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SLSA 2016 NATIONAL COASTAL SAFETY REPORT

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SLSA 2015 NATIONAL COASTAL SAFETY REPORT

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SCALING THE HEIGHTS

280

RampsRamps play an important architectural role

as a way of gaining elevation when neither space nor cost is a consideration—and

the monumental temples and tombs of antiquity are a prime example of this. Simply a slope that connects two different levels, the ramp can be an integral part of the exterior or the interior of a building, as well as a type of outdoor pathway.

If a ramp is too steep, people may slip and fall. It is then necessary to make supplementary low steps that provide a more level footing for pedestrians. Examples of this can be seen in some of the ramp/step combinations at Frank Gehry’s Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, in the roadway on top of sections of the Great Wall of China, and in the stepped ramp wind- ing up the Spiral Minaret of the Great Mosque of al-Mutawakkil in Samarra, Iraq.

Ramps in AntiquityThe ramps of ancient Egypt served ceremonial and constructional purposes. In the absence of engines, cranes, wheels, and pulleys, how exactly the pyramids were built in the third millennium is still unclear, but it is assumed that each huge block of stone used in their construction was raised into position by being dragged up an increasingly long temporary ramp made of earth and stone. Some scholars think that the ramp may have wound around the outside of the pyra-mid as it was built. Others visualise an immense wedge-shaped ramp rising up from the nearby plain. Both methods would have entailed major engineering challenges.

Architectural ramps as a primarily aesthetic feature also make an early appearance in Egypt—at the Temple of Hatshepsut, at Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, near the Valley of the Kings. With its lines of columns reminding one of Athens, yet predating the Parthenon by a thousand years (Hatshepsut was queen from 1479 to 1458 ), the building known as Djeser-Djeseru, or “Holy of Holies,” comprises three colonnaded terraces sited at the foot of towering natural cliffs, and has been described as one of the “incomparable monuments of Ancient Egypt.” Designed by the queen’s royal steward, Senmut, and constructed entirely of limestone, the porticoed terraces at the Temple of Hatshepsut are nearly 100 ft (30 m) high. Five substantial ramps, which were once surrounded by great gardens, connect the lower terraces to the upper levels. The two broad and dominating central ramps form a processional way leading upward from the valley floor, and have a narrow row of steps in the center to give pedestrians a more secure footing.

Other monumental ramps of the ancient world were found in ziggurats. In Assyrian, the word ziggurat meant “pinnacle,” and was applied to a kind of pyramidal stepped tower.

The Palace of Khorsabad complex, in north Iraq, built for Sargon II in the eighth century , included a ziggurat associated with the palace temples. The steps of the seven-tiered ziggurat formed a single, continuous ramp winding around the square structure from base to summit. The much earlier Ziggurat of Ur, in southern Iraq, had a massive entrance, with a central stepped ramp extending out into the surrounding precinct and two equally imposing adjacent side ramps abutting the front elevation.

Contemporary RampsThe use of ramps as dynamic transitional structures was revived by Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright in the twentieth century. In his Villa Savoye of 1929–1931 at Poissy near Paris, Le Corbusier connected the floors with a contin-uous central ramp, from the service areas at the ground level, through the living areas, up to the roof garden and solarium. Some three decades later, Le Corbusier was to design an S-shaped curvilinear ramp for the Carpenter Visual Arts Center, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The ramp rises from one street and descends to another, and has glass walls on either side. This walkway bisects the building’s structure and connects with the main stairs and the exhibition space.

Spectacular spiraling ramps were created by Frank Lloyd Wright, first in the Morris Gift Shop in San Francisco and later, and most notably, at the Guggenheim Museum in New York. Although the shop was constructed before the museum, the designs for the Guggenheim Museum were begun in 1943 and actually pre-date the shop. The construction of the Morris Gift Shop allowed Wright an opportunity to experiment with building a spiral ramp before tackling the Guggenheim.

The Guggenheim Museum, completed in 1959, is a large, open, upturned bowl with a sweeping, interior ramp that runs around the sides of the curving walls, which function as the exhibition spaces. Asked why he chose a ramp of this kind, Wright explained that it was for the convenience of visitors. They could take an elevator to the top of the building, and then make a leisurely descent to the exit. Perversely, most wander up the ramp rather than down it.

At about the same time, Eero Saarinen’s TWA terminal building at Kennedy Airport used gently rising and falling ramp-tunnels through which travelers walked from the main building to the departure lounges.

The spaciousness of outdoor ramps has always been appealing. In 1994, to provide a more open view for students at Columbia University, who might otherwise have been confined to stairs and elevators, architect Bernard Tschumi produced

sketches resembling the Khorsabad ziggurat of antiquity. But the executed design for Columbia’s new student center, Lerner Hall, on the Upper West Side in New York, did not quite follow the plan. To fit into the nineteenth-century campus, which was designed by the neoclassical architects McKim, Mead & White, Tschumi constructed two cubes that followed the Flemish-bond brick pattern of the historic buildings and joined them together with hanging ramps that are encased in a glass-walled structure.

The open-sided, multi-story spiral ramp of the Guggenheim Museum, New York, is the heart of the building. Not just a means of access, the ramp is the exhibition space. Some have criticized Frank Lloyd Wright’s unorthodox design for being too dominant and overshadowing the works of art displayed there.

In his influential Villa Savoye, near Paris (above), Le Corbusier connected the ground to the roof with a continuous sweeping ramp that zigzagged through the cantilevered concrete structure up to the roof.

The Ziggurat of Ur (top), by the Euphrates River in Iraq, was already old when it was extensively remodeled in c. 2125 BCE. It had a solid core of mud bricks, faced with kiln-fired bricks.

The Finnish architect Eero Saarinen exploited the plastic qualities of concrete and steel in many of his buildings, notably in the bold sculptural forms of the TWA terminal at Kennedy Airport, New York, where he tied the interior together with curving ramps.

220 221

BRIDGING THE GAPS

DomesDOMES

A dome can be thought of as a true arch rotating 360 degrees around its center-point. The hemispherical dome that

results (and even a rough approximation of it) is a very rigid structure because it has a double curvature. It also contains the maximum possible volume for the minimum surface area. Vernacular architecture from all over the world reflects this understanding, from the trulli houses of southern Italy to the igloo of the Inuit, although most of these structures are not based on the true arch. Specifically, they do not have voussoirs in the

exact sense. Rather, they use corbeling or, in the case of the igloo, a continuous spiral formation.

ChallengesA perfectly hemispherical dome will have all its parts in compression. However, humans have long devised attenuated masonry membranes for spanning, and these involve bending and shear stresses. Engineers today call these as thin-shell structures and fully comprehend their theoretical underpinnings. Until the recent past, however, builders only understood thin-shell structures

empirically; even so, they were able to build vaults and domes that have stood for centuries.

The dome has other problems, the same as those of the arch and vault. It must overcome the bursting failure at the haunch, where diagonal thrust is greatest, and saddle failure at the crown. In a corbeled dome, each course of masonry forms a stable compression ring, but it can frequently be convenient to close the top with radial masonry as in a true dome. In a true dome, each horizontal ring of masonry is likewise a stable compression ring. Each ring has to be supported

until it is complete, although a circular opening can be left in the top if required.

So why go to all the trouble? The reason is that the dome is exceptionally rigid. It is also aesthetically unparalleled. It has been used to span extraordinarily wide spaces, creating remark-able buildings that are the product of enormous ingenuity. Its formal and aesthetic variations have allowed great creativity in many types of architec-ture in many parts of the world. The most basic dome of all is the simple, hemispherical dome.

It can be supported on a drum (cylindrical wall) of equal diameter to its base, like the Pantheon of ancient Rome, or on pendentives (curved triangu-lar segments). In the compound dome, which is very common, the dome’s curvature is not con-tinuous with the pendentive, as in Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. A cloister dome is segmented, and each segment has single as opposed to double curvature. More elaborate convoluted domes take the form of a pumpkin or melon, even an onion.

Convoluted DomesOnce the Romans discovered how strong walls and barrel vaults made of their special concrete could be, they were soon using it for domes. The most famous of all, which is still in use today, is the Pantheon in Rome. But they also produced some striking convoluted, or pumpkin, domes. To understand the convoluted dome, think of a pumpkin that has been sliced through its equator and hollowed out. Looking up, you see a series of concave, fluted segments that meet at obtuse angles. The arrises, where the segments meet, begin to act like the ribs in a ribbed vault, carry-ing some of the forces to points where buttresses can resist the thrust. Each concave section also has extra rigidity.

The Emperor Hadrian was greatly interested in this dome’s potential, as evidenced by several

variants that can be seen today, in a half-ruined state, at his Villa at Tivoli, Italy (CE 118–134). Plan forms that can generate a convoluted dome without using transitional geometries such as pendentives may have also fascinated him and his architects. At the large axial pavilion of the Piazza d’Oro, the plan is similar to a Greek cross, with apsidal ends. In fact, the wall of the pavilion undulates as concave apse becomes convex intru-sion and then, at a point of tangency, starts to become concave again, and so on, around the eight sides to close at the point of origin. The dome thus springs directly from an undulating entablature. The sections narrow up to the top, where they may have converged at a round opening, or oculus.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries many architects from Rome and Tuscany traveled the short distance to Tivoli to study the famous Hadrianic ruins. Francesco Borromini certainly made the trip, and then built his own superb version at his church of Sant’Ivo della Sapienza, Rome (1642–1650). Here, Borromini used two interlocking triangles to form a six-pointed star.

Islamic Domes The convoluted dome was often used in the Islamic building tradition. At the Mezquita

(the Great Mosque) of Córdoba, Spain (c. 786), the Lantern of Al-Hakam II (part of tenth-century extensions) has eight lobes alternating with small folded arrises. It resembles an inverted golden vessel, and rests on an octagon supported by interlocking arches. In Central Asia another tradition flourished, based on brick building techniques. At buildings such as the Gur-e Amir (Tomb of Timur) in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (1404), and the Abu Nasr Parsa Mosque at Balkh, Afghanistan (c. 1460), the typical melon-shaped dome has an outer surface of turquoise blue glazed bricks, making the effect all the more startling.

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India (1653), is the finest example of Mughal architecture, with an onion dome of white marble from Makrana, surrounded by four kiosks, or chhatris, with hemispherical domes.

The reading room of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (below), designed by P. F. H. Labrouste (1867), has a roof of nine pendentive domes of glazed terra-cotta carried on slender cast-iron columns. Light is admitted through a glazed oculus in each dome.

CONVOLUTED DOMEThe convoluted, or pumpkin, dome is

made of concave sections. From outside, it has an appearance like a pumpkin.

CLOISTER VAULTA cloister vault is made up of cylindrical

surfaces (like a cloth cap), and may resemble a true dome in appearance.

SIMPLE DOMEA simple dome is a hemispherical shape. In theory, it is achieved by rotating a true arch 360 degrees around its vertical axis.

ONION DOMEThe onion dome is an external form rather than a structural one. It swells beyond the

base, then narrows to a pointed top.

DOME AND DRUM A dome sits on a drum, a cylindrical wall

with the same diameter as the dome. The drum allows light in.

COMPOUND DOMEA dome is supported on pendentives, the

curve of which would create a sphere with a greater radius than the dome’s.

Types of Domes

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170 The Plays 171Hamlet | The Tragedies

righT: Crown askew, David Tennant plays a feisty Hamlet in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of 2008. More than 400 years after it was first per formed, Hamlet continues to fascinate audiences and readers alike.

HamletThe ploT: Just after midnight, the Ghost of

the former King of Denmark appears on the

battlements of Elsinore Castle. He reveals to his

son, Hamlet, that he was murdered by Claudius,

the brother who now wears the crown and has

married his widow, Gertrude. Hamlet swears to

avenge his father’s murder.

To avoid suspicion, Hamlet pretends to be

mad. He arranges for actors to perform a play

featuring the murder of his father in order to

prove Claudius’s guilt. But before he can act

upon this evidence, he is arrested for killing the

king’s chief adviser, Polonius. Hamlet is put on

a ship to England, where Claudius has arranged

for him to be executed, but he escapes and

returns to Denmark.

In the meantime, Polonius’s son, Laertes, has

come to court to avenge his father’s murder. His

sister, Ophelia, once Hamlet’s beloved, is mad

with grief and subsequently drowns. Claudius

and Laertes now hatch a plot against Hamlet.

In a fencing match, both Hamlet and Laertes

are mortally wounded, Gertrude is accidentally

poisoned, and Hamlet finally kills Claudius.

Before the prince dies, he begs his friend,

Horatio, to tell his story.

Hamlet is probably the most celebrated tragedy in the English language. Its fame is attributable to a thrilling mix of ghost

story and murder mystery; powerful stage images (not least a man contemplating a skull in a grave­yard); an abundance of memorable lines—“To be or not to be,” “Alas, poor Yorick”—but above all to the enigmatic nature of the protagonist himself. The characters’ desire to “pluck out the heart of [Hamlet’s] mystery” (Act 3, Scene 2, line 366) has extended to generations of audiences, readers, and critics. Among the questions that the play poses are the nature of Hamlet’s madness (is it real or fake?), how much Hamlet’s mother knows, the reliability of the Ghost, and, above all, why Hamlet delays in taking revenge for his father’s death. It is what Shakespeare left unexplained that has contributed to Hamlet’s continuing popularity.

The Legend of AmlethShakespeare did not invent the plot of Hamlet. The narrative originates in the Historiae Danicae, a twelfth­century Latin history of Denmark by Danish scholar Saxo Grammaticus (Saxo the Grammarian), which was retold by French author François de Belleforest in his Histoires Tragiques (1570). There are significant differences between Shakespeare’s version and the Danish legend of Amleth. In the latter, the murder of Amleth’s father is performed openly by his brother, Feng, who seizes the throne while Amleth is still a child. But in Shakespeare’s play, the murder is carried out in secret and is only revealed to Hamlet by the Ghost, thus placing the protagonist under greater pressure and heightening his sense of isolation. The consequences are also different. In the Danish chronicle, Amleth kills Feng, brings all the nobles together to explain his actions, and is then pro­claimed king. Hamlet’s revenge concludes not only with his own death and the installation of a foreign monarch on the throne of Denmark, but

Written c. 1600

Setting and period Elsinore Castle, Denmark, Middle

Ages/Renaissance

CharaCterS 30

aCtS 5

SCeneS 20

LineS 4,042

Claudius, King of Denmark

hamlet, son to the late King Hamlet, and nephew to

the present king

polonius, Lord Chamberlain

horatio, friend to Hamlet

laertes, son to Polonius

Voltemand, Cornelius, Rosencrantz,

Guildenstern, osric, Gentleman, courtiers

Marcellus, Barnardo, officers

Francisco, a soldier

Reynaldo, servant to Polonius

Fortinbras, Prince of Norway

Norwegian Captain

Doctor of Divinity

players

Two Clowns, gravediggers

english Ambassadors

Gertrude, Queen of Denmark, and mother to Hamlet

ophelia, daughter to Polonius

Ghost of hamlet’s Father

lords, ladies, officers, Soldiers, Sailors,

Messengers, and Attendants

Dramatis Personae

Different TextsHamlet exists in three very different early texts. The First Quarto, which dates from 1603, is the shortest and seems to have been based on an actor’s recollection of the play. The Second Quarto, dated to 1604, is almost twice as long. The last is that included in the First Folio of 1623, which shows strong evidence of having been revised by Shakespeare himself.

The Shakespeare EncyclopediaGlobal Book Publishing(ART DIRECTION • COVER DESIGN)