

For the most part it is extremely difficult, ifnot impossible, to assemble complete and accuratedetails on many aspects of magic mushroom historyfrom source materials available today. Thus, it is aninstance of rare good fortune and a boon tomushroom historians that E. Brande's description ofa typical psilocybin syndrome was augmented by J.Sowerby, author of "Coloured Figures of EnglishFungi or Mushrooms" (London, 1803). Sowerby'sbook included a rendition and description of the

mushroom species responsible for the poisoningcase described by Brande (see p. 17). Within thecontext of Sowerby's book, only the variety ofmushrooms distinguished by their cone-shapedcaps were believed to cause intoxication. Figure9 shows a typical rendition of Psilocybesemilanceata. This mushroom species wasknown to Sowerby's contemporaries as"Agaricus glutinosus Curtis" and its descriptionsare fully compatible with current knowledgeabout Psilocybe semilanceata.

A few years later, renowned Swedishmycologist E. Fries referred to "Agaricussemilanceatus" in his book entitled "Obser-vationes Mycologicae" (1818). Later on, thesame mushroom also appeared under the namesCoprinarius semilanceatus Fr. or Panaeolussemilanceatus (Fr.) Lge. Not until 1870 didKummer and Quelet classify this mushroom asa member of the genus Psilocybe.Consequently, two valid designations may befound in the literature:-- Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Kumm. or ---- Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) Quel.

Around 1900, M. C. Cooke reported two orthree new instances of accidental mushroomintoxication involving children in England.Interestingly, Cooke noted that symptoms werecaused only by a variety of mushroom known toturn blue (var. caerulescens). Hewas the first mycologist to wonder if a bluingvariety of this species was poisonous, or if thebluish color was induced by external factors,causing changes in the mushroom's chemicalcomposition so as to render them poisonous.

Early Descriptions

A close relative of Mexico'spsychoactive species, Psilocybe semilanceata isa mushroom whose physical appearanceresembles Psilocybe semperviva Heim &Cailleux and Psilocybe

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Stalks generally single, sometimes clustered, from two to four inches inheight, the thickness of a goose quill, thread shaped whitish almost solid, thetube being very small, glutinous; ring, a little below the cap, scarceperceptible.“ Cap, from one to two inches in breadth, of a brown color; in the full. grownones hemispherical, always convex, and more or lets glutinous; wet withrain, it becomes browner and transparent,'so that it sometimes appearsstriated.“ Gills numerous, single, of a brownish purple color, clouded; whole onesabout twenty, horizontal, three shorter ones placed betwixt them; they throwout a powder of a brownish purple color."With respect to the use of it, he only says, « There is nothing acrimonious ordisagreeable in its taste, yet its appearance will not recommend it to thelovers of mushrooms."

Figure 9 - Drawing and description of Psilocybe semilanceata by J. Sowerby (London, 1803).

1733. A. semilanceatus Fries (Observ. II. pag. 178).

Synon. : Agaricus semiglobatus Sowerby (Engl. Fungi taf. 240.fig. 1-3). Hut etwas hautig, spitz kegelfdrmig, fast zugespitzt, 11/2 Cent.breit, 1/2 Cent. hock, feucht klebrig, fein streifig, gelb oder grunlich,zah, mit Anfangs umgeknicktem Rande und leicht trennbarer Oberhaut.Stiel zah, gebogen, 11 Cent. hock, kahl, blass. Lamellen angeheftet,aufsteigend, purpur-schwarz. Sporen ellptisch, hellbraun, 9 -16 ulang, 4 - 9 u dick.

Ax Wegen, auf Grasphitzen, besonders wo Mist gelegen hat.

spitzkegeliger Kahlkopf (Psilocybe semilanceata). Kegel-glockenformig mitpapilenertiger spitze Hut-o,5-1 cm breit, bis 2cm hock, lehmfarben mit oliv-grunem Stich, klebrig. Lamellen breit, oliv-lehmfarben, spater purpurbraun.Stiel schlank, glanzend. - Gedungte Wiesen, Wegrander. Stellenweise.Wertlos.

Figure 10 - Two descriptions of Psilocybe semilanceata from the German-languageliterature. The first description (top) was written over a hundred years ago, while thesecond one (bottom) dates to 1962. Significantly, the more recent entry classifies thespecies as "essentially worthless". Also see Figure 11.

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mexicana Heim. Like Psilocybe semilanceata, theseMexican species thrive in meadows and pastures.Another common trait among these species is therather subdued and subtle quality of their bluingreaction. Recognition of these similarities withMexican species sparked the curiosity of scientistswho wanted to learn more about Europe'sPsilocybe species. A research team that includedA. Hofmann and R. Heim began to study samplesof Psilocybe semilanceata, in collaboration with C.Furrer, a mycologist who examined fruiting bodiescollected in Switzerland and France. By 1963,paper chromatography testing had yielded data ofhistoric significance. For the first time, scientistshad confirmed the presence of 0.25 % psilocybinin dried samples of Psilocybe semilanceata.Publication of the results represented anextraordinary achievement, because psilocybin hadnever before been detected in a Europeanmushroom species. Previously, the alkaloid hadbeen found only in Psilocybe species native toMexico, Asia and North America.

While Psilocybe semilanceata was notrecognized as an important psychoactive speciesuntil the 1960s, descriptions of the species wereincluded in many standard German languagemycology reference books published before 1963.Figure 10 shows examples of two suchdescriptions, one of them dated 1962 and thesecond one written about 60 years earlier. Notethat the 1962 version designates Psilocybesemilanceata as a "worthless" species - a ratherincongruous conclusion likely to amuse today'sreaders. On the other hand, accounts of andknowledge about cases of mushroom intoxicationin England did not find their way into Germany'smycological literature. A few authors, such asMichael & Schulz (1927) and A. Ricken (1915)see Figures 11 and 12, pp. 19-20) contributedexcellent and valuable descriptions of Psilocybesemilanceata, but these are the exceptions, ratherthan the rule. A description of Psilocybesemilanceata from 1977 reflects less emphasis ondetails, and a rather cursory approach todifferentiation of the species, except for additionaldata on the mushroom's microscopiccharacteristics (see Figure 13).

In addition, a German aquarelle paintingfrom 1927 of five fruiting bodies depicts themushroom's habitus in remarkably realistic detail(see Figure 1, p. 4).

In 1967 and 1969 Psilocybe semilanceatasamples from Scotland and England were foundto contain psilocybin as well. Later on (1977),Michaelis reported discovering the alkaloid insamples collected in Germany (see Figure 14).

The Popularity of Psilocybe semilanceata

Since the late 1970s, investigators inseveral countries have been using of state-of-the-art methodology (High Performance LiquidChromatography) to test samples and quantifytheir alkaloid content. The following sectionsinclude more detailed reviews of these tests andtheir results.

Psilocybe semilanceata has clearlyestablished itself as t h e psychotropic mushroomspecies in Europe. The species thrives throughoutthe European continent, where it has sparkedextensive research efforts. In terms of usage,Psilocybe semilanceata is Europe's most popularpsychoactive species. In his 1983 monograph,Guzman suggests that Psilocybe semilanceata maywell be the most common psychoactive Psilocybemushroom in the world. Even though the speciesis known to flourish in Europe, North America,Australia and Asia, the mycofloras of manycountries have not yet been studied ordocumented. Thus, we cannot yet evaluate theprevalence of Psilocybe semilanceata on a globalscale.

In Europe, however, discoveries ofPsilocybe semilanceata have been reported fromthe following countries: Finland, Norway,Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland,Austria, The Netherlands, Belgium, France,Russia, Poland, the former Czechoslovakia,Hungary, Romania, Scotland, England, Wales,Italy and Spain.

Unfortunately, there are no com-prehensive maps detailing the species'sdistribution pattern. Traditionally, mycologistshave often neglected relatively tiny species, suchas Psilocybe semilanceata, that tend to share theirhabitats with other, more prominent species. Thesarcastic phrase "The mushrooms occur inabundance wherever mycologists abound" isparticularly pertinent in reference to the Psilocybespecies. Prior to the discovery of psilocybin, thePsilocybe genus languished in the literature,shrouded in obscurity. To this day, few

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189. Psilocybe semilanceata Fr. [Worthless]

The cap is uniformly conic to bell-shaped, with a pointy or obtuse center formingan almost wart-like protrusion; initially, caps are often taller than they are wide, marginsare bent and curved inward; later on, width of cap is 1.5-4 cm. Hygrophanous; colorationis a dirtyish olive-brown when wet, with translucent striate margins; at the center,coloration is ocher or greenish-yellow against an overall shade of smudgy pale yellow andoftentimes some greenish stains; only the margins are banded by a darkcolored, waterystripe around the edge. No stripes or banding evident when mushrooms are completelydried. Lacking a veil, caps are thin-fleshed, bald, with an easily separable pellicle thatremains gelatinous-sticky for a long time, turning shiny when dry.

Gills are olive brown to blackish purple brown in color, with the edges oftenremaining white, gill spacing is quite crowded; gill attachment is either roughly linear ormostly adnexed; up to 3.5 mm wide; attached at the stem only, fully detached later on.

Spores are elongated to ellipitical in shape, smooth and large, measuring 12-16 uby 6-8,u. Color of spore dust is blackish purple brown.

Stem is very slender, almost uniformly thin and always twisted, 6-12 cm long and1.25-2 mm thick, yellowish or whitish in color; areas subjected to pressure develop bluish-green stains. Stems are silky smooth and roughly at the center, cortinate fibrils appear likeremnants of a veil, which is brittle and lined with a white fibrous cord of wool-liketexture.

When dry, the flesh of the cap is colored pale yellow, while the stem's flesh isocher brown in color, especially towards the bottom. It is odorless and its flavor is mild.The mushroom grows from August to October, frequently in gregarious clusters, and canbe found in pastures and along roadways, growing on dung that has undergone completedecomposition. It is not a particularly rare species.

Figure 11(above)This excellent description of Psilocybe semilanceata by Michael & Schulz(1927) is shown here as originally published in German, with an English translation.

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Mycologists specialize in the study of Psilocybes,despite the fact that Psilocybe semilanceata is themost common and conspicuous species among thePsilocybes. Also, mushroom lovers whoseinterests are not purely scientific (see Chapter 7.4)do not usually preserve their knowledge forposterity in the form of distribution maps.However, there is one map from 1986, whichshows the distribution pattern of Psilocybesemilanceata across Germany (see Figure 20, p.28).Almost no published information is availableabout locations where Psilocybe species havebeen found in eastern Germany. During my ownfield trips, I have discovered Psilocybesemilanceata specimens in various locations, suchas near my hometown of Mansfeld in the VorharzMountains, in the marshlands of Duben as well asin other eastern German marshland areas. Inaddition, friends who are also mycologists havetold me about finding the mushrooms in otherparts of the country. A book published in 1952 isamong the rare sources that includes details aboutspecimens discovered in the southeastern state ofSaxony (see Figure 16, p. 23).

The Psilocybe species grow mostabundantly on wet pastures surrounded by forestareas. In my experience, Psilocybe semilanceatagrows in most of Germany's forestlands. Thespecies fruits during the fall, from late Septemberthrough October. It favors acidic soil and grassyterrain alongside trails or around the edges offorest lands. Specimens are generally clustered insmall groups of 30 mushrooms or less. Deerdroppings or other animal feces are usuallypresent at those locations, even though themushrooms never grow directly on top of dung.Occasionally, extremely stunted specimens maybe found in the mountains by the side of the road.

The soil below older cow pastures providesan excellent medium for extensive mycelialgrowth. In some locations, large areas yield anabundance of fruiting bodies, mirroring the extentof mycelial saturation in the soil. Given adequatemoisture, maximum yields can be expected, if thepasture was grazed at least once during the weeksbefore fruiting season. However, the mushroomsalso thrive under similar conditions on horse andsheep pastures. Such grassy areas inside forestsare usually grazing areas for deer, who providethe soil with additional fertilization. However,

Psilocybe semilanceata does not grow in locationswhere artificial fertilizer has been used. Suchpastures are often flanked by creeks or swamplands, which saturate the soil with water. During thesummertime, the warm climate in these wet areasprovides an excellent environment for optimalmycelial growth. In Germany, the mushroom'shabitat ranges from the coastal areas tomountainous regions, where the species has beenfound at altitudes of up to 1,720 m (5,160 ft) abovesea level (MTB-8443, 1985). In the formerCzechoslovakia, samples have been collected ataltitudes ranging from 330 to 1,000 m (1,000 -3,000 ft), with one location at 1,400 m (4,200 ft)above sea level. According to these distributionpatterns, the species does not appear to favor aspecific altitude. As of 1986, 44 locations in theformer Czechoslovakia had been logged, yielding atotal of 54 samples. In contrast to other mushroomspecies, such as the cultivated commercial whitemushrooms (Agaricus bisporis), Psilocybesemilanceata will fruit in a comparatively muchwider range of temperatures.

While Psilocybe semilanceata is commonthroughout Germany, the species does not appear tofavor specific areas where it occurs in markedabundance or density. One obvious limitation on thegrowth of the species is the limited presence offertilizer in areas that would otherwise be excellentlocations for the mushroom to thrive in. Most likelythat is why the species has not expanded into newhabitats in Germany over the last few decades.Descriptions of frequency of occurrence in the olderliterature are comparable to contemporaryobservations.

On occasion, however, Psilocybesemilanceata can produce a huge number of fruitingbodies at certain locations where conditions forgrowth are excellent.

Between a Creek and a Marshlands Pond....

8'/2 Inches Tall !

At this point, I would like to provide somemore details about two marshlands locations, wherewe have conducted mycological field research overthe course of several years.

At the first location, the fruiting bodiesgrew in a shallow grass valley among very tall grasson slightly acidic soil. This grassy area was

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a forest clearing between a creek and a marshlandspond. In areas exposed to direct sunlight,temperatures were significantly higher than theywere in surrounding areas, a phenomenon thatpersisted during the fall season. Deer droppingscontributed to frequent fertilization of the area. Thefruiting bodies from the first batch of mushroomsfound in this location had stems of up to 81

/2 in.[!]

(21.5 cm) tall, due to very tall grass in the area. Thecaps of the mushrooms were so tiny, that clearidentification of the species as Psilocybesemilanceata was not immediately possible. Eventhough a bluing reaction was present,chromatography testing was needed to confirm thespecies. Subsequent discoveries, however, yieldedsamples that could be identified on the spot basedon their morphological characteristics. We wereable to collect 30 to 60 specimens at this locationevery fall for three consecutive years.Unfortunately, the location was destroyed soonafterwards, due to man-made modifications to themarshlands and construction of an access road.

During the same year, we discovered asecond location within about half a mile of the firstone. The area was very large, a former cow pasturewhich had been grazed regularly. It was locatednext to a creek that saturated the soil completely.Today, sheep occasionally graze the area and deerdroppings are commonly found in the grass. Here,Psilocybe semilanceata fruits in abundance. Eachfall season, the pasture is covered with hundreds offruiting bodies (see Figure 15, p. 23).

For three years, we returned to the areathree times each fall, and harvested a total of 2,800mushrooms (ca. 140 g or 5 oz dry weight) at thelocation. While some of the fruiting bodies couldbe spotted easily on the grassy soil (see Figure 17)the vast majority of the specimens were usuallyconcealed inside clumps of grass (see Figure 18).

When the weather is dry, Psilocybesemilanceata is an easily recognizable species. Thefruiting bodies are extremely hygrophanous, whichis why the color of the caps changes to a dark oliveblack-brown when the mushrooms are wet. Only aclose inspection of the gills and the crooked stemsenabled us to differentiate the wet mushrooms fromthe Panaeolus species (see Chapter 3.3). Like manyother psychotropic mushroom species, a crucialcharacteristic of

Psilocybe semilanceata is the blue discolorationof parts of the cap and the lower half of the stem,While the degree of discoloration is relativelyminor, it is particularly noticeable when themushrooms are wet. Fruiting bodies that are oldand wet may spontaneously develop transparent,blue stains across their caps. On the other hand,discoloration of the stems does not set in until thefruiting bodies have been separated from themycelia for about 30 to 60 minutes. Even in areasof abundant harvests, I have always foundmushrooms with bluish-green discoloration’salongside others that lacked this characteristic.During the drying process, the blue coloration ispreserved, even though some fading may occur.

The historic descriptions of Psilocybesemilanceata cited above are so detailed that Icannot add any of better quality. In spite of manyopinions in the literature to the contrary, there is anoticeable odor that emanates from damp fruitingbodies that have been opened. This odor is similarto, but weaker than the one associated withPsilocybe bohemica, which is often described asreminiscent of radishes or poppies, but asgenerally not unpleasant (also see Chapter 3.2).

In addition, the mushrooms have anotherspecial attribute that rarely occurs in otherspecies. Under the light of a quartz lamp,Psilocybe semilanceata specimens turnfluorescent. The substance responsible for thisphenomenon, however, has not yet beenidentified.

Accounts of Impressive Experiences

Psilocybe semilanceata is quite likely themost potently psychoactive mushroom among theEuropean species. The impressive nature andrapid onset of the effects are reflected in thedescription of an intoxication from England citedabove. These elements are also part of thefollowing account, which details a mycologist'sfirst self-experiment:

After ingesting 1.3 g (less than one-sixteenth of an ounce) of dried and pulverizedmushrooms (30 mushrooms total) in water on anempty stomach, 20 minutes passed before thesudden onset of hallucinatory effects, including aheavy flow of tears. The apparitions are bestdescribed as a conjunction of visions and

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Figure 17 - Psilocybe semilanceata on grassy soil.

Figure 18 - Psilocybe semilanceata hidden in high grass.

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thoughts - later on I discovered the term"visualization" in the literature. I had an extremelyuncomfortable experience of a daydream-likeflight, where my arm had been seized by a witch...There were three of us flying somewhere,sometime. After that, all objects in my immediatesurroundings appeared pale and bleached. With myeyes closed I "saw" abstract ornaments with nodistinct luminescence or emotional impact. Duringthis time, free-floating dysphoria developed, alongwith guilt-ridden ruminations. After five hours, theeffects ended suddenly, followed by the gradualonset of a mild headache, while no other side effectswere noted.

On the other hand, a second experimentinvolving about half the previous dosage stood outbecause of a surge of memories and thesimultaneous re-experience of childhood emotions,along with some curious feelings of melting andmerging:

One day in late summer I was out on anature walk and ingested 0.6 g of pulverizedmushrooms. The weather was warm and sunny andI was walking through open areas near myhometown, were I had often played as a child.Suddenly, I experienced an emotional state mostaccurately described as child-like wonder andamazement about the surrounding forest. The areanearby appeared in very sharp contrast and myvisual perceptions seemed fresh and pure. SuddenlyI remembered in vivid detail just how small thetrees had been decades ago and how I neverobserved any other plant growth there before dark,which had sometimes frightened me. At the sametime, my body movements felt much more elasticand childlike. This delightful state of reliving mychildhood lasted for about two hours. On the wayhome I noticed a small calf out on the pasture.

The calf evoked a great amount of empathyin me, when I noticed how much it was bothered bypesky flies. These feelings of compassionculminated in a brief experience of completelymerging with the calf. I found it to be rather strangeand quite uncomfortable. After four hours,the effects subsided without any lasting side effects.

Finally, a third mushroom experiment withPsilocybe semilanceata in Oregon led to anexperience of complete identification with aperson from the 19th century:

We collected a large number of "libertycaps" in a pasture near Astoria. Later on, back

at our lodgings, I ate no more than six freshmushrooms. The key stimulus for the followingexperience was provided by a water color paintingof an elegant lady from the 19th century thatcaptured my attention completely. Suddenly I knewthat I was re-living an earlier incarnation, a life thatbegan when I was born in Germany in 1813.

My name was Alexander Schmitt, and Iknew that I had died in 1871. As a child, Itravelled by boat to North America, together withmy parents and other immigrants. In the UnitedStates, 1 changed my last name to Smith. I was alogger in a small Kentucky town named Sharpvilleor Shopville. My life there was hard and full ofsacrifices and I drank a lot of alcohol. Thesecircumstances of my existence were indicative ofmy lifestyle, which included beating my wife andotherwise mistreating her like the tyrant I was. Asthe experience deepened, I completely identifiedwith the person of Alexander Smith. During thesemoments I forgot my native German altogether, andmy thinking processes unfolded entirely in English.In this manner, I eventually experienced the lasthours of Alexander Smith's life. I was lying in bedon several white sheets and was very ill. Suddenly Iknew that my wife had poisoned me, to put an end tomy continuous degrading treatment of her over theyears. I knew that I did not have long to live. I wasabout to die. Fortunately, the experience endedbefore I had to face the final struggle against death.Today, over three years later, this unique experienceis still etched into my memory in vivid detail.

The experience's emotional impact has notdiminished with the passage of time.

Such experiences of earlier incarnationscannot be explained in terms of the accepted tenetsof western science. In any case, a thorough attemptshould be made to research the existence andhistoric accuracy of the locations and personsinvolved. The individual who experienced theevents described above had never been toKentucky, did not know whether or not a townnamed Sharpville or Shopville has ever existedthere and had never before had the slightest interestin this U.S. state. Due to his strictly atheisticupbringing, he had never thought such experiencespossible. S. Grof, however, has described similarsequences and emphasized that they can occurquite unexpectedly under the influence ofhallucinogens. He also noted that such experiencesare not exactly unusual, when

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an individual experiences repeated applications ofhallucinogenic substances.

In closing this section, I would like topresent a short account of an experience thatillustrates how the effects of psychotropicsubstances can vary across individuals, dependingon the setting in which the experience takes place:

After ingestion of 0.6 g of pulverizedmushrooms in orange juice, the effects began tomanifest after about 30 minutes: An endlesssequence of images behind closed eyes. At the sametime, no distinctly euphoric nor dysphoricemotional states were noted; the reaction to theseimages is most fittingly described as "temporaryamazement". The initial images of entwinedornaments changed with the passage of time andbecame plants, some of whom had several surrealcharacteristics not known to exist on Earth. Ibelieve these images reflected my longstandingpreoccupation with the world of plants. Then,when a mirror was placed in front of me, Iperceived "a gloomy-looking fellow with a fixedgaze". Then I admitted, somewhat reluctantly,that this impression did, in fact, reflect myeveryday demeanor and that I usually did not makeit easy for others "to see behind the facade ". Theexperimental guide confirmed my own impressions.Prior to this incident, we had never discussed thisissue.

States as well as from Switzerland and the formerCzechoslovakia have, for the most part, beenextensively analyzed. It was discovered that thecombined analysis of several dried mushroomsfor alkaloid content yielded an average value of 1% psilocybin of the dry weight, regardless ofcountry of origin. The issue of chemical race hasbeen hotly debated with respect to other species,such as the fly agaric mushroom. But in contrastto plants, such a phenomenon has not yet beenproven to exist in the higher mushroom species.So far, there is no evidence to support the notionthat the basic chemical make-up of a species canvary dramatically from sample to sample. Amongthe species discussed here, Psilocybesemilanceata and Inocybe aeruginascens (seeChapter 3.4) appear to be the two species with thelowest degree of variability in psilocybin contentacross samples. The first three analysis resultsshown in Table 1 represent data from my ownresearch conducted in the course of a workshopwith other investigators in Prague.

TABLE 1

Average Psilocybin Content of DriedPsilocybe semilanceata Samples

Origin Psilocybin (%)

The Psychotherapeutic Potential ofPsilocybin's Psychotropic Effects

The preceding account of an experience bya 67-year-old mycologist contains elements thatillustrate the beneficial potential of psilocybin'spsychotropic effects as an adjunct topsychotherapy. We will return to a discussion ofthese benefits in Chapter 9.

In accordance with their strongpsychoactivity, chemical analyses of Psilocybesemilanceata specimens have revealed high levelsof psilocybin. It is safe to say that this specieshas been more thoroughly studied than any otherPsilocybe species, including the Mexican species,whose dried mass is known to contain 0.2 - 0.6psilocybin.

Collections of Psilocybe semilanceatafrom England, Scotland, Norway, Finland,Belgium, Holland, Germany, France, the United

1. Dubener Marshlands,Eastern Germany 0.96

2. Prague, Czech Republic 1.053. Krasna Lipa, Czech Republic 0.914. Norway 0.955. Pacific Northwest, USA 0.936. The Netherlands 0.97

Fresh mushrooms are about 90% water,that is, one gram of mushroom material containsan average of 1 mg of psilocybin.

Psilocin, a comparatively less stablecompound, is the phenol analogue of psilocybin(see Figure 19, p. 27) and thus oxidizes muchmore readily than psilocybin. Psilocybesemilanceata contains only trace amounts ofpsilocin, if any at all.

On the other hand, baeocystin as the

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Biochemical precursor of psilocybin is found inall fruiting bodies of the Psilocybe species. Theprecursor has a hydrogen atom wherepsilocybin's only CH3 group is

located; the average baeocystin contentis 0.2% of dry weight. In 1967, Leung and Paulreported the isolation of baeocystin fromfruiting bodies of Psilocybe baeocystis Singer &Smith in North America. In 1977, Repke andLeslie also found the substance in a Psilocybesemilanceata sample from the same place oforigin.

Some investigators have founddifferences in alkaloid content when comparingsingle fruiting bodies from the same location.

contain additional substances that contribute to theoverall psychotropic effect. This hypothesis issupported by the fact that considerable amounts ofbaeocystin are consistently found in samples ofPsilocybe semilanceata. I am also aware of anexperiment whose results showed that 4 mg ofbaeocystin caused mild hallucinations for threehours, while 10 mg of baeocystin were found to beabout as psychoactive as a similar amount ofpsilocybin.

The Long Shelflife of Psilocybin

TABLE 2

Alkaloid Content of Dried Mushrooms from aLocation in the Dubener Marshlands ofEastern Germany (Selected Results)

D r y W e i g h t ( m g ) P s i l o c y b i n ( % ) B a e o c y s t i n ( % )

18 1.25 0.34

30 0.96 0.2170 0.72 0.1985 0.90 0.10

Smaller mushrooms almost alwayscontained more alkaloids than larger specimens.This fording was then confirmed by another studyusing considerably larger amount of investigativematerials (40 mushrooms). Moreover,exceptionally high concentrations of baeocystinhave been shown to accumulate in the caps offruiting bodies that contain the alkaloid. Inaddition, one mushroom sample from Finlanddeserves special mention due to its unusually highpsilocybin content of 2.37%!

Early controlled studies of thepsychoactivity of various species in the formerCzechoslovakia concluded that Psilocybesemilanceata is a more potently psychoactivespecies than Psilocybe bohemica, even thoughboth species were found to contain the sameamounts of psilocybin. Thus, researchershypothesized that the mushrooms are likely to

As part of dried mushroom material,psilocybin is a remarkably durable substance. Asample of desiccated mushrooms dated 1869 froma Finnish herbarium was still found to contain0.014% of psilocybin. On the other hand, noalkaloids were founds in another sample dated1843. Unfortunately, it is no longer possible todetermine the methods used in drying thesesamples. Temperatures over 50°C cause psilocybinto break down into its derivatives. In laboratorysettings, mushrooms are usually dried at roomtemperatures. Sometimes, fruiting bodies are alsofreeze-dried for analysis. Freeze-dried mushrooms,however, have a highly porous texture that causesthe alkaloids to break down relatively quickly, if thesamples are stored at room temperature (20°C). Forthat reason, freeze-dried samples for biochemicalanalysis are stored at -10°C prior to alkaloidextractions or chromatography testing. In additionto the reports from Finland, investigators in NorthAmerica have noted that psilocybin's decay rate isslowest in Psilocybe semilanceata, compared toother species.

(1) R = H2P03

(2) R = H

Figure 19 - Structural formulas forpsilocybin (1) and psilocin (2).

CH3

CH3

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Psilocybe semilanceata

Figure 20 - Distribution pattern of Psilocybe semilanceata in Germany and adjacent areas.Locations are indicated by black dots.

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CHAPTER 3.2

PSILOCYBE CYANESCENS - POTENT MUSHROOMSGROWING ON WOOD DEBRIS

At least one other Psilocybe species inaddition to Psilocybe semilanceata is known toexist in Europe. At this point, I must emphasizethat the differentiation of single species withinthe Psilocybe genus is subject to considerablecontroversy among eminent taxonomists. Forexample, there are different methods ofdistinguishing the Hypholoma genus from theStropharia genus.

The Widespread Distributionof Psilocybe cyanescens

While Psilocybe semilanceata is a speciesthat has long been clearly defined and is wellknown by this name, there are, according toKrieglsteiner, other strongly bluing mushroomsthat can be described as belonging to the"Psilocybe cyanescens complex". These are allmushrooms that grow on raw compost and plantdebris.

In accordance with current states ofknowledge, the following names in the literatureare merely synonyms for Psilocybe cyanescensWakefield emend. Krieglsteiner:

different herbariums. However, the microscopicdata pertaining to the Psilocybe species are poorlydelineated and oftentimes overlap. It is thereforeimperative that additional mycological studies ofPsilocybe cyanescens be performed. To this end,fresh mushroom samples from various Europeanlocations should be used, and biochemical methodsmust be included in the investigation. Guzman'sdivision of Psilocybe cyanescens by geographicarea, however, definitely turned out to beinaccurate. According to his system, -North Africawas home to Psilocybe mairei, while Psilocybecyanescens were found in England and Holland andPsilocybe serbica supposedly grew in Serbia andBohemia. The geographic distribution of the entirespecies seems to cover a vast area, with variationsalong climate and terrain at locations where sampleswere collected. Such disparate morphologies are tobe expected when dealing with "young" species,that is, species that have not yet firmly establishedthemselves and are still expanding into newlocations.

Figure 7 (p. 14) displays locations inEurope and North Africa where samples ofPsilocybe cyanescens have been found.

- Hypholoma cyanescens R. Maire

- Hypholoma coprinifacies (Rolland ss.Herink) Pouzar

- Geophila cyanescens (R. Maire) Kuhner &Romagnesi

- Psilocybe serbica Moser & Horak- Psilocybe mairei Singer- Psilocybe bohemica Sebek

The classification of these synonyms isparticularly difficult, because the mycologistsinvolved provided detailed descriptions forisolated collections of fruiting bodies only,followed by comparisons with mushroomsfound at other locations, using dates provided inthe literature. Under the best of circumstances,an analysis was performed on dried samplesfrom

Spores Introduced From Overseas?

In this section I would like to discussseveral aspects of the bluing Psilocybe mushrooms.Detailed information about several isolated samplecollections has been presented by Krieglsteiner.

A description of any mushroom speciesbecomes valid only after a Latin diagnosis of thecollected sample has been published in amycological journal, along with distinctivecharacteristics in relation to other species.

In 1946 Wakefield described as Psilocybecyanescens Wakefield a sample of bluing dark-spored mushrooms collected at the botanicalgardens in Kew, England. It had been suggested

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that those mushrooms occurred adventitiously,that is, that the spores had been imported fromoverseas together with other plant materials. Thepresence of such mushrooms in botanical gardenshad been observed quite frequently, and suchimports are likely whenever the mushroom inquestion has never before been found insurrounding areas. The possible importation ofGymnopilus purpuratus is described elsewhere(see Chapter 3.5).

The mushrooms displayed a much moreintense blue staining reaction than Psilocybesemilanceata. They were observed growing onsmall pieces of wood in the forested areas of KewGardens during the fall season for several years.Among the mushrooms' most notable features aretheir undulating, twisted caps. Guzman believesthat specimens collected in British Columbia andthe Pacific Northwest of the United States(Northern California, Oregon, Washington) areidentical to those found in Kew Gardens (seeFigure 24). Indeed, all of the macroscopic andsome microscopic descriptions and photographsmatch the mushrooms found in England. However,conclusive proof of identity can be provided onlyby results from DNA analyses and cross-breedingexperiments with single-spore mycelia. I willelaborate on this method in a later section.

In 1975, fruiting bodies of this specieswere also discovered in Holland. Additional bluingmushrooms growing gregariously on grass anddecaying reeds were found in the Jura Mountainsof Switzerland in 1972 (MTB 8511). Othersamples are known to have been collected in theSteiermark region of Austria in the fall of 1976, aswell as on the Mediterranean island of Corsica in1972 and 1984.

On several occasions, a number offruiting bodies classifed as Psilocybe cyanescenswere also discovered in Germany (see Figure 23, p.32).

More elaborate descriptions of several suchcollections are provided below:

On October 31, 1983 considerablequantities of fruiting bodies in all stages ofdevelopment were found in the lower regions ofBavaria (MTB 7542). Interspersed with grass, themushrooms grew along a 100-yard stretch rightnext to an old garbage dump forming colonies,some small and others larger, that were partiallyintertwined. They were found scattered

across decaying plant materials, such as leaves,twigs and mulch. There were greenish anddistinctly bluish stains on the caps, and mostnotably a bluish color near the base of the stem.Other fruiting bodies quickly developed bluestains in reaction to being handled, even in verycool temperatures.

The description of Psilocybe cyanescensbelow is somewhat condensed, but essentiallyapplies to all other collections, while the relativemeasures and sizes may vary:

Caps: 5-40 mm broad, conic at first, withcortinate fibrils ascending steeply to the stem, butfading quickly, bell-shaped later on, partially withan acute umbo. Later expanding to plane, withundulating or wavy margins, no remnants of veil,also broadly convexed to umbonate in oldermushrooms. Deep chestnut brown when fresh andmoist, fading to a whitish color when drying, withstains of bluish to blue-green coloration.

Gills: Attachment adnate to broadlysubdecurrent, color light to dirty beige whenyoung, later on changing to cinnamon-purplebrownish color due to maturation of spores. Bluestaining reaction is slight in response to pressure.Stem: 30-85 mm long, uniformally thick at 1.5-3mm. Stems and mycelial fibers turn blue inresponse to touch, if blue stains not alreadypresent.

Odor: Somewhat like flour or potatoes.Spores: 6-8 x 9-14 u.

In 1976, bluing mushrooms growing onplant debris were found in the Saarland region ofGermany. Other collections came from theSouthern regions of the Black Forest (MTB 7515,1959, 1963), as well as the Vogtland area (1979)and the Rheinland area (MTB 4706, 1982).Similar mushrooms were also discovered nearHamburg (MTB 2428, 1983) and Bremen (1982,1983). The latter collections are especiallyinteresting, because the greenhouses at theRhododendron Park and People's Park in thosecities provided layers of wood chips during thefall which enabled the mushrooms to fruit muchmore prolifically (thousands of mushrooms) thanthey did naturally in surrounding areas, where thespecies was also fruiting in several locations.These findings most likely indicate the presenceof a similar, imported species, because nativefruiting bodies require exposure to the shock ofcolder temperatures of fall in order to develop

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from the mycelia. For instance, other woodchipdwelling species have been reported fromthe Pacific Northwest of the U.S., such asPsilocybe stundi, Psilocybe baeocystis,Psilocybe pelliculosa and others (also seeChapter 7.1). Psilocybe caerulescens Murr.from Mexico is also related to these species.This was the first Psilocybe mushroom to berecognized as psychoactive by Wasson in thecourse of his selfexperiment on June 29,1955.

Very little is known about the chemicalcomposition of the collections cited above. Ianalysed a few mushrooms from collectionsfound in the Rheinland area of Germany in1989. The results were as follows:

Psilocybin: 0.51 % of dried mushrooms

Psilocin: 0.08 % of dried mushrooms

Baeocystin: 0.04% of dried mushrooms

A few other analyses of Germanmushrooms yielded similar results. Thesevalues were well within the range ofconcentrations of alkaloids found in Mexicanspecies. The most extensive studies ondistribution, psychoactivity and chemicalcompounds of Psilocybe cyanescens complexwere conducted in the formerCzechoslovakia, where the mushrooms aregenerally known as Psilocybe bohemica, aname which is also used in the text below.

well as on decaying pine cones. Severalspecimens up to 15 cm (6 in.) tall with caps up to5 cm (2 in.) broad were found growing on arotting log whose underside was exposed to therunning water. A water-loving Psilocybe species,it primarily fruits in late autumn (see Figure 21,below), when short night frosts induce maximumpossible fruiting. The brown caps are stronglyhygrophanous and their color fades to a white-milky brown when dried. Its odor has beencompared to anything from radishes to poppies.In my experience, the odor is highly variable andthus difficult to define. Young, dry mushroomsdevelop intensely blue stains in response tohandling, while older fruiting bodies tend to befound at the location with dark blue stains alreadyin place. It is remarkable that the mushroomswere fruiting at the same location near Porickofor so many years in a row, producing a largenumber of fruiting bodies each year.Unfortunately, in recent years the location waspartially destroyed, due to construction of a road.

By late 1982, the mushroom species hadbeen found at 51 locations in the formerCzechoslovakia, with only seven of them locatedin Bohemia, 40 in Moravia, and four in Slovakia.Elevations vary from 200 m to 700 m (600 ft to2,100 ft) above sea level, with only two locationsknown to exist above 700 m (2,100 ft). By thistime, 112 collections had been reported, 44 ofwhich came from the classic location nearSazava.

An Amazing Discovery Near Poricko

Kubicka first discovered the species onDecember 6 and 13, 1942 in the KresickyCreek Valley village of Poricko v Pozavi nearSazava (Czech Republic). In 1950,mycologist Herink described the mushroomsin detail. He also believes that Fries classifiedmushrooms of the Psilocybe cyanescenscomplex as Psilocybe callosa during the 19thcentury. On November 11, 1986 I had theopportunity to work with Herink and otherCzech mycologists on a mycological fieldresearch project at the location, where wefound 440 fruiting bodies (550 g or 19.6 ozs).Covering a segment almost two miles long,the species was fruiting among nettles alongboth sides of the creek on wood chips ofCarpinus, Alnus and Salix, on raw compostmixtures of Picea, Pinus and Larix needles,as

Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan.

Figure 21 - Fruiting curve of Psilocybecyanescens based on observations at several

locations in the former Czechoslovakia.

The mycelia make use of different kindsof plant debris and even grow on wet cardboard,where they develop into rhizomorphs just likethey would in nature. Rhizomorphs are thickstrands of mycelia that serve to transportnutrients and water. They also develop intenseblue stains (see Figure 22).

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Figure 23Distribution pattern of Psilocybe

cyanescens in Germany and adjacent areas(according to Krieglsteiner). Locations are

indicated by black dots.

Figure 22 Psilocybe bohemicarhizomorphs growing on wet cardboard.

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Figure 24 - Psilocybe cyanescens at a natural location (USA).

Figure 25 - Psilocybe bohemica on twigs and leaves.

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Impressive Experiences

Psilocybe bohemica is a very psychoactivespecies. Its effects are vividly documented in thefollowing account of one natural scientist'sexperience as part of controlled clinical trials inPrague:

About 30 mg of psilocybin in mushroomtissue was prepared in hot water, with effectsalready noticeable ten minutes after ingestion. Igrew increasingly quiet. At first, my legs began totingle, then my underarms as well. Aside from adeeper breathing rhythm, few other somatic effectswere noted. Initially there were fits of laughtercaused by unusual cognitive associations; thislaughter also affected the two "sober" guides. Agrowing hyperacuity interfered with the ability tolisten to music, so that Vivaldi's "Springtime"caused painful stabs inside the brain. I comparedthe pain to that caused by a "sawing knife". Theexperimenters appeared bloated and yellow...Existing bodily characteristics, such as thinninghair stimulated a person's illusionarytransformation into a monk with tonsure. Theirvoices also appeared reverent and, from asomewhat paranoid point of view, these gentlemenat times seemed to be working a switching stationthat, for some reasons, was my enemy. At the sametime, I found both of them to be quite likeable.During this time period, the other female subjectperceived fantastic images of moving colors andsaw visions of her whole life unfolding behindclosed eyes. During this period, I had the distinctimpression that an electrical current was flowingthrough my body, which was not an uncomfortablesensation. About three hours later, the gentlemenretired to the kitchen and the nature of theexperience changed quite drastically.

At first I felt as if my legs were increasinglymerging into the wall, a very comfortableexperience. In a state of utter clarity ofconsciousness, I finally felt as if I had no body at all.I said. "The most descriptive expression is theexperience of a pure soul". Using words as triggers,we were able to induce shared experiences of colorvisions and we travelled together around the wordas well the spiritual realm. She made a clearlytelepathic statement about my hometown, which Icould not fathom or

interpret at the time, nor could I do so later on.While under the impression that the thinkingprocess itself was something supernatural, I wasfilled with confidence when I realized without adoubt that death itself was but a levitation of thesoul, which may or may not entail looking downupon the "normal" world. I did, however,anxiously reject her offer to see into my future andtell me about what she learned. Yet 1 knew thatshe was already seeing such things.

The above account vividly illustrates thecosmic-mystical aspects of the mushrooms'effects. Such effects have frequently beendescribed following ingestion of high doses ofhallucinogens, especially in cautious andprotective environments ("setting") coupled with apositive, internal mood ("set") primed by carefulpreparation. Of course, the detailed content of suchexperiences varies across individuals. Pahnke'smasterful study during Good Friday Services in1962 has become a famous event in the history ofresearch into these states of consciousness.

Three years later, a remarkable range ofeffects was observed in the same participant of anexperiment conducted in Prague, where myceliafrom Psilocybe bohemica were used. Due to ananalytical error, the four participants each ingested72 mg of psilocybin, plus some psilocin, instead ofthe intended dosage of 30 mg of psilocybin each:

Days before the experiment, I alreadybegan to suspect that this experience would notevolve as smoothly as it had three years ago, giventhe amount of personal stress I had suffered overthe previous two months. However, I had faith inthe expertise provided by psychiatric guidance.Prior to the experiment, I asked the psychiatristabout the possible causes underlying my seeminginability to fully experience the unfolding of visualimagery. He brushed aside my question with ashort and terse reply : "Resistance", which onlyheightened my feelings of anxious tension.

After ingestion of the hot preparation,fifteen minutes passed until the sudden onset of itseffects. I ceased to perceive the music and sankinto an autistic state devoid of visions whichlasted for three hours. This state was subjectivelyexperienced as one of confusion with a partialloss of consciousness as well as the loss of asense of time and place. This torturous period,

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however, did not include any rough somaticdisturbances. After I woke up, I felt like a brokenmachine; only the compassion of the otherparticipants, which were also suffering, helped toclear my head temporarily. My experimenterattempted to counterbalance these effects and toprovide a firmly grounded focus of reality, but hisefforts were unsuccessful in the long run. I felt asif I was extremely drunk, except there was none ofthe aggression typical of alcohol intoxication.Soon afterwards, I began to project my emotionsonto the psychiatrist. I saw him undergoillusionary changes; initially he appeared to be adominant rooster which transformed into a punkrocker. Then 1 felt that he would understandwhat 1 was going through, given his extensivebackground and experience with psycholytictherapy. So I asked him, if the two of us couldretire to another room. When he consented, Ibegan to undergo a psychic split. The sound ofmy voice was strange and whiny. I felt as if part ofme had split off and become an observer, whilethe rest of my prone body had assumed theposition of an infant, sucking on a finger andcrying, crumbling up tissue papers at the sametime. On the psychoanalytic level, anextraordinary experience began to unfold. Ibecame conscious of all recent and past conflicts,especially those involving my parents. Thispart of my personality articulated and workedthrough the emerging conflicts. Even thoughone might assume this process was facilitated bythe psychiatrist, this was not the case. In the semi-darkness 1 perceived him as my deceasedgrandfather, as a human skull and as anAmerican football player, whose armor Irecognized as a projection of my own uptightpersonality.

Afterwards I looked at my reflection in alarge mirror and reconciled my differences withmyself as the two halves of my personality mergedinto one. I saw a soft and tearful face and soonrealized that the person I was looking at was noneother than myself, that I had learned to acceptmyself, in spite of all my problems. At the time Ialso noticed that my self-disciplined behavior wasoverly exaggerated, a trait generally judged asunfavorable by those around me. I resolved tobecome more relaxed and carefree in attending tomy daily routines. I believed this psychologicalinsight to be a revelation. With my eyes closed, Isaw images of translucent vessels atop a

brilliantly blue surface. In the weeks and monthsafter the experiment, those around me noticed thatmy behavior had changed to become more relaxed,which was mentioned spontaneously on severaloccasions.

The experience of an initial, painfuldelirium illustrates a resistance to dealing withthe conflicts that invariably emerge in response tohigh dosages - conflicts that were resolvedthrough an intense psycholytic catharsis (also seeChapter 9). A psychedelic experience ensued asboth parts of the divided personality were mergedinto a whole. This is a decidedly positiveoutcome of a psycholytic episode withcorresponding therapeutic benefits - a result thatwas entirely unintended (!). Personal stress priorto the experiment apparently facilitated themanifestation of deep-seated conflicts and issuesthat might otherwise never have been dealt with.With the exception of the attending psychiatrist,outside observers appraised this experience as a"bad trip". The subject, however, thought theexperience to be enlightening and illuminating,even five years after it took place. Grof describesvery similar reactions to LSD therapy. After"going through Hell", subjects proceed to re-integrate their personality at a higher level ofconsciousness, while experiencing visionaryimages of clear, bright lights and illumination.

TABLE 3

Concentrations of Psilocybin and its Derivativesin Psilocybe bohemica (% of Dried Mushrooms)

Specimen # Weight (mg) Psilocybin Psilocin Baeocystin

1 31 1.34 0.00 0.012 90 0.94 0.01 0.01

3 104 0.41 0.00 0.02

4 175 0.90 0.00 0.01

5 200 0.71 0.01 0.02

6 220 0.37 0.00 0.01

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Distribution Patterns of Psilocybe cyanescensin the Wake of Environmental Changes

In 1973, Semerdzieva and Nerud firstreported the existence and qualitative content ofpsilocybin in collections of Psilocybe bohemica.This research team reported psilocybin levels ofup to 1.1 % in dried samples. Results from myown studies also revealed variable levels ofalkaloids in different mushrooms collected at theone location near Sazava.

In spite of the intense blue stainingreaction, there is very little or no psilocin inmushrooms of the European Psilocybe cyanescenscomplex. By chemical-taxonomic standards,European collections are very different fromPsilocybe cyanescens samples collected in thePacific Northwest of the United States. The latterare known to contain up to 1 % psilocin (driedmushrooms) as well as an equally high level ofpsilocybin (for a total alkaloid level of 2 %),

making it one of the most potent species in NorthAmerica. The study of extracts derived from thesemushrooms revealed that enough psilocin waspresent for the oxidized compound to be visibleon a thin-layer chromatography plate. This wasnot the case when similar analyses wereperformed on mushrooms collected in the formerCzechoslovakia. However, mushrooms from bothcountries contain similarly low levels ofbaeocystin.

Generally we can say that this potentlypsychoactive and conspicuous species is in theprocess of expanding its habitat across Europe.Increasing use of fertilizer, the acidification of thesoil in many regions and the presence in any wetforest or park of a variety of fertile substrates,such as mulch, not dependent on the presence ofdung, are all factors that will likely help Psilocybecyanescens achieve a remarkably wide area ofdistribution in the future.

Figure 26 - Psilocybe bohemica on twigs and compost.

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CHAPTER 3.3

PANAEOLUS SUBBALTEATUS - MYCOLOGY AND MYTHS ABOUT THEPANAEOLUS MUSHROOMS

Stories about involuntary intoxicationswith the dark-spread dung-inhabitingmushrooms (genus Panaeolus) in variousregions of the world have been in circulationsince at least the early 19th century. In 1816,an impoverished man collected mushrooms inLondon's Hyde Park which he thought to beedible white mushrooms ("champignons ",Agaricus bisporus). Soon after ingesting thesemushrooms, his field of vision darkened and hesaw fog while feeling lightheaded and dizzy.

Trembling, he sank into his chair. Hefelt all his strength draining from his body andhe grew oblivious to his surroundings and nolonger knew where he was. Some timelater, the feelings of dizziness subsided, and hisheart rate slowed down until he was finally ableto fall asleep.

The symptoms were later attributed to"Agaricus campanulatus Linnaeus ", which theman had mistaken for champignons. The samespecies had been responsible for a similar caseof intoxication that happened about a yearearlier. Both accounts are highly reminiscent ofthe 1799 intoxication with Psilocybesemilanceata from St. James Green Park (see p.15). This would seem to be quite logical, asthere are psilocybin-producing mushroomseven among the genus Panaeolus. However,the question which of the 15 European speciesactually produce the psychoactive substance isan issue that remains the subject ofconsiderable scientific controversy. Eventhough I cannot offer any decisive or finalevidence towards the resolution of thisproblem, there are some fairly conclusiveresults from modern biochemical analyses (seeTable 4 below) of mushrooms that were clearlyidentified or obtained from herbariums, wherecertain species were known to have beendeposited. Specifically, many Americanspecies within the genus Panaeolus do notappear to be the same as European species withthe same name.

At this point, I would like to presentsome historic cases of Panaeolus intoxications.

A typical hallucinogenic experience blamed on theaccidental ingestion of Panaeolus papilionaceus(Bull.:Fr.) Quel. occurred in Maine, USA, in 1914.

Below is an abridged version of thedescription of effects by a Mr. W.:

On July 10, 1914, 1 gathered a good messof the mushrooms (Panaeolus papilionaceus) andhad them cooked for dinner. .... They were all eatenby Mrs. Y. and myself. Peculiar symptoms wereperceived in a very short time.... A little later,objects took on peculiar bright colors. A field ofredtop grass seemed to be in horizontal stripes ofbright red and green, and a peculiar green hazespread itself over all the landscape... Soon both ofus became very hilarious, with an irresistibleimpulse to laugh and joke immoderately, and almosthysterically at times.... I then had a verydisagreeable illusion. Innumerable human faces, ofall sorts and sizes, but all hideous, seemed to fill theroom and to extend off in multitudes to interminabledistances, while many were close to me on all sides.They were all grimacing rapidly and horribly andundergoing contortions, all the time growing moreand more hideous. Some were upside down. Thefaces appeared in all sorts of bright and evenintensive colors - so intense that 1 could only likenthem to flames of fire, in red, purple, green andyellow colors, like fireworks.... The entireexperience lasted about six hours. No ill effectsfollowed. There was no headache, nor anydisturbance of the digestion.

During the winter of 1915, a species ofPanaeolus spontaneously appeared in a mushroomgreenhouse in New York. These fruiting bodieswere accidentally eaten together with thechampignons that were cultivated there. This errorled to cases of intoxications so remarkable thatMurrill described the mushroom as Panaeolusvenenosus. Some time passed before it wasdiscovered that this species had previously beendescribed as Agaricus

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subbalteatus B. & Br. from England in 1861. Thecombination term that is in use today, Panaeolussubbalteatus (B.& Br.) Sacc. was first published in1887.

Other cases of intoxications with similarsymptoms caused by the Panaeolus species havebeen reported in the United States (1917), as wellas from Australia (after 1940), where the speciesinvolved was described as "Panaeolus ovatusCooke & Massee".

In 1939, these reports induced Schultes,in agreement with Linder's classificationexperiments, to publish as Panaeolus sphinctrinus(Fr.) Quel. the teonanacatl mushroom describedin the Mexican literature from the 16th and 17thcenturies.

However, Wasson, Heim and theircollaborators, as well as Singer, were unable todocument the usage of Panaeolus mushrooms inMexico, in addition to their reports about the usageof psychoactive Psilocybe species from the 1950s.By 1959, even Guzman referred to this species as"the false teonanacatl". So far, he has been unableto document native usage of any Panaeolusspecies in Mexico. In fact, the natives of Mexicoconsider bluing, hallucinogenic Panaeolusmushrooms to be poisonous.

Despite the poisoning case reported inEngland, the early German literature does notclassify Panaeolus species as poisonous (seeFigure 27). The Psilocybe species were treatedsimilarly.

Figure 27 describes the mushroom'scharacteristics as accurately as Figure 3 (p. 6)depicts its habitus. More recent descriptions areusually less detailed and thorough than Michael &Schulz's from 1927.

In Germany, a case of intoxication withPanaeolus mushrooms was first reported in 1957(see Figure 28). From today's perspective, itappears that the mushroom responsible for theintoxication was most likely Panaeolus retirugis(Fr.) Gill.

About 30 to 60 minutes after ingestion ofthe cooked mushrooms, the woman's field ofvision began to quiver increasingly. At the sametime, her pupils were extremely dilated. As shebegan to have difficulties breathing, she suffereda full-fledged anxiety attack. All objects appearedas if obscured by curtains. After the effects hadsubsided, no symptoms of lasting damage couldbe detected.

In 1970, another poisoning case withPanaeolus subbalteatus occurred in Leipzig.Similar to the 1915 incident in New York, themushrooms spontaneously emerged among aculture of artificially cultivated mushrooms(Stropharia rugoso-annulata Farlow, in thiscase) and then were eaten by mistake. Thedescription of its effects is somewhat peculiar.

Growing on Dung, Manure and Compost

The stories about intoxications as well as thevery name "dung-inhabiting" mushroom offerclues about the kinds of habitats this speciesprefers to grow in.At times, they grow directly on top of dung oron pastures that have been heavily fertilized.They are also found on trash heaps, oncompost or on straw substrates where mushrooms are commercially cultivated. EuropeanPanaeolus species that produce psilocybinhave a special attribute that differentiates themPsilocybe species: they very seldom developblue stains when handled or injured.In his description of a Scottish case ofintoxication in 1977, Watling mentions markedblue colorations along the caps of stems ofPanaeolus subbalteatus, which also developedin reaction to pressure. According to myobservations, the formation of blue stains isvery rare. Reports from the Pacific NorthwestUnited States also state that only one in a hundredmushrooms actually turns blue.One controversial issue in the literatureconcerns the toxicity of one species: Panaeolusfoenisecii (Pers.:Fr.) Kuhn. This specieshas previously been classified as Psilocybe aswell as Psathyrella, and has been described asPanaeolina in contrast to Panaeolus, because itis a species that does not grow on dung, fruitsonly after the hay harvest, and develops sporesthat are purplish-brown and abrasive. OtherPanaeolus species, however, have black sporeprints when placed on white paper underneath aglass vessel to prevent dehydration. But, eventhe spores of Panaeolus foenscecii (Pers..-Fr.)Kuhn.do not all ripen at the same time, whichcan cause the gills to appear mottled.Due to the complications with taxonomicdifferentiation, there are certainly no reliable

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192. Panaeolus subbalteatus Berk.u.Br.

The cap is broadly convex, obtuse, often with a slight umbo in the middle,usually 3-4 cm broad, sometimes up to 5 cm. Hygrophanous, reddish brown whenwet, pale and brownish to flesh-colored when dry. Margins moist to watery at times,and banded with a dark brown stripe around the edges. Surface smooth or lightlywrinkled, bald, rather fleshy, no veil.

The gills are reddish brown when young, later on sooty or black, gill spacingis rather crowded and bulgy, gills are 7-8 mm wide and somewhat thick. Gills areinitially attached to the stem, and detached later on.

The spores are almost lemon-shaped, 13-14u long and 8-9,u wide, smooth,black and opaque.

The stems are slender, 4-8 cm in length and uniformly thick (3-4 mm,sometimes up to 5 mm). Stems are often curvy and reddish brown in color; silky-fibrous with a slight ring at the top. Stems are narrowly tubular and break easily.

The flesh is pale and odorless with a mild taste. Habitat and season: The mushroom grows cespitosely to gregariously fromJune through October in grassy areas. It particularly thrives on fertilized fields andpastures, but occurs there comparatively less often.

Figure 27 - Description of Panaeolus subbalteatus by Michael & Schulz from1927 (with English translation below).

Figure 28 - First description of a Panaeolus intoxication in Germany (1957). Symptoms arecompared to those of alcohol poisoning, such as difficulties standing or walking, incoherent orinappropriate laughter and talking, and visions of objects moving or dancing. Other symptoms includeremarkable hallucinations with splendid color combinations, as well as red eyes and dilated pupils.

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Figure 29 - Panaeolus cyanescens in Hawaii (USA).

Figure 30 - Gymnopilus purpuratus on sawdust.

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maps showing distribution patterns for theEuropean Panaeolus species.

Taxonomic Confusion

On May 25, 1986, in the village ofHeringsdorf on the Eastern German Sea Coast, Ifound 147 fruiting bodies of Panaeolussubbalteatus in all stages of development. Theywere growing on a compost heap that originallycontained horse manure. Unlike the Psilocybespecies, Panaeolus mushrooms can be foundanytime from spring throughout the fall season.The differentiation of Panaeolus species isfurther hindered because they are veryhygrophanous, with caps whose colors canchange from whitish to grey, or from reddishbrown to a very dark black-brown. Oldermushrooms on the compost heap had caps thathad cracked with age, and margins that hadcurved upwards and were covered with sporedust. Only two mushrooms had blue-stainedcaps, and the stems did not change color inreaction to pressure. In the Americanliterature Panaeolus subbalteatus has been labeled"Panaeolus variabilis", because some of the stemsimitate the appearances of other mushroomspecies and thereby contribute to the taxonomicconfusion. The species is also known togrow in the immediate vicinity of Panaeolusfoenisecii (Pers.:Fr.) Kiihn., creating moreopportunities for mistakes, especially if themushrooms are not closely inspected. The caps ofPanaeolus subbalteatus become flat as themushrooms age, a feature that is taxonomicallysignificant.

The cap's long, watery marginal zonegives the mushroom its name. Only thepsilocybin-producing species will be discussed inmore detail below. Results from recentcomprehensive analyses clearly show thatPanaeolus subbalteatus is the most importantpsychoactive European species among the genusPanaeolus. Ola'h's world monograph about thegenus Panaeolus was published in the 1960s andhas caused much confusion, since he described anumber of species as "latent psilocybin-producers". He proposed, for example, thatPanaeolus foenisecii occasionally producespsilocybin. All Panaeolus species share onecharacteristic that differentiates them from allother species discussed in this book: They

produce 5-substituted indole compounds, such asserotonin and its biochemical precursor, 5hydroxy-tryptophan. Serotonin is a compound widely foundin animals and humans. It acts as a neurotransmitterin the brain, even though not all of serotonin'seffects have been entirely understood. It should benoted, however, that both serotonin and 5-hydroxy-tryptophan are completely inactive when takenorally. When performing paper or thin-layerchromatographies, both of these substances caneasily be mistaken for psilocin. It is remarkable thatOla'h's results contradict current findings, in that hisdata frequently showed the existence of psilocin inPanaeolus species!

More recent studies of carefully identifiedmushroom material from the European Panaeolusspecies did not document substantial amounts ofpsilocin in these samples. Also, "chemical races"associated with specific species could not beestablished. I believe that almost all accidentalintoxications can be traced to ingestion ofPanaeolus subbalteatus, with the possible exceptionof one case caused by an imported tropical species.Very little is said in the literature about Panaeolusretirugis, its area of distribution and chemicalcomposition. The intoxication case from Bremen,however, indicates that this species is psychoactive(see Figure 28). In 1985, I found two fruiting bodiesin a pasture, whose dried weight contained 0.03- 0.05 % psilocybin, as well as serotonin. All of themushrooms' features, such as wrinkled, fleshcoloredcaps, corresponded to descriptions of Panaeolusretirugis.

Based on his analyses, Stijve concludedthat the dried fruiting bodies of Panaeolussubbalteatus contain about 0.1 % psilocybin,regardless of location, as well as a tiny amount ofbaeocystin. Still, accounts of intoxications withconsistently potent psychoactive effects would seemto provide evidence against such small amounts ofalkaloids in Panaeolus subbalteatus. Indeed, driedmushrooms from the Pacific Northwest region ofthe United States have been reported to contain0.16% - 0.65% psilocybin. Moreover, the firstanalyses of the species in North America (1959) ledto the isolation of a water-soluble indole compoundwhich is now generally thought to be baeocystin.My own analyses of mycelia and 19 fruiting bodiesfrom the Heringsdorf location indicated levels of

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psilocybin that are fully compatible with the datafrom the United States:

TABLE 4

large number of existing synonyms for thespecies, as presented by Gerhardt (see Figure31), again indicates substantial taxonomicconfusion, as well as insufficientcommunication and exchange of information.

Ingredients Found in Mycelia and FruitingBodies of Panaeolus subbalteatus

(% of Dried Material )

IngredientPsilocybin

Mycelia0.07

Fruiting Bodies0.08(stem)-0.70

Psilocin 0.00 0.00Baeocystin 0.00 0.05(stem)-0.46Serotonin 0.10 0.08-0.30Urea 0.00 1.80-2.30(cap)

Table 4 shows that the nature and relativeamounts of the substances found are different inthe fruiting bodies compared to the basemycelium, which was tested here for the first time.

As far as active ingredients are concerned,levels of urea are trivial. The substance does,however, have some significance in terms ofchemo-taxonomy. Among species discussedhere, urea is present only in Panaeolus and Pluteusspecies. Urea was detected "incidentally" duringthin-layer chromatography testing intended todiscover the presence of indole compounds. Stijvehas collected and tested samples of Panaeolusfoenisecii from eight countries across threecontinents (namely, America, Europe andAustralia), but has consistently failed to findpsilocybin in addition to 5-substituted indolecompounds. My own analyses of 100 mushroomsfrom a wide variety of locations across Germanyalso failed to confirm the presence of this alkaloidand its derivatives. While the local Europeanspecies that are discussed here also tend to occuron other continents (Panaeolus subbalteatus, forexample, grows in Hawaii), there are tropicalvarieties of this genus which are highlypsychoactive as well. Given the best possibleclimate conditions, these species may fruitadventively in Europe for short periods of time.

Panaeolus cyanescens is the most well-known representative of these species (see Figure29). Like other tropical Panaeolus and Psilocybespecies, Panaeolus cyanescens exhibits a strongblue staining reaction. The

Panaeolus Experiences

Sometimes it is difficult to avoid theconclusion that many prominent mycologists areonly too willing to disregard existing researchresults in order to attach their names todefinitions of "new" species. Singer listsPanaeolus cyanescens separate from Panaeolusas belonging to the genus Copelandia, along withother species. Nowadays, this classification isbecoming increasingly unpopular amongmycologists, and many of them do not accept it.Panaeolus cyanescens is responsible for a numberof remarkable intoxications which occurred onAugust 19, 1965 in Menton, located on the FrenchMediterranean Coast. The mushroomspontaneously appeared on compost whichconsisted of straw and decayed horse dung. Thecompost was intended to improve lawn

quality. It should be noted that the horse dungcame from a race track used by horses fromtropical countries. Under these circum-stances, it isquite likely that the species responsible for theintoxications was imported to the location fromanother country. On one occasion, in the early1970s, Panaeolus cyanescens was found at theBudapest Fairgrounds next to the pavilions fromThailand and Vietnam!About the course of the intoxications: A womanand her two children ate a meal consisting of onlyabout 60 g (2.1 ozs.) of the mushrooms. Within lessthan fifteen minutes after ingestion, she began tofeel weak, followed by visual disturbances andmarked dilation of the pupils. About one hour afterthe meal she developed dizzy spells that came andwent in waves. Increasingly, all colors in herimmediate surroundings coalesced into shades ofgreen. The hallucinations were fearsome; the headsof monsters became visible and a wall opened upinto an abyss. There was a succession of humanfigure with animal heads. The next day, everythingwas back to normal. The oldest child (age 14) alsosaw her parents' hair color turn green, had dilatedpupils and watched geometric shapes appear on thewall. The youngest child

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(age 11) experienced cramps and lostconsciousness.

In 1960, Singer and Guzman suggestedthat Panaeolus cyanescens might containpsilocybin, because of the intense blue stainingthey had observed. It wasn't until after theintoxications in Menton had been publicized, thata research team working with A. Hofmanndetected 0.2% of psilocybin in the mushrooms.Considering the powerful effects, however, thisconcentration appears to be too low to cause suchimpressive reactions. Later on, SandozLaboratories reported the level of psilocybin indried samples as 0.8%, along with 1.2% psilocin.The level of psilocin, however, may have beenfalsely elevated by the presence of serotonin andits derivates in the mushroom sample that wasbeing tested.

According to Stijve, a mushroom samplecollected by J.W. Allen in Thailand contained0.4% - 1.05% of psilocin, with only traceamounts of psilocybin; serotonin was present inlarge amounts, comparable to concentrationsfound in all Panaeolus species.

Apparently, Panaeolus cyanescensproduces more psilocin than psilocybin. Still, Iwas able to detect 0.4% of psilocybin in myceliacultivated on malt agar, with no other indolecompounds present.

Discussion of the Panaeolus specieswould remain incomplete without pointing outthat those subjectively terrifying psychosesreported in 1965 cannot be attributed to a specificmushroom ingredient, but were likelyprecipitated by the circumstances (set and setting)

surrounding the incident. The effects described by J.Allen in Hawaii after eating 20 specimens paint adifferent picture altogether:

With radio music playing softly in thedark, euphoria began to come on in waves. After20 minutes, visions became so intense that I triedto close my eyes. Whenever 1 did close my eyes,my eyelids felt as if they were being sprayed fromthe outside. Colors were sharp and clear, butI always quickly opened my eyes again. Colorswere dancing like laser beams to the rhythm ofthe music. The stars in the sky assembled inclusters that reached all the way into my soul. Iwas a little scared at the idea that the oceanwater might rush up all the way into our hut.Other than that, feelings of euphoria wereoverwhelming. At times, I was overcome by fits oflaughter. That night, I slept like "a prince ". Thefollowing morning I gathered up my belongingsand had to walk back across the pasture where Ihad collected the mushrooms the day before. Inoticed a lot of new mushrooms that had grownduring the previous night's rainfall. By way of alingering after effect I felt that the mushroomswere sending me a message: "Don't forget us,come back, if you can ".

It is important to keep in mind that morecomprehensive studies on taxonomy and biochemicalcomposition are needed in order to fully understandthe Panaeolus species. Perhaps A. Weil's suggestionthat Panaeolus subbalteatus from America's PacificNorthwest induces comparatively stronger somaticeffects than the Psilocybe species can be investigatedchemically as well as toxicologically, in order toreject or support this hypothesis.

Figure 31 - Synonyms for Panaeolus cyanescens (according to Gerhardt).

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CHAPTER 3.4

INOCYBE AERUGINASCENS: FAST-SPREADING NEW ARRIVALS

On June 15, 1965, 1. Ferencz discoveredfruiting bodies known as "fibrehead mushrooms" inOsca, Hungary, county of Pest. The mushrooms'characteristics did not match those of any knownspecies of the genus Inocybe, as described in theliterature. That same year, as well as on severaloccasions later on, Ferencz and other mycologistsfound large numbers of mushrooms of the samespecies growing in different locations. Eventually,in 1968, these mushrooms were described as a newspecies named Inocybe aeruginascens Babos (seeFigure 33, p. 47).

Strange Distribution Patterns inHungary and Germany

In 1985, a few mycologists whospecialized in the study of the genus Inocybe foundfibreheads with greenish discolorations in 17locations (46 specimens) across Hungary. In her1983 article, Babos noted that Inocybeaeruginascens had become the most commonmushroom of the Lower Valley's sandy areasaround the Hungarian capital city of Budapest. Thespecies is known to fruit across these areas, singlyor in gregarious clusters on the sandy soil of thepoplar forests, or in mixed forests that includepoplars. They have also been found on meadowsnear poplar trees. The mushrooms are loyal to thelocation and grow there every year, climateconditions permitting.

In 1975, Kaspar collected the Inocybespecies in Berlin (K6penick District) as well. Moredetailed studies revealed that the mushrooms hadpreviously been misidentified. As early as 1965,fruiting bodies of the species were found in the.arboretum at Berlin (Baumschulenweg District).The species had been noted "in passing" by othermycologists with little interest in the mushrooms.Many species (about 160) of the large EuropeanInocybe genus cannot be easily differentiated fromeach other, and therefore attract little interest from

expert mycologists. The species are part of alarge group of mushrooms that are nicknamed"LBMs" (Little Brown Mushrooms) in theAmerican literature and as such they often entailconsiderable taxonomic problems. Other ex-amples of mushrooms in this group are thePanaeolus species as well as those of the genusPsilocybe.

Whenever a "new mushroom" appearsspontaneously, the question of its origin has tobe addressed. Herink, the Czech mycologist,maintains that he had already discovered thespecies during the 1930s. He reportedlydeposited samples in a herbarium, but themushrooms have never been clearly identified asInocybe aeruginascens on the basis ofbiochemical analyses. As fruiting bodies of theInocybe aeruginascens were foundsimultaneously in Hungary and Germany, thedirection of the species' geographical migrationcould not be determined. It is possiblethat the species was initially confined to a verysmall area and only began to attract attentionafter it had migrated into new habitats. We canonly speculate about the possibility of mutationsthat may have evolved from known species overa relatively short period of time.

Finally, during the 1980s, a few fruitingbodies were collected at locations in Holland(1980) and the Rhone Valley (Wallis Canton) ofSwitzerland (1984).

In 1983, the species immediatelyattracted the attention of biochemists andclinicians, after G. Drewitz described mysteriouspsychotropic intoxications caused by thesemushrooms in the city and district of Potsdam,Germany, during June and July, 1980. Theobserved range of effects was sensational formushrooms of the Inocybe genus, because manyof its species induce typical muscarine poisoningsymptoms. Muscarine causes parasympathetico-mimetic symptoms, such as pupil contraction(miosis), increased salivation and salivaproduction. Muscarine has been identified in atleast 40 species of the Inocybe genus. Thefirst reports

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about deaths following ingestion of the potentmuscarine-containing Inocybe patouillardi Bres.date back to the early 20th century.

Identification Errors

Below is a more detailed description of theeffects of Inocybe aeruginascens:

On June 30, 1980 a teenager collected themushrooms near Potsdam and misidentified themas fairy ring mushrooms (Marasmius oreades (Bolt.& Fr.) Fr.), a species known as a choice table

mushroom. At home, the teenager's father sauteedthe mushrooms in margarine, and they weresubsequently eaten by both of them. The son ateonly about one-third of the cooked mushrooms.

About 35 to 45 minutes after the meal, bothfather and son began to experience initialsymptoms. The son mainly reported colorfulillusions and hallucinations. The woven pattern ofhis white handkerchief suddenly appeared asshining stripes of crimson red. With his eyesclosed, he saw magically illuminated, abstractstructures. He noticed his own state offoolish silliness that occurred for apparently noreason at all. Following his father'sinstructions, he soon found himself outside, in thepouring rain, running back to a near-by railroadembankment, still laughing and giggling, in orderto gather more of the mushrooms that hadpoisoned him.

The father's symptoms initially includedyawning and a burning sensation of the face, aswell as itching at the hairline and fatigue. Hethen experienced increasing numbness(paraesthesia) of the left half of his face and hisleft arm. Later on, these symptoms spread to theright half of his body. Fully conscious, he alsonoticed motor disturbances that disrupted hislanguage ability. Hispsyche was increasingly dominated by images ofdepersonalization: For the duration of theexperience he felt that he "was standing besidehimself as an observer", while his voice soundedvery strange to him.

The second case of intoxication in Potsdamoccurred on July 13, 1980:

Seventy-five minutes after ingestion offibrehead mushrooms with greenish discolorations(Inocvbe aeruginascens), the woman began toexperience hot flashes, nausea without vomiting,strongly dilated pupils, along with a

marked sense of intoxication that she described as"mostly amusing ". Spacial illusions wereexperienced in combination with striking feelings ofweightlessness, distances appeared to be magnified.After several hours, these symptoms gradually fadedwithout lasting consequences; only the dilation ofthe pupils persisted well into the next day.

Based on these cases, Drewitz proposedthat the mushrooms contain psilocybin or similarsubstances, a hypothesis that was later confirmed(see Tables 6 and 7, p. 49).

More cases of intoxications were reportedin the years that followed and earlier cases couldalso be traced to this mushroom species. In each ofthese cases, the mushrooms were misidentified asfairy ring mushrooms.

TABLE 5

Accidental Intoxications with Inocybeaeruginascens in Eastern Germany

Year # of People Location

1977 3 Hohen-Neuendorf

1980 2 Teltow1980 1 Potsdam1984 4 Oranienburg1984 2 Magdeburg1985 3 Woltersdorf1986 7 Potsdam

In all cases, the symptoms subsided afterseveral hours, with no lasting side effects. Apsychiatrist surely would have found thesesituations interesting - especially the last caseinvolving an extended family - and would mostlikely have welcomed the opportunity to study thepsychodynamics and social interactions during theperiod of collective intoxication.

In 1983, Babos reported another case ofunintentional ingestion of Inocybe aeruginascens inBudapest, which had occurred on July 1, 1970. Inthis case, symptoms included subjective feelings ofdecreasing gravity, colorful hallucinations, spacialillusions and nausea without vomiting.

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Flights of the Soul

In this context, the following account is ofinterest; it details the experience of a mycologistwho took 2.4 g of dried mushrooms in the course ofa test experiment:

The mushrooms tasted like ordinary tablemushrooms. While reclining in a state of relaxationabout 30 minutes later, a very comfortable feelingof loss of gravity set in, with no other somaticeffects. Abstract hallucinations developed slowly, inthe form of bursting colors and lights. Once a stateof complete loss of gravity was attained, it wasfollowed by a very vivid sensation of the soul inflight, coupled with feelings of euphoria. Whenlooking out the window into the dark night of aforest landscape, visions of strange patterns andformations occurred, which were deeply impressiveand seemed to impart an inkling of eternity. At theend of four hours, the effects had dissipated withoutdysphoria or any type of somatic side effect.

A control experiment for comparisonpurposes was performed using 0.8 g of driedPsilocybe semilanceata. The onset of symptoms wasmuch more sudden, including a heavy flow of tears,so that there was an initial phase of anxiety. Only ina later phase of the experience was it possible toperceive ornaments in the form of "underwaterstreamers", and to appreciate the aestheticallyenhanced nature of these visions.

The regular pattern of. involuntaryintoxications is a good indicator for the large scopeof expansion of Inocybe aeruginascens into newhabitats during the 1980s. For example, at the timeof the initial intoxications - when the species wasstill restricted to a few easily quantifiablecollections - the mushrooms had spread fromPotsdam to the location known in 1982, and fromthere moved on to several other locations in thevicinity, where more than 150 mushrooms werefound (see Figure 34).

Symbiosis With Trees

Starting in late May 1984, fruiting bodiesof the species could be found in abundance atcountless new locations across the Brandenburgregion of Germany. They tend to grow near the

roots of different deciduous trees (Populus, Tilia,Quercus, Betula), on lawns in parks and gardens,at the edges of trails and in the paved margin areasof tree-lined sidewalks (where they may evengrow on bare, sandy soil) as well as amongst thegreenery of residential areas in the suburbs andcommunities in and around Berlin.

Herein lies the most marked differencebetween Inocybe aeruginascens and otherEuropean psychotropic mushroom species:Inocybe aeruginascens grows only in areas ofhuman development. Their prime locations are inthe middle of villages and towns, where they growlocally much like other Inocybe species. They maytemporarily produce mass quantities of fruitingbodies, in those locations that are typical habitatsfor the edible varieties of the fairy ring mushroom.

So far, the most abundant crop of fruitingbodies was observed in 1987, due to very wetweather conditions, which allowed the mushroomsto thrive. The following years were comparativelydry and the species hardly fruited at all. It wasn'tuntil 1990 that a few mushrooms re-emerged at theclassic location in Potsdam. Despite 1989 havingbeen a bad year for mushrooms, it was the yearwhen Inocybe aeruginascens was found for thefirst time at four locations in and around Rostock,a city located on the Eastern German coast, whichis famous for its wet climate. Finding themushrooms at these locations is evidence for amuch wider expansion of the species. In comingyears, we should expect the species to furthermigrate into areas with sandy soil.

The Inocybe species are mycorrhizalmushrooms, that is, in contrast to other psilocybin-containing species, they require a symbiosis withcertain types of wood in order to fruit. Fruitingoccurs at the time of greatest biochemical activityof the symbiotic partner trees. Following periodsof extended rainfall, Inocybe aeruginascens growsin the trees' root areas from late May untilOctober. The mushrooms are especially commonin May and June, a time period during whichInocybe aeruginascens is easily differentiatedfrom other species of fibreheads, as long as onepays close attention to locations, the characteristicgreenish to bluish discoloration (e.g. if themushrooms are stored overnight, especially in therefrigerator) and the description shown below (seeFigure 32).

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Figure 32 - Description of Inocybe aeruginascens (Germany, 1986) with English translation at right.

Figure 33 - First description of Inocybe aeruginascensin the mycological literature (M. Babos, 1968).

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Figure 34 - Inocybe aeruginascens fruiting bodies fromPotsdam, Eastern Germany.

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Unlike species of thin-fleshed Psilocybemushrooms that do not fruit until fall, Inocybeaeruginascens frequently suffers from fly larvaeinfestations, especially in older colonies. Theresulting lesions are injured areas that turngreenish-blue. It must be noted, however, that ofall species introduced here, Inocybeaeruginascens is most easily misidentified bylaypersons, as it is of the same genus as thepotentially lethal species that producemuscarine.

Drewitz's speculation that Inocybeaeruginascens contains psilocybin was supportedby results from my own investigations in 1984.Extracts of more than 100 mushrooms collectedin Hungary and Germany from 1967 to 1990were examined. Quantitative analyses revealedthat the fruiting bodies contained a fairlyconstant amount of psilocybin each, as well assome baeocystin. These results were firstreported in February, 1985. Later that year, thepresence of psilocybin in Inocybe aeruginascenswas confirmed by research teams from theformer West Berlin, Regensburg (Germany) andSwitzerland. Known cases of intoxicationseemed to indicate that the fruiting bodiescontained small amounts of muscarine. Butamong all the samples that were tested - at allstages of development and from widely differentcollections - not one specimen contained eventrace amounts of muscarine.

In collaboration with colleagues fromCzechoslovakia, we were able to confirm thatthe average alkaloid content does not vary much,a finding based on analyses of extracts fromseveral mushrooms. Moreover, the alkaloidcontent of fruiting bodies stored for prolongedperiods declined only slightly over time:

TABLE 6

Psilocybin Content of Inocybe aeruginascensfrom Various Locations (% of Dried Samples)

LocationPotsda

Year Found1984

Year Analyzed1984

Psilocvbin0.38

Potsda 1983 1984 0.34Potsda 1982 1984 0.33Berlin 1975 1985 0.11Hungar 1967 1985 0.22

Psilocybin levels in Inocybe aeruginascensare comparable to those found in Psilocybemexicana Heim. Moreover, Inocybe aeruginascenscontain traces amounts of psilocin at most.Baeocystin, on the other hand, is accumulated atlevels comparable to those of psilocybin. Thealkaloid content of the Inocybe species differs fromthose found in the Psilocybe species, which containthree to five times more psilocybin thanbaeocystin. The variation of alkaloid contentacross different samples of fruiting bodies isillustrated in Table 7, which shows the results fromanalyses of mushrooms collected at a location inCaputh near Potsdam on June 8, 1986 (see Figures32 and 34).

TABLE 7

Psilocybin and Baeocystin Content in SingleInocybe aeruginascens Fruiting Bodies (%

of Dry Weight)

Mushroom1

Dry Weight (mg)0.110

Psilocvbin0.43

Baeocvstin0.15

2 0.118 0.26 0.243 0.220 0.23 0.224 0.221 0.50 0.255 0.298 0.16 0.20

In addition, it should be noted that resultsfrom these analyses of mushroom extractsindicated the presence of a previously unknownalkaloid, which I have named aeruginascin. Themolecular structure of this substance must besimilar to those of psilocybin and baeocystin. It isa compound that is soluble only in polar solvents,such as water, methanol and acetic acid. The levelsof concentration of aeruginascin found in thefruiting bodies is comparable to those of the othertwo alkaloids. The compound is characteristic ofthe Inocybe species, so that the analytical results ofmushrooms extracts using thin-layerchromatography constitute a kind of fingerprintidentification of Inocybe aeruginascens.

Of course, there is the question whetherthis substance contributes to the psychoactiveeffects of Inocybe aeruginascens. It is remarkablethat all cases of involuntary intoxication

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induced a feeling of euphoria, despite apsychological state of mind likely to createextremely unfavorable internal conditions ("set")for having a "positive experience" (i.e. knowledgeof being poisoned by mushrooms with unknownand potentially fatal consequences). In addition,these cases of intoxications happened in the courseof pursuing normal, everyday activities, includingappointments and other interferences ("setting")which should have precipitated a much morenegative type of experience. Future research mustfocus first on the discovery of the molecularstructure of aeruginascin, as well as its synthesis.Subsequent studies should investigate thepotentially moodaltering influence of thissubstance in terms of the mushroom's psychoactiveeffects as a whole. Moreover, we cannot excludethe possibility that ingestion of the mushroomsmay cause a slow release of alkaloids from theorganic matrix, followed by their gradualresorption, a process suggested by the effects ofthe mycologist's test experiment described above.In the meantime, the presence of psilocybin alongwith baeocystin has also been confirmed in thefollowing Inocybe species:

Inocybe corydalina Quel.Inocybe haemacta Berk. & Br.Inocybe tricolor KuhnerInocybe coelestium Kuyper

These species, however, are notsignificant contributors in terms of involuntaryintoxications, because, for the most part, theseInocybe species are extremely rare and growalmost exclusively in forests. Also, theirpsilocybin levels were lower than those found inInocybe aeruginascens.

Among these species, Inocybecorydalina is the most common. An analysisrevealed a psilocybin content of only 0.011% -0.1%, a concentration so low, that this specieswould become clinically relevant only if largeamounts of the mushrooms were eaten.

As part of my own experiments, I alsodetected psilocybin in Inocybe calamistrata(Fr.:Fr.) Gill, a species whose lower stem areais blue. Other authors have not succeeded atconfirming the presence of psilocybin in thisspecies.

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CHAPTER 3.5

GYMNOPILUS PURPURATUS - MAGNIFICENT MUSHROOMSFROM SOUTH AMERICA

The room seemed smaller, and the walls closer thanusual. Objects were shimmering, and appearedyellow with dark areas in the center. The trees andgrass were a vivid green, with spots of radiantpurple. These sensations were not unpleasant.Everything seemed to be unnaturally colored,resembling the image of a color TV. Even though hewas unable to collect his thoughts, his mind felt sharpand clear: he asked himself questions andimmediately knew the answers. By contrast, afterhaving put down a book, he was unable to find itagain. After a few hours all three of the involuntaryparticipants had recovered and were able to give acoherent account of their experience.

In this case, the mushrooms involved werealso identified as Pholiota spectabilis. Thisidentification is questionable, however, becausethe species is generally described as having anextremely bitter taste. It was determined that thereare significantly more species of the genusGymnopilus in North America (73) than there are inEurope (15).

Mushrooms 24 Inches Tall!

Even though Gymnopilus junionius is oneof the largest-sized species of mushrooms (withstems that have been observed to grow up to 24inches [60 cm] tall), there are no known Europeancases of intoxications caused by Gymnopilusspecies. The extremely bitter taste typical of someGymnopilus species is an effective deterrent totheir ingestion as table mushrooms, anyway.

However, the cases of intoxication in theU.S. prompted Hatfield and his collaborators toperform phytochemical testing on some of thesespecies. From 1968 to 1971 this group ofinvestigators reported that eight species, includingGymnopilus junonius contained inactivestyrylpyrones, such as bis-noryangonin. In thewake of yet another case of unintentional

Another controversy documented in the literaturerevolves around the psychoactivity of severalspecies of the genus Gymnopilus.More than 50 years ago, in October 1942, aremarkable case of intoxication occurred mCleveland, Ohio, which was attributed to Pholiotaspectabilis. Today, these mushrooms havebeen identified as Gymnopilus spectabilis (Fr.)A.H.Smith (USA). In Europe, they are also Known asGymnopilus junonius (Fr.) Orton.A woman had been out for a walk in the woods oneafternoon and had taken a few nibbles from amushroom that she found, feeling confident that shecould distinguish the edible from the poisonous ones.As soon as she lay down, she began to experience themost glorious visions of color and sounds of music,but with no feelings of discomfort whatsoever. Afriend who was with her felt that a doctor should becalled immediately. When she consulted me abouther symptoms, I told her that certain mushrooms areknown to cause the symptoms she suffered. Iadded that these mushrooms were not classified aspoisonous, nor did the effects last very long.called that same evening and said that thehallucinations had soon passed and that she wasfeeling perfectly normal again. She added that if thiswas the way one was supposed to die of mushroompoisoning, she was all for it.Another case of poisoning was chronicled inHarvard, Massachusetts:On September 9, 1966, at about 9 a.m., a 56~year-old retired mechanical engineer of Harvard,Massachusetts, picked a bunch of mushroomsclustered by the side of the road in front of his house.Under the mistaken impression that they were honeymushrooms (Armillaria mellea an edible species) hetasted the fresh flesh and found them to be slightlybitter However, he took them home, where his wifewashed them and fried them in butter. He atetwo or three caps around noon and within 15minutes began to feel disconnected and "woozy" .head felt numb and his vision was blurred.

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intoxication with Gymnopilus validipes in the U.S.,the same research team was able to confirm that thisspecies contained psilocybin (0.12%). They alsofound the alkaloid in three other species, includingGymnopilus spectabilis.

Still, similar analyses of EuropeanGymnopilus species continued to yield negativeresults.

It was only through a set of strangecircumstances that the presence of psilocybin and itsderivatives was finally confirmed in Europeanmushroom species of the genus Gymnopilus.

As far back as May 1887, a new species ofmushroom was found growing on a tree fern trunkin the botanical gardens at Kew, England (also seep. 30, bottom right). The discovery eventually led tothe publication of these mushrooms as a new speciesnamed Flammula purpurata Cooke & Massee. Inthis context, we must credit Mordecai Cooke (1825-1914), a mycologist of outstanding competence andexpertise, who studied a vast number of mushroomsspecies, including Psilocybe semilanceata. He wasthe first to formulate a hypothesis about the natureof the bluing phenomenon and to point out itsphysiological significance ( also see p. 16, bottomright). He discovered Inocybe haemacta as well asseveral Panaeolus species and classified theFlammula species mentioned above. Remarkably,one of his first publications was a book of popularfolk tales entitled "The Seven Sisters of Sleep"(1860), which just happened to be aninterdisciplinary investigation of narcotic plants. Didhe himself, perhaps, sample one of the psychotropicmushroom species? Most likely, we will never knowthe answer to this question. Eventually, theFlammula species came to be recognized as beingnative to Australia and South America (Chile),where the mushrooms fruit on dead tree trunksduring the month of May. Later on the mushroom'sname was changed to Gymnopilus purpuratus(Cooke & Massee) Sing.

Mushrooms on Compost Mixture ofWood Chips and Pig Manure

In 1983, a conspicuous mushroom wasobserved growing on discarded bark and wood chipsnear a particle board factory in RibnitzDamgartenon the Eastern German seaboard.

The mushroom was initially classified asTricholomopsis rutilans (Schaeff.:Fr.) Sing.However, this magnificent and beautifulmushroom was found to have spore dustcolored orange to rusty brown, along with awell-formed, bright yellow cortina. It alsoturned blue in reaction to pressure and with age.Closer study revealed that the specimen wasactually of the species Gymnopilus purpuratus,a mushroom that, after a hundred years, hadonce again been imported into Europe. Themicroclimate essential for the mushroom'sgrowth had been created by mixing liquid pigmanure with the discarded wood chips. Apowerful composting process results frompouring the liquid manure onto heaps that areup to 20 yards long and several yards tall.Theprocess is designed to eliminate both types ofrefuse. Measurements inside the heaps revealedtemperatures of about 176° Fahrenheit.Consequently, the Gymnopilus species wereable to thrive on the top layers of the heaps,along with other species from Asian and SouthAmerican countries with warm climates.

There is, of course, the question of justhow the Gymnopilus species got to Europe in thefirst place. In the late 1970s, large amounts offeed grain were imported from Argentina. Thus,it appears likely that some mushroom spores mayhave stuck to the grain from where they passedunharmed through the pigs' digestive systems andwent on to colonize the compost heaps.

Even though the compost heaps areplowed at least twice a year and shipped asfertilizer to surrounding fields after about twoyears of storage, the mushrooms continue to growon wood piles in new locations whenever itsspores have reproduced (see Figure 30, p. 40).However, in the wake of changes in economicconditions and growing ecological awareness inEastern Germany, it is likely that this compostingprocess will soon be discontinued so that thismushroom species may disappear in Europe onceagain.

The following description characterizesthe Gymnopilus species that does not have abitter taste:

Cap: 15-42 mm broad, occasionallylarger sizes up to 20 cm in diameter. Flesh thin,broadly convex without an umbo. Evenly coveredwith pointy scales, purplish to ruby on yellowbackground, dry. Margin inrolled at first,

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incurved later, occasional blue stains.

Gills: Close, golden yellow at first,rusty yellow later on due to maturation ofspores, edges concolorous with lamellae andbald.

Stem: Not hollow, 6-10 mm x 30-80mm, very rarely up to 15 cm tall, cylindricalto slightly club-shaped, coarse fibrils,striated, lower stem area and base bruisegrayish-blue to Greenish when injured andwith age, found alone or in clusters of up to22 mushrooms.

Cortina: Sulphur yellow, almostappendiculate along margin, fibrous at theapex without forming a true annulus,disappears with age.

Basidia: Approximately 35 u long, club

By 1969, Singer had noted that based onanalyses performed by Cassels in Chile, themushroom contained an indole derivative andthat the species may be hallucinogenicbecause of the bluing reaction. By 1988,reports from Germany also confirmed thepresence of psilocybin in mushroom extractsof the same species, as evidenced by theresults of thin-layer chromatography testing(qualitative detection only). That same year,my own quantitative analyses of 26mushrooms also revealed that psilocin andbaeocystin were present in all fruiting bodiesof the Gymnopilus species. So far, no otherEuropean species has been found to containas much psilocin as Gymnopilus purpuratus:

TABLE 8

Alkaloid Content in Two Collections ofGymnopilus purpuratus (% of Dry Weight).

Mushroom Psilocybin Psilocin Baeocystin

Sample Collected in 1988

1 0.29 0.28 0.052 0.31 0.29 0.04

Sample Collected in 19871 0.32 0.03 0.032 0.21 0.02 0.02

Table 8 illustrates the unstable nature ofthe psilocin molecule: during the one-year storagetime until analysis in 1988, much of the sample'spsilocin had already decayed.

Alkaloid concentrations were found to behigher in smaller mushrooms, as shown in Table 8.Larger mushrooms contained about 0.1 % of bothpsilocin and psilocybin. I am not aware of anycases of accidental intoxication nor any selfexperiments involving Gymnopilus purpuratus.

Intoxicating Potions of theYurimagua Indians

In light of the discovery of psilocybin as anactive ingredient in a South American Gymnopilusspecies, numerous historic accounts also appear ina different light.

Jesuits of the 17th and early 18th centurieswho had travelled to the western Amazon (Peru)reported that the Yurimagua Indians habituallyprepared a potently intoxicating potion derivedfrom a tree-dwelling mushroom. The mushroomsappeared on fallen trees as a kind of reddishgrowth with a spicy taste. The potion was said tobe so potent that nobody who swallowed threemouthfuls of the brew was able to resist its effects.The mushroom was considered to be Psilocybeyungensis Singer & Smith. However, sinceGymnopilus species are reddish in color (seedescription of Gymnopilus purpuratus, above) andtend to colonize dense tree trunks, those strangetree-dwelling mushrooms were most likely aGymnopilus species. The Psilocybe species, afterall, grow almost exclusively on wood sprigs andtree bark debris. On only one exceptional occasiondid we discover a specimen of Psilocybe bohemicagrowing on a thoroughly rotted, wet tree trunk (seep. 31, top right). Most likely, the reddishcoloredtree-dwelling species was closely related toGymnopilus purpuratus. The discovery ofpsilocybin in a mushroom of the Gymnopilusspecies marked the first time this substance hadever been found in a member of the familyCortinariaceae.

The Inocybe species who were found tocontain psilocybin later on, are also members ofthis family. Since the alkaloid had previously beenfound in Psilocybe, Panaeolus and Conocybespecies - which are not closely related

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to each other - the hypothesis postulatingpsilocybin's significance as an important chemo-taxonomical substance had to be abandoned.

Future research should attempt to verifythe presence of psilocybin and its derivatives inother tropical and subtropical Gymnopilus

species. Taxonomically, the genus has not yetbeen exhaustively studied, and mushroom loversmay want to watch out for occurrences ofGymnopilus purpuratus in certain Europeanlocations, such as botanical gardens orherbariums.

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C H A P T E R 3 . 6

CONOCYBE CYANOPUS - TINY M U S H R O O M S O FR E M A R K A B L E P O T E N C Y

While studying the magic mushrooms of Mexicoduring the 1950s, R. Heim described a newspecies of the genus Conocybe.

Conocybe siligineodes Heim was reported to grow up to8 cm (3.25 in.) tall, a beautiful, reddish brown toorange-colored mushroom that thrived on rottenwood and which was used as a psychotropicspecies by the Indians as well. However, thespecies did not appear again in the literature, norwere the chemical composition or the effects ofthese samples published. Even after decades offield research in Mexico, Guzman was unable tofind the species there. Similarly, he did notdiscover native usage of any kind of Conocybespecies. Heim's description however, arousedcuriosity as to the chemical composition of thisspecies. Approximately 55 European specieswhich existed saprophytically were relegated toa shadow existence in the older literature. Also,the differentiation of these species is veryproblematic at times. For the most part, themushrooms are small and fragile, decay quicklyand grow mostly in grassy and mossy areas,where they are easily overlooked. Around 1930, J. Schaffer discoverednumerous Conocybe species growing inabundance on a fertilized grassy area nearPotsdam. Intrigued by the mushrooms' extra-ordinary variety of forms and colors, he wasinspired to undertake the kind of taxonomicclassification that is essential to pursuingmushroom research. One species that he found inPotsdam, Berlin as well as in Germany's HarzMountains showed bluish discolorations at thebase of their stems. This "Galera" species wasincluded by Kuhner as Conocybe cyanopoda inhis 1935 monograph about the genus Conocybe.Today, this species is referred to in the literatureas Conocybe cyanopus (Atk.) Kuhn. This specieswith a blue base had been previously discoveredin the U.S. (Ithaca, NY) in 1918 and was judgedby Kuhner to be identical with the Europeanmushrooms.

The following is an adequate descriptionof Conocybe cyanopus, because its bluishdiscoloration is a sufficiently unique attribute toallow differentiation of this species from otherEuropean Conocybe species.

Cap: 0.3-2.5 cm broad, nearlyhemispheric to convex, striated, ocher to darkbrown without grey-green stains.

Stem: 2-4 cm long, 1-1.4 cm thick,whitish at first, equal to slightly curved at thebase, silvery later on, stains bluish-green -particularly at base - in reaction to injuries or withage.

Spores: 7-10 x 4-5 um

Basidia: 4-spored, pleurocystidia absent,cheilocystidia present, 18-25x6, 5-10 ,umHabitat: On grassy areas or moss, summerthrough fall.

The Conocybe genus is a member of theBolbitiaceae family, which is similar to theCoprinaceae, a family of dark-spored mushroomsthat includes the Panaeolus species.

The Conocybe species are very rare inEurope. The mushrooms are hardly ever foundamong lists of mushroom discoveries fromEuropean countries. Aside from Schaffer'sdiscovery, the mushroom was reportedly found ordescribed only twice (!) within the territory of theformer East Germany over the last 60 years (bothdiscoveries were made during the 1980s).However, there are only few mycologists whospecialize in the study of the Conocybe genus, dueto its lack of attractiveness.

Even though the mushroom is very rare, Iwas able to include one picture of Conocybecyanopus in this book (see Figure 36, p. 57). 1also had the good fortune to obtain a driedConocybe cyanopus sample for chemical analysis(see Table 9, p. 56).

Psilocybin was discovered for the firsttime in a sample of fruiting bodies of the speciesConocybe cyanopus which had been collected onSeptember 4, 1961 in Seattle, WA. No psilocin

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however mysterious they may remain.

In 1977, Repke and his research teamreported the discovery of baeocystin, as well aspsilocybin in a Conocybe species from the UnitedStates and Canada. Once again, no psilocin wasfound in these samples. Finally in 1982/83,Norwegian researchers confirmed the existence oftrace amounts of psilocin, in addition to 0.330.55%of psilocybin, an alkaloid that was also reportedlydiscovered in Finnish samples. Finally, Beug andBigwood reported 0.93% of psilocybin in samplescollected in the Northwestern United States.Interestingly, the second sample ever discovered inEastern Germany was found on July 2, 1989 nearPotsdam, where several fruiting bodies of theConocybe cyanopus species were growing in agrassy area on sand. The original area, however,where Schaffer first discovered the species 60 yearsago, lay within the Potsdam city limits and its exactlocation can no longer be determined.

The sample collected in 1989 consisted offive mushrooms that were found to haveconcentrations of psilocybin and baeocystin similarto levels found in Psilocybe semilanceata:

Concentrations of psilocybin werestrikingly similar to those found in samplescollected in the Northwestern United States.

After several days, spores from one ofthe fruiting bodies germinated on malt agar and,compared to other species, proceeded to growvery slowly into their permanent forms or"sclerotia" (see Figure 35, p. 57). The sclerotiashowed no blue discolorations, and were foundto contain 0.25 % psilocybin when dry, while noadditional alkaloids were detected.

In summary, it is reasonable to assumethat due to its small size and extreme rarity,Conocybe cyanopus is a species that is not asignificant contributor to intoxications inEurope, nor is it likely to gain such prominencein the future. My own analyses of other, non-bluing Conocybe species, such as Conocybetenera (Schaeff.:Fr.) Fayod and Conocybe lactea(Lge) Metrod revealed the presence ofphysiologically inactive ingredients only.

Samples of Conocybe species fromwarm countries have not yet been analyzed andmay yet yield remarkable results in terms ofchemical composition and alkaloid content.

TABLE 9

Selected Test Results on the Alkaloid Content of Conocybe cyanopus (% of Dry Weight)

Mushroom Dry Weight(mg) Psilocybin Baeocystin

1 5 0.84 0.152 6 0.73 0.123 7 1.01 0.204 10 0.91 0.165 12 0.89 0.14

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Figure 35 - Sclerotia of Conocybe cyanopus grown on malt agar.

Figure 36 - Fresh Conocybe cyanopus fruiting bodiesfrom the Pacific Northwest (USA).

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CHAPTER 3.7

PLUTEUS SALICINUS: A LITTLE-KNOWN WOOD-INHABITING SPECIES

Within the Pluteaceae family, there areabout 45 European species of the genus Pluteus,some of whom also produce psilocybin.

Historically, the Pluteus species wereclassified as belonging to the Amanitaceae family,which also include the "death cap" and its relatives,as well as the fly agaric mushroom, both of whichbelong to the genus Amanita. Unlike all the otherpsychoactive mushrooms mentioned here in thisbook, the Pluteus species are classified as light-spored mushrooms, because of their rose-coloredspore dust.

No accidental intoxications involvingPluteus species have been documented in theliterature.

The first description providing qualitativeevidence for the presence of psilocybin and psilocinwas provided by Saupe in 1981, who examinedextracts of Pluteus salicinus (Pers.:Fr.) Kumm. fromIllinois. Surprisingly, psilocin turned out to be thealkaloid with the highest levels of concentration inthe samples tested. This mushroom species hadpreviously been described in Europe about 200years ago. Since then, however, it has rarely beenmentioned in the literature, and only briefly, if at all(see Figure 37, p. 59).

Some taxonomic methods of classificationused earlier can still cause confusion today. Forexample, Ricken (1915) designated the mushroomas Pluteus petasatus.

By way of expanding the description from1962 (see Figure 37), Pluteus salicinus is identifiedby the following characteristics:

Medium-sized mushroom with a more orless intensely bluish to bluish-green coloration.Older mushrooms are sometimes colored olivegreen.

Caps in some cases up to 8 cm in diameter,lighter colored around the margin, silver grey, hairyand felt-like, even hairier and felt-like towards themiddle of the cap, often scaly.

Stems up to 10 cm in length, withspontaneous grey-green or grey-blue discolorations

at the base, colors intensify in response topressure.

There are also mushrooms of this speciesthat are white in color (see Figure 38, p. 60).However, these albino fruiting bodies have stemswhose bases show a slight grey-green colorationas well, as do the apex areas of their caps.Pluteus salicinus has been described as beinganywhere from "very rare" to "not rare" in thewet deciduous forests of Europe. The species ofthe genus Pluteus are final wood-destroyers, thatis, they grow saprophytically on wood thatappears rotten and discolored, because it hasdecomposed due to the presence of othermushrooms over the course of many years.Pluteus salicinus fruits from May to October onstumps of willows, alder-trees, lime-trees, beech-trees, poplars, maple-trees and possibly on thewooden remnants of other tree species as well,The fact that this mushroom has not been thecause of any intoxications may be explained byits fruiting bodies' occurrence on tree stumps assingle mushrooms or in groups of very fewmushrooms. Also, compared to other wood-inhabiting mushrooms, Pluteus salicinus is notvery attractive in appearance. The mushroom'shabitus is well illustrated by Figure 39 (p. 60).

For unknown reasons, Kreisel describedall Pluteus species as "non-poisonous" in his1987 handbook of mushrooms, despite the factthat psilocybin (0.35 % of dried mushrooms) hadalready been discovered in samples of thisspecies in 1981 (North America) and 1984(Norway). The alkaloid was also found inmushrooms from Holland, Finland, Sweden andFrance. The latter tests, however, were limited tovery few fruiting bodies in each case.

Whereas Stijve found an average of 0.25% of psilocybin in dried mushrooms from 20samples collected in Switzerland from 1984 to1986, my own analyses of non-bluing (!)mushrooms collected in Thuringen, Germany in1986 yielded much higher alkaloidconcentrations:

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TABLE 10

Psilocybin and Urea Content ofPluteus salicinus (% of Dry Weight)

Sample# Psilocybin UreaCap Stem Cap Stem

1 1.38 0.48 2.50 Traces

2 1.57 0.71 2.60 0.003 1.57 0.71 2.60 0.004 1.22 1.14 1.40 0.00

5 139 0.64 2.40 0.43

Additional analyses of four bluingmushrooms collected in the Dubenermarshlands (Eastern Germany) in 1988,confirmed the presence of only about 0.2 -0.7 % psilocybin in those mushrooms. Thissample also contained very small amounts ofbaeocystin.

These results indicate that thevariability m alkaloid content in Pluteussalicinus has not yet been sufficientlycalibrated. Therefore, more analyses areneeded. In contrast to the findings based onstudies of mushrooms collected in America,it is certain that the European mushroomsproduce only traces of psilocin at most.

Figure 37 - Description of Pluteus salicinus from 1962 (Germany).See page 58 for description in English.

Stijve and Bonnard were able to examineoriginal material collected by Saupe in the UnitedStates. To their surprise, they discovered that themushrooms were not identical to those found inEurope. They also did no longer contain anyalkaloids. These findings show that mushroomsof the same name from different continents arenot necessarily identical.

All other Pluteus species tested so farcontained urea, a substance that can also beenfound in the Panaeolus species. However, thelatter also produce compounds like serotonin,which do not occur in the Pluteus species. Hence,the different species are once again identifiableby their unique "fingerprints".

Other rare Pluteus species with bluish orviolet discolorations are mentioned in theliterature, such as a Pluteus cyanopus fromEurope. However, so far, very small amounts ofpsilocybin (0.035% of dried mushrooms) havebeen found only in Pluteus nigroviridis Babos, anextremely rare species from Hungary.

Therefore, additional analyses of thisfairly neglected genus are urgently needed.

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Figure 38 - Pluteus salicinus at a natural location (Germany).

Figure 39 - Fresh Pluteus salicinus fruiting bodies.

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CHAPTER 4

MUSHROOM IDENTIFICATION: TAXONOMIC CONFUSION ANDTHE POTENTIAL FOR DEADLY MISTAKES

On December 16, 1981, three teenagershunting for psychoactive mushrooms onWhidbey Island, WA (USA) collectedspecimens of a Galerina species, in the mistakenbelief that the mushrooms belonged to aPsilocybe species. All three of them fell ill aftereating the mushrooms, but did not report theirsymptoms or seek medical help for another twodays, afraid of being prosecuted for usingpsilocybin. After medical treatment, two of theteenagers made a full recovery. The thirdvictim, however, a 16 -year-old girl, died onDecember 24, 1981.

As presented by Beug and Bigwood, thistragic incident underscores the dangers inherentis careless or erroneous identification ofmushroom species, especially when a situation iscomplicated by overzealous legislative andpunitive measures. The psilocybin-producingspecies as well as culinary mushroom varietiesoften share some characteristics with many otherspecies. Casual mushroom hunters and lay-persons are especially prone to makingidentification errors, suffering accidentalittoxications as a result. Previous chaptersincluded several case histories of suchinvoluntary intoxications. To be sure, modernmycological keys are valuable tools when itcomes to accuracy in deciding the family andgenus of an unknown mushroom sample. It canbe extremely difficult, however, to identify thespecific species of questionable specimens,especially if the sample belongs to the vastcategory of "LBM"s, or "little brown mush-rooms". We currently know very little about the"LBM" species, since their habitats andvariations in habitus have not been studied insystematic detail. Not surprisingly, referencebooks are often limited by incomplete descrip-tions that lack the essential criteria fordifferentiating one species from others that aresimilar or related. I vividly recall my own firstattempts to identify unknown samples by relyingon what appeared to be precise definitions instandard mycological reference works. I foundmany of the listed traits to be descriptive of awide range of sometimes very different species.As I compared my samples with the text, I

noticed a tendency to disregard some of the finerdetails in the literature, so that "my mushrooms"would better match the descriptions. Naturally, thisapproach resulted in errors. Luckily, I would quicklydiscover and correct my mistakes upon consultationwith my mycologist friends. In my experience,competence and expertise in the area of mushroomidentification are skills honed over time throughextensive fieldwork, consultations with establishedmycological experts, and careful analyses of samplesbased on information found in appropriate referencebooks.

The literature clearly indicates thatPsilocybe semilanceata is one species that, at primelocations, can be easily identified without consultinga diagnostic key. Psilocybe semilanceata is knownfor its uniquely distinctive appearance, so thatmicroscopic tests are not needed to distinguish thisspecies from other pasture-dwelling mushrooms.The situation is different, however, for Psilocybespecies that thrive on wood debris, as illustrated bythe tragic story at the beginning of this chapter.Besides, compared to Europe, the North Americanmycoflora includes a much broader and variedspectrum of mushroom species to begin with.

Warning: Amatoxins are Lethal!

The Galerina genus includes a number ofpoisonous mushrooms. These species are dangerous,because they contain the same deadly amatoxins asthe "death cap" (Amanita phalloides) and itsrelatives, "death angel" and "destroying angel". Theirtoxins are insidious, with no symptoms evident forabout 12 hours. During this latency period, the toxinscan cause major irreversible internal damage, whichis why many cases are fatal in spite of treatment. Acommon North American species is Galerinaautumnalis (Peck) Singer & Smith, which grows onwood debris in parks and forests, just like several ofthe Psilocybe species. At first glance, Galerinaautumnalis resembles Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman &Ott, and the two species may grow

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side by side at the same location. The Galerinaspecies, however, does not turn blue. I oncediscovered a grassy area that was home to a clusterof Psilocybe stuntzii specimens entangled with aGalerina species. The mushrooms had grown soentwined that individual fruiting bodies could beidentified only by spore analyses.

Pholiotina filaris (Fr.) Sing. (also knownas Conocybe) is another North American speciesknown to contain amatoxins. At the same time,these toxins have not been found in Europeansamples of this species. Thus, Pholiotina filaris(Fr.) Sing. most likely does not refer to the samespecies on both continents. Still, at least oneEuropean Galerina species (Galerina marginata(Fr.) Kuhn.) contains the same toxins found in the"death cap" mushroom. This species also grows ondecaying wood substrate and its fruiting bodiescontain about one-third of the amount ofamanitines found in Amanita phalloides.Incredibly, older mushroom books list Galerinamarginata as an edible species.

In a previous chapter on the Panaeolusspecies I illustrated the potential for identificationerrors associated with commercial cultivation areasthat are "invaded" by outside species. Due to theirrapid growth, the Panaeolus species in particularwill often fruit in artificial growing areas longbefore the cultivated species that is grown there.Chapter 3.3 details the 1970 poisoning incidentinvolving Panaeolus subbalteatus from acultivation area in Leipzig. In that case, theintruding species was mistaken for Strophariarugoso-annulata Farlow (the Giant Stropharia),based on information from a mushroom book.Apparently nobody realized the glaring differencesbetween the book's description and the actualcharacteristics, except for the assumption that thesample's small size meant the mushrooms simplyhad not grown as tall as portrayed in the book.This flawed conclusion illustrates a type ofjudgment error common among amateurmushroom hunters who falsely believe that theyare experts. Having been shown a single sample ofwild mushrooms, for example, some mycophilesbecome convinced they will always be able torecognize the species in the future. That is how onesuch mushroom hunter accidently ingested Inocybeaeruginascens specimens that he believed to becommon fairy ring mushrooms. In a similar case ofInocybe aeruginascens intoxication, themushrooms had been picked as whitechampignons, even though this common culinarymushroom bears no

resemblance, either in size or form, to Inocybeaeruginascens. Overall, however, theseunfortunate cases have also contributed to ourunderstanding of mushroom biochemistry.

In this context, I want to emphasizeonce more that the hallucinogenic varietiesamong the Inocybes can easily be mistaken forthose muscarine-producing Inocybe speciesthat are extremely poisonous.

As part of his investigation of thePsilocybe genus, Guzman noted a commontrait among the hallucinogenic species, inaddition to the bluing reaction: a flour-likesmell or taste. Apart from the inherentsubjective nature of our sense of smell andtaste, a common odor is a trait that definitelydoes not apply to the European species (alsosee Chapter 3.2).

Mycophile or Mycophobe?

There are reports from the WesternUnited States about people with expertknowledge of Psilocybe semilanceata -devoted mushroom hunters who can identifythe species with drill and accuracy. At thesame time, however, these experts cannotidentify easily spotted common tablemushrooms, nor are they able to differentiatethe Agaricus species (champignons) from othermushrooms, even when these species grow onthe same pasture. Such individuals, then, arenot interested in species other than Psilocybesemilanceata. In my opinion, this attitudereflects a rare combination of mycophilia andmycophobia.

A mushroom's spore dust providesimportant information needed to determineidentity. A spore print is left by the gills whenthe cap is placed on black or white paper(depending on spore color). As the processtakes several hours, a glass vessel must beplaced over the cap to prevent drying. Whileuseful, information obtained from sporeanalyses has its limitations, For instance,spores derived from mushrooms belonging todifferent genera may have the same color, butreveal basic differences under the microscope.There is also a high degree of similarity amongspores from different Psilocybe species. Thus,the only way to prevent grave errors andpotentially deadly intoxications is to rely onexperienced experts for mushroomidentification, a process that must includeanalysis of available ecological data.

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CHAPTER 5

THE BLUING PHENOMENON AND METOLTESTING: REALITY VS. WISHFUL THINKING

As previously discussed in Chapters 3.1and 3.7, the bluing reaction is characteristicof species that produce psilocybin. Still, forunknown reasons, some species or samplesbelonging to a genus that usually turns bluemay not always change color, regardless ofpsilocybin content. Among the species that Ihave examined, Psilocybe bohemicadisplayed the most impressive bluingreaction. The caps of this species stain veryquickly in reaction to pressure. Other species,such as Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Sing.have stems that develop very intensely bluestains, while their caps do not exhibit thebluing reaction. By contrast, Psilocybesemilanceata, Conocybe cyanopus andInocybe aeruginascens are species whosestems develop only slight stains m reaction topressure and only after a relatively long timeperiod has elapsed. Withrespect to time delay and intensity of thebluing reaction, Gymnopilus purpuratus is aspecies that falls in between these twoextremes.

A Rich Color Spectrum

The colors range from green to a deepblue. Psilocybe cubensis is a species inwhich the latter color may also take on ablackish-blue hue. 'The mechanismsunderlying the color reactions in thesemushrooms has not yet been studied. I havealready mentioned Cooke's speculation fromthe early years of the 20th century about thesignificance of the bluing reaction inPsilocybe Smilanceata (see p. 16). In the1950s, it was Singer and Smith whoemphasized that discolorations observed inthe psychotropic Psilocybe and Panaeolusspecies must somehow be linked directly orindirectly to the mushrooms' activeingredients. Eventually, in 1958, A.Hofmann and his collaborators reported thesuccessful isolation of these ingredients.They were the first to observe that purepsilocin grows unstable when exposed tooxidizing agents such

as air and that solutions of psilocin turn bluish-green in an alkaline range.

These results provided proof that thebluing reaction resulted from a mushroomingredient's breakdown by oxidation. From 1960on, Blaschko, Levine and Bocks, as well asHorita and Weber performed in-vitro studies ofthe biochemical reactions of psilocybin andpsilocin. They concurred that only psilocin can beoxidized into a product of bluish-green color. Thephosphate group prevents direct oxidation of thisalkaloid (see Figure 19, p. 27). However, thetypical bluing phenomenon does occur when thisprotective group is removed by enzymes, such asvarious phosphatases, which are very common inhuman as well as in mushroom tissue. I alsoobserved the bluing reaction following removalof the phosphate group from baeocystin.Observations from in-vitro experiments explainwhy Psilocybe bohemica displays a strongbluing reaction, despite the fact that levels ofpsilocin in this mushroom are low or non-existent: Apparently, the enzymatic removal ofthe phosphate group from the psilocybinmolecule occurs quite quickly. This is howpsilocin is formed in reaction to injuries to thefruiting bodies. Immediately afterwards, psilocincontinues to break down and disappearscompletely, while a number of blue-coloredsubstances are created. In addition, someenzymes were discovered which accelerate thebreakdown of psilocin. Cytochrome oxidases andlaccases are examples of such enzymes. Thelatter has also been found in the mycelia ofPsilocybe cubensis. Most likely, the enzymes arealso formed in those mushrooms that displaybluish discolorations in reaction to metol testing.Trace amounts of Iron" ions accelerate the bluingreaction as well. The structure of the blue-coloredcompounds has not yet been investigated.Apparently, they are quite unstable and involve atype of chemical bond known as chinones. Manypigments are known to have this basic structure.

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Figure 40 - Psilocybe cubensis fruiting bodies whosegrowth was accelerated with plant hormones.

Figure 41 - Mycelial culture of Psilocybe cubensis onmalt extract (3 % solution).

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The Agaricales As Alkaloid Producers

Even though the blue discoloration doesnot occur in ali mushroom species that producepsilocybin and psilocin, we can say that,conversely, all species of the order Agaricales(gilled mushrooms) displaying this reaction arecapable of producing alkaloids. Historically,this problem associated with the bluing reactiondid not particularly impress early mycologists,because there were a number of boletes whichturned blue in reaction to pressure and werethought to be among the most valued culinarymushrooms. Indeed, the mushrooms' colorreaction is based on ingredients that arephysiologically inactive. The boletes also donot display the kinds of spontaneousdiscolorations with age that are frequentlynoted in the psychotropic species.

As results of my own analyses haveshown, the alkaloid concentrations in Psilocybesemilanceata and Panaeolus subbalteatus - whosefruiting bodies showed a slight degree ofdiscoloration at most - are within the sameorders of magnitude as those found inmushrooms that do not turn blue. Evidently, thepigments involved have a high degree ofintensity; the tiny amounts that were produceddid not measurably contribute to the destructionof the active ingredients. On the other hand, myown experiments revealed that levels ofpsilocin and psilocybin in very old and stronglydiscolored fruiting bodies and mycelia ofPsilocybe cubensis were considerably lower incomparison to younger specimens. In 1948,Singer was the first to describe theintensification of the bluing reaction, includinga change in color towards violet, in samples ofPsilocybe cubensis which had been moistenedwith an aqueous solution of the photographicreagent metol (p-methylaminophenol). Tenyears later he reported further examinations ofsome psychotropic Psilocybe species whosestems usually turned purple through contactwith this reagent. Since 1970, various"field guides" intended to aid in theidentification of North American Psilocybeshave also described this reaction as specific tothe Psilocybe species. For practical purposes,however, this guideline is all but useless. Themetol merely reacts with the laccase enzyme(several structural types) contained in themushrooms and it is not a reagent able toconfirm

the presence of psilocybin and its derivatives.Even the brown and white varieties of thecommercial champignon mushroom change colorswhen exposed to a metol solution, just like manyother mushrooms do as well.

The Limitations of Reagents

The discovery and usage of different colorreagents as a means to differentiate certain speciesor even genera has been attempted for quite sometime, with only moderate success, for the mostpart. Melzer's Reagent is a well-known mixturewhose usage was propagated as a method foridentifying the Psilocybe species. For this purpose,however, it turned out to be just as nonspecific andworthless as metol.

G. Drewitz discovered that the applicationof iron chloride to fruiting bodies of Inocybeaeruginascens caused a deep blue discoloration,while the muscarine-producing species of the samegenus did not change color. Iron chloride is a saltthat reacts with different phenoles to formintensely blue molecules. The underlyingmechanism of this reaction is more realistic thanthe others, because psilocin will also react as aphenole. Independent of this color formation, meretrace amounts of iron ions will suffice toaccelerate the oxidation of psilocin by air.

However, Inocybe aeruginascens is aspecies that produces only trace amounts ofpsilocin; therefore, it is very likely that the ironsalt reacts with other phenoles in this mushroomspecies.

In summary, only those bluing reactionsthat are spontaneous or caused by injuries providereliable clues as to the presence of psilocybin andits derivatives in Agaricales. The presence of thebluing phenomenon itself, however, revealsnothing about the type and quantity of any specificindole compound that may be present in gilledmushrooms.

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CHAPTER 6

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION:CLASSIC FINDINGS AND NEW TECHNIQUES

While conducting research on theMexican mushroom species during the 1950s,R. Heim and R. Cailleux determined the basicconditions essential to the cultivation of variousmushrooms. Before providing additional details,I would like to briefly summarize the nutritionalrequirements and characteristics of fungalgrowth, to the extent that these issues are ofinterest here.

Extraterrestrial or Earthly Organisms?

In terms of cultivation parameters andnutrients, the psychotropic species are nodifferent from table mushrooms and othercommon gilled mushrooms. For that reason, Ossand Oeric's speculations about extra-terrestrialorigins of these species clearly belong into therealm of fables. In addition, psilocybin andpsilocin are substances that can be derived fromtryptophan by means of discernable reactions;indeed, the amino acid tryptophan in its freeform has been found in a large number ofmushroom species.

The natural propagation of highermushrooms is linked to their basidiospores,which are produced on the gills of developingfruiting bodies and which are eventually castoff. Once the spores have been dispersed - bythe wind, for example - they will germinatewhen conditions are favorable (nutrients,temperature, moisture, lack of competingorganisms) and finally, they gradually colonizeavailable substrates. Initially, a monokaryoticmycelial thread (i.e. a mycelium with only onenucleus per cell) grows out of the spore andsuperficially penetrates the nutrient substrate.When two of these hyphae meet, they form amycelium with two nuclei, or a dikaryoticmycelium ("mycelial network"). Later on, thesemycelial strands go on to differentiate intosporeproducing fruiting bodies ("fruiting").Eventually, their spores disperse and germinateonce again.

During most parts of the year, thedikaryotic mycelium grows unnoticed in its naturalsubstrate and remains purely vegetative, that is, itcontinues to spread and to utilize new nutritionalresources without producing mushrooms, providedthere is sufficient moisture and temperatures do notdrop below freezing. ln its dormant state, themycelium can weather droughts and the coldtemperatures of winter, only to begin to growanew. Some species have mycelia with thickstrands that are visible within the substrate (e.g. therhizomorphs of Psilocybe cyanescens), while otherspecies, such as Psilocybe semilanceata, developcomparatively thin strands that are hardly visible atall.

The Secret of "Overnight" Growth

Every mushroom collector knows thatthere are years of maximum mushroom yields.Other years, mushrooms are scarce and dry periodsmay pass with no apparent crops of gilledmushrooms or boletes. For the majority ofmushroom species, the specific conditions requiredto reach the fruiting phase have not yet beendetermined.

The saprophytic species (including thehallucinogenic ones except the Inocybe species:mycorrhiza with trees) generally fruit after optimalmycelial growth has been induced by appropriatenutrient substrates, as long as the followingenvironmental conditions are maintained:1) Decrease of the temperature until time of

optimal fruiting.2) Increase of the humidity to 95-100%.3) Decrease of carbon dioxide concentration

through increased air circulation.4) Exposure to light may be necessary for

fruiting.The last two items already touch upon the essentialrequirements for mushroom cultivation, since theseconditions are always present in

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Nature, but often need to be specially created formushroom cultivation inside glass containers orenclosed rooms.

It is no coincidence that the saprophyticspecies almost always fruit during the fall. Plantsubstrates such as twigs and leaves fall to theground during this time and they areimmediately colonized by available myceliafrom mushroom spores as part of the naturalcycle. The concurrent drop in temperature andincrease in humidity are preconditions forfruiting. The proverbial rapid growth ofmushrooms "overnight" is a function of myceliathat have previously massed together into knots,followed by a differentiation process intoprimordia, with progressive divisions into capsand stems. The whole mushroom is then ready todevelop very rapidly, given sufficient moistureand ideal temperatures. Figure 42 illustrates acomparable in-vitro fruiting process that tookabout a week, with mycelia from Psilocybecubensis (Earle) on an agar substrate.

Cultivating High Yield Strains

Artificial cultivation is an attempt toimitate and optimize the natural conditionsessential for mushroom growth, and may evenresult in the discovery of additional nutrientsubstrates on which these species cannot grow inNature. From the outset, this method ofcultivation requires a sterile environment, inorder to eliminate often fast-growing organismssuch as bacteria and molds. For this purpose,laminar flow hoods are used in mycologicallaboratories. A small sterile space is createdinside these containers by installing a filtrationsystem that removes germs from a stream of air.The sterile space is used for the performance oftasks such as isolation of strains, and theproduction of sterile cultures and spawn forfruiting experiments. Antibiotics such asgentamycin (0.01%) are often added to thenutrient media, especially in the early stages ofthis process.

Two methods are used to produce sterilecultures of fungal mycelia.

The first method mimicks the mushrooms'natural reproductive process. Spores that fell offor were removed from the gills are suspended insterile water. With microscopic

control procedures in place, the spore solution isgerminated on nutrients of various compositionsthat have been thickened with agar. Onecommonly used nutrient medium contains 3-6malt extract along with 1.5% agar. It inducesspores from many different species to germinatein a matter of several days. Prior to germination,all substrates are placed in autoclaves andsterilized with steam. The simultaneousgermination of a large number of spores willresult in the growth of monokaryotic myceliawhich spontaneously combine and go on to formdikaryotic mycelia. Alternatively, one can attemptto systematically fuse selected monokaryoticstrands in order to develop vigorous strains forcultivation (criteria: rapid growth, high yield).This is a standard technique that is widely used inthe cultivation of champignons (Agaricusbisporus).

At the same time, such cross-breedingexperiments enable the grower to determinewhether mushrooms from different locationsbelong to the same species. Using this method, Iwas able to establish that mycelia obtained fromPsilocybe bohemica and from Psilocybecyanescens (collected in the U.S.) can never befused together, which means that these twomushrooms are not of the same species.

The second method of cultivationrequires cutting a piece of tissue from the insideof young, unopened fruiting bodies, using adisinfected knife in a sterile environment. Thepiece of tissue is then placed onto nutrient agarmedium. In most cases, visible mycelial growthwill occur within a few days. This method has theadvantage of all mycelia being geneticallyidentical to the mushroom from which theyoriginated, unlike mycelia grown from sporesamples. Therefore, this method makes it easy forthe grower to reproduce high yield strains ofsaprophytic species. Some wild strains obtainedfrom various species do not fruit at all whencultivated, or else, they do so very late, with ayield of fruiting bodies that is sparse at best.

Such differences in response to attemptedcultivation were also observed by R. Heim withvarious strains of Psilocybe mexicana Heim. Asearly as 1956, he took spore sprints from anumber of fruiting bodies in Mexico. Later on, inParis, he was able to germinate the spores andisolate mycelial cultures of five different species.In collaboration with R. Cailleux, Heim

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Figure 42 - One-week growth progression of Psilocybecubensis cultivated on a malt agar (2%) substrate.

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succeeded at growing fruiting bodies of thespecies Psilocybe mexicana, using compostsubstrate as a medium. This type of substrate isthe most widely used nutrient soil for commercialmushroom cultivation (champignons). Thefruiting bodies grown by Heim and Cailleuxprovided the dried material that A. Hofmann andhis collaborators used to isolate psilocybin andpsilocin for the first time. In Basel, it was alsopossible to cultivate mycelia from differentspecies on liquid solutions of malt extract. Themycelial tissue was found to produce psilocybinwithout having to go through the fruiting process.This important discovery became the basis forharvesting large amounts of alkaloids. Unlike thefruiting process, which yielded five harvests overthe course of several months, a species' mycelialcultures produced much larger amounts ofmushroom tissue in only four weeks (see Figure41). The cultures were grown on stationary maltextract (4-6%) with 0.2% agar added forincreased viscosity.

This kind of saprophytic surfacecultivation can be easily adapted for growingspecies which are difficult to fruit under in-vitroconditions, such as Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim,permitting cultivation of these species foralkaloid production. Even though the mycelialtissue grown from the Mexican species containedonly half as much psilocybin (0.1-0.2% of dryweight) as the mushrooms did, high yields(approximately 20g/1) along with easy and rapidcultivation of mycelial tissue more thancompensated for the lower psilocybin content. Itis interesting to note that mycelia from the NorthAmerican species of Psilocybe cyanescens willturn blue and accumulate psilocybin when grownon a medium of solid malt agar, while both ofthese traits disappear completely when the samestrain is cultivated on the type of liquid mediumdescribed above, even if levels of nutrients areidentical. The reasons for this inconsistencyremain a mystery.

When mycelial cultures are kept in thedark, the mycelial forms may become partiallypermanent (sclerotia). Sclerotia may be hardened,are largely dark to black in color and they containpsilocybin as well. The formation of sclerotia wasinitially observed as part of the firstever attemptto cultivate psychotropic mushrooms on an agarmedium. In 1935, H.J. Brodie reported permanentformations of bluish-green

tissue while cultivating Panaeolus subbalteatus onmalt agar.

Initially, he believed that his nutrientsubstrates had been contaminated by molds,because Panaeolus subbalteatus is a species thatalmost never spontaneously turns bluish-green.Figure 47 shows a distinct sclerotia formation ofthe species Psilocybe semilanceata. The formationof these permanent structures with Conocybecyanopus has been described in a previous chapter(see Figure 35, p. 57).

Heim and Cailleux primarily described thefruiting of Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybecubensis on agar (0.05-2% malt extract) and oncompost. During their experiments, Psilocybemexicana produced the highest yields, whilePsilocybe cubensis fruited quite vigorously aswell. At about the same time, R. Singer had alsostarted mycelial cultures derived from sixmushroom species. Singer and his co-workers soonconcentrated on Psilocybe cubensis in their effortsto induce fruiting. Soon after, in the early 1960s,R. L. Kneebone reported that this robustmushroom species, which thrives acrosssubtropical climate zones, can also be induced tofruit on a rye-grain medium.

Counter-Cultural Expertise GainsMainstream Acceptance

In the mid-1960s, Psilocybe cubensisbecame the species of choice for experiments thatmade use of submersed fermentation to investigatethe biosynthesis of psilocybin from tryptophan andother precursors. We should note in this contextthat around the same time, this technique was alsoused to obtain mycelial pellets of the speciesPsilocybe baeocystis Singer & Smith, providingthe material for the first-ever isolation ofbaeocystin from mushroom tissue.

From the 1970s on, a growing number ofbooks were published in the United States thatdistributed information acquired by members ofthe counter-culture on the cultivation ofpsychotropic mushrooms. The scope of thesebooks soon narrowed, with a primary emphasis onPsilocybe cubensis, which may be explained by thefact that, initially, only R. Heim's research resultswere published, thus making them available to alarger audience.

In 1971, new results were published

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about the champignon's ability to fruit on a rye-grain medium, provided a cover layer was addedon top. It wasn't long before these findings wereapplied to the cultivation of Psilocybe species.

By 1932, J. Sinden had alreadypublished a patent for a cultivation process thatinvolved the inoculation of mushroom myceliaderived from champignons into horse dungcompost (a medium widely used for cultivationpurposes) but only after the mycelia had alreadygrown to permeate a medium of sterilized grains.Since that time, this process has mainly beenused in the production of table mushrooms,specifically, for manufacturing the spawn to beplaced onto the compost without inducingfruiting on grain. Psilocybe cubensis fruits afterabout three to eight weeks on this substrate.

If a moist cover layer is added (e.g. apeat moss/lime mixture, 2:1), the yields maydouble. However, this process is risky, becauseover-saturation can render the containers non-sterile and invite contamination from bacteria andmolds. Most authors prefer a mixture of rye andwater that has been inoculated with mycelia froman agar culture. Still, rice, barley, wheat andother grains have also been used with varyingdegrees of success. Figure 52 shows that, afterabout five weeks, small mushrooms even grewon wet pages of a newspaper that used to be theofficial print medium controlled by the formerEast Germany's SED Party ("SozialistischeEinheitspartei Deutschlands" or "UnifiedSocialist Party of Germany").

Some Recent Findings

Today, Psilocybe cubensis is clearly oneof the most easily cultivated mushroom speciesaround and it can thrive on a large variety ofsubstrates. Naturally occurring specimens aremost often found growing on cow dung.Generally, the species tends to grow on dung andstraw as a primary decomposer, but themushrooms can also utilize nutrients previouslyconverted by other organisms, such as varioustypes of compost, among others (see Figure 53,p. 77).

Within the scope of this book, it isimpossible to discuss all details pertaining to thefruiting process of psychotropic mushroomspecies. P. Stamets and J.S. Chilton are the

authors of two outstanding books that deal withall the technical and practical aspects ofmushroom cultivation. The psychotropic speciesare included along with information about manykinds of culinary mushrooms. Still, I would liketo make special note of the fact that Psilocybecubensis cultures benefit when horse or cowdung is added to the original nutrient mixtures,as evidenced by the mushrooms' relatively fastergrowth rate and the development ofcomparatively more robust specimens (seeFigure 45, p. 71 and Figure 49, p. 74). Beforeadding the dung to the nutrient mixture,however, it must first be suspended in water andautoclaved, which considerably reduces the riskof contamination. Only then should thesuspension be added to the rye grain substrateand sterilized once more. In spite of numerous claims in thepopular literature, most attempts by laypersonsto cultivate fruiting bodies of Psilocybe cubensison rye grain substrate are thwarted by thepresence of contaminating agents such asbacteria and molds. Even though mushrooms areorganisms that do not perform photosynthesisand thus are no longer thought of as plants, somemushroom species, including Psilocybe cubensis,are heliotropes, meaning they will grow towardstationary sources of light. All Psilocybe speciesexamined to date require light to promote thebiochemical process in the mycelia that willinduce fruiting. Additional exposure to light isneeded, if the fruiting bodies are to develop intonormal shapes and produce spores. Apart from a series of interestingphysiological experiments performed by E.R.Badham during the 1980s, there are a few othernoteworthy substrates for cultivation ofPsilocybe cubensis fruiting bodies. For instance,we were the first to discover that a new type ofplant hormone (brassinosteroids) will acceleratefruiting of the mycelia (Figure 40, p. 64). Duringthese experiments, we were also able tocompletely suppress the formation of psilocybinand psilocin through high concentrations ofphosphate. It is now possible to design futurephysiological experiments to study differenthallucinogenic mushroom species under theseconditions. In recent years I have also succeeded atcultivating the European hallucinogenicmushroom species.

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Figure 43 - Gymnopilus purpuratusfruiting on wet rice and saw dust.

Figure 45 - Psilocybe cubensis fruiting bodies grown an amixture of cow manure and rice.

Figure 44 - Psilocybe bohemica on arice substrate.

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Psilocybe semilanceata is a mushroomspecies whose mycelia grow at a significantlyslower rate than the mycelia of Psilocybecubensis, Gymnopilus purpuratus, Panaeolussubbalteatus and Psilocybe bohemica. Despite thefact that only a few strains of Psilocybesemilanceata actually fruited, cultivation of thisspecies succeeded with different substrates. Aftera mycelial growth period of three to four months,the mushrooms emerged on compost (see Figure46) as well as on a mixture consisting of grassseeds, dung, and rice (see Figure 66, p. 116). Fourflushes of fruiting bodies were observed.

Panaeolus subbalteatus also fruited after92 days on a mixture of cow dung and damp rice.The physical appearance of these fruiting bodiesdiffered considerably from specimens of the samespecies that had grown on naturally occurringsubstrates (Figure 3, p. 6 and Figure 51, p. 76).

According to Stamets and Chilton,Panaeolus cyanescens is a species that does notfruit without a cover layer. However, thisstatement does not seem very plausible,considering the species can be found, much likePsilocybe cubensis, growing on top of dung undernatural conditions.

Psilocybe bohemica was another speciesthat fruited on damp rice after two or threemonths. These in-vitro specimens also appearedto be much hardier in comparison to fruitingbodies collected at a natural location near Sazava,Bohemia (Czech Republic). The cultivatedspecimens even developed two (!) rings, yet theserobust mushrooms did not fruit until after anexposure to the shock of cold temperatures (seeFigure 44, p. 71).

At about the same time, Gymnopiluspurpuratus fruited on a moist mixture of rice andsaw dust after six to eight weeks (see Figure 43,p. 71). In this case, however, the cultivatedmushrooms turned out to be smaller than fruitingbodies that developed from fruiting mycelia onwood shavings at a location outside the laboratory(Figure 30, p. 40).

During the 1980s, there were also reportsabout success in cultivating psilocybin-containingsclerotia of Psilocybe mexicana and its closerelative Psilocybe tampanensis Guzman &Pollock. In both cases, the sclerotia form afterthree to twelve weeks, preferably in the dark on asubstrate of lolium (rye grass) seeds. All strains ofPsilocybe tampanensis originate from a

single fruiting body that was found near Tampa,Florida in 1977. Sclerotia from this species havealso been cultivated on a straw substrate.Compared to lolium seeds, soft rice has theadvantage of not drying out as fast, so that thesclerotia will form more evenly than they wouldon rye grass seeds. A photograph of Psilocybetampanensis sclerotia is shown on page 117(Figure 69).

Psilocybe natalensis, which we firstdiscovered in South Africa in January 1994 (seeChapter 7.6), is another species that easily fruits,within four to eight weeks, on compost or onstraw with potting soil for a casing.

In closing, I would like to comment onthe mycorrhiza problem. Due to the closeinterrelationship between mushroom myceliaand their symbiotic partner trees, there exists aunique exchange of growth hormones and otherproducts - substances whose study has only justbegun. For this reason, all attempts to fruit thesespecies in-vitro have remained unsuccessful.Nonetheless, we were able to start mycelialcultures from some of these species, but in mostcases, growth rates remained very slow. As aresult of my own investigations, I was able toisolate sterile cultures from Inocybeaeruginascens (see Figure 50, p. 75), whichgrew and developed greenish sclerotia at thesame time. The dried mycelial mass containedabout 0.1 % psilocybin, Figure 48 (p. 74) showsthree Inocybe aeruginascens fruiting bodieswhose mycelia grew naturally. These myceliawere found to contain no baeocystin and lesspsilocybin (0.05%) than the fruiting bodiesshown in Figure 48.

Several months after these mycelia hadbeen isolated from spores and fruiting bodytissue samples, they began to degenerate and losttheir ability to sustain growth, most likelybecause information available about conditionsand requirements for optimal growth wasinsufficient.

Incidents of mycelial degeneration insaprophytic species have rarely been describedin the literature. However, this condition can beeasily prevented through usage of more than justone type of nutrient media; thus, the specificcomposition of a medium should be changedfrom time to time. In addition, only fast-growingmycelial threads (rhizomorphs) should beselected for propagation. By contrast, prolongeddegeneration of strains can be caused by newinoculations of material taken from agar-based

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Figure 46 - Psilocybe semilanceata on compost

Figure 47 - Surface culture of Psilocybe semilanceata(with sclerotia formation).

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Figure 48 - Inocybe aeruginascens on grassy soil

Figure 49 - Psilocybe cubensis on horse manure and rice.

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portions of mycelia whose texture is somewhatlike wool. The kind of viruses known to appear inchampignon cultures - where they have alreadycaused a lot of damage - have so far not beenfound in cultures of the Psilocybe and Panaeolusspecies.

It is safe to say that we currently know agreat deal about the nutritional requirements ofPsilocybe cubensis. To a lesser extent, suchinformation is available about other species aswell. Armed with this knowledge, futureresearchers may well discover new insights intophysiology of these species, as well as thebiochemical changes that occur during fruiting.

In my experiments, it has already beenestablished that the process of differentiationwhereby mycelia are transformed into sclerotia orfruiting bodies is linked to increased productionof psilocybin as well as psilocin, especially in

Psilocybe cubensis. Due to the relatively complexmethodology and the type of equipment needed toisolate and maintain sterile cultures, it appearsunlikely that cultivation of Psilocybe cubensismushrooms by laypersons will significantlyheighten the mushroom's popularity or widen itsarea of distribution anytime soon.

However, since the early 1980s, growingnumbers of mycophiles in North America andEurope have successfully used "natural outdoorcultivation" to fruit Psilocybe cyanescens andsimilar species. This process involves selection ofnatural wood substrates striated with mycelia(rhizomorphs) that usually turn blue in responseto handling. The mycelia are then transferred ontofresh wood chips or commercial mulch (not fromcedar trees). After several months of growth, themycelia fruit during the fall season.

Figure 50 - Surface culture of Inocybe aeruginascens on a liquid nutrient medium.

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Figure 51 - Panaeolus subbalteatus on cow dung and rice.

Figure 52 - Psilocybe cubensis on wet newspaper.

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CHAPTER 7

PSYCHOTROPIC MUSHROOM SPECIES

AROUND THE WORLD

Figure 53 - Psilocybe cubensis on compost.

Figure 54 - Psilocybe stuntzii (grasslands variety) from British Columbia.

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Figure 55 - Giant mushroom sculpture from Kerala, India. There is considerable debate amongexperts about the significance and purpose of the sculpture.

Figure 56 - Magic mushrooms & water buffalo t-shirt from Thailand,designed for the Western tourist market.

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CHAPTER 7.1

SPOTLIGHT ON NORTH AMERICA AND HAWAII

In 1961, V.E. Tyler became the firstinvestigator to report the detection of psilocybin inPsilocybe pelliculosa (Smith) Singer & Smith,a North American mushroom species. One yearlater, two research groups, working independently,discovered psilocybin, as well as psilocin, insamples of Psilocybe baeocystis Singer & Smithfrom the Pacific Northwest region of NorthAmerica. Additional chemical and taxonomicfindings on that region's mycoflora have beenpublished up to the present day. This area includesthe states of Washington (USA), British Columbia(Canada) and western Oregon (USA). The regionis considered a major center of psychoactivemushroom use in North America. Some areasalong the U.S. Gulf states have acquired similarreputations.

In 1966, Heim and his colleaguesreported that an unknown Psilocybe species hadbeen confiscated in Canada. The mushroomsappeared to be very similar to Psilocybesemilanceata. Shortly thereafter, A.H. Smithdetermined that the same mushroom species waspopular among students in Vancouver. It wasn'tlong before Psilocybe semilanceata wasrecognized as a species quite common throughoutthe Pacific Northwest. Moreover, the mushroomsturned out to indistinguishable from EuropeanPsilocybe semilanceata samples.

The Spread of Psilocybe semilanceata

From the late 1960s onward, Psilocybesemilanceata usage increased, particularly in areasbetween the Pacific Ocean and the CascadeMountains that range from Southern Oregon northto British Columbia. It is likely that during theseyears, Tom Robbins's popular book "AnotherRoadside Attraction " significantly contributed tothe mushroom's increasing popularity. Today,Psilocybe semilanceata is the most widely usedspecies in the Pacific Northwest, and its habitat isexpanding into pasture lands east of the CascadeMountains.

As in Great Britain, the mushroom isreferred to as "Liberty Cap" in the United States.

Psilocybe semilanceata has the reputation of beingone of the most potent species without generallycausing unwanted physical side effects (also seeChapter 3-1). As indicated in previous chapters,recurrent claims about different types of effectsfrom different psychoactive species should besystematically studied, including comprehensivebiochemical analyses. These research efforts willlikely uncover new biodynamic ingredients.

Another factor that accounts for differenttypes of effects is the variability in levels ofalkaloid content. In the course of casualexperimentation it is also not uncommon for anumber of expectations to become self-fulfilling.The assumption that Psilocybe baeocystis (seeFigure 72, p. 119), a strongly bluing species,causes a comparatively larger number of physicalproblems than other species is undoubtedly rootedin the mushroom's "reputation" as being the onlyPsilocybe species to date responsible for the onlyknown fatality involving Psilocybe baeocystis - achild who died after eating some of thesemushrooms (see Chapter 8 for more details on thisincident).

Psilocybe baeocystis primarily grows ininland areas of the Pacific Northwest, on top ofwood debris and on lawns in parks. It is a speciesthat can often be found and collected on school anduniversity campuses. Psilocybe pelliculosa, amushroom mentioned in previous chapters, is aspecies also known as "Liberty Cap".Macroscopically, it is extremely difficult todistinguish from Psilocybe semilanceata. Unlikethe latter species, however, Psilocybe pelliculosawill grow in forests on wood chips and sawdust.

Beug and Bigwood were able to furnishanalytical proof in support of the claim thatPsilocybe pelliculosa is weaker in its psychotropiceffects than comparable species. Psilocybepelliculosa contains about 30-50% of the amountof psilocybin found in Psilocybe cyanescens (slangnames: Blue wavy, Cyan, Grandote), a speciescommon across the Pacific Northwest. It fruitsprimarily in parks, forming partial fairy rings. Thisspecies did not become popular

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among users until the mid-1970s. species still fruits most abundantly in the fall.

A New Psychoactive Mushroom Mushroom Trips as a Popular Sport

Several additional Psilocybe species havebeen found in the Pacific Northwest, even thoughthe taxonomic classification of most of thesespecies remains inadequate, despite the fact thatmonographs such as those by P. Stamets offer quitedetailed descriptions of the psychotropicmycoflora. In the mid-1970s, Guzman and Ottreported a rather spectacular event concerning thespread of a "new" mushroom species. During thefall of 1972, large numbers of a strongly bluinggilled mushroom with a distinct ring pattern werefound at the University of Washington in Seattle.The fruiting bodies were found growing on barkmulch, which came from a central distributionpoint and which had been spread widely across thecampus by gardeners. Due to the bluing reaction,students at the university assumed that themushroom contained psilocybin, a belief that wasconfirmed later on. The sudden appearance ofmassive numbers of fruiting bodies quicklyinspired students at the university to use themushrooms as a hallucinogen.

In my opinion, it is still uncertain if themushroom really appeared spontaneously, orwhether it fruited on bark debris simply because thesubstance had previously been mixed with spawnderived from fruiting bodies that originatedelsewhere.

In any case, in 1976, the mushrooms werenamed Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman & Ott (slangname: "blue veil" or "stuntzees", (see Figures 54and 71). Today, the species can be found growingon bark and on lawns in parks, on golf courses,football fields and gardens in numbers so large thatit is considered the second most important speciesin terms of usage, after Psilocybe semilanceata. Inaddition, Panaeolus subbalteatus is anotherregionally important mushroom species (slangname: "red cap"), even though its users believe it tobe slightly more poisonous than the Psilocybespecies. Still, the mushroom is used quitefrequently, because it begins to fruit during thespring. The Psilocybe species, on the other hand, donot appear until fall and continue to grow into earlywinter, when temperatures consistently drop belowfreezing, which inhibits further fruiting of thespecies. Under favorable conditions, only Psilocybestuntzii can fruit year-round, even though this

In 1977, J. Ott estimated that severaltens of thousands applied dosages ofpsychotropic mushroom material are harvestedand used each year, particularly in the PacificNorthwest. Despite these quantities, there havenever been reports of fatalities or seriousphysical damage as a consequence of using thePsilocybe or Panaeolus species. Local papersmerely mentioned occasional panic reactionsthat subsided as soon as the acute effects of themushrooms had worn off.

The usage of psychotropic mushrooms inthe United States tends to cluster geographicallyin areas that are considered mushroom Eldorados.For example, the city of Redmond, WA used to beknown as the "bicycle capital". Since 1978,several newspapers have renamed this city the"psilocybin capital".

Since the late 1960s, the usage ofPanaeolus cyanescens and its closest relatives hasbecome fashionable in Hawaii, even though thetaxonomic differentiation of the Panaeolusspecies from each other is extremely difficult.There were initial attempts to preserve the freshmushrooms by freezing them with dry ice (solidcarbon dioxide) for export to the PacificNorthwest and Southern California. Apparently,these entrepreneurs were unaware of the fact thatpsychoactive ingredients will remain stable, aslong as the mushrooms are dried and stored attemperatures below 50'C (122'F). Such exportefforts were soon abandoned, because freezing themushrooms turned them to mushy pulp that wasdifficult to transport. In addition, several localspecies had been discovered in the PacificNorthwest. During the early 1970s, fruiting bodiesof the Panaeolus species preserved in honeybegan to appear on the black market in Hawaiiand, on occasion, in North America. Again, thismethod fell short, because mushrooms could bepreserved for only short periods of time.

Panaeolus subbalteatus grows in severalareas in the Hawaiian Islands, but it is used lessfrequently than other Panaeolus species. Eventhough one often hears about "Hawaiian strains"of Psilocybe cubensis, the species is not native toThe Islands and should grow there only underconditions of artificial cultivation. Any spawnused for cultivation, however, must have been

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isolated from fruiting bodies that originatedelsewhere. In Hawaii, the extent of adversereactions was also limited to a few panicreactions observed in recreational users who hadingested mushrooms of the species Panaeoluscyanescens. In 1972, an apparent fatality wasdefinitely not caused by ingestion ofmushrooms, but instead was most likely theconsequence of a heroin overdose, as reportedby J. Allen, who has researched this incidentextensively.

The legislatures in North America andHawaii do not pay very much attention to theusage of psychoactive mushrooms. Theidentification of species is often quite difficult,so that police enforcement activities primarilytarget misdemeanors such as parking violationsand the willful destruction of fences aroundpastures. The latter is not uncommon duringattempts to force entry into areas wherePsilocybe semilanceata can be found.

In December 1979, the High Court ofBritish Columbia ruled that the CanadianNarcotics law prohibits psilocybin only in itspure form, whereas mushrooms containing thealkaloid as a natural ingredient are exempt fromthe law. This decision seems both realistic andreasonable, considering the substantial,uncontrollable spread of these mushrooms andan ongoing battle against truly addictive drugsthat requires all available efforts and resources.

Even though the extent of prosecution ofdrug law violators in Canada and the U.S. variesfrom state to state, psilocybin-containing mush-rooms are only a minor factor in the overall "waron drugs". In California, however, mushroomcultures are illegal, as well as spore prints (!)from the Psilocybe species. Spore prints,however, are impossible to control. Psilocybecubensis is common across the South, andPanaeolus subbalteatus grows across theSouthwestern U.S., where the mushrooms areused extensively. By one estimate, there were100,000 "Magic Mushroom People" in the stateof California alone, a number likely to be muchhigher today. The demand created by thisgrowing market is probably being met throughcultivation of Psilocybe cubensis. These usersingest psychotropic mushrooms as a form ofrecreation, or incorporate them in the ritualpractice of natural mysticism. Other users prefermushrooms as an aid to meditation or to attaincommunication with the realm of the divine.Regardless of motivation, users tend to leadsecluded, self-sufficient lives in close proximity

with Nature. Across North America, the totalnumber of magic mushroom consumers is likelyclose to one million, quite possibly higher.

By the early 1980s, prominent experts inthe field had estimated that the number ofhallucinogenic mushroom users in the UnitedStates outnumbered LSD users for the first time,a trend that went hand in hand with a rise inenvironmental awareness. In this context it isinteresting to note that the Drug Abuse WarningNetwork (DAWN), which collects data fromthroughout the United States, documented only31 cases of clinical interventions for usage ofpsilocybin-containing mushrooms in 1982. Insome of these cases, the mushrooms were used incombination with other substances, confusing thepharmacological picture. In comparison, LSDwas involved 1,498 times, while marijuana wascited in 5,295 cases. It should be noted that thehigh number of marijuana cases cited appearsinflated and suspect, in light of data from otherstudies.

It is interesting to note that T. Leary'spsilocybin experiments during the early 1960sprovoked severe reactions of a moralistic-puritannature, while medical reports about prolongedpsychoses and other such side effects did notappear until the "LSD era" some years later.

North America's mushrooms offer manyopportunities for additional taxonomic work andmany more still remain to be discovered. Toillustrate, a new mushrooms species was recentlyreported from Oregon. The mushroom, Psilocybeazurescens Stamets & Gartz is unusually largeand very potent due to its high psilocybincontent. North America's rich mycoflora,particularly in regions of wet climates in theeastern and midwestern United States is wideopen for further research efforts that may wellyield valuable and amazing new results.

As early as 1909, Murrill described"Inocybe infida", a mushroom with "narcotic"effects from New York. In 1911, Ford named"Inocybe infelix" as a species that also causedstrange effects, without inducing symptoms ofmuscarine poisoning. These descriptionsimmediately bring to mind the psilocybin-producing fibreheads, even though visionaryexperiences are not expressly mentioned.

In the future, we should expect anincrease in usage of local, psychoactive speciesfrom locations across the U.S. and Canada.

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CHAPTER 7.2

MYCOPHILIA IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

Compared to the time of Wasson andHeim's discovery, recent decades have broughtsignificant changes to several regions of Mexico interms of how local Indians relate to thepsychotropic Psilocybe species. In many remoteparts of the country, mushroom cults still exist intheir specific contemporary forms which combineChristian views with elements from pagan and pre-Christian Nature religions.

By contrast, in other parts of the country,mushroom rituals have fallen into disuse in thewake of interaction with Mexico's "modern life"and its tourism industry. When Guzmaninvestigated the taxonomy and geographicdistribution of Psilocybe aztecorum Heim in 1978,he noted that several active "curanderas" had beenthe focal point of sacred mushroom worship 20years earlier. Today, the next generation of Indiansno longer ingest the mushrooms and consider thehallucinogenic species to be nothing but a populartrading commodity for Western tourists.

Starting in the 1960s, large numbers ofyoung people from industrialized nations("hippies") began to visit the centers of mushroomworship as tourists, favoring the state of Oaxaca.They came mostly from the United States, andinitially their main destination was the village ofHuautla de Jiminez, to visit Maria Sabina, whoguided R.G. Wasson during his first mushroomsession in 1955. To the extent that magicmushrooms have been labeled "fool's mushrooms"or "joker's mushrooms" in Europe, it is interestingto note here that Maria Sabina herself repeatedlyreferred to the mushrooms as "clowns" and calledherself "chief of the clowns" or "lord of theclowns". In Mexico, magic mushrooms are alsoknown as "mushrooms of pure laughter".

Today we know that this run on Mexico'smushrooms helped destroy the cultural identity ofthe native Indians, causing discontent and risingcrime rates in several villages. Self-appointed"curanderas", with no traditional roots, presidedover mass ceremonies with magic mushrooms.

Participants who had panic reactions did little toease tensions among the local population. Finally,the police and the army were called in to put anend to the resulting turmoil. Mushroom tourismin Mexico dropped off rapidly, especially aftersimilar species were discovered in othercountries. Despite legal prohibitions, however,various Psilocybe species are still being sold totourists in some areas of the country today. Thisphenomenon is not limited to Mexico. In the mid-1970s, Lowy reported from Guatemala thatIndian children near the capital city were offeringPsilocybe mexicana Heim for sale to foreigners, atrading practice that has been observed in otherparts of the country as well.

Experts on bluing gilled mushrooms, whotravelled to South America and the Caribbean,discovered several psychotropic species (e.g.Panaeolus cyanescens in Jamaica), even beforemycological research established the existence ofthese species. According to those few scientificpublications on taxonomic identity, the two mostcommonly used species are Psilocybe cubensisand Panaeolus cyanescens. Around 1970, touristswho had previously been looking for Psilocybespecies in Mexico learned that they are abundantamong Colombia's mycoflora as well.Consequently, knowledge about thesemushrooms spread quickly among Colombianyoungsters, possibly as a result of CentralAmerica's Indian tradition. Thousands set out insearch of these species in and around their areasof residence. Special communes were formed,situated in idyllic regions of the AndesMountains. The most famous among them wasknown as La Miel ("honey"). Psilocybe cubensisand the Panaeolus species were also found to becommon across those regions of Amazonia whereColombia, Peru and Brazil share commonborders. The archaeological park at San Augustinnear Bogota has been dubbed "heart of the magicmushroom land". These species have also beenused in Peru. During the 1980s, road side signsproclaiming "No To San Ysidro Drugs!" were acommon sight. The slogans referred to Psilocybe

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cubensis under an old name. South America'sproblems, however, cannot be solely blamed onthe ingestion of indigenous, non-lethalmushrooms. Socio-economic problems arerooted in poverty and destitution, epidemics,civil warlike conditions in some parts, as well asthe rampages of the cocaine mafia. Today,Argentina and Brazil are two countries wheremagic mushroom use is still common. In 1975,Pollock reported the practice of mixing a drinkfrom milk, honey, bananas and magicmushrooms.

In terms of interdisciplinary research inCentral and South America, there remains the

vast challenge of uncovering additional cluesabout ritual usage among early cultures, coupledwith efforts to trace and analyze more recentkinds of uses. Chapter 3.5 already included onehistoric account of magic mushroom use severalcenturies ago. A large number of golden pendantsin a variety of mushroom shapes have been foundin Colombia, suggesting that magic mushroomshave been used there for centuries. At the sametime, research into the taxonomy and chemistryof South American psychotropic species hasbarely just begun.

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CHAPTER 7.3

THE AUSTRALIAN MYCOLFORA ATTRACTS ATTENTION

In 1934 J. Cleland publicized the existenceof 12 mushroom species of the genus Psilocybe inSouth Australia. Up to that time, there had been noaccounts about psychotropic intoxications from thefifth continent.

Cleland was probably the most renownedAustralian mycologist of the 20th century. As earlyas 1927 he had already described a new speciesnamed Psilocybe subaeruginosa. This mushroomgrows in New South Wales, Victoria and SouthAustralia and turns bluish-green with age or inresponse to pressure. During the 1940s severalaccounts surfaced which detailed a series of"hysterical psychoses" caused by Panaeolus ovatusCke. & Mass. (also see Chapter 3.3).

In 1958, Aberdeen and Jones described thegeographic distribution of Psilocybe cubensisacross the southeastern valleys of Queensland andNew South Wales. They speculated that this wasthe mushroom responsible for the cases ofintoxication, not the Panaeolus species. Theyproposed this hypothesis, because the mushroomsin question were thought to have beenchampignons, who resemble the fleshy Psilocybespecies much more closely than any of thePanaeolus species. In addition, the Psilocybespecies had been described as being much morecommon in the area. Under wet climate conditions,the Psilocybe species can be found growing inabundance on cattle dung, especially along thesunshine coast of Queensland, in the open valleysaround Brisbane and in areas that used to be rainforests, but have now been transformed intopastures. It is quite likely that the species wasbrought into the country by its early settlers. Itwasn't until the early 20th century that land inAustralia's subtropical and tropical regions wasconverted into pastures.

Today, it is generally thought that themysterious Panaeolus ovatus species was, inreality, Panaeolus cyanescens.

It wasn't until the early 1970s that the latterspecies was identified. Soon after, the Panaeolusspecies were recognized as being very commonthroughout Northern and Southern

Australia. Despite the widespread geographicdistribution of psychotropic species in Australia,there were only a few efforts to publishinformation about their chemical composition. In1970, Picker and Rickards reported the isolationof 0.45 % of psilocybin from dried fruiting bodiesof Psilocybe subaeruginosa, but failed to find anypsilocin in that sample. Later on, other authorsreported only about one-tenth of this amount ofpsilocybin, a number that I believe to be too low,considering reports about the mushrooms' strongpsychoactive effects.

Psilocybin was also found in Australiansamples of Psilocybe cubensis (see Figure 2, p.5), while Panaeolus cyanescens was reported tocontain psilocybin, along with even higher levelsof psilocin and serotonin as well.

Starting in the late 1960s, popular,widespread usage of psychotropic mushroomsbegan to catch on in Australia. At the same time,these accounts of mushroom use were the onlycomprehensive reports that originated in a countryother than Mexico.

In the summer of 1969, a 4,000-hectare-region near the coast of Queensland gainednotoriety because of its Psilocybe cubensis cropthat grew there after the rainy season. Interestedcollectors flocked to the area in droves. Mediareports at the time gave the impression that themushrooms were an entirely new discovery,completely disregarding Central Americantraditions. Psilocybe cubensis conquered the blackmarket, where the mushrooms were sold for aboutU.S.$1 per fruiting body. In the wake of anabove-average rainy season, the species fruited soabundantly that special transportation companieswere founded for delivery of the mushrooms toAustralia's large cities.

However, even here the mushrooms didnot grow in heaven: the epidemic subsidedsomewhat, and the usage of psychotropicmushrooms became endemic across all ofAustralia. On May 8, 1971, the governor of theconservative state of Queensland prohibited

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possession of Psilocybe cubensis and the speciesfell under the same legal guidelines as Cannabissativa (hemp) and Papaver somniferum (opiumpoppies).

Still, usage of the Psilocybe speciescontinued, despite harsh penalties for possessionand use (a total of 74 individuals were sentencedin 1972, and 27 in 1973).

Also, those interested in mycological fieldresearch continued to study Psilocybesubaeruginosa and even discovered the species inthe northern part of the country. Like Psilocybecubensis, this species is also known by thecolloquial name of "gold top", whereas Panaeoluscyanescens, a species that wasn't discovered untillater, acquired the nickname "blue meanies"within the counterculture (an expression thatrefers to a collection of several fruiting bodies). Itis likely that these mushrooms were named afterthe small blue men featured in the classicpsychedelic Beatles movie "Yellow Submarine",which was released in 1968.

In colloquial Australian English,"mushies" is a commonly used short form for"mushrooms".

Next to fresh mushrooms, "processed"preparations also began to appear on the blackmarket: In Hobart, Tasmania, for example, driedand ground up mushrooms packaged in gelatinecapsules were sold for $6 a fruiting body. Theavailability of mushroom-based hallucinogenicsubstances drastically reduced the market share ofLSD, which was generally a lot more expensive.By 1972, LSD had almost disappeared from theblack market.

Based on Southcott's (1974) writings, it islikely that the unpleasant taste of fresh specimensof Psilocybe cyanescens was the main reason forthe processing of the fruiting bodies.

Bizarre Reactions

Considering the widespread use ofpsychoactive mushrooms in Australia, there wereonly a handful of reports about medicalcomplications, amounting to only minorcomplaints from a few individuals. Symptomswere almost exclusively limited to panic reactionsdue to excessively high doses. These reactionswere precipitated by bizarre psychic sensations,which the person was unable to integrate. One

17 year old teenager, for example, developed apanic reaction when she suddenly felt like a bananathat was being peeled (Southcott). In all cases,symptoms disappeared within several hours as thepsilocybin wore off. While a few cases includedcomplaints such as stomach cramps and kidneypain, these symptoms are not characteristic of thePsilocybe species and their relatives. It is likely,that other, poisonous, mushrooms, such asmuscarine-producing species, were to blame forthese syndromes.

I would like to close this chapter with areport from an Australian mushroom lover, whoillustrates the reasons and circumstances ofpsychoactive mushroom use in Australia(Southcott)

Report about the effects of a "gold top "mushroom:

The mushrooms which were prepared in abroth and boiled for about two minutes may be usedto induce an extremely powerful hallucinatory trip.When eaten raw, the effects can take up to twohours to come on, but taken in soup form they canbegin to occur within five to ten minutes of beingeaten. The first noticeable effect is a tinglingsensation from head to toe, followed by extremewarmth or cold throughout the body. Mildhallucinations begin to occur within a quarter of anhour and become stronger as the trip reaches itspeak. This peak can be a terrifying experience forthe novice; individuals may not know what toexpect and may believe they have gone insane. Inmany cases, this . "insanity" can also bepleasurable and can cause a person to lose all fearof things which had previously seemed impossibleto bear. Everything material and otherwise is laidout in front of you for examination and nothing isbeyond human comprehension. In my opinion andexperience, these mushrooms, when used bypersons capable of understanding the tremendouspower contained within them, can only bebeneficial in their effects.

I have found them (Psilocybesubaeruginosa - Southcott) growing in flatbottomedvalleys and on gentle slopes. They thrive in moist,grassy soil and can range in size from a quarter ofan inch up to two or three inches in diametre. Inregard to an overdose of these mushrooms, thisuser feels that it is not really an accurate term forthis condition. It is more an extreme fear of certainthings or people

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that causes 'freak-outs ". The trip can changefrom one of fear and hysteria to one of pure ecstasyin a matter of a second, if a person is treatedcorrectly. The police, in my opinion, are the causefor more bad experiences than all other factorscombined. I myself have almost lost all fear ofeverything I previously dreaded. I intend tocontinue the use of these mushrooms and seewhere it leads me, whether it be a good (lawful)or bad thing....

Description: The mushrooms (Psilocbeaeruginosa Southcott) have caps colored yellowto dark brown on top, and cream-colored toalmost yellow underneath. If picked fresh, thestem and parts of the cap will turn green and blueor sometimes violet. This discoloration does notoccur until after the mushrooms have beenpicked.

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CHAPTER 7.4

EUROPEAN CUSTOMS

The first report ever published in ascientific European journal about usage ofPsilocybe semilanceata in Europe was written byM. Carter and appeared in New Scientist inSeptember 1976.

"Mushrooms Are Mushrooms"

The mushrooms quite suddenly emergedin the spotlight of public attention in 1976, whenJudge Blomefield of Great Britain's High Courthanded down a verdict of "not guilty" in the trialof a man accused of possession of psilocybin inthe form of dried fruiting bodies from the speciesPsilocybe semilanceata. According to Carter'sreport, the acquittal was justified as follows:"Psilocybin is a chemical and mushrooms aremushrooms". In the wake of this decision,however, a few individuals in Britain werenonetheless sentenced for possession ofpsilocybin, because the British legal system isbased on the principles of common law, whichmeans that the High Court decision was notnecessarily binding in cases that went to trial inlower courts after the man had won his acquittal inthe High Court.

Despite its Celtic ancestry and the practiceof Nature religions, England is among thosecountries whose population has traditionally beenquite mycophobic in its attitudes towardmushrooms, which have always been thought of aspoisonous, slimy and moldy. It is therefore quiteremarkable that these values appear to be changingwith the current younger generation. Could it bethat England's Celtic heritage is making areappearance after centuries of dormancy?

In 1978 , C. Hyde and his collaboratorsreported several cases of voluntary intoxicationswith Psilocybe semilanceata from a medicalperspective, describing symptoms experienced bymushroom collectors that range from typicallyvisionary experiences to the manifestation ofacutely delirious states. The authors emphasized

that the mushrooms were well-known within thehippie subculture of Manchester. Thirty to fortyPsilocybe semilanceata mushrooms wereconsidered an appropriate dose to attain a fullyhallucinatory state.

According to British users, the effects ofPsilocybe semilanceata include intense visualswithout any of the negative feelings that may becaused by LSD. British colloquial names for themushroom are quite poetic, such as:

- Liberty Cap- Magic Mushroom- Blue Legs- Pixie Caps

Contrary to common opinion, "libertycap" is not a new name, since M.C. Cookementioned it in his writings that date back to the19th century.

Due to the widespread distribution of thisPsilocybe species across England, particularlyScotland and Wales, Psilocybe semilanceataappears to be more popular in England than in anyother European country, with the possibleexception of Norway. This is an opinion echoed innumerous scientific and medical articles publishedon the subject in Great Britain. In my opinion,these publications contain the most detaileddescriptions of casual use of psilocybincontainingmushrooms species by laypersons anywhere in theworld.

One analysis by P.R. Mills and hiscollaborators described seven Scottish patientswith symptoms caused by ingestion of Psilocybesemilanceata mushrooms during the fall of 1978,when the species fruited abundantly in theGlasgow area after heavy rainfall. Four of theseven men had eaten no less than one hundredmushrooms each, which meant they had takenabout 50 mg of pure psilocybin a person. It is notsurprising, then, that such dosages should causevisions that lasted several hours, along withmarked somatic symptoms.

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Mega Mushroom Festival

While there is talk about "hippies" in thereport from Manchester, a 1980 newspaper articlefrom Wales describes a "new kind of gypsy",whose exploits included a mushroom celebrationnear Cardiff with 100 participants. The occasionwas the discovery of yet another bumper crop ofPsilocybe semilanceata in that area. Nineteen ofthe revelers felt so seriously ill they had to seekmedical treatment.

It appears that in the early days ofmushroom usage in Great Britain, massiveamounts of Psilocybe mushrooms were consumedon several occasions, which caused a highernumber of panic reactions than elsewhere in theworld.

However, it is clear from articles publishedin medical journals that these cases were merely"the tip of the iceberg", that is, they were a smallgroup of users whose reactions to the acute stagesof mushroom intoxication attracted attentionbecause they included clinically relevantsymptoms such as states of pathological depressionwith no recognition of surroundings.

In an attempt to describe patterns of usageof the Psilocybe species in the Tayside area nearDundee, Scotland, N.R. Peden and hiscollaborators found that the typical user was muchyounger there than in Manchester or Wales. Theauthors examined 27 patients, whose ages rangedfrom 12 to 24 years. I have previously citedaccounts about accidental intoxications indicatingthat children can have abnormal reactions topsilocybin, such as cramps or loss ofconsciousness. Teenage use of hallucinogens andother psychoactive substances, including alcoholand nicotine can have disastrous consequences.

The results of a survey at two Scottishschools of 59 children aged 14 to 15 years revealedthat 66% of them had already heard about themushrooms' effects. Also, a paper published byR.E. Young and his research team in 1982 foundthat the mushroom users in the Glasgow area as agroup are quite young. In 1981, these researcherstreated 49 children and adults aged 12 to 28 years.These authors are correct in pointing out that themushrooms cannot be eradicated due to their largearea of distribution. At the same time, however,they demand that fungicides be sprayed onmushroom

fruiting areas that are easily accessible!

This is a baffling and incomprehensibleproposition - to acutely endanger all residents of acertain area by exposing them to poison, simplybecause there were a few mild cases of mushroomintoxications, with symptoms that soondisappeared. If anyone is to blame, it is the usersfor their carelessness and recklessness.Fortunately, these crypto-schizophrenic proposalswere never implemented.

On the other hand, there are interestingstatistics available from the poison center inLondon, about reported cases, where medicalattention was required following ingestion ofPsilocybe semilanceata. The numbers belowshow how many people received therapeutictreatment in Great Britain in a given year:

1978 331979 471980 961981 142

The average age of the mushroom collectors wasbetween 15 and 19 years. Reports mostly came induring September and October of each year,which corresponds to the mushroom's fruitingperiod. Cases that were reported during othermonths of the year had been caused by ingestionof dried mushroom material.

In 36% of these individuals, themushrooms caused significant visual distortionsand visions. Five people acted aggressivelywithout experiencing perceptual alterations.Dosage varied from half a mushroom (effects?) toup to two or three pounds. If the latter amountshave been reported truthfully, those individualsingested about 1 to 1.5 g of pure psilocybin,assuming an alkaloid content of 0.1 % in freshmushrooms. However, in cases where wholemushrooms had generally been eaten according tothe Mexican tradition, liquids removed viastomach pumps largely contained wholemushrooms. Failure to carefully chew themushrooms before swallowing means that only afraction of the available amount of alkaloids isextracted from the mushrooms and absorbed bythe body.

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Panic Reactions

In cases when intoxications were causedby eating 'normal' amounts of mushrooms and theingestion of potentially deadly species could beexcluded, pumping the patients' stomachs turnedout to be a procedure that was both too drastic aswell as unnecessary. In younger, hyper-suggestible patients, the procedure can precipitateextremely aggressive behavior. In addition, itoften doesn't work, because the mushrooms tendto clog the pumping apparatus.

Therefore, panic reactions after ingestionof Psilocybe semilanceata is a condition that, insome cases, may be aggravated or even inducedby improper treatment of the patient at hospitalsand clinics. After evaluation of the statistics onPsilocybe semilanceata usage in Great Britain, J.Francis and V.S.G. Murray emphasize that therehas not been a single fatality among some 318poisoning cases - in fact, no severe somaticsymptoms were noted, nor have there beenincidents of misidentification of the mushroomspecies. According to the authors, intoxicationcan be a quite unpleasant experience for theindividual. Panic reactions pose the onlysignificant hazard, which may endanger theindividuals as well as their surroundings for theduration of the mushrooms' effects.

As an ideal treatment, they proposed thatpatients be moved to a darkened, beautiful room,and that they be watched until the effects havesubsided. If necessary, tranquilizers such asdiazepam should be administered.

R. Watling mentions a non-fatal case inScotland, where Inocybe geophylla (Sow. & Fr.)Kumm., a mescaline-containing species, had beenmistaken for the Psilocybe species.

In the 1980s, Psilocybe semilanceata wasnamed as the mushroom species that caused byfar the largest number of intoxications in GreatBritain. Today, usage of this psychotropic speciesin that country is not quite as popular anymore asit was 10 years ago. Also, mushroom eaters areno longer prosecuted.

By comparison, a short report by amedical student from Manchester was notconvincing. The report claimed that a 24-year oldpatient suffered from severe depression withsomatic side effects for three months ("persistentpsychiatric symptoms") and that these symptoms

had been induced by ingestion of Psilocybesemilanceata. At the time, the patient wasexperiencing personal stress and had also takenother substances as well. Despite the widedistribution of psychoactive mushrooms aroundthe world, there have been no reports of similarepisodes.

The usage of Psilocybe semilanceata inNorway was first described during the fall of1977, in Sandnes, near the Rogaland area. Up tothat time, the Norwegian literature had depictedPsilocybe semilanceata as merely a small, inediblemushroom known to grow in grass interspersedwith other, similar, species. Apparently, theexperiences in England and the United Statesinspired the use of these mushrooms in Norway,as well as in other European countries. However,it is also possible that a report published in 1976about the discovery of psilocybin in Norwegiancollections contributed to subsequent usage of themushrooms.

Knowledge about the mushrooms spreadquickly around Norway, especially in the fjordareas, were the species fruits most abundantly.Daily and weekly papers as well as undergroundmagazines dealt with the mushrooms at length.Only a small number of panic reactions wereknown to have occurred in Norway, with someindividuals requiring temporary clinical attention.Nonetheless, in December 1981, the mushroomspecies was classified under Norwegian narcoticslaw as an "absolutely forbidden substance". Thesame classification applies to the potentiallydangerously addictive drugs of the heroine type,as well as to the pure hallucinogens, such as LSD,mescaline and psilocybin, all of which arepharmacologically completely different from anyof the heroine-type drugs. By contrast, Figure 57illustrates that other European nations haveattitudes similar to those found in BritishColumbia, which form the basis for my ownanalytical work with mushroom materials.

Compared to Norway, there is lessinformation about usage of Psilocybesemilanceata from other countries. The year 1981has been named as the starting date of usage inFinland; by 1984, there had only been one patientwho required medical attention.

There are additional countries where themushrooms are being used and collected, more orless sporadically: The Netherlands, Austria,

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Denmark, Sweden, Belgium, Germany,Switzerland, and recently Russia near the St.Petersburg area. The mushrooms have even beenfound in Siberia. In some areas, where themushrooms thrive in abundance, a morecomprehensive mode of usage can be observed,without attracting much additional attention overa longer period of time.

Costly measures, such as the deployment ofhelicopters over pastures in the Jura Mountains ofSwitzerland to flush out mushroom collectors haverarely been used and were quickly abandoned.

Switzerland is another country wherePsilocybe cubensis is being cultivated and usedwithout attracting much attention. Below is anaccount provided by a Swiss friend about his firstever experience with this species:

Intense, kaleidoscope-like colors are beinggenerated. I begin to dive in and out of otherrealities, followed by the painful loss of ego, deathand life. Suddenly I find myself inside a woodenbox. My body is a black mass full of low-level pain.I have the black plague. I was put inside the box,because I was thought to be dead, but I am stillalive. I am being carried to and placed on top ofcart so that I can be transported to be burned. Fewothers are being given such a box. At first Iam in despair, but then I know that the end is near,anyway. Death is a liberation for me. Iremember: I see my house in the city center ofMetz, where I used to live until now. Then came theplague. My years of selfish dedication of helpingsick, degenerate, stinking, hungry and dying people.

I provide comfort and companionship, aswell as medication that remains ineffective. Icontinuously make house calls, there is no end insight. I become ill myself. At first I deny thisfact, but now I am inside this wooden box, in a stateof semi-consciousness. I know that the end is here.

I know that I am a physician namedClaudius Vinzen and that the year is 1427.

I wake up in the reality of winter, 1990.Metz, where is Metz? Later on, I locate the city on amap of France and until this day, I have been tryingto verify if this physician lived there during theMiddle Ages. I am reminded of my long years ofprofessional work with criminal and drug-addictedyoungsters. I sense the common elements ofthese two realities (karma?), the sacrifices ofselfless helping.

Such deeply moving experiences donot appear to be unusual (compare to reports ofexperiences with Psilocybe semilanceata inChapter 3.1) and should always be studied in allseriousness.

Only France seems to engage inelaborate activities designed to locate collectorsof psychotropic mushrooms. Despite its grandmycological traditions, France is a country thathas a rather absurd prohibition against theexhibition of Psilocybe and Stropharia species(European Stropharia species do not producepsilocybin) at scientific conventions. As aconsequence, French mycologists have beenavoiding the use of the genus Psilocybe.Nowadays, at mycological conventions,Psilocybes are exhibited under the old name ofGeophila (Quelet), which appears to have gottenaround the problem of breaking the law.

According to my personal commu-nications with mycologists, the usage ofPsilocybe semilanceata in Italy began in about1980/1981 and has been rising steadily sincethen. At the same time, there have been noclinically relevant cases, nor any legislativeaction on the matter. Towards the late 1980s,usage of psychoactive Psilocybe species began inthe former Czechoslovakia, for instance, aroundthe region of Brno. It appears that Psilocybebohemica is used more often in this country thanPsilocybe semilanceata, as the former species isquite common there.

Very little is known about European usageof mushroom species from other genera. In themid-1980s, Spanish youngsters near Barcelonawere observed using Panaeolus mushrooms.

The well-known booklet authored by Ossand Oeric about the cultivation of Psilocybecubensis has been translated into several Europeanlanguages and published in different countries. Itis almost certain that the book is being used as acultivation guide in Europe, however, there are noavailable data about the success rate of theseexperiments. In many cases, commonly occurringcontaminants probably prevent fruiting of thissubtropical species on rye substrate.

I won't risk making predictions about theextent of future usage of indigenous Europeanpsychoactive mushroom species, nor am I able topredict which species may or may not gain in

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popularity. However, it is possible to speculatethat the increased geographic distribution ofspecies such as Inocybe aeruginascens andPsilocybe cyanescens may lead to more

unintentional intoxications, which, in turn, mayresult in creating a generally deeper knowledgebase about the attributes of these mushrooms.

Figure 57 - A letter from the "Central Bureau of Substance Abuse" in the former EastGermany, detailing some legal restrictions on psychoactive plants. At the time (1983),

Psilocybe mexicana was not a controlled substance and no restrictions applied to its use.

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Figure 58 - Woodcut entitled "Cooking Witches" by Baldung Grien (1514). Such cultural practices undoubtedlyincluded familiarity with psychotropic mushrooms, even though such knowledge was considered pagan at the time.The practice of "witchcraft" was maligned and accused witches were persecuted, tortured and executed, as theChristian Inquisition was desperate to suppress pagan beliefs and wisdom.

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CHAPTER 7.5

JAPANESE EXPERIMENTATION

Mushroom species containing psilocybinare also found in Japan. Tales about the infamous"Laughing Mushroom" date as far back as theMiddle Ages. An account from the 11th centurybecame famous:

Several lumberjacks from Kyoto got lost inthe woods for reasons that remain unknown.Suddenly they encountered four or five Buddhistnuns, whose behavior did not at all conform toexpectations: instead of immersing themselves intotheir inner selves in a quiet quest for Nirvana, thesearch for Absolute Nothingness, these daughtersof Buddha were found dancing and laughing. Itturned out that the nuns had also gotten lost in thewoods and dealt with their hunger by eating somedelicious mushrooms. The faithful nuns soondiscovered, however, that they could not stopdancing and laughing. The lumberjacks'sstomachs, in the meantime, had also begun togrowl and, thinking that what was good for thenuns was good enough for them, the lumberjacksate some of the mushrooms as well. Soon after,they also succumbed to overwhelming fits oflaughter and the urge to dance.... The linguisticmoral of the story: since that time, the mushroomsin question have been referred to in Japanese as

- "maitake" (Dancing Mushrooms)and later on

- "waraitake" (Laughing Mushrooms).

For a long time, the species thought to beresponsible for these symptoms were identified inthe mycological literature as Panaeoluspapilionaceus and as Gymnopilus spectabilis("giant laughing mushroom"). However, today weknow that the former is a species from Europe andNorth America which does not contain anypsychoactive substances, while even Japaneseauthors have been unable, since 1980, to confirmthe existence of psilocybin and its derivatives inthe latter Gymnopilus species. Only inactivesubstances have been found in Gymnopilusspectabilis.

In Japan, the investigation of these

mushrooms has a long tradition: There isevidence that mushrooms have been cultivated inJapan for no less than 2,000 years, by collectingnaturally grown mycelia of Lentinus edodes(Berk.) Singer and transferring onto pieces ofwood selected to serve as new substrates.

Incidentally, literary sources from Chinaalso attest to knowledge about mushrooms fromthat country, where such mushrooms were said tobe the cause of a (temporary) "disease of drylaughter".

Still, the reports about an irresistible urgeto dance constitutes a rather unusual effect ofpsilocybin, from our current point of view. Whilepsilocybin is initially known to cause fits oflaughter, this phase is generally followed by astate of relaxation and a drop in levels of physicalactivity. It is likely that, in this case, medievalJapanese mentality was a cultural factor thatmodified the specific expression of an alteredstate of consciousness.

Aside from the two disputed mushroomspecies mentioned above, several psychoactivePsilocybe species can be found in Japan. There areseveral known cases of accidental ingestion thatoccurred during the 20th century, resulting inpsilocybin syndromes without inducing fits ofdancing.

For example, in 1932, S. Imai describedcases of intoxications from 1929 and 1931 whichinvolved his newly classified species Strophariacaerulescens. Later on, the species was namedStropharia venenata Imai, which grows on top ofwood and dung. Today, it is being classified withinthe genus Psilocybe as a close relative of Psilocybecubensis.

Imai mentions an event that occurred onJune 21, 1929: A 43-year-old woman collectedabout 13 oz. of a type of mushroom that sheerroneously thought to be honey mushrooms(Armillaria mellea). The following day, sheprepared a tasty mushroom meal and served it toher family. As family members began to notice theeffects, they immediately went to see a doctor, whodetermined that the woman was experiencing the

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most potent effects: Her stomach was pumpedwithout delay and laxatives were administered, butshe still had muscle twitches, followed byhallucinations and a comatose (?) state. The son,who had eaten the soup only, experiencedhallucinations as well, because the cooking processhad served to extract the water-soluble compoundsfrom the mushrooms.

No Danger from Psilocybes in Japan

Unfortunately, Singer and Smithmistakenly cited these incidents in their (1958)monograph about the Psilocybe genus as examplesof the mushrooms species' fatal effects. For thatreason, this species was unjustly branded fordecades in the literature as a highly dangerouspoisonous mushroom.

There are other psychoactive mushroomspecies that grow in Japan, such as the bluingspecies Psilocybe subcaerulipes Hongo andPsilocybe argentipes Yokoyama. These species alsocaused intoxications in three people, who mistookthe mushrooms for the honey mushroom. Thesecases brought about the isolation of psilocybin incrystalline form from dried fruiting bodies of thespecies, as well as recognition of the species' widearea of distribution. In 1973, Yokoyama publishedthe results from systematic experimentation withPsilocybe argentipes. No "urge to dance" wasnoted in these investigations as well. Below aresome excerpts from his research protocols:

J.H. (a 24-year-old male) ingested fourcooked mushrooms at night, after a meal (!), andthen ate another three fresh mushrooms 30 minuteslater. This was followed by regurgitation, and 45minutes later, he started to sweat profusely all overhis head and body. His pulse rate and breathingwere accelerated, but slowed down later on. Helaid down and experienced visual

hallucinations, which caused him to panic and torun a distance of about 1,200 ft. to consult thenearest doctor. The physician noted widely dilatedpupils, and proceeded to have the patient'sstomach pumped and then prescribed laxatives.Three hours later, the abnormal state had largelysubsided; by the next morning, there was noevidence of any other side effects.

M.K. (a 22-year-old male) ate just onefresh mushroom, which had no effects at all.

K .Y. (a 31-year-old male) ate fivemushrooms. Regurgitation occurred 30 minutesafter ingestion, followed by sweating around thehead and body; his extremities appeared to beslightly paralyzed. This paralysis persisted foranother three hours. During this time, the subjecthad great difficulties handling a pen for writing,his mood was depressed and he experiencedhallucinations, such as colorful lights floodingdown from the sky. By the following morning, allof these effects had dissipated. The fresh fruitingbodies were bitter, a taste that disappeared afterthe mushrooms had been cooked in water.

The above experiments are ratheramateurish, and the descriptions of results areheavily influenced by a simplistic perspectivewhich assumes that the mushrooms'spharmacological effects proceed along a single,narrow track. Still, these accounts demonstratethat comparable dosages of Japanese mushroomspecies have psychotropic effects similar to thosecaused by Psilocybe species found on othercontinents.

Much work still remains to be done in theareas of phytochemistry and taxonomy before thebody of knowledge about psychotropic mushroomspecies in Japan can grow to become adequate.The geographic distribution and ingredients of theJapanese Panaeolus species must also be studiedfurther. For instance, Panaeolus subbalteatus isone of the species that are growing on severalJapanese islands today.

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CHAPTER 7.6

INTOXICATIONS AND THE OLDEST KNOWNMUSHROOM CULT IN AFRICA

So far, the mycoflora of the Africancontinent has been studied only peripherally andremains largely unknown. During the late 1980s,Italian mycologist G. Samorini and TerenceMcKenna, working independently, found evidencefor the oldest known mushroom cult in Africa.Their discoveries were not just sensational, butmost surprising as well. On the other hand, itreally shouldn't come as a surprise that the oldesttraces of human contact with mushrooms werefound on the very continent known as the cradle ofhumanity.

10,000 Years Old

From 9,000 to 7,000 years ago, the area ofthe Sahara - between Tassili (Southern Algeria),Acacus (Libya) and Ennedi (Chad) - waspopulated by human beings who createdmagnificent rock drawings, a pictorial legacy thatpreserved for posterity impressive images ofeveryday life. These pictures tell about a timewhen the Sahara was still a blooming garden, atime when no one even suspected that processes oferosion and desolation, starting about 3,500 B.C.,would turn the area into a desert quite hostile tohuman life.

The rock drawings date from as far backas 10,000 B.C. up to the present. Among thedrawings from the Stone Age (7,000-5,000 B.C.),there are those described as typical of the so-called"round head phase". They include pictures ofpasture animals as well as evergreen anddeciduous trees. On top of a Sahara plateau, at analtitude of 6,500 ft., there exist pictures ofmythical beings with anthropomorphic andzoomorphic attributes which are reminiscent ofearly Mexican images: many scenes depict tinyhorned dancers alongside mushrooms. Deities withmasks and horns are seen holding mushrooms intheir hands; sometimes the mushrooms are shownattached directly to body parts. In addition, thoseStone Age artists created

images of anthropomorphic beings withmushroom-like heads. There are many otherindications pointing toward the existence of acomprehensive mushroom cult.

Among the most striking renditions atTin-Tazarift, Tassili District (Algeria) is a pictureof masked anthropomorphic beings engaged inecstatic dancing. (See Figure 5, p. 8). This figure,"Anthropomorphic Beings Engaged in MushroomDance", includes several dashed lines, which aremost interesting, because they connect themushroom with the center of the head. At thesame time, these lines represent a flow of energy,maybe even the mushrooms' influence on thehuman soul. This picture is clearly indicative ofpsychotropic mushroom use. It seems quiteremarkable that, as early as 9,000 - 7,000 yearsago, the head was apparently considered to be theseat of consciousness. By contrast, four or fivemillennia later, during the European era ofclassical antiquity, the brain's role was merelythought to be similar to that of a kind of cooler.Other rock drawings also depict mushrooms asbeing mythologically linked with fish.

These images, then, furnish powerfulevidence for the usage of psychoactivemushrooms within a mystical-religious frame-work. The rock drawings consistently show twokinds of mushroom shapes: one of them resemblesPsilocybe semilanceata, in that the caps are drawnwith an acute umbo on top, while the other shaperepresents larger mushrooms with a habitus muchlike that of the Amanita or Stropharia species.

Despite their age, the rock drawings'colors have retained brilliant hues. Pictures ofmushrooms were drawn in white as well as severalshades of ochre. Also, a few mushrooms weredrawn in blue colors. While this is the exception, itmay well be a representation of the so-calledbluing phenomenon.

In Nature, these colors are associatedwith the bluing Psilocybe and Panaeolus species.These mushrooms could have grown on several

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substrates, such as fallen twigs and raw compost,grounds littered with the remains from evergreenand deciduous trees or dung left behind by pastureanimals. Among the mushroom species that mayhave grown in the area thousands of years ago, themost likely candidates are relatives of Psilocybecubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens (dung-inhabiting species), Psilocybe semilanceata (anitrophilic species) as well as Psilocybecyanescens, a species that grows on top of rawcompost.

Considering the impressive nature ofexisting historic evidence, the obvious questionwould seem to be whether any of these species cancurrently be found in Africa, where the cradle ofmankind is located.

African Species Related toPsilocybe Cyanescens?

Interestingly, on October 24, 1912, R.Maire first collected several specimens of bluing,dark-spored mushrooms which he found growingon raw compost underneath some cedar trees inAlgeria, at Chrea Pass near the city of Blida southof Algiers. He collected additional specimens everyyear up until 1926 and published his findings in1928, naming the species Hypholoma cyanescensnov. spec..

Later on, G. Malencon classified a numberof similar specimens from his own samplescollected in the Central Atlas Mountains (Morocco)as belonging to this species. In 1973, Singer thenclassified the species as Psilocybe mairei Sing.Krieglsteiner, however, considered this species tobe identical with Psilocybe cyanescens Wakefield,as found in Europe. Thus, bluing Psilocybe speciescan still be found in Africa today.

In his monograph on Panaeolusmushrooms from the 1960's, Ola'h mentions twoPanaeolus species that are strongly psychoactive:

- Panaeolus africanus Ola'h and

- Panaeolus tropicales Ola'h

There are also accounts from Africa abouttypical hallucinatory intoxications, caused bymistaken identification of a yellow Strophariaspecies as a culinary mushroom. In 1945, E.R.Cullinan and D. Henry described 22 cases in

Nairobi, which occurred in July of that same year.The symptoms started one hour after

ingestion of the mushrooms, peaked within threehours and then persisted for 24 to 48 (?) hours.Symptoms consisted of emotional imbalance, fits ofmirthful and irresponsible laughter alternatingwith depressive moods, during which patients feltthey wanted to die. Patients were unable to sleep,due to nightmarish feelings that descended whenthey closed their eyes... They remained consciousthroughout the experience and their speech, whilesomewhat uncontrolled, was rational.

In 1957, A.D. Charters reported additionalcases of intoxication from Nairobi: On May 18,1949, a man and his wife - both Europeans whoresided in Nakuru, ate generous portions ofmushrooms for lunch. Within 30 minutes, both ofthem developed mental symptoms, along with pupildilation and a tingling sensation in the fingers.

The manexperienced visions of pink colors and a sense ofeuphoria in association with delusions. He feltthat he was passing into the next life and he couldsee his own body. He stated that he realized "weare in the process of working toward our next life".

His wife also reported delusions, and shefelt that she was inside the tube that was part ofthe apparatus used for pumping her stomach at thetime. She believed that she was going to die andshe was afraid of death. She had laughing fits andfelt sensations that alternated between happinessand depression. Both patients had their stomachspumped and recovered completely within sixhours.

Given sufficiently wet climateconditions, Psilocybe cubensis can often be foundin other parts of the world growing on pastures inareas located up to 30° north as well as south ofthe equator. Therefore, it is likely that the yellowStropharia species from the Highlands of Kenyamay actually have been Psilocybe cubensismushrooms or at least a close relative of thisspecies.

In January 1994, M. Smith and myselfwere collaborating in South Africa, where wediscovered a bluing Psilocybe species in NatalProvince. It was the first psychotropic Psilocybespecies ever found in the area. This species isgenerally withish in color and does not have an

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annular ring. The mushrooms are comparable insize to Psilocybe cubensis, but do not growdirectly on top of dung in cow pastures. Havingbeen compared with samples of knownPsilocybe species, the new species is currentlybeing published under the name Psilocybenatalensis Gartz, Reid, Ecker & Smith.

The mushroom samples and reports of

intoxications described in this chapter indicatethat psychoactive species do occur in Africa,which, in turn, supports the hypothesis of anancient mushroom cult on the African continent.However, additional work is needed withrespect to the African species, including theirareas of distribution, their taxonomicclassification and the essence of their activeingredients.

Figure 59 - Outline of a rock drawing from Tassili, Algeria (ca. 7,000 B.C.). The figure on the left clearly is holding a

mushroom-shaped object.

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CHAPTER 7.7

USAGE IN SOUTH EAST ASIA AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC ISLANDS

Since the late 1960s, the custom of usingpsilocybin-containing mushrooms has beenevolving in various countries across Asia and thePacific Islands. However, there is no conclusiveevidence indicating that mushroom usage wasendemic among native cultures prior to thediscovery of the Mexican species. Most likely,global tourism has been the most significant factorbehind increasing knowledge about relevantmushroom species among the populations of thesecountries, especially after searches for stronglybluing gilled mushrooms were successful. Thesemushrooms, most notably those found growing onpasture land, strongly resembled similar speciesfrom other continents.

Neo-Mycoflora

Western amateur mycologists helpeddisseminate information about these species andpublished articles on the mushrooms in variouspublications of their home countries. However,little or no efforts were made to identify anddescribe specific mushrooms species foundgrowing in Asia and the South Pacific Islands.There have also been no research efforts toinvestigate the overall mycoflora in this part of theworld. Thus, during the 1970s, a group ofteenagers in Samoa discovered the psychoactiveeffects of Panaeolus cyanescens. At first, thepolice took measures to suppress the practice. Butpersecution by law enforcement agencies washalted when it became apparent that ingestion ofthe mushrooms did not pose a significant healthrisk. According to Cox, the teenagers' parentsconsidered their children's mushroom experience"a foolish, but totally harmless episode and a partof normal teenage development". In light of such areasonable frame of reference, the historic label"fool's mushrooms" (Chapter 2) immediatelycomes to mind.

By contrast, customs of psychoactivemushroom usage in New Zealand evolved aroundthe same species found in Australia, with criminal

penalties also modeled after Australian measuresof law enforcement. However, in contrast toPsilocybe semilanceata and Panaeoluscyanescens, Psilocybe cubensis is not a speciesnative to New Zealand, and all psychoactivespecies are generally referred to as "magicmushrooms".

To date, we do not know about all thosegeographic regions where the discovery of bluingmushroom species was an event that did notattract much attention, yet contributed to themushrooms's growing popularity and an ever-increasing number of "silent" users. Scientific-mycological investigations of a small number ofsamples provided clues to the identification ofpsychoactive species relevant in this context: thetwo dung-inhabiting species Psilocybe cubensisand Panaeolus cyanescens, as well as Panaeolustropicales, a close relative of the latter species. Inmost cases, the differentiation of the twoPanaeolus species is an extremely difficult task.

Panaeolus cyanescens Omelettes

During the seventies and eighties, themushroom restaurants of Bali became quitefamous, since interested tourists could ordermushroom omelettes made with Panaeoluscyanescens - house specialties, and all completelylegal to boot. At first, local children collected themushrooms needed to prepare the dishes. Inresponse to increasing demand for this culinaryspecialty, however, commercial cultivation of thePanaeolus species began, using the method oftransferring dung with naturally-grown myceliaonto fresh buffalo manure.

Apparently, no major complicationsensued, and this type of mushroom usageremained unchallenged for a long time. In Bali,ingestion of mushrooms has been limited, for themost part, to visiting tourists. In 1992, a Germantourist reported that, if anything, the number ofrestaurants had increased compared to the 1980s.The number of restaurant patrons, however,

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Figure 60 - Psilocybe samuiensis on amixture of rye and horse dung

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appeared to have decreased, indicating anincreasing familiarity with psychoactivemushrooms species in the tourists's countries oforigin.

Similar stories about mushroomspecialties exclusively prepared for tourists havealso been reported from Sumatra, Java and ThePhilippines.

Those mushroom species describedabove are based on samples collected fromislands; thus, it is quite logical to expect findingthose same species growing on the Asianmainland as well. Soon after Earle published hisdescription of Stropharia (Psilocybe) cubensis ina 1906 edition of a Cuban agriculture journal,Patouillard proposed the species nameNaematoloma caerulescens for his own samplesof the same species, which were collected inTonkin (Vietnam) in 1907. In Thailand andCambodia, Heim found fruiting bodies of thespecies Psilocybe cubensis, providing the firstsample from outside of Mexico used by Hofmannand his collaborators to confirm the presence ofpsilocybin in the fruiting bodies.

Such positive results inspired theproposal that psychoactive Psilocybe and relatedspecies thrive on all continents, a hypothesis thathas been fully confirmed.

Other mushroom species from the genusPanaeolus have been found in mainland Asia aswell. For example, Ola'h's monograph describesa bluing mushroom named Panaeoluscambodginiensis Ola'h & Heim, a species - as itsname suggests - found only in Cambodia.According to Ola'h, all of the species's fruitingbodies contain psilocybin.

Monsoon Climate, Manure andWater Buffaloes

In 1981, Schroeder reported the resultsof his mycological field work conducted in Nepalduring 1978 and 1979, where his research effortsestablished that mushrooms of the Psilocybespecies are wide-spread throughout the area.Guzman proposed that these species can quitepossibly be classified as Psilocybe cubensis andPsilocybe subcubensis Guzman. Macroscopically,the latter species is very similar to the subtropicalPsilocybe cubensis species, but its spores are

comparatively smaller and its habitat limited totropical regions.

The mushrooms primarily grow invalley areas with monsoon climate conditions,at altitudes of about 3,000 ft. on substrates ofpartially decomposed cow manure as well as onwater buffalo dung. While the species fruits allyear round, it does so most abundantly in Mayand June, the rainy months that precede themonsoon season.

Nepal is another country where noevidence was found of any mushroom usage bythe indigenous population. Mycophilic Westernvisitors, however, having discovered thespecies, soon indulged in usage of themushrooms for hallucinatory purposes, apractice that failed to draw much publicattention. It appears that a relatively large dosewas required to achieve the desired effects,since several individuals consumed forty ormore of the fleshy mushrooms at a time.

"Soma": A Psilocybian Species?

Within the context of discovering thisspecies, Schroeder and Guzman proposed a mostinteresting hypothesis. They suggested that"soma", the substance revered as a deity by themysterious, ancient Aryan civilization, who aresaid to have developed a soma cult, did not, infact, refer to the fly agaric mushroom, as initiallyproposed by Wasson. More likely, soma was thename of a psychedelic Psilocybe species, basedon its spectacular psychotropic effects and themushroom's geographic distribution pattern.

An article authored by J.W. Allen andM.D. Merlin concludes that currently Thailand isthe country with the largest consumption ofpsychoactive mushrooms.

In several areas across Thailand, touristscan find menus offering mushrooms prepared aspart of omelettes, soups, teas, pizzas or juices.Allen specifically studied patterns of usage onthe two islands of Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan. Previously, sporadic reports from otherislands off the Thai coast contained descriptionsof similar practices there. In January 1990, Allenalso confirmed usage of the mushrooms in thenorthern areas of Thailand.

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German Tourist Boom

On Koh Samui and Koh Pha-ngan, themushroom dishes are enjoyed primarily byGerman tourists. Along with a few otherforeigners, some Thai teenagers use themushrooms as well, sometimes even attemptingto smoke them in a bamboo pipe. As a salt-likechemical compound, psilocybin requirestemperatures of about 200°C for it to melt andpartially break down without sublimation, so thata tobacco pipe will not be effective in achievingthe desired psychoactive effects.

During the fall of 1988, Thai authoritiesdistributed warning leaflets at tourist centers,providing a detailed description of a bizarre panicreaction experienced by an Australian tourist,who was hospitalized briefly as a result. Allenthoroughly analyzed this event by seekingadditional information about the circumstances ofthis case, including interviews with all otherindividuals involved. Allen discovered that theAustralian visitor had used excessive amounts ofvarious pharmaceuticals, including highlyaddictive substances, which is why he eventuallyrequired hospitalization.

Finally, in January 1989, this incidentwas central to justifying passage of a law thatprohibits usage of psychoactive mushrooms("hed keequai" in local language), with harshpenalties provided for non-compliance. Until thattime, many restaurants posted signs advertisingthe various types of mushroom dishes on theirmenus. But mushroom usage continued despitepassage of the law. Specific species still beingused were identified as Psilocybe cubensis,Psilocybe subcubensis and Panaeoluscyanescens. It is unknown if a tourist in Thailandhas ever been sentenced for usage or possessionof mushrooms. In addition to the collection offruiting bodies growing naturally on buffalodung, Thai as well as German residents on KohSamui and Koh Pha-ngan began to cultivate themushrooms, outdoors and inside houses. Inaccordance with the "natural cultivation"approach, rice debris was added to fresh manureand mixed with dung already permeated bymycelia. After prohibition, mushroom cultivationcontinued at hard-to-reach wilderness locations.

Moreover, Allen found evidence thatsome restaurants temporarily served dishes madefrom regular table mushrooms apparently spiked

with a synthetic hallucinogen (LSD?) whoseeffects lasted much longer than those ofpsilocybin. This dangerous practice causedunexpected reactions with effects lasting for up to10 hours. Some consumers experienceddysphoric side effects which persisted for as longas several days. One individual developed anaversion against all kinds of mushroom dishes forseveral months.

As in Mexico during the sixties, a largevariety of mushroom images and products aremarketed commercially in Thailand these days.Among merchandise offered for sale there arehand-painted and mass-produced T-Shirts (seeFigure 56, p. 78) with pictures of Panaeoluscyanescens and Psilocybe subcubensis, showntogether as well as separately, not to mentionpostcards, posters, lighters and key rings, allfeaturing mushroom-motif decorations. Allenreported that such goods are available in bothNorthern and Southern Thailand.

In coming years, we can well expect awealth of new discoveries and insights into theethnopharmacology, taxonomy and naturalchemistry of Asia's mycoflora.

Not surprisingly, another new mushroomspecies was discovered in Thailand in August,1991 and named Psilocybe samuiensis Guzman,Bandala & Allen (see Figure 60, p. 99). Thespecies is similar in appearance to Psilocybesemilanceata, but the fruiting bodies do notcontain baeocystin. Psilocybe samuiensis is abluing species that grows on fertilized soil, butnot directly on top of dung. We successfullycultivated this species on a mixture of rye, horsedung and water (2:1:2), but found that we neededto add a casing layer consisting of peat and chalk(2:1).

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CHAPTER 8

SOME COMMENTS ON EFFECTS OF MUSHROOMS FROMTHE CATEGORY PHANTASTICA

Extensive animal research efforts duringthe 1950s furnished evidence that both psilocybinand psilocin are alkaloids of negligible acutetoxicity. Specifically, the dosage ofpsilocybin that caused death in 50% of theexperimental mice (LD 50) was determined to be280 mg/kg body weight. By comparison, noticeableeffects in humans generally occur at dosages as lowas 0.02 mg/kg.

Animal tests showed that, on average,psilocybin was a substance only half as toxic asmescaline, and at the same time, turned out to be50 times more potent as a psychoactive substance.For example, up to 2 g of mescaline were beingadministered with no dangerous side effects, whilethe usual dose of psilocybin ranged from 3 to 30mg as part of psychological testing andpsychotherapy sessions.

As is the case with other psychotropicsubstances, human beings most likely have a moresensitive reaction in response to psilocybin thanmice do. Still, the range of safety in controlledexperiments comes to several hundred times theamount of the active dosage. The same goes for theconsumption of mushroom material, sincepsilocybin concentrations in mushrooms can varyup to a factor of 10. Consequently, J. Ottspeculated that adults would need to eat their ownbody weight in fresh mushrooms, in order to finallyreach the dosage limit of lethal toxicity. Despite thehundreds of thousands of voluntary self-experiments taking place every year in the U.S.alone, no fatalities caused by magic mushroomshave ever occurred there. Small children, however,have abnormal reactions to psilocybin, such as lossof consciousness, cramps and danger of death.

It was in the fall of 1960, that a child fromMilwaukee, Oregon, picked several mushroomsfrom grassy soil below a cluster of conifers.Having eaten the mushrooms, the childexperienced cramps and a high fever. Similar to acondition described as "status epilepticus ", thesymptoms were treated by medications, with

limited success. The child died within three days.

The mushroom sample involved in thisincident was identified as Psilocybe baeocystis. P.Stamets, however, contested this finding, claimingthe species had been misidentified. He referred toa publication about the incident that included apicture of the mushrooms, which, according toStamets, shows a sample of Psilocybe cyanescens.This species is wellknown as exceptionallypotent, due to high levels of psilocybin andpsilocin. Still, we cannot determine whether toxicconcentrations of alkaloids were the cause ofdeath, or whether ingestion of the alkaloidstriggered a latent case of epilepsy in the form ofan acute episode that could not be treated orcontrolled. If a similar incident happenednowadays, fatal outcomes could be easilyprevented, since the last three decades of progressin pharmaceutical research included the discoveryof new drugs capable of aborting convulsiveepisodes.

Due to publicity generated by theunfortunate accident in 1960, two alkaloids(baeocystin and norbaeocystin) first isolated fromPsilocybe baeocystis, at times acquiredreputations of being extremely poisonous as wellas strongly psychoactive. Both claims, however,are wrong and unsubstantiated. Specifically, bothbaeocystin and norbaeocystin are present in othermushroom species, such as Psilocybesemilanceata, and at generally higher levelscompared to the alkaloid content of Psilocybebaeocystis.

Biochemical research efforts acceleratedand large numbers of studies were conducted,primarily with LSD. These investigators sought todiscover the receptor binding sites forhallucinogenic compounds in the brain and tounderstand the mechanisms underlying thegenesis of psychedelic visions. Today, we stilllack a sound theoretical framework able toexplain the relationship between chemicalcompounds and the manifestation of their

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psychoactivity. Even though basic research iscertainly important, its methods, unfortunately, areoften a function of a rather one-sidedpharmacological approach to investigating theeffects of psilocybin, LSD and mescaline - anapproach that is, in fact, too narrow to address theremarkably unusual nature of these substances andtheir effects.

Misunderstandings between pharma-cologists and toxicologists on the one hand andpsychiatrists and psychologists on the other canoften be traced all the way back to the 1950's,creating a legacy of disputes and arguments thathave yet to be resolved. S. Grof undertook thetedious task of analyzing 5,000 experimental LSDprotocols in an effort to isolate "absolute"symptoms that are reported or occur all of thetime. His results were negative. According to Grof,hallucinogenic substances are non-specific triggerscausing a sequence of altered states ofconsciousness, which do not fit the syndromelabeled "toxic psychosis". Rather, it is theindividual's personality, along with theexperimental setting that significantly shape thenature of the psychedelic experience. This view isshared by a majority of experts with considerableexperience in conducting psychedelics-assistedpsychotherapy. Even "real" somatic symptoms,such as nausea or vomiting, can often be controlledthrough psychological intervention techniquesadministered by trained professionals.

A Plethora of Names

The broad range of possible experiencesinspired the use of labels other than"hallucinogens", with widely differing semanticconnotations: entheogens, psychedelics,illusionogens, psycholytics, psychomimetics,psychodysleptica, psychoemetics and others.

"Phantastica" (Lewin) is the oldest labelever used to describe this class of substances. Thisterm successfully evokes dream-like, fancifulaspects of the experience, as well as the potentialfor euphoric and dysphoric emotional overtones.More recent terminology often says more aboutsemantic biases of those who use the labels thanabout any factual, objective characteristics of thealkaloids they refer to. Accordingly, official anti-drug propaganda since

the 1960's has disparaged "psychedelics" asexcessively glamorous and too positive a label, asthe term was popular among Timothy Leary's fansand supporters.

When used in low doses or for the firsttime, these substances are most likely to bringabout a kind of magical transformation ofsurroundings, with a heightened ability to perceivesubtle differences along the color spectrum -effects an individual often takes in with a greatsense of wonder and awe. Based on these types ofexperiences, the label "psychoesthetica" has beenused as well.

During the 1950's, those experiments of apurely pharmacological nature revealed that,within a specific low dosage range, the effects ofpsilocybin and LSD were largely similar, exceptfor the shorter duration of the psilocybinexperience. That is why there are numerouscomparisons in the literature of 10 mg ofpsilocybin with 100 ug of LSD as equivalentdosages.

There are several authors, however, whofocus on the more visionary and metaphysicalnature of the psilocybin experience compared toother hallucinogenic substances. A. Hofmannconducted self-experiments with both substancesand found the altered state of consciousnessinduced by psilocybin to be both deeper andsomewhat gloomier than those produced by LSD.

Other investigators have portrayedpsilocybin as "friendlier" - a substance that is notas fierce as LSD in exposing possible traumashidden within the subconscious mind (see Chapter3.2). Such differences in comparative evaluationsof psilocybin and LSD are likely linked to avariety of factors, such as dosage differences,research protocols less than comprehensive andexhaustive in scope, as well as personality andenvironmental variables.

LSD "Flashbacks"

R. Fischer conducted a series ofexperiments designed to study the effects ofpsilocybin compared to LSD and mescaline. Theresults confirmed what had already been commonknowledge among those who used the mushroomsin various contexts around the world: "flashbacks"are quite rare, and very mild, if they occur at all,nor do abnormal symptoms persist

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once the effects of the alkaloid have worn off.Widespread reports of LSD-induced "flashbacks"spawned biochemical theories which falselypostulate that LSD is stored inside the body andcan be released at a later time to induce shortperiods of visions and other "psychotic"manifestations. Such conjecture about the body's"storage capacity" persisted despite prior evidenceto the contrary that established LSD as a substancerapidly metabolized and eliminated from the body.

The assumption of a prolonged storageperiod following ingestion of LSD had alreadybeen debunked by LSD-assisted psychotherapyduring the 1960's. According to M. Hausner, whoworked in the former Czechoslovakia, severalpatients who went through a series of LSD sessionsdid experience "flashbacks" in between sessions.However, the therapeutic administration ofhallucinogens was continued in these cases andthose flashback episodes that did occur were farless spectacular than expected based on some ofthe more dramatic descriptions of the phenomenon.Within the context of M. Hausner's studies,flashback episodes turned out to be merelytemporary manifestations of issues that hadreached the conscious mind. Moreover, flashbacksdisappeared as therapy progressed with continuedadministrations and did not recur after conclusionof the therapy program. These observations are atodds with the biochemical theory which predictedthat repeated administrations would increasestorage of the substance inside the body, causingincreasingly powerful flashback episodes.

Considering the highly variable nature ofpsilocybin's effects as illustrated by examples ofunintentional and carefully controlledexperimentation described in this book alone, somestriking parallels with Grof's findings on the effectsof LSD virtually suggest themselves. Grof notedthe emergence of, in that order, abstract, aesthetic,psychodynamic, perinatal and transpersonal typesof experiences during hallucinogenic sessions.With repeated administrations of relatively lowdoses, participants typically progressed throughthese stages one by one, eventually attaining andlingering at the transpersonal level of analysis.

The accounts of psychoactive mushroomexperiences included in this book are by necessitylimited to only one to three trials over time.

Thus, detailed analyses comparing the effects ofLSD and psilocybin must await results from futureresearch efforts, assuming researchers will be ableto conduct these types of studies.

By contrast, relatively high doses of LSDas well as psilocybin typically "bypass" the initialphases of experience, propelling the individualdirectly into the realm of transpersonalconsciousness. The natural scientist's firstexperiment with Psilocybe bohemica or theincidents of accidental intoxication with Psilocybecubensis in Africa both illustrate these kinds oftranspersonal experiences.

Aside from psilocybin's psychotherapeuticapplications as detailed in Chapter 9, there areother interesting phenomena and potential uses forpsilocybin as well as those mushrooms whoseactive ingredients can be analyzed and measuredaccurately.

The investigation of frequent symptomssuch as compulsive laughter, yawning and theflow of tears without dysphoria may revealinteresting neurophysiological mechanisms,provided we can isolate and separate the influenceof psychological factors in the manifestation ofthese symptoms.

Psilocybin as a Research Tool for Studyand Diagnosis of Brain Damage

The benefits of diagnosing brain-damagedpatients with psilocybin were investigated in theformer Czechoslovakia during the 1960s.Psilocybin was the alkaloid of choice for thesestudies, due to its minimal toxicity and becauseparticipants were not expected to developadditional chronic dysfunctions as a result ofingesting psilocybin. Visual hallucinations werefound to be almost completely suppressed inpatients suffering from lesions to parts of thecentral nervous system known to mediate visual-sensory functions.

On the other hand, the discovery thatpsilocybin tended to potentiate a variety ofneurological processes effectively turned thealkaloid into a diagnostic tool used to reveal latentparalyses and other subtle types of damage to thecentral nervous system. While LSD could alsohave been used for this purpose, researcherspreferred psilocybin, because dosage measurementwas comparatively simpler, its effects were

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short-term and patients experienced less fatiguewith psilocybin than with LSD.

In one exceptionally remarkable case, oneof the participants, while under the influence ofthe substance, clearly saw a brain tumor insideher skull - a tumor that was not discovered untilan examination that followed the session.

R. Fischer (see Figure 61) conducted aseries of controlled experiments involving thepresentation of words and sentences composed ofincomplete letters, with increasingly largerportions of the letters covered in several stages,from the top down. In the end, only the stumps ofthe letters remained in the display, which was nolonger readable. Under the influence ofpsilocybin, however, the ability to "re-synthesize"these characters was observed quite frequently:Participants were able to read a significantlylarger number of words, with some reportedlyable to see the partial letters, complete and uncut,in a display that showed little more than a whitebackground area.

These observations are powerful evidenceconfirming that the effects of mushroomingredients are certainly not just "psychotic" innature, a notion preferred by those pharma-cologists partial to terminology such as "toxicpsychosis", with all its connotations as evoked bythe "fool's mushroom" label. Psilocybin and itsrelatives apparently act as catalysts that initiatenew information processing mechanisms andpatterns of coordination between the differentinteractive areas of the brain. As such, thesubstances create the context needed forintegrating emotional and rational processes innew ways. Under the most favorable ofcircumstances, such states of mind areexperienced not only as a profound, impressiveexpansion of one's consciousness, but may also bereflected in short-term improvements ofperformance. I believe, however, that thesetemporary gains in skills are rarely attained bycasual or recreational users of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, because set and settingare often less than ideal, and alkaloid contenttends to be highly variable. Most researchers,including A. Hofmann, strongly advised againstusage of hallucinogens by youngsters, even incontrolled experimental settings. Adolescence is atime of upheaval, a developmental stage whenyoungsters struggle with themselves and theirsurroundings, searching for a purpose and a firm

direction in life: Numerous conflicts arise in theprocess and need to be dealt with and integrated.Besides inducing altered perceptual states,hallucinogenic substances, including psilocybin arebound to release a stream of new emotions andconflicts. Such experiences often serve to confuseteenaged users and to compound existing areas ofconflict, threatening to disturb the youngster'sequilibrium, which is rather fragile tc begin with.

Quite likely, the search for a means to escapereality plays an important role in this situation. Infact, the escapist aspect of LSD portrayed against abackdrop of political upheaval fuelled a reactionaryzeal among those determined to control thesubstance during the 1960's. As a consequence ofthese restrictive legislative measures, the unbiased,scientific evaluation of hallucinogenic substancesremains an all but impossible task. These examplesfrom the LSD research literature suggest thatcontrolled human subjects research is possiblewithout risking damage or injury to theparticipants, while gaining a wealth of new insightsbeyond psychotherapy applications.

Comprehensive investigations of thesesubstances have long ago proven beyond doubt thatpsilocybin, mescaline and LSD are not physicallyaddictive, nor do they cause withdrawal symptomsof any kind. Repeated self-experimentation overlong periods of time is rare; most long-term userseventually reduce frequency of use due to thenature of these substances that initiate powerfultranspersonal processes and facilitate theemergence of personal conflicts. Besides, habitualdaily users quickly develop tolerance to the pointof being unable to experience any psychoactiveeffects at all. That is why clinical trials are spacedto allow for intervals of at least one week betweenrepeated applications.

Ecstasy is More than Entertainment

Renowned pharmacologist R. Siegeldescribed hallucinogenic mushroom consumptionin California as merely "experimental use".According to his definition, almost all users ofpsychoactive mushrooms have anywhere from atleast one up to 10 experiences, with severalweeks or months in between repetitions. Or

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consider R. G. Wasson's poetic answer to aquestion from his banker friends who wanted toknow why he did not eat the mushrooms everyday:

"There are many who neverexperienced ecstasy and who may think this isentertaining. But ecstasy is not a form ofentertainment:

trembles. What kind of person would thinknothing of submitting to a sense of pure, absoluteawe or of floating through that doorway into thepresence of the divine? Those who have neverknown ecstasy first-hand, distort the word eachtime they use it. We must comprehend anew theentire, frightening meaning inherent in this word.

Figure 61 - "Letter Resynthesis" experiment by R. Fischer.

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Figure 62 - "Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens".Lithography by Arthur Reckham (London, 1890).

Figure 63 - "Handing me one of the halves, he spokethe single word, drink. " From Etidorhpa by J.U. Lloyd (1904).

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CHAPTER 9

P S Y C H O T H E R A P Y

We live in an era of profound socioculturalchanges, while a growing sense of insecuritypervades many areas of our lives. At the sametime, our achievement-oriented society hasfostered a set of values propagated by industrious,hard-working and successful citizens. Naturally,not all members of society are able to embodythese ideals or embrace them all the time.

Psycholytic Therapy

Oftentimes, the origins of chronic neurosesare rooted in early childhood. Neurotic behaviorcan evolve under a wide variety of circumstancesthat include combinations of unfortunate personaland social conditions. There are numerous formsof neuroses and symptoms can vary considerably.Neurotic disorders afflict a large segment of thepopulation, significantly impairing their quality oflife.

According to the various schools oftraditional psychoanalytic thought, the dissolutionof neuroses is a lengthy process, whose progressdepends on penetrating layers of "characterarmoring" and identifying the root causes ofunhealthy fixations. Hoping to shorten the durationof treatment by accelerating the pace of resistancedissolution practitioners, have turned topharmaceuticals as an adjunct to the therapeuticprocess. Thus, upon discovery of the uniqueproperties of hallucinogenic agents during the1950's, LSD gained widespread popularity as atherapeutic agent, while mescaline remainedobscure, as it was used by comparatively fewpractitioners. Patients under the influence of thesesubstances confronted long repressed traumaticevents as they began to surface and enter consciousawareness. In some cases, such emerging traumaticexperiences had been repressed since earlychildhood. Medical records and case historiesindicate that many patients not only remembered,but actually relived traumatic experiences in theirpast.

At this point, I would like to summarizethe major elements of this psychotherapeuticapproach, based on the excellent books written byH. Leuner, S. Grof and S. Widmer. From a varietyof different perspectives, these authors thoroughlyexamine the therapeutic process, drawing onextensive clinical expertise representing decadesof experience in several countries.

At times, critics from within thepsychiatric establishment have claimed that a"short-term high" is simply not capable ofpropelling complex processes into consciousawareness, and that psychoactive substances areno short-cut to quicker treatment. These are weakobjections at best, because we already know thatthe awesome intensity of an unfoldingpsychedelic episode is sufficiently powerful topropel individuals towards gaining valuableinsights of a highly personal nature (see accountsin Chapter 3.2). Such landmark experiences arelikely to stand out as significant personalmilestones whose impact will not diminish formany years, even if the individual never uses thesubstance again. On the other hand, due to theprofound, far-reaching nature of the psycholyticprocess, skillful and responsible guidance iscrucial to preventing the genesis of new sets ofneurotic symptoms. Whenever a new therapy isadopted, occasional mistakes are not uncommonduring the initial phases. The medical use ofhallucinogenic substances was no exception.However, our knowledge base and expertise onessential practical procedures has grownconsiderably since the pioneering days ofpsycholytic therapy. Having learned from initialerrors, we can now prevent problems and avoidmistakes.

Psilocybin as the Drug of Choice

Following its initial isolation anddiscovery of its chemical structure, psilocybinquickly joined the group of hallucinogens used in

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therapeutic settings. The alkaloid was consideredto be quite safe, based on existing toxicologicaldata. H. Leuner still considers psilocybin the mosteffective alkaloid for use as a pharmaceutical aidin psychotherapy, despite recent progress indeveloping other substances designed fortherapeutic applications, such as the substitutedphenethylamines like MDMA. Psilocybin'sreputation as a substance well suited forpsychotherapeutic applications is related to itsextremely low toxicity. Most importantly, dosagesbelow the 10 mg threshold can be measured withaccuracy. This is significant, because dosages ofup to 10 mg are not only known to betherapeutically efficient, but effects within thisdosage range can always be brought under control.The states of consciousness induced by psilocybinlast only five hours, on average, and thus can bemore conveniently utilized than altered statescaused by LSD, whose effects persist for muchlonger time periods. LSD should be considered amore difficult substance to work with, due to thepossible emergence of unwanted symptoms in asmall percentage of users and the prolongedprocess of "coming down" when symptomssubside. Unlike other hallucinogens, psilocybinalso has the advantage of almost never inducing"hangovers" the day after experimental sessions.

It is important to note in this context thatall authors stress that hallucinogens are nosubstitute for lack of skills on the part of thetherapist and that the usage of these substancesshould remain limited to carefully selected cases.Usage of hallucinogens "merely" shortens theduration of psychoanalytic treatment, as problemconflict areas surface faster and with greaterclarity, mediated by the process of selfexplorationand discovery that is the essence of psychedelicexperiences. Repressed patterns of normalbehavior and reactions must be gradually re-constructed within the therapist-patientrelationship.

The capacity for emotional immersion intoone's own problems under the influence of apsychoactive substance is provoked and amplifiedby the emergence of memories, as well as theelimination of the Me/You boundary. As thisprocess unfolds, the therapist gains valuableinsights into existing psychopathologies andpsychodynamics. Still, in addition to providingproper guidance for the patient, the therapist must

also be able to separate bizarre forms of alienationthat may appear from the emerging conflict matter.

The Language of Statistics

According to statistical data, psycholytictherapy is a remarkably efficient form oftreatment, most notably in patients suffering fromneuroses. A follow-up study of 82 patients showedthat 65 % of them showed long-term, clinicallysignificant improvement. In all, 28 authorsdescribed 1,600 therapy cases, covering 42investigations that took place from 1953 to 1965.The course of illness was judged very grave andchronic in 68 % of the cases. The dministrationof hallucinogenic substances within thepsychotherapy setting resulted in success rates ofup to 70% ("good and substantial improvement"),especially in the treatment of neurotic anxieties,depressive-neurotic dysphorias as well as neuroticcharacter disorders.

In the former Czchechoslovakia, M.Hausner also tested Psilocybe bohemica forpsycholytic therapy sessions, with successfuloutcomes comparable to those observed followingadministration of LSD. For many years up until1974, Hausner has used LSD with more than 350patients in about 3,000 sessions. In Mexico from1967 until 1974, S. Roquet developed aninteresting modification of the therapeutictechnique ("psychosynthesis") where hallu-cinogens are used as an adjunct to the therapyprocess. His conceptual approach was stronglyinfluenced by the shamanistic uses of differentsubstances in his home country. Groups of 10 to20 people experienced effects of a diversity ofsubstances (psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, LSD,ololiuqui). While stereo music played in thebackground, several slide and film projectors wereused to present images whose emotional contentranged from pictures of love to scenes of horror.Thus, in addition to hallucinogeninducedemotional stimulation, patients are also exposed topowerful external stress factors, modifying theexperience into one of a very deeply emotionalnature. Duration of treatments varied from 18months up to two years, with many hours of drug-free therapy and, on average, one hallucinogen-assisted session a month. On a few occasions,patients received the substance in

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individual settings. Roquet reported successfultreatment of neurotic character disorders in 85 ofthe patients. The psychoanalytic and transpersonalelements of a substances' effects were consideredtherapeutic agents, supported by sustained positivefeelings among group session participants.

The Conquest of Fear in the Face of Death

During the 1960's and 1970's, mosttherapists in Europe were limiting the scope oftheir work by exploring only the psychodynamiclevel of behavior. Elsewhere, however,practitioners of hallucinogen-assisted therapydispensed large doses of psychoactive drugs,maximizing the emergence of transpersonal statesof consciousness that often resembled mysticalexperiences. These episodes of transpersonaltranscendence ("psychedelic therapy" in the U.S.)contribute to the therapeutic process; they mayeven be the sole source for future progress.

Under these conditions, stereo music alsosignificantly deepened the intensity of theexperience. It appears that these kinds of specificexperiences may also account for the remarkablesuccess of treating terminal patients with LSD toease their fears in the face of death and to reduceeven the most severe forms of pain. In many suchcases, symptoms disappeared entirely, and relieffrom pain and anxiety that continued even after thedrug's acute effects had worn off. A book by S.Grof provides a compassionate analysis of suchsuccessful treatments, which serves to underscorethe fact that systematic efforts to investigate theseparticular therapeutic benefits have only justbegun. So far, LSD has been the most widelystudied substance in terms of easing the sufferingof terminally ill patients, as well as dipropyl-tryptamine (DPT), a synthetic drug structurallysimilar to psilocybin that is active only whenadministered by injection.

Below, a young woman from Switzerlandgives a detailed account of her second mushroomexperience. Her first experiment, with Psilocybecubensis, had already introduced her to the realmof mystical experiences. For her second journey,she used 20 Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms aspart of a group ritual and achieved transcendence.A remarkable feature of her

account is that the presence of an experiencedguide was needed to realize the full potential ofthis visionary quest.

"1 sat down next to another participant,seeking to connect with others in preparation formy journey. We proceeded to eat the freshmushrooms. The room grew quiet and lovelymusic began to play. The mushrooms's effectscame on much faster than they did during my firstexperiment. Twice I tried to establish closercontact with my fellow participant, but he wasvery nervous, and no source of reassurance forme. I was seeking my spiritual companion, but didnot find that person among the present group. Ibecame a figure in a long, white robe, wanderingaimlessly among the columns (Greece?), stillsearching.

My gaze lingered briefly on the wall nextto the door and I saw faces and figures appearand vanish, but they did not hold my interest. Itwas hopeless. I continued my aimless roaming,and I was on the material plane, which I wantedto leave - had to leave. Suddenly, I found myselfwith one of the guides, who wanted to help me. Istared off into the distance, longing to be free ofthe material plane, but unable to do so. For a longtime, I failed to connect with the guide; our twoworlds were just too different. Suddenly I sensedthat he wasn't able to look at me directly. The pathby which to reach me runs through my eyes,because only they are truly alive. I askedhim to help me on my way and invited him to lookinto my eyes. I felt as if all life energy wasdraining from my body and my breathing becameerratic. My body contracted, struggling to cast offits worldly shell. The guide began to talk tome in a calm and quiet voice, then laid back downand stroked my right arm. Quite suddenly, Ifelt at peace. I took a deep breath and relaxed.The guide said that it's alright, to just let go, togive up my resistance. The goddess awoke andtold him that he is the one resisting. Why?Didn't he want to learn anything about me? Ismiled the goddess's smile and had become her, ashe replied that he was afraid of my eyes, becausethey appeared so bottomless and dark that hefeared losing himself in them. I answered that Iwas dangerous, the Goddess Kali the Terrible, aman-eater, and that he should look at me andenter. My gaze penetrated him into eternity; aconnection had finally been established. His faceturned green, covered with

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moss and I saw horns. It was a kind face, yet full ofcunning, a little devil's face, like Pan's. At times,stripes streaked across his face; I had become aseer.

I saw a child, a young man with blond haircropped just above his shoulders, ca. 17th century.He is busy writing, inside a small house located ina city; a poet perhaps, or a scribe? Germany orHolland? This was a state of infinite harmony, alight that seemed to come from everywhere andnowhere at all; something that had always beenthere and always will be, something that simplyexists. There is no past and no future.Consciousness beyond body and barriers, infinite,all-consuming; an infinite, universal love thatembraces everything. I had a strong sense ofagelessness, because I embodieda principle that had always existed. Howintensely I felt these unearthly emanations, this veryeternity. I saw through what appeared to be asuccession of many caves, through myriaddimensions, and all of them were flooded with light- my energy. An energy existing simultaneously atits source as well as throughout eternity. Thiswas a plane of utter harmony, devoid of contrastssuch as good and evil, marked by the overwhelmingpeace of a spirituality both cosmic and infinite. TheGoddess smiled. I no longer existed as a womanand as such could not be reached by others.

After that, the effects began to subsideslowly. In the presence of my guide I felt infiniteprotection and total understanding. Under hisguidance and protection, I began to ease into theslow and gentle descent back to my earthly state ofbeing. In the process, I found myself able to switchback and forth repeatedly between both states ofconsciousness. I realized that even my deepestagonies had become insignificant over "on theother side ". Furthermore, I understood that all thereligions with their sets of rules had been created atone time or another for the sole purpose ofproviding guidelines for humanity, yet excessivelynarrow interpretations of these rules have renderedthem all but irrelevant. Anyone who embarks on adeliberate search for a higher harmony, seekingspirituality, has no need for such rules at all. "

It is instructive to consider some of thecomments made by R.G. Wasson's wife ValentinaPavlovna, as they appear in the second report aboutMexico's magic mushrooms in 1957,

written in the wake of experiencing the impressiveeffects of her self-experiment. A medical doctor byprofession, V. Pavlovna brought up the potentialfor medical applications, given successful isolationof the active mushroom ingredient. According toher writings from that period, she believed thesubstance to become a significant new tool in thestudy of psychic processes, that it would benefitthe treatment of alcoholism, drug addiction andmental problems, and help ease the suffering ofterminally ill patients with severe pain. It wasseveral years later that a number of researchers,unaware of V. Pavlovna's article, began to treatthese very same conditions with LSD, a substancethat is much harder on the patients' systems thanpsilocybin!

The medical use of psilocybin, a basicallynon-toxic substance, as well as mushrooms withknown active ingredients, should, in my opinion,be permitted with terminally ill patients. Thepromise of easing the suffering of dying patientsalone should be reason enough to allow the use ofpsilocybin and related substances, considering thereality of fatal illness as one of the grimmeruniversals of human existence. Many psychiatristsand pharmacologists maintain that the mysticalaspects of hallucinogenic substances should bedescribed more accurately as psychotic in nature,and that repeated manifestations of thesesymptoms are cause for worry and concern, sincetheir existence and nature cannot be explained. Theconvictions behind these beliefs, however, palecompared to the promise of being able to providethat which strikes at the very essence of practicingmedicine: to help patients endure the ultimateanguish of impending death, while making surethey are not left alone to deal with pain and fear.

Scientific Research Under Fire

It was about 30 years ago that legislationwas enacted severely restricting the use andavailability of hallucinogens. It is most unfortunatethat these sweeping prohibitions dealt a cripplingblow to legitimate research efforts, forcing moreand more investigators to abandon this area ofstudy. Thus, despite the success of psycholytictherapy, its practice was discontinued during the1970's. In retrospect, a calm and pragmaticanalysis of these events can surely help usrecognize that those years of pioneering

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research laid the foundation for the development ofa whole new form of treatment - one that hasalready proven effective in aiding the healingprocess and relieving the symptoms of hundreds ofgravely ill patients in various countries around theworld. In many cases, improvement occurred afterall previous methods of treatment had failedcompletely. Today, we are faced with a situationso bizarre it defies reason and logic: the entirepharmacological class of hallucinogens is subjectto even more severe taboos than truly addictivesubstances that do have legitimate medical uses,such as the morphine-type drugs and theirderivatives.

H-Bomb for the Soul?

The irrational fears surrounding the"proper functioning" of our consciousness wereresponsible for the genesis of two very extremeviews about LSD during the 1960's, dating back tothe earliest phases of research into this substance.Proponents praised LSD as a "miracle drug", whileits detractors were quick to brand LSD the "devil'sdrug" (or "an H-bomb for the soul"). It was thelatter group that prevailed in the end by way ofpolitical power.

This controversy, already a matter ofhistoric record, has been marked by a pattern ofconfusing emotion with scientific standards.Today, we are surely capable of overcoming pastcontroversies, by embracing a rational approach toresolving problems and issues of contention.Viewed objectively, an unbiased assessment ofhallucinogen-assisted psychotherapy is possibleonly in terms of measuring success. In order to dothis, however, we must be allowed to use thesesubstances in therapeutic and unbiased scientificsettings.

There is some hope that current lop-sidedattitudes against hallucinogens may be changingfor the better, as efforts by the Swiss MedicalSociety for Psycholytic Therapy to re-legitimizehallucinogen-assisted therapy have met withmodest success. In 1988, the Swiss gavepermission to a few selected psychotherapists touse psychoactive substances for psychotherapeuticpurposes, at least within a narrow range of strictlydefined conditions and for a limited time. Thus,legal psycholytic therapy in Switzerland continueduntil 1993, with efforts to renew the permitcurrently underway. Thus, we can hope that in thefuture, psychedelics-assisted psychotherapy willexperience a similar renaissance in other countriesas well. If so, psilocybin is likely to stand out asthe most valuable and beneficial substance, aswell as the least risky among the group of possiblesubstances that may be used in this context.

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Figure 64 - Laboratory culture of Psilocybe mexicana Heim.

Figure 65 - Vial of pharmaceutical LSD with

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CHAPTER 10

OUTLOOK

Apparently, all of the most importantpsilocybin-producing European mushroom speciesare already well known. Their geographicdistribution and migration patterns, however, havenot yet been adequately investigated. Thisknowledge gap primarily applies to recentlydiscovered species outside the Psilocybe genus. Inaddition, there is a lack of comprehensive sourcesof information on distribution patterns of Psilocybecyanescens for a number of different countries.

More Taxonomic, Ecological andChemical Data are Needed

I would like to suggest that, for mostspecies, even chemical analysis data should beviewed as merely preliminary in nature. In order tolearn the truth about these mushrooms and suchissues as prevalence, migrations into new habitats,specific positions within the mycological system asa whole, or chemo-taxonomical concerns, we mustfirst acquire more taxonomic, ecological andchemical data from the study of relevantmushroom species. While further analysis offruiting body samples from known species in orderto determine alkaloid content variability remainsan essential task, future research must also includeefforts to identify secondary substances, as well astheir structural isolation. Baeocystin, for example,appears to be an alkaloid primarily found inmushrooms from temperate climate zones, and it isless common in tropical species. Today, there aresubstantial doubts over whether the synthesis ofBaeocystin as described in 1988 is actuallyfeasible. There is an urgent need for additionalresearch on the synthesis of this substance.Possibly, a number of different mushroomingredients may have psychotropic effects. Assuch, they could act as modifiers of psilocybin'sprimary effects in various ways. For instance,accounts of mushroom usage from ancient Mexicoalready included observations about different typesof effect associated with the various mushroom

species in use. Perhaps these distinctions are notjust the result of different concentrations ofpsilocybin and psilocin. Moreover, amongEuropean and North American mycophiles, thevast majority stress the popularity of Psilocybesemilanceata, a species favored over all others,because of its reputation for causing the "richest"kinds of experiences. Indeed, analyses ofPsilocybe semilanceata extracts typically confirmthe presence of eight indole compounds, whereasother species, such as Psilocybe cubensis, usuallycontain only half as many. Understanding justhow such ingredients interact with psilocybinmay well result in the development of newclinical applications for these substances.

The mycological literature includesinformation about several rare, if "questionable",species, some of which have been reported toshow blue discolorations. The Mycena andPluteus genera, for example, include descriptionsof such mushroom species. If indole alkaloidswere to be found in mushrooms other than theAgaricales (gilled mushrooms), it would mean asensational discovery. Future chemical analysesare bound to identify additional psilocybin-producing mushrooms among the Europeanspecies, which number about 5,000. There is aneven greater likelihood of discovering alkaloids inmany nonEuropean species, as the mycofloras ofmost countries have not been researched asextensively as Europe's.

Understanding the Mushrooms'Powerful Magic

Ethnopharmacological research effortsare also bound to generate remarkable results inthe near future. G. Samorini, for instance,recently reported that Catalonia, Spain, is a regionwhere Psilocybe semilanceata has traditionallybeen known by the unusual name of "sorginzorrotz", or "witches' tread". This label stronglysuggests early ritualistic usage of Psilocybesemilanceata in that area. Interestingly, Cataloniais also known as

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Europe's only region where traditional usage ofAmanita muscaria has been confirmed. In addition,there is growing evidence that other worldreligions, especially in Africa, have embraced theusage of psychoactive mushrooms as well, anintriguing possibility that calls for further study.

While the number of psychotropicmushroom species has risen dramatically all acrossEurope, the pace of progress in developing medicaluses for mushroom ingredients has not followedsuit. However, hallucinogens, including psilocybinhave a history of therapeutic usage, a practice thatis documented by a great deal of information,experiences and insights.

Given the lack of alternate methods tostudy these substances, the revival of medical andinterdisciplinary research efforts is a more cruciallyimportant issue now than ever before. After all, abetter understanding of psychotropic substancesmay well benefit a vast number of patients,possibly by contributing to the processes of mentaland psychic healing. A glimmer of hope for therevival of large-scale research comes from theUnited States, where a very small number ofinvestigators have, on occasion, succeeded atsecuring government permission to conduct studieson the medical aspects of hallucinogens, includingpsilocybin. The conceptual approach behind thedesign of these research projects suggests thatvirtually no reliable pharmacological data is inexistence. In fact, these substances have undergoneextensive study over the course of several decades.To the extent that relationships of dosage andeffects have already been determined, current andfuture research efforts should build upon existingknowledge, instead of neglecting or ignoringpreviously published results. High-tech metho-dology may well yield new results - techniques for

exploring and enhancing our understanding ofmushrooms at the biochemical level. But increasedbiochemical knowledge does not permit us to drawany sort of conclusion about other aspects ofpsychoactive substances, such as psychedelic peakexperiences, exploring the realms of thesubconscious mind, as well the development oftherapeutic applications based on these effects.

Certain hypnotherapy techniques areknown to induce experiences similar, but notidentical to, those caused by administration ofhallucinogens. Recent studies have demonstratedthat hypnosis can benefit the immune system, afinding that suggests psilocybin and relatedcompounds may have potentially similarproperties. Meditation and dreaming are additionalexamples of states of consciousness withinteresting parallels to psychedelic experiences, yetvery little is known about these links, due to thescarcity of research efforts in this area.

In recent years, the non-medical use ofpsychotropic species has become an increasinglypopular pastime. I agree, however, with theassessment of Swiss toxicologist R. Flammer, whohas written about the possible problems linked tothis practice:

"....There is no need to panic, consideringthe severity of existing problems with alcohol andhard addictive drugs, which make the Panaeolusmushrooms and their close relatives appearharmless by comparison. "

In order to guard against being dazzled oroverwhelmed by the mushroom's powerful magicwe must embrace the pursuit of in-depth researchinto hallucinogenic mushrooms, a method that canprotect us from jumping to conclusions, and in theprocess, from hampering the advancement ofbeneficial applications.

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Figure 66 - Psilocybe semilanceata cultured on a mixture of grass seeds, dungand grains of rice.

Figure 67 - Psilocybe semilanceata at a natural location in Austria.

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Figure 68 - Inocybe aeruginascens fruiting bodies at a natural location.

Figure 69 - Psilocybe tampanensis sclerotia on lolium seeds.

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Figure 70 - Stone sculpture of a mushroom deity from the classicperiod of Mayan culture (300-600 A.D.). Statue is about 12 in. tall.

(Rietberg Museum, Zurich).

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Figure 71 - Psilocybe stuntzii on mulch (Northwestern United States).

Figure 72 - Psilocybe baeocystis from Seattle, USA.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Considering the vast amount of relevantmycological literature, it makes sense to subdividecitations into categories representing distinctsubject areas and specific species and genera. Whilesome entries deal with more than one mushroomspecies, they are listed only once, under the categoryheading of the species that is the main focus of thework cited. This will aid in locating citations aboutspecific species, as well as those with a moregeneralized scope, since titles alone often do notaccurately reflect overall content or specificemphases.

1. Basic Reviews

Allen, J.W., Merlin, M.D. & Jansen, K.L.R.(1991). An ethnomycological review ofpsychoactive Agarics in Australia and NewZealand. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 23,39-69.

Allen, J.W., Gartz, J. & Guzman, G. (1992). Indexto the botanical identification and chemicalanalysis of the known species of thehallucinogenic fungi. Integration, 2&3, 9197.

Allen, J.W. & Merlin, M.D. (1992). Psychoactivemushroom use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand. Journal ofEthnopharmacology, 35, 205228.

Allen, J.W. & Gartz, J. (1995). Some recent notesand observations on the occurrence and use ofentheogenic fungi in third world countries.Psychedelic Monographs and Essays, 7 (inpress).

Anonymous (1978). Mycologists and the law.Bulletin of the British 'Mycological Society,12,56-57.

Auert, G., Dolezal, V., Hausner, M. &Semerdzieva, M. (1980). HalluzinogeneWirkungen zweier Hutpilze der GattungPsilocybe tschechoslowakischer Herkunft.Zeitschrift furArztlicheFortbildung, 74, 833835.

Badham, E.R. (1984). Ethnobotany of psilocybinmushrooms, especially Psilocybe cubensis.Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 10, 249-254.

Beug, M. & Bigwood, J. (1982). Psilocybin andpsilocin levels in twenty species from sevengenera of wild mushrooms in the PacificNorthwest, USA. Journal of Ethnopharma-cology, 5, 271-285.

Bocks, S.M. (1968). The metabolism of psilocinand psilocybin by fungal enzymes. BiochemistryJournal, 106, 12-13.

Boire, R.G. (1995). Sacred Mushrooms and theLaw. Spectral Mindustries, Davis, CA.

Carter, M. (1976). Will the legal Liberty Capcause home office hallucinations? New Scientist,16 Sept., 59.

Cox, P.A. (1981). Use of a hallucinogenicmushroom, Copelandia cyanescens, in Samoa.Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 4, 115-116.English, M.P. (1987). Mordecai Cubitt Cooke.Biopress Ltd., Bristol, Great Britain.

Ford, W.W. (1923). A new classification ofmycetismus (mushroom poisoning).Transactions of the Association of AmericanPhysicians, 38, 225-229.

Gartz, J. (1986). Ethnopharmakologie andEntdeckungsgeschichte der halluzinogenenWirkstoffe von europaischen Pilzen derGattung Psilocybe. Zeitschrift fur ArztlicheFortbildung, 80, 803-805.

Gartz, J. (1992/93). New aspects of theoccurrence, chemistry and cultivation ofEuropean hallucinogenic mushrooms. AnnMus. Civ. Roverto (Italy) Sez. sc. nat., 8, 107-124.

Gartz, J. (1994). Extraction and analysis of indolederivatives from fungal biomass. Journal ofBasic Microbiology, 34, 17-22.

Gartz, J., Allen, J.W. & Merlin, W. (1994).Ethnomycology, biochemistry and cultivationof Psilocybe samuiensis Guzman, Bandala andAllen, a new psychoactive fungus from KohSamui, Thailand. Journal of Ethnopharma-cology, 3, 73-80.

Gartz, J., Rei D., Eicker, A. & Smith, M.T.(1995). Psilocybe natalensis sp.nov. - the firstindigenous blueing member of the Agaricalesof South Africa. Integration, 6, 29-34.Guzman, G. (1983). The genus Psilocybe.Beih. Nova Hedwigia, 74.

Guzman, G., Bandala, V.M. & Allen, J.W.(1993). A new bluing Psilocybe fromThailand. Mycotaxon XLVI, 155-160.

Hall, M.C. (1973). Problems in legislating againstabuse of hallucinogenic fungi in Australia.Bulletin on Narcotics, 25, 27-36. Hofmann, A.(1960). Die psychotropen Wirkstoffe dermexikanischen Zauberpilze. Chimia, 14, 309-318.

Hofmann, A. (1980). LSD - My Problem Child.McGraw-Hill, New York.

Hofmann, A., Heim, R., Brack, A., Kobel, H.,Frey, A., Ott, H., Petrzilka, Th. & Troxler, F.(1959). Psilocybin and Psilocin, zweipsychotrope Wirkstoffe aus mexikanischen

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Zauberpilzen. Helv. Chim. Acta, 42, 15571572.Knecht, S. (1962). Magische Pilze and Pilz-

zeremonien. Zeitschrift fur Pilzkunde, 28, 69-78.

Kaplan, R.H. (1975). The sacred mushroom inScandinavia. Man, 10, 72-79.

Larris, S. (1984). Psilocybinsvampe. Svampe, 9,23-29.

Lloyd, J.U. (1895). Etidorhpa. Robert ClarkeCompany, Cincinnati.

Margot, P. & Watling, R. (1981). Studies inAustralian Agarics and Boletes 2. Furtherstudies in Psilocybe. Transactions of theBritish Mycological Society, 76, 485-489.

McKenna, T. (1992). Food of the Gods. Bantam,New York.

Ott, J. (1976). Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA.Ott, J. (1993). Pharmacotheon. Natural Products Co., Kennewick, WA.Ott, J. & Bigwood, J. (1978). Teonanacatl -

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms of North America.Madrona Publishers Inc., Seattle, WA.

Pollock, S.H. (1975). The psilocybin mushroompandemic. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 7,73-84.

Pollock, S.H. (1977/78). Psychotropic mushroomsand the alteration of consciousness: 1: Theascent of psilocybian mushroomconsciousness. Journal of Altered States ofConsciousness, 3, 15-35.

Pollock, S.H. (19 . Psilocybian mycetismuswith special reference to Panaeolus. Journal ofPsychedelic Drugs, 8, 43-57.

Ratsch, C. (1989). Gateway to Inner Space. PrismPress.

Riedlinger, T.J. (1990). The Sacred MushroomSeeker: Essays for R. Gordon Wasson.Dioscorides Press, Portland, OR.

Ruck, C.A.P., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J. &Wasson, R. G. (1979). Entheogens. Journal ofPsychedelic Drugs, 11, 145-147.

Sahiti, A. (1990). Drogen von A-Z. BeltzWeinheim-Basel.

Samorini, G. (1992). The oldest representations ofhallucinogenic mushrooms in the world(Sahara Desert, 9,000-7,000 B.C.), Integration,2&3, 69-79.

Schroder, R.F. & Guzman, G. (1981). Apsychotropic fungus in Nepal. Mycotaxon, 13,346-348.

Schultes, R.E. & Hofmann, A. (1979). Plants ofthe Gods. McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK)Limited, Maidenhead.

Schultes, R.E. & Hofmann, A. (1980). The Botanyand Chemistry of Hallucinogens.

Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield,Illinois.

Seeger, R. (1985). Psilocybin. DeutscheApothekerzeitung, 125, 65-66.

Shulgin, A.T. & Shulgin, A. (1996). TIHKAL.Transform Press, Berkeley, CA.

Siegel, R.K. (1985). New trends in drug useamong youth in California. Bulletin onNarcotics, 37, 7-17.

Singer, R. (1958). Pilze, die Zerebralmyzetismenverursachen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift furPilzkunde, 36, 81-89.

Singer, R. (1958). Mycological investigation onteonanacatl, the Mexican hallucinogenicmushroom. 1: The history of teonanacatl, fieldwork and culture work. Mycologia, 50, 239-261.

Stamets, P. (1982). Psilocybe Mushrooms andtheir Allies (2nd ed.). Homestead Book Co,Seattle, WA.

Stamets, P. & Gartz, J. (1995). A newcaerulescent Psilocybe from the Pacific Coastof Northwestern America. Integration, 6, 21-27.

Thompson, J.P., Anglin, M.G., Emboden, W. &Fischer, D.G. (1985). Mushroom use bycollege students. Journal of Drug Education,15, 111-124.

Wasson, R.G. (13 May 1957). Seeking the magicmushroom. Life, 13 May: 42(19), 100ff.

Wasson, R.G., Kramrisch, S., Ott, J. & Ruck,C.P.A. (1986). Persephone's Quest -Entheogens and the Origins of Religion. YaleUniversity Press, New Haven, CT.

Wasson, V.P. (1957). 1 ate the sacredmushrooms. This Week Magazine, 19 May,8ff.

Watling, R. (1983). Hallucinogenic mushrooms.Journal of the Forensic Sciences Society, 23,53-66.

Weil, A.T. (1977). The use of psychoactivemushrooms in the Pacific Northwest: Anethnopharmacological report. BotanicalMuseum Leaflets, Harvard University, 25,131-149.

2. Medical-pharmacological Literature

Aboul-Enein, H.Y. (1974). Psilocybin: apharmacological profile. American Journal ofPharmacology, 146, 91-95.

Barnett, B.E.W. (1971). Diazepam treatment for LSD intoxication. The Lancet, 270.Benjamin, C. (1979). Persistent psychiatric symptoms after eating psilocybin mushrooms.

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British Medical Journal, 1319-1320.Charters, A.D. (1957). Mushroom poisoning in

Kenya. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 51, 265-270.

Cooles, P. (1980). Abuse of the mushroomPanaeolus foenisecii. British Medical Journal, 446-447.

Dittrich, A. & Scharfetter, C. (1987). Ethno psychotherapie. Enke, Stuttgart (Germany).Dubansky, B. & Vyhnankova, M. (1967). Differences in the reaction of psilocybin in brain damaged subjects as related to the location of the lesion. Activitas Superior Nervosa, 9, 418-420.Fischer, R. & Goldman, H. (1975). Therapeutic

usefulness of hallucinogenic drugs as afunction of their chemical structure.Pharmakopsychatrie /Neuro-Psychopharamakologie, 8, 176-178.

Fischer, R. & Rockey, M. (1967). Psilocybin.Experientia, 23, 150.

Francis, J. & Murray, V.S.G. (1983). Review ofenquiries made to the NPIS concerningPsilocybe mushroom ingestion, 1978-1981.Human Toxicology, 2, 349-352.

Grinspoon, L. & Bakalar, J.B. (1981).Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. BasicBooks, New York.

Grof, S. (1975). Realms of the HumanUnconscious: Observations from LSDResearch. The Viking Press, Esalen, CA.

Grof, S. (1981). LSD Psychotherapy. HunterH ouse, New York.

Grof, S. Halifax, J. (1977). The HumanEncouner _with Death. E.P. Dutton, NewYork.

Harries, A.D. & Evans, V. (1981). Sequelae of a"magic mushroom banquet". PostgraduateMedical Journal, 57, 571-572.

Hyde, C., Glancy, G., Omerod, P., Hall, D. &Taylor, G.S. (1973). Abuse of indigenouspsilocybin mushrooms: a new fashion andsome psychiatric complications. BritishJournal of Psychiatry, 132, 602-604

Leuner, H. (1968). Ist die Verwendung von LSD-25 fur die experimentelle Psychiatrie heutenoch vertretbar? Der Nervenarzt, 39, 356-360.

Leuner, H. (1981). Halluzinogene. Hans Huber(Bern/Stuttgart/Wien).

Malitz, S., Esconer, H., Wilkens, B. & Hoch, P.H.(1960). Some observations on psilocybin, anew hallucinogen, in volunteer subjects.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 1, 8-17. McCarthy,J.P. (1971). Some less familiar drugs of abuse.Medical Journal of Australia, 2, 1078-1081.

McCawley, E.L., Brumett, R.E. & Dana, G.W.(1962). Convulsions from Psilocybe mush-room poisoning. Proceedings of theWestern Pharmacological Society, 5, 27-33.

McGlothlin, W.H. & Arnold, D.O. (1971). LSD revisited: A ten-year follow-up of medical LSD use. Archives of General Psychiatry, 24, 35-49.Mills, P.R., Lesinkas, D. & Watkinson, G.

(1979). The danger of hallucinogenicmushrooms. Scottish Medical Journal, 24,316-317.

Parashos, A.J. (1976/77). The psilocybin-induced"state of drunkenness" in normal volunteersand schizophrenics. BehavioralNeuropsychiatry, 8, 83-86.

Peden, N.R., Bissett, A.F., Macaulay, K.E.C. &Pelosi, A.J. (1981). Clinical toxicology of"magic mushroom" ingestion. PostgraduateMedical Journal, 57, 543-545.

Peden, N.R. & Pringle, S.D. (1982). Hallucino- genic fungi. The Lancet, 13 Feb., 396-397.Peden, N.R. & Pringle, S.D. & Crocks, J. (1982). The problem of psilocybin mushroom abuse. Human Toxicology, 1, 417-424.Schwartz, R.H. & Smith, D.E. (1988).

Hallucinogenic mushrooms. ClinicalPediatrics, 27, 70-73.

Southcott, R.V. (1974). Notes on somepoisonings and other clinical effects followingingestion of Australian fungi. SouthAustralian Clinics, 6, 441-478.

Stein, S.I. (1958). An unusual effect from aspecies of Mexican mushrooms Psilocybecubensis Mycopath. et Mycol. Applicata, 9,263-264.

Stein, S.I. (1959). Clinical observations on theeffects of Panaeolus venenosus versusPsilocybe caerulescens mushrooms. Myco-logia, 51, 49-50.

Trotter, J.E. (1944). A report of nine cases offungus poisoning. Medical Journal ofAustralia, 1, 393.

Van Went, G.E. (1978). Mutagenicity testing ofthree hallucinogens: LSD, psilocybin and O9-THC, using the micronucleus test.Experientia, 34, 324-325.

Widmer, S. (1989). Uber MDMA and LSD: Dieunerwunschte Psychotherapie. NachtschattenVerlag, Solothurn (Switzerland).

Young, R.E., Milroy, R., Hutchison, S. &Kesson, C.M. (1982). The rising price ofmushrooms. The Lancet, 23 Jan., 213-215.

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3. General Reference Books

Bresadola, J. (1931). Iconographia mycologica18. Mediolani.

Bresinsky, A. & Besl, H. (1985). Giftpilze.Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stutt-gart (Germany).

Buch, R. (1952). Die Bldtterpilze des nordwest- lichen Sachsens. Leipzig (Germany). Cooke, M.C. (1880-90). Illustrations of British Fungi. London.Flammer, R. (1980). Differentialdiagnose der Pilzvergiftungen. Fischer Stuttgart (Germany).Flammer, R. & Horak, E. (1980). Giftpilze - Pilzgifte. Franckh Stuttgart (Germany).Heim, R. (1967). Nouvelles Investigations sur les

Champignons Hallucinogenes. MuseumNationale d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

Heim, R. (1969). Champignons d'Europe. Boubee& Cie., Paris.

Heim, R. & Wasson, R.G. (1958/9). Leschampignons hallucinogenes du Mexique.Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.Kuhner, R. & Romagnesi, H. (1953). Fioreanalytique des champignons supirieurs.Masson & Cie., Paris.

Lange, J.E. & Lange, M. (1962). 600 Pilze inFarben. Bayrischer LandwirtschaftsverlagMunchen (Germany).

Michael, E. & Schulz, R. (1927). Fuhrer fur Pilzfreunde, Bd. 2. Leipzig (Germany). Michael,E., Hennig, B. & Kreisel, H. (Eds.), (1978-8 ). Handbuch fur Pilzfreunde, Bd. 1-6. ustav

Fischer Jena (Germany).Moser, . (1983). "Die Rohrlinge and Blatter-

pilze". In: Kleine Kryptogamenflora by H.Gams, Vo1.2b/2, 5th ed. Stuttgart (Germany).Phillips, R. (1981). Das Kosmosbuch der Pike.Stuttgart (Germany).

Ricken, A. (1915). Die Bldtterpilze. Leipzig(Germany).

Wasson, R.G. & Wasson, V.P. (1957). Mush-rooms, Russia and History. Pantheon, NewYork.

Wasson, R.G. (1974). Maria Sabina and herMazatec Mushroom Velada. Harcourt BraceJanovich, New York.

Wasson, R.G. (1980). The Wondrous Mushroom:Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. McGraw-Hill,New York.

4. Mushrooom Cultivation

Agurell, S., Blomkvist, S. & Catalfomo, P.(1966). Biosynthesis of psilocybin in sub-merged culture of Psilocybe cubensis. Acta

Pharm. Suecica, 3, 37-44.

Agurell, S. & Nilsson, L.G. (1968). Biosynthesisof psilocybin. Acta Chem. Scand., 22, 1210-1218.

Agurell, S. & Nilsson, L.G. (1968). Abiosynthesis sequence from tryptophan topsilocybin. Tetrahedron Letters, 9, 1063-1064.

Ames, R.W., Singer, R., Stein, S.I. & Smith, A.H.(1958). The influence of temperature onmycelial growth of Psilocybe, Panaeolus andCopelandia. Mycopathologia, 9, 268-274.Badham, E.R.(1980). The effect of light uponbasidiocarp initiation in Psilocybe cubensis.Mycologia, 72, 136-142.

Badham, E.R. (1982). Tropisms in the mushroomPsilocybe cubensis. Mycologia, 74, 275-279.

Badham, E.R. (1984). Modeling growth,development, transpiration and translocationin the mushroom Psilocybe cubensis. Bulletinof the Torrey Botanical Club, 111, 159-164.

Badham, E.R. & Kincaid, D.T. (1984).Analysis of anemotropism in the mushroomPsilocybe cubensis. Canadian Journal ofBotany, 62, 296-300.

Badham, E.R. (1985). The influence of humidityupon transpiration and growth in Psilocybecubensis. Mycologia, 77, 932-939.

Bigwood, J. & Beug, M.W. (1982). Variation ofpsilocybin and psilocin levels with repeatedflushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps ofPsilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer. Journal ofEthnopharmacology, 5, 287-291.

Brack, A., Hofmann, A., Kalberer, F., Kobel, H.& Rutschmann, J. (1961). Tryptophan alsbiogenetische Vorstufe des Psilocybins.Archiv der Pharmazie., 294, 230-234.Catalfomo, P. & Tyler, V.E. (1964). Theproduction of psilocybin in submerged cultureby Psilocybe cubensis. Lloydia, 21, 53-63.Clemencon, H. (1994). Der Nodulus and dieOrganogenese wahrend der fruhen Frucht-korperentwicklung von Psilocybe cyanescens.Zeitschrift fur Mykologie, 60, 49-68.

Gartz, J. (1987). Variation der Indolakaloide vonPsilocybe cubensis durch unterschiedlicheKultivierungsbedingungen. Beitrdge zurKenntnis der Pilze Mitteleuropas, 3, 275-281.Gartz, J. (1989). Biotransformation oftryptamine in fruiting mycelia of Psilocybecubensis. Planta Medica, 55, 249-250.

Gartz, J. (1989). Biotransformation of tryptaminederivates in mycelial cultures of Psilocybe.Journal of Basic Microbiology, 29, 347-352.Gartz, J. (1989). Bildung and Verteilung derIndolalkaloide in Fruchtkorpern, Mycelien

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and Sklerotien von Psilocybe cubensis.Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Pilze Europas, 5,167-174.

Gartz, J. & Muller G.K. (1990). Versuche zurKultur von Gymnopilus purpuratus, Purpur-flammling. Mykologisches Mitteilungsblatt(Germany), 33, 29-30.

Gartz, J., Adam, G. & Vorbrodt, H.M. (1990).Growth-promoting effect of a brassinosteroidin mycelial cultures of the fungus Psilocybecubensis. Naturwissenschaften, 77, 388-389.

Heim, R. & Cailleux, R. (1957). Culture pure etobtention semi-industrielle des Agaricshallucinogens du Mexique. Compt. Rend., 244,3109-3114.

Heim, R., Hofmann, A., Brack, A., Kobel, H. &Cailleux, R. (1959). Verfahren zurHerstellung and Gewinnung von Psilocybinand Psilocin. Patent 1087321-C12d30hc.

Kneebone, L.R. (1960). Methods for theproduction of certain hallucinogenic agarics.Abstract. Dev. Ind. Micro., 1, 109.

Leung, A.Y. & Paul, A.G. (1968). Baeocystinand norbaeocystin: New analogs ofpsilocybin from Psilocybe baeocystis.Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 57,1667-1671.

Leung, A.Y., Smith, A.H. & Paul, A.G. (1968).Production of psilocybin in Psilocybebaeocystis saprophytic culture. Journal ofPharmaceutical Sciences, 54, 1576-1579.

Leung, A.Y. & Paul, A.G. (1969). Therelationships of carbon and nitrogen nutritionof Psilocybe baeocystis to the production ofpsilocybin and its analogs. Lloydia, 32, 66-71.

Neal, J.M., Benedict, R.G. & Brady, R. (1968).Interrelationship of phosphate nutrition,nitrogen metabolism and accumulation ofkey secondary metabolites in saprophyticculture of Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybecyanescens and Panaeolus campanulatus.Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 57,1661-1667.

Oss, O.T. & Oeric, O.N. (1976). Psilocybin:Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide. And/OrPress, Berkeley, CA.

Pollock, S.H. (1977). Magic Mushroom Cultiva-tion. Herbal Medicine Research Foundation,San Antonio, TX.

Stamets, P. & Chilton, J.S. (1983). The MushroomCultivator. Agarikon Press Olympia, WA.

Stamets, P. (1993). Growing Gourmet &Medicinal Mushrooms. Ten Speed Press,

5. Popular Literature

Cooper, R. (1980). A Guide to British PsilocybinMushrooms (2nd ed.). Hessle Free Press, London.

Estrada, A. (1980). Maria Sabina - Botin der heiligenPike. Trikont, Miinchen (Germany).

Haard, R. & Haard, K. (1980). Poisonous &Hallucinogenic Mushrooms (2nd ed.). HomesteadBook Company, Seattle, WA.

Harris, B. (1989). Growing Wild Mushrooms (revisededition). Homestead Book Company, Seatlle, WA.

Leary, T. (1990). Flashbacks: A Personal andCultural History of an Era. J.P. Tarcher Inc.,Los Angeles.

Menser, G.P. (1984). Magic Mushroom Handbook. Homestead, Seattle, WA. Stafford, P. (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia (third expanded edition). Ronin Publishing, Berkeley, CA.Stevens, J. & Gee, R. (1987). How to Identify

and Grow Psilocybin Mushrooms. Sun MagicPublishing, Seattle, WA.

6. Conocybe

Benedict, R.G., Brady, L.R., Smith, A.H. &Tyler, V.E. (1962). Occurrence of psilocybinand psilocin in certain Conocybe andPsilocybe species. Lloydia, 25, 156-159.

Benedict, R.G., Tyler, V.E. & Watling, R.(1967). Blueing in Conocybe, Psilocybe and aStropharia species and the detection ofpsilocybin. Lloydia, 30, 150-157.

Christiansen, A.L., Rasmussen, K.E. & Holland,K. (1984). Detection of psilocybin andpsilocin in Norwegian species of Pluteus andConocybe. Planta Medica, 51, 341-343.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zur Analytik der Inhaltsstoffezweier Pilzarten der Gattung Conocybe.Pharmazie, 40, 366.

Ohenoja, E., Jokiranta, J., Maekinen, T.,Kaikkonen, A. & Airaksinen, M.M. (1987).The occurrence of psilocybin and psilocin inFinnish fungi. Journal of Natural Products,50, 741-744.

7. Galerina

Besl, H. (1993). Galerina steglichii spec. nov.,ein halluzinogener Haubling. Zeitschrift furMykologie, 59, 215-218.

Gartz, J. (1995). Cultivation and analysis of

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Psilocybe species and an investigation ofGalerina steglichii. Ann. Mus. Civ. Rovereto(Italy) Sez. sc. nat., 10, 297-305.

8. Gymnopilus

Buck, R. W. (1967). Psychedelic effect ofPholiota spectabilis. New England Journal ofMedicine, 267, 391-392.

Cleland, J. B. (1934). Toadstools and mushroomsand other larger fungi of South Australia.Adelaide.

Gartz, J. (1989). Occurrence of psilocybin,psilocin and baeocystin in Gymnopiluspurpuratus. Persoonia, 14, 19-22.

Hatfield, G.M., Valdes, L.J. & Smith, A.H.(1978). The occurrence of psilocybin inGymnopilus species. Lloydia, 41, 140-144.

Koike, Y., Wada, K., Kusano, G., Nozoe, S. &Yokoyama, K. (1981). Isolation of psilocybinfrom Psilocybe argentipes and itsdetermination in specimens of somemushrooms. Journal of Natural Products, 44,362-365.

Kreisel, H. & Lindequist, U. (1988).Gymnopiluspurpuratus, ein psilocybinhaltigerPilz adventiv im Bezirk Rostock. Zeitschrift furMykologie, 54, 73-76.

Singer, R. (1969). Mycoflora Australis. Beih.Nova Hedwiga, 29.

Singer, R. (1975). The Agaricales in ModernTaxonomy (3rd ed.). Vaduz.

Walters, M.B. (1965). Pholiota spectabilis, ahallucinogenic fungus. Mycologia, 57, 837-838.

9.Inocybe

Babos, M. (1968). Eine neue Inocybe-Art inUngarn: Inocybe aeruginascens n.sp.Fragmenta Botanica, 6, 19-22.

Babos, M. (1983). Beobachtungsangaben beieiner halluzinogenen Inocybe-Art (inHungarian, with German summary).Mikologicie Kozlemenyek, 3, 143.

Bekker, A.M., Guervich, L.S., Nezdoiminogo,E.L., Onoprienko, B.B. & Koz'min, Y.P.(1989). Chromatographische Studie einigerIndolmetabolite in der Gattung Inocybe(Basidiomyceten) 2 (in Russian). Mikol.Fitopatol., 23, 129, ref. C.A. 111, 53870a.

Besl, H. & Mack, P. (1.985). HalluzinogeneRisspilze. Zeitschrift fur Mykologie, 51, 183-184.

Bohus, G. & Babos, M. (1977). Fungorum

rariorum icones coloratae Pars 8. J. Cramer(Liechtenstein).

Drewitz, G. (1983). Eine halluzinogeneRisspilzart. Grunlichverfarbender Risspilz(Inocybe aeruginescens). MykologischesMitteilungsblatt, 26, 11-17.

Gartz, J. (1985). Vergleichende diinn-schichtchromatographische Untersuchungenzweier Psilocybe- and einer halluzinogenenInocybeart. Pharmazie, 40, 134.

Gartz, J. & Drewitz, G. (1985). Der ersteNachweis des Vorkommens von Psilocybin inRisspilzen. Zeitschrift fur Mykologie, 51, 199-203.

Gartz, J. (1986). Nachweis von Tryptamin-derivaten in Pilzen der Gattungen Gerronema,Hygrocybe, Psathyrella and von Inocybe.Biochem. Physiol. Pflanzen, 181, 275-278.

Gartz, J. (1986). Psilocybin in Mycelkulturenvon Inocybe aeruginascens. Biochem. Physiol.Pflanzen, 181, 511-517.

Gartz, J. (1986). Untersuchungen zum Vor-kommen des Muscarins in Inocybeaeruginascens Babos. Zeitschrift furMykologie, 52, 359-361.

Gartz, J. & Drewitz, G. (1986). Der Grunlich-erfarbende Risspilz - eine Inocybeart mithalluzinogener Wirkung. Zeitschrift fur Arzt-liche Fortbildung, 80, 551-553.

Gartz, J. (1987). Variation der Alkaloidmengen inFruchtkorpern von Inocybe aeruginascens.Planta Medica, 53, 539-541.

Gartz, J. (1989). Analysis of aeruginascin infruiting bodies of the mushroom Inocybeaeruginascens. International Journal of CrudeDrug Research, 27, 141-144.

Gurevich, L.S.: Psilocybin and muscarin aspossible chemotaxonomic markers of thegenus Inocybe (Fr.)Fr.(Cortinariaceae)(rus.)cit.in: Chemical Abstracts, 118, 35586c.

Haeselbarth, G., Michaelis, H. & Salnikow, J.(1985). Nachweis von Psilocybin in Inocybeaeruginascens Babos. MykologischesMitteilungsblatt, 28, 59-62.

Hohmeyer, H. (1984). Inocybe aeruginascensBabos in Berlin(West) gefunden. Zeitschriftfur Mykologie, 50, 211-214.

Kaspar, R. (1977). Inocybe aeruginascens beiBerlin-Kopenick - Erstfund fur die DDR.Mykologisches Mitteilungsblatt, 21, 99.

Robbers, J.E., Brady, L.R. & Tyler, V.E. (1964).A chemical & chemotaxonomic evaluation ofInocybe species. Lloydia, 27, 192.

Semerdzieva, M., Wurst, M., Koza, T. & Gartz,J. (1986). Psilocybin in Fruchtkorpern vonInocybe aeruginascens. Planta Medica, 47, 83-85.

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Stijve, T., Klan, J. & Kuyper, Th.W. (1985).Occurrence of psilocybin and baeocystin inthe genus Inocybe (Fr.)Fr. Persoonia, 12, 469-473.

Stijve, T. & Kuyper, Th. W. (1985). Occurrenceof psilocybin in various higher fungi fromseveral European countries. Planta Medica,46, 385-387.

10. Panaeolus

Aberdeen, J.E.C. & Jones, W. (1958). Ahallucinogenic toadstool. Australian Journalof Science, 21, 149.

Benedict, R.G. & Tyler, V.E. (1962).Examination of mycelial cultures of Panaeolusspecies for tryptophan hydroxylase activity.Lloydia, 25, 46-54.

Bergner, H. & Oettel, R. (1971). Vergiftungendurch Dungerlinge. Mykologisches Mittei-lungsblatt (Germany), 15, 61-63.

Brodie, H.J. (1935). The heterothallism of Pana-eolus subbalteatus Berk., a sklerotium-pro-ducing agaric. Canadian Journal of Research,12, 657-666.

Ceruti-Scurti, J., Fuisselli, N. & Jodici, R. (1972).Idrossi-indol derivati in basidiomiceti 3.Allionia, 19, 91-96.

Ceruti-Scurti, J. & Bianco, M.A. (1973).Caratteristiche colturali di miceli diPanaeolus. Allionia, 19, 5.

Douglass, B. (1917). Mushroom poisoning.Torreya, 17, 207-221.

Fiusello, N. & Ceruti-Scurti, J. (1971-72).Idrossi-indol derivati in basidiomiceti 1. Attidella Accad. science di Torino, 106, 725.

Fiusello, N. & Ceruti-Scurti, J. (1972). Idrossi-indol derivati in basidiomiceti 2. Allionia, 18,85-90.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zum Nachweis der Inhaltsstoffeeiner Pilzart der Gattung Panaeolus.Pharmazie, 40, 431.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zur Analyse von Panaeoluscampanulatus (Fr.)Quel. Pharmazie, 40, 432.

Gartz, J. (1989). Analyse der Indolderivate in Fruchtkorpern and Mycelien von Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk.& Br.)Sacc. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanzen, 184, 171-178.Gerhardt, E. (1987). Panaeolus cyanescens (Bk.&

Br.)Sacc. and Panaeolus antillarum(Fr.)Dennis, zwei Adventivarten inMitteleuropa. Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der PilzeMitteleuropas, 3, 223-227.

Glen, G. (1816). A case proving the deleteriouseffects of the Agaricus campanulatus whichwas mistaken for the Agaricus campestis or

champignon. London Medical and PhysicalJournal, 36, 451-453.

Gurevich, L.S. (1993). Indole derivatives incertain Panaeolus species from East Europeand Siberia. Mycological Research, 97, 251-254.

Heim, R., Hofmann, A. & Tscherter, H. (1966).Toxicologie: Sur une intoxication collective asyndrome psilocybien causee en France parun Copelandia. C.R. Acad. Sci. (D) (Pars),262, 519-523.

Murrill, W.A. (1916). A very dangerous mushroom. Mycologia, 8, 186-187.Neuhoff, W. (1958). Eine Dungerlingsvergiftung in Bremen. Zeitschrift fur Pilzkunde, 24, 87-91.Ola'h, G.M. (1970). Le genre Panaeolus. Rev.

Mycol., Hors-Serie 10, 1-222.Ott, J. & Guzman, G. (1976). Detection of

psilocybin in species of Psilocybe, Panaeolusand Psathyrella. Llyodia, 39, 258-260.

Pollock, S.H. (1974). A novel experience withPanaeolus - a case study from Hawaii.Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 6, 85-89.

Repke, D.B., Leslie, D.T. & Guzman, G. (1977).Baeocystin in Psilocybe, Conocybe andPanaeolus. Lloydia, 40, 566-578.

Robbers, J.E., Tyler, V.E. & Ola'h, G.M. (1969).Additional evidence supporting theoccurrence of psilocybin in Panaeolusfoenisecii. Lloydia, 32, 399-400.

Singer, R. & Smith, A.H. (1958). About theidentity of the "weed Panaeolus" or"poisonous Panaeolus". Mycopathol. Mycol.Appl., 9, 280-284.

Stein, S.I., Closs, G.L. & Gabel, N.W. (1959).Observations on psychoneurophysiologicallysignificant mushrooms. Mycopathol. Mycol.Applicata, 11, 205-216.

Stijve, T., Hischenhuber, C. & Ashley, D.(1984). Occurrence of 5-hydroxylated indolederivatives in Panaeolina foenisecii (Fries)Kuehner from various origins. Zeitschrift furMykologie, 50, 361-368.Stijve, T. (1985). Een chernische verkenningvan het geslacht Panaeolus. Coolia, 28, 81-89.Stijve, T. (1987). Vorkommen von Serotonin,Psilocybin and Harnstoff in Panaeoloideae.Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der PilzeMitteleuropas, 3, 229-234.

Stijve, T. (1992). Psilocin, psilocybin, serotonin& urea in Panaeolus cyanescens from variousorigins. Persoonia, 15, 117-121.

Tyler, V.E. & Malone, M.H. (1960). An inves-tigation of the culture, constituents & physio-logical activity of Panaeolus campanulatus. J.Amer. Pharm. Assoc., Sci. Ed., 49, 23-27.

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Verrill, A.E. (1914). A recent case of mushroomintoxication. Science, 40, 408-410.

Watling, R. (1977). A Panaeolus poisoning inScotland. Mycopathologia, 61, 187-190.

11. Pluteus

Gartz, J. (1987). Vorkommen von Psilocybin andBaeocystin in Fruchtkorpern von Pluteussalicinus. Planta Medica, 53, 290-291.

Saupe, S.G. (1981). Occurrence of psilocybin /psilocin in Pluteus salicinus (Pluteaceae).Mycologia, 73, 781-784.

Stijve, T. & Bonnard, J. (1986). Psilocybine eturee dans le genre Pluteus. MycologiaHelvetica, 2, 123-129.

12. Psilocybe cyanescens Complex

Gartz, J. & Muffler, G.K. (1989). Analysis andcultivation of fruiting bodies and mycelia ofPsilocybe bohemica. Biochem. Physiol.Pflanzen, 184, 337-341.

Guzman, G. & Bas, C. (1977). A new bluingspecies of Psilocybe from Europe. Persoonia,9, 233-238.

Krieglsteiner, G.J. (1984). Studien zum Psilocybecyanescens-Komplex in Europa. Beitrdge zurKenntnis der Pike Mitteleuropas, 1,61-94.

Krieglsteiner, G.J.(1986). Studien zum Psilocybecyanescens-callosa-semilanceata-Komplex inEuropa. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der PikeMitteleuropas, 2, 57-72.

Kysilka, R., Wurst, M., Pacakova, V., Stulik, K.& Haskovec, L. (1985). High-performanceliquid chromatographic determination ofhallucinogenic indoleamines with simulta-neous UV, photometric and voltametric detec-tion. Journal of Chromatography, 320, 414-420.

Kysilka, R. & Wurst, M. (1989). High-performance liquid chromatographicdetermination of some psychotropic indolederivates. Journal of Chromatography, 464,434-437.

Kysilka, R. & Wurst, M. (1990). A novelextraction procedure for psilocybin andpsilocin determination in mushroom samples.Planta Medica, 56, 327-328.

Moser, M. & Horak, E. (1968). Psilocybe serbicaspec. nov., eine neue Psilocybin and Psilocinbildende Art aus Serbien. Zeitschrift furPilzkunde, 34, 137-144.

Muller, G.K. & Gartz, J. (1986). Psilocybe

cyanescens - eine weitere halluzinogeneKahlkopfart in der DDR. MykologischesMitteilungsblatt (Germany), 29, 33-35.

Sebek, S. (1980). Bohmischer Kahlkopf,Psilocybe bohemica. Ceska Mykologie, 37,177-181.

Semerdzieva, M. & Nerud, F. (1973).Halluzinogene Pilze in der Tschechoslowakei.Ceska Mykologie, 27, 42-47.

Semerdzieva, M. & Wurst, M. (1986). Psycho-trope Inhaltsstoffe zweier Psilocybe-Arten/Kahlkopfe aus der CSSR. Mykologi-sches Mitteilungsblatt (Germany), 29, 65-70.Tjallingii-Beukers, D. (1976). Een blauw-wordernde Psilocybe (Psilocybe cyanescensWakefield 1946). Coolia, 19, 38-43.

Unger, S.E. & Cooks, R.G. (1979). Applicationof mass spectometry, mass spectometry(MS/MS) to the identification of naturalproducts in Psilocybe cyanescens. AnalyticalLetters 12 (Part B), 1157-1167.

Wurst, M., Kysilka, R. & Koza, T. (1992).Analysis and isolation of indole alkaloids offungi by high-performance liquid chromato-graphy. Journal of Chromatography, 593,201-208.

13. Psilocybe semilanceata (Liberty Cap)

Brenneisen, R. & Borner, S. (1988). The occur-rence of tryptamine derivatives in Psilocybesemilanceata. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung,43c, 511-515.

Brenneisen, R., Borner, S., Peter-Oesch, N. &Schlunegger, U.P. (1988). Synthesis ofbaeocystin, a natural psilocybin analogue.Arch. Pharm., 321, 487-489.

Christiansen, A.L., Rasmussen, K.E. & Hoiland,K. (1981). The content of psilocybin inNorwegian Psilocybe semilanceata. PlantaMedica, 42, 229-235.

Christiansen, A.L., Rasmussen, K.E. &Tonnesen, F. (1981). Determination ofpsilocybin in Psilocybe semilanceata usinghigh-performance liquid chromatography on asilica column. Journal of Chromatography,210, 163-167.

Christiansen, A.L., Rasmussen, K.E. (1982).Analysis of indole alkaloids in NorwegianPsilocybe semilanceata using high-performance liquid chromatography and massspectometry. Journal of Chromatography,244, 357-364.

Christiansen, A.L., Rasmussen, K.E. (1983).Screening of hallucinogenic mushrooms withhigh-performance liquid chromatography and

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multiple detection. Journal of Chromato-graphy, 270, 293-299.

Cooke, M.C. (1902-06). Agaric transformations.Transactions of the British MycologicalSociety, 2, 29-30.

Dawson P. & Morelli, C. (1975). A Guide to theMajor Psilocybin Mushroom of BritishColumbia: Psilocybe semilanceata.Vancouver.

Fries, E.M. (1818). Observationes Mycologica.Havniae.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zur Isolierung des Baeocystinsaus den Fruchtkorpern einer Psilocybeart.Pharmazie, 40, 274.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zur Extraktion andChromatographie des blauen Farbstoffes einerPsilocybeart. Pharmazie, 40, 274-275.

Gartz, J. (1985). Zur Untersuchung von Psilocybesemilanceata (Fr.)Kumm. Pharmazie, 40,506.

Gartz, J. (1986). Quantitive Bestimmung derIndolderivate von Psilocybe semilanceata(Fr.)Kumm. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanzen,181,117-124.

Gartz, J. (1991). Further investigations onpsychoactive mushrooms of the generaPsilocybe, Gymnopilus and Conocybe. Ann.Mus. Civ. Rovereto (Italy) Sez. sc. nat., 7,265-274.

Heim, R. (1971). A propos des proprieteshailucinogenes du Psilocybe semilanceata.Naturaliste can., 98, 415-424.

Heim, R., Genest, K., Hughes, D.W. & Belec, G.(1966). Botanical and chemical characterisationof a forensic mushroom specimen of the genusPsilocybe. Journal of the Forensic ScienceSociety, 6, 192-201.

Hofmann, A., Heim, R. & Tscherter, H. (1963).Presence de la psilocybine dans une especeeuropeenne d'Agaric, le Psilocybe semilanceata.Compt. Rend., 257, 10-12.

Hoiland, K. (1978). The genus Psilocybe inNorway. Norwegian Journal of Botany, 25,111-122.

Horak, E. (1968). Synopsis generumAgaricalium

(Die Gattungstypen der Agaricales). In:Beitrage Kryptogamenflora Schweiz, 13. Bern.

Jokiranta, J., Mustola, S., Ohenoja, E. &Airaksinen, M.M. (1984). Psilocybin inFinnish Psilocybe semilanceata. PlantaMedica, 50, 277-278.

Mantle, P.G. & Waight, E.S. (1969). Occurrenceof psilocybin in the sporophores of Psilocybesemilanceata. Transactions of the BritishMycological Society, 53, 302-303.

Michaelis, H. (1977). Psilocybe semilanceata(Fr.)Quel. (Spitzkegeliger Kahlkopf) - Nach-weis von Psilocybin in deutschen Funden.Zeitschrift fur Pilzkunde, 43, 305-310.

Repke, D.B. & Leslie, D.T. (1977). Baeocystin inPsilocybe semilanceata. J. Pharm. Sci., 66,113-114.

Schumacher, T. (1976). Hallusinogene sopper.Vare Nyttevekster (Norway), 71, 110-115.

Stahl, E., Brombeer, J. & Eskes, D. (1978).Rauschgiftpilze mit LSD? Archiv PrKriminologie, 162, 23-33.

Stijve, T. (1984). Psilocybe semilanceata als hallucinogene paddestoel. Coolia, 27, 36-43. Vanhaelen-Fastre, R. & Vanhaelen, M. (1984). Qualitative and quantitative determinations of hallucinogenic components of Psilocybe mushrooms by reversed-phase highperformance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography, 312, 467-472.Weil, A.T. (1975). Mushroom hunting in Oregon

3: On the trail of the Liberty Cap. Journal ofPsychedelic Drugs, 7, 96-102. White, P.C.(1979). Analysis of extracts from Psilocybesemilanceata by high-pressure liquidchromatography. Journal ofChromatography, 169, 453-456.

Wurst, M., Semerdzieva, M. & Vokoun, J. (1984).Analysis of psychotropic compounds in fungiof the genus Psilocybe by reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Journalof Chromatography, 286, 229-235.

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INDEX (With Active Links' Just Click On A Number To Go To A Page)

Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations

Aberdeen, J.E.C. & Jones, W. 84Accidental intoxications, 15, 16, 37-38, 45, 51, 61, 88-

89, 93-94, 102Aeruginascin, 49Agaricales, 65, 114Agaricus campanulatus, 37Agaricus glutinosus, 16Agaricus semilanceatus, 16Agaricus subbalteatus, 37Alkaloids, 9, 13, 18, 26, 27, 31, 36, 41, 49-50, 55-56,

58-59, 63-65, 69, 88, 102-105, 114Allen, J.W., 43, 81, 100Amanita muscaria, 10-11, 115Amanita phalloides, 61-62Amanitaceae, 58Armillaria mellea, 51, 93Babos, M., 46f, 47Bad trip, 35, 85fBadham, E.R., 70Baeocystin, 28, 31, 35-36, 41-42, 49-50, 53, 56, 59,

63, 69, 72, 101-102, 114Berserkers, 11Beug, M.W., 56, 61, 79Bigwood, J., 56, 61, 79Biochemical reactions (psilocin and psilocybin), 63Blue meanies, 85Bluing, 63-65Bolbitiaceae, 55Boletes (bluing), 65, 66Bolond Gomba, 11Brande, E. 15, 16Brassinosteroids, 70Brodie, H.J., 69Bwyd Ellylon, 10Cailleux, R. 66-67, 69Carter, M., 87Champignon (Agaricus bisporis), 21, 37, 62, 67, 69Charters, A.D., 96Chemical races, 41Chilton, J.S., 70, 72Cleland, J., 84Clusius, 11Conocybe spp., 55-56, 63, 69Conocybe cyanopoda, 55Conocybe cyanopus, 55-56, 57, 63, 69Conocybe lactea, 56Conocybe siligineodes, 55Conocybe tenera, 56Contamination, 70Cooke, M.C., 16, 52, 63, 87Copelandia spp., 42Coprinaceae, 55

Coprinarius semilanceatus, 16Cortinariaceae, 53Cox, P.A., 98Cross-breeding experiments, 30, 67Cullinan, E.R., 96Cultivation, 62, 66-75, 81, 90, 98, 101DAWN, 81DNA analysis, 30Dikaryotic mycelia, 65Dipropyltryptamine, 110Drewitz, G., 44ff, 65Entheogens, 103Enzymatic destruction, 63, 65Enzymes, 63, 65Epilepsy, 102Experiences, 25-26, 34-35, 37-38, 42-43, 45-46, 51,

85-86, 90, 93-94, 102, 105, 110-111Ferencz, I. , 44Fischer, R., 103, 105, 106Flammer, R., 115Flammula purpurata, 52Flashbacks, 103-104Fly Agaric, 10-11, 26, 58, 100Fool's mushrooms, 7, 11-12, 82, 98Foolish mushrooms, 12Ford, W.W., 81Francis, J. & Murray, V.S.G., 89Fries, E., 16, 31Fruiting, 66-70Furrer, 18Galera spp., 55Galerina spp., 61-62Galerina autumnalis, 61Galerina marginata, 62Gentamycin, 67Geophila cyanescens, 29Gerhardt, E., 41, 42Gold tops, 85Good Friday experiment, 34Grof, S., 26, 35, 103-104, 108, 110Guzman, G., 18, 29-30, 38, 43, 55, 62, 80, 82, 100Gymnopilus spp., 51-54, 63, 71, 72, 93Gymnopilus junonius, 51Gymnopilus purpuratus, 30, 40, 51-54, 63, 71, 72Gymnopilus spectabilis, 51-52, 93Gymnopilus validipes, 52HPLC, see High-performance liquid chromatographyHallucinations, 10-11, 27, 42, 45, 51, 85, 94Hallucinogens, 10-13, 26, 34, 88-89, 102-105, 108-

112,115Hatfield, G.M., 51Hausner, M., 107, 109

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Heim, R., 9, 18, 38, 55-56, 66-67, 69, 79, 82, 100Henry, D., 96Herink, J., 31, 44High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),18Hofmann, A., 9, 13, 18, 43, 63, 69, 100, 103Hyde, C., 875-Hydroxy-tryptophan, 41Hygrophanous species, 19, 22, 31, 39, 41Hypholoma spp., 29, 96Hypholoma coprinifacies, 29Hypholoma cyanescens, 29, 96Hypnosis, 115Illusions, 45Imai, S., 93Indole compounds, 41-42, 43, 65, 114Inocybe spp., 26, 44-50, 62-65, 72-75, 81, 89, 91Inocybe aeruginascens, 26, 44-50, 48, 62-65, 72, 74-75, 91, 117Inocybe calamistrata, 50Inocybe coelestium, 50Inocybe corydalina, 50Inocybe geophylla, 89Inocybe haemacta, 50, 52Inocybe infelix, 81Inocybe infida, 81Inocybe patouillardi, 45Inocybe tricolor, 50Inquisition, 7, 10Kaspar, R., 44Kneebone, L.R., 69Kreisel, H., 58Krieglsteiner, G.J., 14, 30, 32, 96Kubicka, 31LBM's (Little Brown Mushrooms), 44, 61LD 50, 102LSD, 13, 35, 81, 85, 87, 89, 101-105, 108-112, 113Laccase, 63Laminar flow hood, 67Leary, T., 12, 81, 103Lentinus oreades (shiitake), 93Leuner, H., 108-109Liberty cap, 34, 79, 87MDMA, 109Maire, R., 96Maitake, 93Malencon, G., 96Malt agar, 43, 56, 68, 69Marasmius oreades, 45McKenna, T., 95Melzer's reagent, 65Merlin, M.D., 100Mescaline, 89, 102-103, 105, 108Metol reaction, 63-65Michael & Schulz, 18, 19, 38, 39Michaelis. H.. 18. 19, 20

Mills, P.R., 87Monokaryotic mycelium, 66Morphine, 112Murrill, W.A., 37, 81Muscarine, 44-45, 49, 62, 65, 81, 85, 89Mycelia, 7-8, 21-22, 30-31, 34, 41-42, 43, 63-67, 69-

70, 72, 75, 93, 98, 101Mycelial degeneration, 72, 75Mycena spp., 114Mycophilia, 7, 12, 62Mycophobia, 8, 12, 62Mycorrhiza, 46, 66, 72Naematoloma caerulescens, 100Nerud, F., 36Norbaeocystin, 102 Ola'h,G.M., 41, 96, 100Ololiuqui, 109Oss, O.T. & Oeric, O.N., 66, 90Ott, J ,80, 102Pahnke, W., 34Panaeolus spp., 16, 35-43, 62, 65, 69, 72, 76, 80-81,

82, 84-85, 94, 96, 98, 100-101Panaeolus africanus, 96Panaeolus cambodginiensis, 100Panaeolus cyanescens, 41, 42, 43, 80-81, 82, 84-85,

96, 98,101Panaeolus foeniscecii, 38, 41-42Panaeolus ovatus, 38, 84Panaeolus papilionaceus, 37, 93Panaeolus retirugis, 38, 41Panaeolus semilanceatus, 16Panaeolus sphinctrinus, 38Panaeolus subbalteatus, 6, 37-43, 62, 65, 69, 72, 76,

80-81, 84, 94, 96Panaeolus tropicales, 96Panaeolus variabilis, 41Panaeolus venenosus, 37Parkinson, J., 12Peden, N.R., 88Peyote, 109Phantastica, 102ffPholiota spectabilis, 51Pholiotina filaris, 62Picker & Rickards, 84Pluteaceae, 58Pluteus spp., 58-60Pluteus nigroviridis, 59Pluteus salicinus, 58-60, 59, 60Pollock, S.H., 83Potocki, V., 12Prague research, 26, 34Primordia, 67Psathyrella, 38Psilocin 9, 26, 27, 31, 34-36, 41-42, 43, 49, 53,

55-56, 58, 63-66, 69-70, 75, 79, 84,102,114

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Psilocybe spp., 4, 5, 9, 10-12, 14-15, 16-28, 17, 23-24, 29-37, 32-33, 36, 46, 49, 52-53, 56, 61-67, 64, 68, 69-70, 71, 73, 72-75, 74, 76-77,79-81, 82-91, 93-98, 99, 100-102, 104,109, 113, 114-115, 116, 119

Psilocybe argentipes, 94Psilocybe aztecorum, 82Psilocybe azurescens, 81Psilocybe baeocystis, 27, 31, 69, 79, 102, 119Psilocybe bohemica, 12, 22, 27, 29, 31, 32-33, 34-36,53, 63, 67, 71, 72, 104, 109Psilocybe caerulescens, 16, 31Psilocybe cubensis, 5, 63-65, 64, 67, 68, 69-70, 71,

72, 74, 75, 76-77, 81, 82-85, 90, 93, 96-97,98, 100-101, 104, 109, 114

Psilocybe cyanescens, 14, 29-36, 32-33, 66-67, 69,75, 80, 91, 96, 102, 114

Psilocybe mairei, 29, 96Psilocybe mexicana, 18, 49, 67, 72, 82, 91, 113Psilocybe natalensis, 72, 97Psilocybe pelliculosa, 31, 79Psilocybe samuiensis, 99, 101Psilocybe semilanceata, 4, 9, 10-12, 15, 16-28, 17,

23-24, 29-30, 37, 46, 52-53, 56, 61-66, 69,73, 72, 79-81, 87-89, 95-96, 98, 101-102,109, 114-115, 116

Psilocybe semperviva, 16Psilocybe serbica, 29Psilocybe stuntzii, 31, 61-62, 77, 80, 119Psilocybe subaeruginosa, 84-86Psilocybe subcaerulipes, 94Psilocybe subcubensis, 100-101Psilocybe tampanensis, 72, 117Psilocybe yungensis, 52Psilocybe zapotecorum, 69Psilocybin, 7, 9, 10-13, 20, 27, 29, 31, 34-38, 41-42,

43, 45-46, 49-50, 52-56, 58-59, 63-65,79-81, 84-85, 87-90, 93-94, 102-105,108-112, 114-115

Psychedelic therapy, 102-105, 108-112Psychedelics, 103, 112Psychiatry, 89,108Psychoactivity, 11, 26, 27, 31, 51, 103Psychoanalysis, 109Psychodysleptica, 103Psycholytic experience, 35, 102-105, 110-111Psycholytic therapy, 35, 102-105, 108-112Psychosynthesis, 109Psychotherapy, 26, 102-105, 108-112Receptors (in the brain), 102Rhizomorphs, 31, 32, 66, 75Ricken, A., 18, 20, 58Robbins, T., 79Roquet, S., 110Samorini, G., 10, 95, 114Sandoz Pharmaceuticals, 13, 43

Saprophytic species, 55, 58, 66-67, 69, 72Saupe, S.G., 59Saxo Grammaticus, 11Schroeder, R.F., 100Sclerotia, 56, 57, 69, 73, 72, 75, 117Semerdzieva, M., 36Serotonin, 41-42, 43, 59, 84Siegel, R., 105Sinden, J., 70Singer, R., 38, 42, 43, 53, 63-65, 69, 94, 96Smith, A.H., 63, 79, 94, 96Soma, 100 Sowerby, J., 16, 17Spore prints, 38, 62, 81Spores, 29-30, 38, 41, 52-53, 55-56, 62, 66-67, 70,

72, 100Stamets, P., 70, 72, 80, 102Sterile conditions (cultivation), 67ffStijve, T., 41-42, 43, 58-59Stropharia spp., 29, 38, 62, 93, 95-96Stropharia caerulescens, 93Stropharia rugoso-annulata, 38, 62Stropharia venenata, 93Styrylpyrones, 51Submersed fermentation, 69Surface cultivation, 69Symbiosis (with plants), 46, 72TLC, see Thin-layer chromatographyTassili rock paintings, 8, 95ff, 97Taxonomy, 9, 41ff, 82-83, 94, 101Teonanacatl (Panaeolus sphinctrinus), 7, 12, 38Thin-layer chromatography (TLC), 36, 41-42, 49, 53Toxic psychosis, 103Toxicity, 38, 102, 109Tryptophan, 66, 69Tyler, V.E., 79Urea, 42, 59Wakefield, 29Waraitake, 93Wasson, R.G., 7, 9, 12, 31, 38, 82, 100, 106, 111Watling, R., 38, 89Weil, A., 43Widmer, S., 108Witch hunts, 10-11, 92Yokoyama, K., 94Young, R.E., 88

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AcknowledgmentsI am particularly grateful to Claudia Taake. Without her translation, her technical support and

our stimulating, creative discussions, the publication of this book in its present form would not have beenpossible.

I want to thank Scott Bradbury for his contribution of original artwork on both covers and onpage 1, and for assisting with cover design and layout.

I am grateful to several individuals who introduced me to mycology; special thanks are duethose who have provided me with a number of extremely rare mushroom samples for my research. I ammost grateful to Gerhard Drewitz of Caputh (Berlin) for his helpful observations on the taxonomy andtoxicology of the Inocybe species. For more than 10 years, he has furnished me with rare mushroomspecimens for chemical analyses. I am thankful for our many joint excursions into the world ofmushrooms.

Gerd K. Muller (Leipzig, Germany) has deepened my understanding of the mushrooms's purposeand position in the natural world. It was our collaboration at the University of Leipzig, and anopportunity to deposit mushroom material at the Leipzig Herbarium that resulted in the discovery of newfrontiers in mycological research.

For contributing valuable data on natural products chemistry, taxonomy and medicalapplications for psychedelics, I am indebted to the late Marta Semerdzieva, who died in 1994, as well asto Milan Hausner and Josef Herink in the Czech Republic. I cherish the memories of our collaborationand our joint field research expeditions.

I want to thank John W. Allen (Hawaii) for generously sharing many photographs and his expertknowledge of the mycofloras in North America, Hawaii and Asia. I sincerely wish to thank my friends inSwitzerland, Rita C. Zengaffmen and Udo Kinzel, for all their contributions. I want to thank Michael W.Smith (Pietermaritzburg, South Africa) for our collaborative field research in South Africa in January,1994. I am grateful to Paul Stamets (Olympia, WA) for his contribution of mushroom photographs. Fortheir expertise and for providing valuable information I also wish to thank Albert Hofmann, whodiscovered psilocybin and psilocin (Burg, Switzerland); as well as Jonathan Ott (Xalapa, Mexico);Hanscarl Leuner (Gottingen, Germany); Christian Ratsch (Hamburg, Germany); Alexander T. Shulgin(Lafayette, CA); and Giorgio Samorini (Bologna, Italy).

Finally, my heartfelt gratitude goes to Irmgard Richter, for her years of support and for enduringmy unbridled mycophilia.

LIS Publications wishes to thank the following individuals and businesses who have helped make this bookpossible: Brad Falk, Scott Bradbury, Angelica Biddle, Ronda Flanzbaum, Tim Matthews, David Cronk, KerstinTaake, FS Books, Knockabout Comics, Mind Books and Rosetta Books.

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PHOTO AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS (listed by Figure #)

2, 4, 24, 29, 39, 54, 56, 72: Photographs by John W. Allen.

5, 55, 59: Courtesy of Giorgio Samorini.

20, 23, 38: Courtesy of German J. Krieglsteiner.

34: Photograph by Gerhard Drewitz.

36: Photograph by Paul Stamets.

61: Illustration by Claudia Taake.

64, 70: Courtesy of Albert Hofmann.

65: Courtesy of Marta Semerdzieva.

68: Photograph by Gerd K. Miller.

Front Cover by Scott Bradbury

Back cover photograph by Michael T. Smith.

Drawing on page 2 by Scott Bradbury.

All other photographs and illustrations by the author.

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