Date of Publication: 21 April 2016

Vol. XXXI, No. 4, April 2016 ISSN 0971-6378 (Print); 0973-2543 (Online)

Magazine of Zoo Outreach Organization

World Sparrow Day Programme held at Madhya Pradesh. Pp. 26-28

Magazine of Zoo Outreach OrganizationVol. XXXI, No. 4, April 2016 ISSN 0971-6378 (Print); 0973-2543 (Online)

Endemic species of Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. (Selaginellaceae) - a new record for Tamil Nadu, M. Parthipan and A. Rajendran, Pp. 1-3

Hybanthus puberulus M.Gilbert (Violaceae) – a new record for Andhra Pradesh, M. Parthipan, A. Rajendran, L. Kousalya and Narmatha Bai, Pp. 4-5

Pollination Potential of Thrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) – an overview, R. Varatharajan, Shyam Maisnam, Chochong V Shimray and R.R. Rachana, Pp. 6-12

Recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger in Northern Western Ghats between Kolhapur and Mumbai, India, Amit Sayyed and Anil Mahabal, Pp. 13-14

Some observations on Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) preying on Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) butterflies, Rajiv K. Singh Bais, Pp. 15-22

ZOO LEX: Red Panda Exhibit-Chile National Zoo, Pp. 23-25

Education Reports, Pp. 26-28

Announcements26th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP 2017), 4-8 September 2017 at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, P. 5

2016 - Year of the Otter, Back cover

Contents

ZOO LEX: Red Panda Exhibit-Chile National Zoo, Pp. 23-25

Some observations on Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) preying on Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) butterflies, Pp. 15-22

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 1

AbstractThe present paper reports new distributional record of Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. (Selaginellaceae) collected from the Yercaud Hills, Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu. In the present study taxonomic description, distribution and photograph of this newly recorded species are provided.

IntroductionThe genus Selaginella P. Beauv. belonging to the family Selaginellaceae has about 700 species distributed throughout the tropics (Mabberley, 2008). In India 62 species were reported by Dixit (1992). The only comprehensive work on the Ferns of South India by R.H. Beddome (1864) included 271 species of ferns from South India and Sri Lanka. Kunze (1851) listed five species from the Nilgiri hills of the Southern Western Ghats. Alston (1945) enumerated 58 species of Selaginella, of which 45 species were reported from India.

Mehra and Bir (1964) and Reed (1965-66) reported the occurrence of a few additional species from India. Dixit (1984) and Manikam and Irudayaraj (1992) reported 18 species from South India. Out of 18 species, 14 species were reported only from Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Recently Selaginella opaca Warb. (Parthipan et al., 2013) and Selaginella eurynota A. Braun. (Parthipan and Rajendran, 2013) both species reported as a new record to India from Tamil Nadu.

Recently, a species of Selaginella was collected during the floristics studies of the Yercaud Hills of the Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. On critical examination and careful scrutiny of relevant literatures (Alston, 1945; Baishya and Rao, 1982; Barua et al., 1989; Bhattacharya et al., 1995; Bhattacharya et al., 1998; Bir, 1976, 1987, 1993; Bir et al., 1992, 1989; Borthakur et al., 2001; Dixit, 1984, 1992; Dixit and Vohra, 1984; Dutta et al., 1980; Fraser-Jenkins, 2008a,b; Handique and Konger, 1986; Islam, 1983; Jain, 1991; Kachroo et al., 1989; Kaur and Chandra, 1994; Manickam and Irudayaraj, 1992; Mukhopadhyay, 2001; Nath and Bhattacharya, 2002; Panigrahi, 1960; Panigrahi and Choudhury, 1962; Panigrahi and Dixit, 1967a,b, 1968; Singh and Panigrahi, 2005; Thakur, 1962; Roy and Borthakur, 2013), it was identified as Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. So far known to occur only in Maharashtra, Goa, South Kanara and Assam. The present collection confirmed the occurrence of Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak., therefore forms a new distributional record for Tamil Nadu.

Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak., Journ. Bot. 23: 249. 1885; Handb., Fern Allies, 115. 1887; Alston, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 11. 227. 1943; Reed, Mém. Soc. Brotér. 18: 157. 1966; Dixit, Selaginell. India: 99, Plate LX, Figure 61A -H. 1992. Lycopodium miniatosporum Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 4: 114. 1852; Roy & Borthakur in Asian J. Cons. Biol, 2 (1): 79–81. 2013. (Fig 1.)

Semi-erect, plant body ca. 5-20 cm, terrestrial, found growing on the forest floor or on the inclined bases of hills or on the humus deposits on the rock surface. Light green young plants become pale-green to pale-brown at maturity. Primary stem is copiously-branched and the branches are erecto-patent. Rhizophores born and remain confined at the base of the primary stem. Vegetative leaves dimorphic, light green, distantly placed on the primary stem and branches exception at terminal position, denticulate, denticules minute and occur distantly; axillary leaves ca. 2.5-3 x 1.50-2mm, ovate, cordate, obtuse, entire, prominent mid-vain extends from the base to nearly apex; lateral leaves ca 2.5-3 x 1-1.25mm, ovate-oblong, obliquely-cordate at base and obtuse, inner-half of leaves semi-ovate, imbricated at base, outer-half of leaves semi-oblong; median leaves ca. 1-1.25 x 0.41-0.5mm, very small in comparison to other vegetative leaves, ovate, denticulate, cuspidate, apex acute. Ligule thin, membranous and lanceolate. Strobilli ca 5-7.5 x 2-2.5mm, one or two at branch apices. Sporophylls dimorphic; larger sporophylls ca

Endemic species of Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. (Selaginellaceae) - a new record for Tamil NaduM. Parthipan1 and A. Rajendran2

Fig 1. Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak.

1&2Floristic Laboratory, Department of Botany,School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University,Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Email: 1parthi.mano1989@gmail.com (Corresponding Author)

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1.75-2 x 0.40.5mm, lanceolate-rhomboid, minutely but regularly dentate, an extra membranous structure called laminar flap develop from the base of the sporophyll and extends to one third of its length; smaller sporophylls ca 0.50.85 x 0.35-0.41mm, semi-orbicular, cuspidate and uniformly dentate from the upper half of the leaf to apex. Microspore 20-30 µm, deep-yellow, verrucoid, trilete. Megaspore 180-225 µm, deep-yellow.

Anatomical characters: Section of the rhizophore shows a thick exterior layer of cuticle followed by the epidermis made up of a single layer of thick-walled cells. The cortical zone is divided into outer and inner cortex. The outer cortex, except 1-2 layer of thick-walled parenchymatous cell, is almost homogeneous and consists of a mass of large penta-hexa-heptagonal parenchymatous cells. Except for the smaller size of cells, the inner cortex is similar to that of outer cortex. Endodermis and pericycle are not clear. The stele at the center is protostele, where mass of exarch xylem is surrounded by phloem. Anatomy of stem shows similar features to that of rhizophore which is almost circular in outline except in some cases with marginal ridges. The cortex is made up of homogeneous mass of penta- or hexagonal parenchymatous cell sand followed by single layered endodermis. Trabaculae are found to be arisen from the inner wall of the endodermis which in turn consists of two-three layers of simple cells. There is a single vascular bundle (Roy and Borthakur, 2013).

Specimens examined: Yercaud Hills in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu, 23 Nov. 2014, Parthipan, M.219; (BUH).

Phenology: November – February.

Distribution: INDIA: Maharashtra, Goa, South Kanara, Assam and now in Tamil Nadu.

RET Status: Endemic to India (Dixit, 1992).

Ecology: Usually epiphyte or chasmo-endolithophytic (rock crevices) high altitude fern growing along shaded hills slope. The average maximum temperature 25°C.

AcknowledgementAuthors are thankful to the Professor & Head, Department of Botany, Bharathiar University for providing necessary facilities to carry out the study.

ReferencesAlston, A.H.G. (1945). An enumeration of the Indian species of Selaginella. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 11: 211–235.

Baishya, A.K. and R.R. Rao (1982). Ferns and Fern-allies of Meghalaya State, India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Barua, I., A.K. Baishya and B. Neogi (1989). Contribution to the Pteridophytic flora of Kamrup district, Assam. Indian Fern J. 6: 160–180.

Beddome, R.H. (1864). The Ferns of Southern India, pp. 271.

Bhattacharya, M.K., A. Nath and A.K. Baishya (1995). Pteridophytic flora of North Cachar Hills district, Assam. Indian Fern J. 12: 146–158.

Bhattacharya, M.K., A.D. Astapati, G. Banik and M. Dutta Chaudhury (1998). Pteridophytic flora of Cachar district, Assam. N.E. Indian Fern J. 15: 80–88.

Bir, S.S. (1976). Taxonomy of Indian Pteridophytes. In Kachroo, P. (Ed.) Recent Advances in Botany. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun: 70–115.

Bir, S.S. (1987). Pteridophytic Flora of India: Rare and endangered elements and their conservation. Indian Fern J. 4: 95–101 Bir, S.S. (1993). Uniqueness of the Pteridophytic flora of the Himalayas and conservation of threatened elements. In Dhar, U. (Ed.) Himalayan Biodiversity: Conservation Strategies. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital: 65–82.

Bir, S.S., P. Kachroo and S.M. Vasudeva (1992). Pteridophytic flora of North Eastern India. Indian Fern Soc. Patiala pp i-x 1–110.

Bir, S.S., S.M. Vasudeva and P. Kachroo (1989). Pteridophytic flora of north eastern India-I (Families: Huperziaceae-Sinopteridaceae). Indian Fern J. 6: 30 – 55.

Borthakur, S.K., P. Deka and K.K. Nath (2001). Illustrated Manual of Ferns of Assam. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Dixit, R.D. (1984). A Census of the Indian Pteridphytes. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Dixit, R.D. (1992). Selaginellaceae of India, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

Dixit, R.D. and J.N. Vohra (1984). A dictionary of the Pteridophytes of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

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Dutta, A.K., T.K. Dutta and K.K. Gupta (1980). A tentative accounting of the forest flora of North Cachar Hills and Barail range-II : Enumeration of species - Pteridophytes. Indian For. 106: 34–40.

Fraser-Jenkins, C. (2008a). Endemic and Pseudo Endemics in Relation to the Distribution Patterns of Indian Pteridophytes, Taiwania 53 (3): 264–292.

Fraser-Jenkins, C. (2008b). Taxonomic Revision of three hundred Indian Subcontinental Pteridophytes with a Revised Census –List a new picture of fern-taxonomy and nomenclature I the Indian subcontinent. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A, New Connaught Place Dehradun 248001 (INDIA).

Handique, P.J. and G. Konger (1986). A list of Ferns and Fern-allies of greater Guwahati (Assam) with their ecological adaptations. Mendel 3(2): 130–135. Islam, M. (1983). Utilization of certain ferns and fern allies in the North-Eastern Region, India. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4(3): 861–867.

Jain, S.K. (1991). Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicines and Ethnobotany. Deep Publ., New Delhi.

Jain, S.K. and R.R. Rao (1976). A handbook of field and Herbarium Methods. Today & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publ., New Delhi.

Kachroo, P., S.S. Bir and S.M. Vasudeva (1989). Pteridophytic flora of North-Eastern India-II (Families: Cryptogrammaceae-Thelypteridaceae). Indian Fern J. 6: 78–99.

Kaur, S. and S. Chandra (1994). Endemic Pteridophytes of India: Enumeration of additional taxa. Indian Fern J. 11: 162–166.

Kunze, G. (1851). Die Farrankrauter von Schkuhra Farrukrauter, suppl.,2: 1-98, t.101-140. 1848–1851.

Mabberley, D.J. (2008). Mabberley’sPlant Book- A portable dictionary of plant, their classification and uses, 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Manickam, V.S. and V. Irudayaraj (1992). Pteridophytic Flora of the Western Ghats-South India. IB Publ. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Mehra, P.N. and S.S. Bir (1964). Pteridophyte Flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Res. Bull. (N.S.). Punjab Univ. 15: 69-182.

Mukhopadhyay, R. (2001). A review of work on the genus Selaginella P.Beauv. Indian Fern J. 18: 44– 54. Nath, A. and M.K. Bhattacharya (2002). Some new records and little known species of Pteridophytes from Barak valley, Assam, India, Indian Fern J. 19: 97–106

Panigrahi, G. (1960). Pteridophytes of Eastern India -I: Enumeration of the species collected and their nomenclature. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 309–314.

Panigrahi, G. and S. Choudhury (1962). Enumeration and distribution of fern allies in Eastern India. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 49: 255–256.

Panigrahi, G. and R.D. Dixit (1967a). Studies in the Systematics of Indian Selaginella – II. J. Indan Bot. Soc., 46(2-3): 222–233.

Panigrahi, G. and R.D. Dixit (1967b). Studies in the Systematics of Indian Selaginella – III. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci., 36: 102–108.

Panigrahi, G. and R.D. Dixit (1968). Studies in the Systematics of Indian Selaginella – I. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 34B(4): 191–204.

Parthipan, M. and A. Rajendran (2013). Selaginella eurynota A. Braun (Selaginellaceae) – a new record for India. Zoo’s Print, 28(2): 27.

Parthipan, M., A. Rajendran, R. Sasi and G. Francisca (2013). Selaginella opaca Warb. (Selaginellaceae) – a new record for India. Zoo’s Print, 28(2): 17-18.

Reed, C.F. (1965-1966). Index Selagnellarum-Mem. Soc. Brot. 18: 1287.

Roy, H. and S.K. Borthakur (2013). Selaginella miniatospora (Dalz.) Bak. (Selaginellaceae) - a new record for Northeast India. Asian Journal of Conservation Biology, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 79–81.

Singh, S. and G. Panigrahi (2005). Ferns and Fern-allies of Arunachal Pradesh. Vols. 1&2, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India.

Thakur, V. (1962). Selaginella from North-East Himalayan Region. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr., Part-III.

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AbstractAn Ethiopian species, Hybanthus puberulus M. Gilbert so far recorded to occur only in the Southern Western Ghats of Coimbatore district, Thimbam forest and Dharmapuri in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Mysore from Karnataka in India, is now recovered from Andhra Pradesh. A complete taxonomic description and distribution of species have been provided for further collection of species from the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.

IntroductionAn Ethiopian species, Hybanthus puberulus M. Gilbert. was reported as a new record for India from Tamil Nadu (Sasi et al., 2011), Karnataka (Parthipan and Rajendran 2012), Thimbam forest (Dottapuram Hills, Thalamalai, Mutheyanur) and Dharmapuri in Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu (Rajendran et al., 2013).

Hybanthus puberulus grows intermingled with H. enneaspermus and gives the similar appearance, probably due to this it might have been overlooked and could not be listed by the earlier workers in India. Hybanthus puberulus is closely allied to H. enneaspermus but it differs by its dense very short indumentums, which covers all the parts including capsule. In H. enneaspermus the indumentum is much laxer, usually longer and the capsule is always glabrous (Sasi et al., 2011).

Systematic treatment Hybanthus puberulus M.G. Gilbert in Nord. J. Bot. 12 (6): 689 - 693. 1992. Sasi et al. in Zoo’s Print. 26(12).2011; Parthipan and Rajendran in Zoo’s Print. 27(12).2012; Rajendran, Parthipan and Sasi in Zoo’s Print, 28 (12). 2013. (Fig: 1)

It is a subshrub or woody herb, much branched, 17–30 cm high; stem green when young, base pinkish woody, hairy. Leaves green above and slightly paler, simple, alternate, clustered at apex, linear to lanceolate, obscurely crenate, mucronate at apex, attenuate at base, hairy, 25–35 X 3–5 mm; stipules linear - lanceolate, densely hairy, gland tipped, ca 2 mm long. Flowers pinkish with darker patterns, solitary or in axillary inflorescences; peduncle slender, densely short pubescent, 8–10 mm long; pedicel short, slender, pubescent, 5–7 mm long; bracts triangular, densely pubescent, margins ciliate, ca 1 mm long; sepals 5, unequal, ovate -

lanceolate, pubescent, 2 mm long; petals 5, unequal, upper pale pink, oblong, 4–5 mm long, lateral petals pale pink, oblong ending in a sharp acute apex, ca 3 mm long; lower petals pinkish with darker patterns, enlarged, oblong-elliptic, shortly cuspidate, 10 x 6–7 mm along with a limb; stamens 5, filaments free, the anterior 2 filaments with hairy appendages, anthers villous, the posterior 3 filaments and stamens glabrous;

Hybanthus puberulus M.Gilbert (Violaceae) – a new record for Andhra PradeshM. Parthipan1, A. Rajendran2, L. Kousalya3 and Narmatha Bai4

1&2 Taxonomic and Floristics Laboratory,3&4 Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Email: Email: 2arajendran222@yahoo.com (Corresponding author)

Fig: 1. Hybanthus puberulus M.G. Gilbert

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pistil 3 mm long, style erect and stigma flat. Capsules 3- angled, short pubescent ca 6 mm long; seeds pale yellow, ellipsoid, ribbed, glabrous, ca 3 mm long.

Flowering and fruiting: July–October.

Distribution: Ethiopia (Sidamo region). India: Tamil Nadu: Maruthamalai hills, Coimbatore, Thimbam forest (Dottapuram Hills, Thalamalai, Mutheyanur) and Dharmapuri, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Uses: The attractive flower structure and fascinating pinkish colour can be recommended to grow as an ornamental plant in residents, park and also in rock gardens (Parthipan and Rajendran 2012).

Ecology: Grow in forest shade, especially under bushes, infrequently found as an endolithophytic (rock crevices) in cool region. Sometimes often associates with rock moist grassy wetland.

Specimen examined: Andhra Pradesh, Chitoor district, Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University Campus, near guest house (Tirupati) 03 Dec. 2014. Parthipan, M and Kousalya. L 507 (BHARATHI).

AcknowledgementsWe extend our sincere thanks to Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for providing necessary facilities.

ReferencesGilbert, M.G. (1992). Notes on Violaceae from Ethiopia. Nord. J. Bot. 12: 689-693.Sasi, R., R. Sivalingam & A. Rajendran (2011). Hybanthus puberulus M. Gilbert (Violaceae)- A new record for India. Zoo’s print. 26(12): 30-31.Parthipan, M. & A. Rajendran (2012). Distribution of Hybanthus puberulus M.Gilbert. (Violaceae) – A new record for Karnataka. Zoo’s print, 27(12): 24-25.Rajendran, A., M. Parthipan and R. Sasi (2013). Extended distribution of Hybanthus puberulus M. Gilbert. (Violaceae) in India Zoo’s Print, 28(12): 15-16.

World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology WAAVP is a non-profit organization for scientists who study the parasites of animals, encompassing helminthology, protozoology and entomology.

WAAVP will be organizing the 26th International Conference of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP 2017) will be held from 4-8 September, 2017 at the Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The organising committee for the WAAVP 2017 would like to invite prospective authors to submit abstracts for oral and poster presentations at the Conference.

The conference theme is: Combating Zoonoses: Strength in East – West PartnershipsThe Conference will focus on veterinary parasitology with the following themes:Zoonoses & One World One Health, Poultry, Livestock, Wildlife & Exotics, Companion Animals, Equine, Aquatic, Drug Resistance, Herbal Remedies, Biotechnology & Genetics, Novel Parasite Control Options, Vaccines & Therapeutics, Non-human Primates, Asian Parasitic Issues, Vector Biology & Control, Education in Parasitology.

For more information, please visit our Conference website: www.waavp2017kl.org

For further details contactWAAVP 2017 Conference SecretariatC/o: AOS Conventions & Events Sdn. Bhd., 2nd Floor, No. 39 & 40 Jalan Mamanda 9, Ampang Point, 68000 Ampang, Selangor, Malaysia. Office Number: +6(0)3- 4252 9100. Email: secretariat@waavp2017kl.org

Announcement

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AbstractThrips (Thysanoptera) are one of the pollinating insect groups. By virtue of their pollen feeding habit, thrips visit the flowers during anthesis and carry appreciable number of pollen grains and incidentally transfer them on to the stigma during their inter and intra movement between the flowers/florets/inflorescence. SEM study reveals that the body setae of thrips favour for fine attachment of pollen. The floral reward enhances the breeding potential of thrips and in return the flower is pollinated by the pollinivorous physopodans (thrips). Microsatellite DNA analysis of single pollen adhering to pollinators, density of thrips within the flowers, vector potentials of thrips and viable seed production after pollination further justify their dynamic role in pollen transfer. The intricacies between the flower and thrips observed by different researchers since 1914 have been briefly discussed in this review in the context of thripophily.

Key words: Thysanoptera, flower thrips, floral reward, pollen, vector, viable seed.

IntroductionThe ecological service extended by thrips in flower pollination is referred to as “thripophily”. The role of thrips in pollen transfer dynamics has been overlooked by many researchers due to their small size and weak flying ability, lack of specialized organ to carry pollen etc (Thien et al., 2000). Their aggregation within the flower generally indicates them as pest rather than its status as a pollinator. However, during the last century a number of observations have been made on diverse plant species to establish the vector potential of thrips. Although literature pertaining to this topic is abundantly available for many

species, there is no consolidated report highlighting the activities of thrips in floral systems, nor any review on the adaptive advantages that the thrips enjoy within the flower host. Considering these viewpoints, an attempt has been made to appraise the works that are available for different thrips as well as flower species along with some of our own observations.

The earliest documentation showing the evidence of association between thrips and flowers was that of thrips on convolvulus flowers recorded by Darwin (1876; 1877). But their involvement in pollination became evident only in 1914, when Shaw

observed thrips flying over sugar beet fields with considerable pollen loads. Active association of thrips in pollination has been well documented by Anand (1926) and Billes (1941) on cocao, Hagerup & Hagerup (1953) on Erica tetralix [Ericaceae], Lewis (1973) on sugarbeet, alfalfa, beans and a few legumes, Syed (1978) on oil palm,

Pollination Potential of Thrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) – an overviewR. Varatharajan1, Shyam Maisnam2, Chochong V. Shimray3 and R.R. Rachana4

1&2Centre of Advanced Study in Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal. Email: 1rvrajanramya@gmail.com; 1rvrajanramya@rediffmail.com3NCERT, New Delhi.4Division of Insect Systematics, National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru

A B

C D

Fig 1. A - Light microscopic picture of a thrips larva carrying pollen loads (37x). B - SEM picture showing leg region of thrips with a cluster of pollen grains (1000x). C - SEM showing thrips mouth parts with the pollen grains of Helianthus annuus (750x). D - SEM photo of a single H. annuus pollen attached to thoracic seta of Haplothrips (2000x)

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Elaeis guinensis [Arecaceae], Mathur and Mohan Ram (1978) on Lantana camara [Verbenaceae], Rust (1980) on Arisaema triphyllum [Araceae], Appanah and Chen (1981) on Dipterocarpus [Dipterocarpaceae], Ananthakrishnan et al. (1981a; 1981b) on Wedelia chinensis [Asteraceae], Gopinathan and Varatharajan (1982) on Ageratum conyzoides [Asteraceae], Norton (1984) on certain tree flowers in the lowland forest of New Zealand, Kirk (1984) on Echium platagineum [Boraginaceae], Varatharajan et al. (1984) on Cosmos bipinnatus [Asteraceae], Velayudhan and Annadurai (1987) on Solanum melongena [Solanaceae], Gurusubramaniam (1989) on Borreria hispida (Rubiaceae), Webber and Grottsberger (1995) on Bocageopsis multiflora and Oxandra euneura [Annonaceae], Davies (1999) and Moog et al. (2002) on Macaranga sp. [Euphorbiaceae], Sakai (2001) on thrips pollination in the Androdioecious Castilla elastica (Moraceae) and Williams et al (2001) on the rainforest tree flowers of Wilkiea huegeliana. A

classical example of thrips-flower association is the pollination of cycads by Cycadothrips in Australia, wherein members of this genus have been exclusively collected from the cycad genus Macrozamia, carrying appreciable pollen load and flying from male cone to female cone as a result of “thermogenesis” (Terry, 2001; Mound and Terry, 2001). Nyree et al (2004) have collected a new species namely Thrips antiaropsidis which mediates pollen transfer among the flowers of Antiaropis decipiens (Moraceae) in New Guinea. Other recent reports providing the evidence of thripophily include that of Shorea acuminata (Dipterocarpaceae) (Kondo et al., 2011) and Arctostaphylos pungens (Ericaceae) by Orothrips kelloggii, Oligothrips oreios and Frankliniella occidentalis (Eliyahu et al., 2015). The above citations not only highlight the role of thrips in the pollination biology of diverse species of plants but also reflect that thrips were one of the earliest insect groups involved in pollen transfer dynamics.

C. Megalurothris distalis

Fig 2. Distribution pattern of Pollen on the body parts of thrips. (Margin figures indicate mean number of pollen grains observed on 20 individuals in each case)

A. Microcephalothrips abdominalis B. Thrips hawaiiensis

D. Haplothrips gowdeyi

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Pollination syndromeKirk (1997) has described the pollination syndromes of thrips pollinated flowers. Usually thrips inhabit medium sized flowers having sweet scent with or without nectar and the petal may be light shaded ranging from white to yellow colour. The pollen grains are small and dry and the floral structure is compact, globose, or urceolate with pollen chamber. These floral features have been observed in some of the plants belonging to the basal angiosperm families such as Asteraceae, Annonaceae, Fabaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Monimiaceae, Rubiaceae and Solanaceae etc. For instance, thrips pollinated flowers such as Wedelia chinensis, Synedrella nodiflora, Vernonia cinerea, Ageratum conyzoides and Cosmos bipinnatus (Asteraceae) (Ananthakrishnan, 1993); Amazonian flowers, Bocageopsis multiflora and Oxandra euneura (Annonaceae) (Webber & Gottsberger, 1995); blossoms of the common species in South-East Asia namely, Macaranga velutiniflora and M. hullettii (Euphorbiaceae) (Davies, 1999; Moog et al., 2002); flowers of Wilkiea huegeliana (Monimiaceae), a rainforest tree in Queensland, Australia (Williams et al., 2001) etc., exhibit typical syndromes as defined by Kirk (1997).

Synchronous developmentThe duration of development of the flower thrips from egg to larva has been found synchronized with the time sequences of floral development of the flower host. This has been observed in some of the examined pollination systems. For instance, Thrips hawaiiensis takes about 11 days to develop up to second instar from egg, which is almost equivalent to the floral development of Cosmos bipinnatus up to seed setting stage (Varatharajan, 1984). Similarly, the growth period of the blossoms of Dolichos lablab and the life cycle duration of Megalurothrips distalis have been found to correspond with each other (Vellayudhan & Annadurai, 1987). Yet another species, Microcephalothrips abdominalis inhabiting exclusively on the flowers of Asteraceae not only indicated a synchronous development with its flower host, Wedelia chinensis but also the ability to build-up its population in tune with flower density (Ananthakrishnan et al., 1981a). The centripetal development of the capitulum as seen in Asteraceae, shows a sequential and continuous availability of pollen and nectar, thus ensuring the growth of the pollinator. Thrips sometimes inhabit the flower at a late bud stage. Eggs laid at this stage develop up to the adult stage at the time of seed-setting, whereas the eggs laid after anthesis grow up to pre-pupa or pupa, which would metamorphose into adult through soil pupation as in the case of Thrips hawaiiensis inhabiting the Lecythidaceae flowers of Couropita guianensis (Varatharajan & Daniel, 1984). As early as in 1983, Bawa observed that the flower thrips that breed in the tropics could be predicted to have

shorter life cycle in comparison to thrips that dwell in long-lived temperate flowers. Thus in a number of cases the duration on growth and development of thrips synchronizes well with the floral development; thereby thrips efficiently use the flower for their growth and survival.

Floral rewardAnthophilous thrips primarily feed on pollen and nectar. The mouthparts of thrips are unique with only functional left mandible which is used for piercing the pollen and nectar gland to suck the contents. Pollen and nectar are essential components promoting growth and breeding competence of thrips. By virtue of their small size (0.5 to 2mm body length), flower thrips reach up to the secretory tissue of the nectar gland and suck the floral exudation (Gopinathan & Varatharajan, 1982). Thrips can enter even unopened buds but their peak density has been observed during pollen dehiscence of flowers (Kirk, 1987a). In cycads too, Terry et al., (2005) noted the presence of over 50,000 thrips in some of the male cones especially during pollen dehiscence. Flower inhabiting terebrantian species belonging to the genera such as Ceratothripoides, Frankliniella, Megalurothrips, Microcephalothrips, Thrips etc., oviposit their eggs into the floral parts. Such concealed micro-niches protect the early life stages of thrips (Ananthakrihnan, 1993).

Pollen as food Nutrition plays a vital role in insect reproduction and especially adequate concentrations of nutritionally important substances like proteins, amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates in their diet influence insect growth and reproduction (Engelmann, 1970). Among them, the diet rich in protein and free amino acid have been related to egg maturation and egg production of pollen feeding insects (Haydak, 1970; Gilbert, 1972; Stanley & Linskens, 1974; Kevan & Baker, 1983). This is true with flower thrips, which are mostly pollen feeders (Andrewartha, 1935; Grinfel’d, 1959; Priesner, 1960; Laughlin, 1977). They puncture the pollen coat and drain the grains (Kirk, 1985; 1997) and their pollen consumption has been to the extent of 843 pollen grains per thrips per day. In yet another observation, Kirk (1987b) has reported that a single second instar larva of Thrips imaginis could consume as many as 1626 pollen grains/day (Mound, 2004). Grimaldi & Engel (2005) were of the view that pollen feeding had evolved several times in thrips and due to this phenomenon, they could be considered as valuable pollinators by virtue of their association with a wide range of flowers in nature. This seems to be plausible because thrips are Palaeozoic in origin (Kukalova-Peck, 1991; Labendeira & Seposki, 1993) and the basal groups of Thysanoptera predate predominantly angiosperms and even certain specific cycads (Terry, 2001 & 2002).

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The effectiveness of pollen and nectar on growth and egg maturation of thrips has also been studied in common flower dwelling form such as Thrips hawaiiensis, wherein its fecundity rate increased with pollen diet; on the contrary, pollen free diet (PFD) significantly reduced its egg output. It is not only the pollen diet but pollen grains of different flower species have been found to influence the fecundity. For instance, the mean fecundity rate of T. hawaiiensis was 64 and 31, when reared separately on the pollen grains of Helianthus annuus and Lantana camara, whereas individuals reared on PFD exhibited 15.2 and 9.7 eggs, respectively. The PFD included stigma, style and small florets excluding pollen (Varatharajan et al., 1999). Murai and Ishii (1982) devised a simple method to culture flower thrips, with which they have demonstrated variation in fecundity of thrips by rearing them on a combination of diets like pollen + honey + water which gave substantially higher fecundity than pollen + honey as well as pollen grains alone. All these observations unambiguously demonstrate the nutritive significance of pollen for the flower visiting thysanopterans.

Pollen carrying capacity (PCC) The movement of thrips within the flower enables them to get dusted with pollen on their body surface. Thrips carry pollen grains on their legs, wings and setae of the abdominal segments (Fig. 1). Presence of setae on the body surface enables them to carry appreciable pollen load. Among the examined terebrantians, Thrips hawaiiensis could carry a maximum of 172 pollen grains, while that of Microcephalothrips abdominalis was about 95 grains per individual. However, their average PCC would range from 15 to 30 pollen grains per individual (Varatharajan, 1984). But the tubuliferan, Dolichothrips has been reported to carry 268 pollen per individual (Moog et al., 2002). The increased efficiency of PCC may be attributed to the greater surface area and body length of thrips (Ananthakrishnan, 1982). Although PCC of the pollinator is an index reflecting its efficiency, but carrying single viable pollen and effectively transferring it to the receptive stigma will also reveal the success of pollination. Variation in term of PCC appeared not only between thrips species but also among the body parts of the same individual. Such differences were evident in terms of pollen count on the head, thorax, abdomen, legs and wings (Fig.2). The dissimilarity of pollen load of the same thrips species carrying pollens of different flower species may be attributed to difference in the ornamentation of pollen exine, besides the degree of pollen production in the respective flowers. For example, pollen production in Ageratum conyzoides has been found to vary from 18,954 to 26,208 per capitulum (Gopinathan et al., 1981) and in Synedrella nodiflora it ranged from 5536 to 5716 per capitulum

(Varatharajan et al., 1984). It would mean that higher the pollen production greater the level of PCC. In addition, the PCC could also depend upon the pollen surface and architecture. For example, pollen grains of Helianthus annuus have exines which facilitates attachment on the body setae of thrips, while that of Solanum melongena is devoid of such marked exines as a result PCC of thrips has been found appreciably low (Velayudhan & Annadurai, 1987). The mode of pollen attachment on thrips body revealed that solitary grain was localized on a seta, while pollen clusters got attached on the wings, legs and other body parts (Fig. 1).

Pollen dispersal and transfer mechanism The ornamentation and sticky surface of the pollen facilitate the thrips to carry pollen in perceptible amount. Pollen grains attached to the body setae, wings and legs of thrips are dispersed on the stigma by way of their active movement, rubbing the abdomen on the stigmatic surface, cleansing of their body parts with their hind legs and also by their wing combing mechanism (Ananthakrishnan, 1982). Thrips movement within the flower involves frequent spreading and shaking of wings, body grooming and trivial flight take-off from the florets etc. In many flowers, stigma is very prominent and that is being used by thrips for landing and take-off. During this process, thrips places the pollen directly on the stigma (Kirk, 1997). The impressive petal colour and corolla tube of a small flower form an ideal site to attract thrips for oviposition, enabling the emerging larvae to become dusted with pollen in their upward and downward movement eventually leading to pollination. It is also significant to mention here that thrips prefer landing on the flower invariably when the stigma is at the receptive stage (Mathur & Mohan Ram, 1978; Ananthakrishnan, 1993). Syed (1978) observed that individuals of T. hawaiiensis appear on the oil palm as soon as the male flowers open. With the process of anthesis, thrips population gradually increases and attains the saturation level, which coincides with the receptive stage of stigma. This saturation level induces thrips to take off from male to female flowers of oil palm along with considerable load of fresh pollen, resulting in pollen transfer. Similarly, Terry (2001, 2002) observed the occurrence of thousands of individuals on the male cone which carry the pollen load and fly towards female cone due to “thermogenesis” as a result of crowding effect. Estimates of total thrips visitation and pollen loads indicated a pollen delivery of >5700 grains per ovule in a single afternoon, thereby establishing Cycadothrips albrechti as the sole pollinator of the cycad plant Terry et al. (2005).Flower thrips are either oligo or polyphagous in habit baring a few species which appear to have an extremely narrow host range. As for instance, it is not uncommon to see the species such as Dichromothrips nakahari, Megalurothrips distalis,

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Microcephalothrips abdominalis on the members of the plant families viz., Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Asteraceae, respectively. When there is a significant density of a flower species, the blossom inhabiting thysanopterans can be observed in large numbers. In fact, this feature facilitates them to carry invariably homogenous cluster of pollen belonging to a particular plant species as they rarely forage unrelated plant hosts due to their weak flying ability. In other words, the polylectic habit of collecting pollen from many unrelated species appears to be uncommon among thrips as this practice leads to incompatible pollen transfer. Further, the microsatellite DNA analysis of single pollen adhering to individuals involved in pollen transfer confirms the efficiency of thrips in pollination as in the case of Shorea acuminata (Dipterocarpaceae), a typical tropical rainforest tree wherein 60% of the flower visiting insects are only thrips. Based on the positive inputs of the above investigation along with direct observation of the floral systems, Kondo et al., (2011) rated thrips as primary pollinators, in spite of their minute size. In this context, it would be pertinent to state the view expressed by Faegri and van der Pijl (1979) that there is every reason to presume that [thrips] and other small and insignificant, unobtrusive animals may prove to be of much greater importance than hitherto suspected".

Viable seed productionThe number of viable seeds produced is generally considered as a measure of effective pollination. Comparative studies of thrips pollination along with other major pollinators like bees and butterflies, besides self pollination of flowers indicated that the role of thrips cannot be underscored in pollination. Experiments conducted with flowers of Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae that were covered by net, proved unambiguously that the rate of seed setting in thrips associated self fertile flower ranged from 50 to 70% (Varatharajan et al., 1984; Ananthakrishnan, 1993). But, flowers devoid of any insects could produce only 25 to 45% seeds through autogamy, suggesting that association of thrips in the former enabled to enhance the viable seed production. Mound and Terry (2001) examined the interaction between the desert cycad, Macrozamia macdonnellii and the insect, Cycadothrips albrechti with the aim to determine the pollination potential of thrips in cycads. Their observations revealed that C. albrechti delivered adequate quantum of pollen grains so as to achieve effective fertilization leading to viable seed production to the extent of 60%. Moog et al. (2002) while working with the dioecious ant plant Macaranga hullettii (Euphorbiaceae), clearly demonstrated that the thrips moved from staminate to pistillate trees over a distance of 25m with pollen and that resulted in the seed set of 80%. The inflorescences which were bagged within the net that allowed only the tiny

thrips to pollinate also showed substantial production of viable seeds.

Conservation of the PollinatorIt has been assessed that the density as well as diversity of pollinating species gradually dwindles due to indiscriminate use of synthetic chemicals (Claire et al., 2002) and environmental degradation (Mustajarvi et al., 2001). In certain cases, shifting cultivation and removal of specific plant hosts under the cultivable areas indirectly reduce the pollinator density. Habitat fragmentation can clearly disrupt plant-pollinator interaction and threaten the local persistence of plant and pollinator (Kunte, 2000). However, analysis of this issue in the context of thrips, revealed that thrips are not affected much because of their adaptations like laying eggs within the plant tissue, occurring in a concealed microenvironment, quick life cycle, appreciable fecundity due to pollen diet, oligophagous feeding habit, escaping tactics from the natural enemies and so on. Nevertheless, protecting the habitat of the flora will unquestionably minimize the incidence of species loss. It is very clear from the described account that the pollination system comprising of thrips and the flower, functions well within the framework of mutualism. The floral reward enhances the chances of thrips survival and in turn, the pollinivorous thrips ensure pollination of the flower.

AcknowledgementsThe authors dedicate this paper to (Late) Prof. T.N. Ananthakrishnan FNA, for introducing us in this fascinating group of insect. The topic of thrips pollination would not have attracted us to this extent but for the kindling effect and support of Dr. A. Raman of University of Sydney and Dr. K. Gopinathan, Vice President, Agro Project, AVT Natural products, Bangalore. Thanks are due to the Director, Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai for the SEM facility, to our colleague Dr. P. Devjani for going through the draft and to the Head, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University and Director, NBAIR, Bengaluru for the encouragement.

ReferencesAnand, P.N. (1926). Thysanoptera and pollination of flower. American Naturalist, 177-182* (*original paper not referred & sources: Lewis, T, 1973 & Ananthakrishnan, T.N, 1984)

Ananthakrishnan, T.N., R. Varatharajan and K. Gopinathan (1981a). Pollination in Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. And Tridax procumbens L. (Compositae) by thrips (Thysanoptera: Insecta). Proceedings of Indian National Science Academy, B47 (2):159-165.

Ananthakrishnan, T.N., R. Varatharajan and K. Gopinathan (1981b). Seasonal periodicity of thrips infesting some Compositae in relation to pollination.

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Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1982). Thrips and Pollination Biology. Current Science, 51(4): 168-172.

Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1993). Bionomics of thrips. Annual Review of Entomology, 38:71-92.

Andrewartha, H.G. (1935). On the effect of temperature and food on egg production and length of adult life of Thrips imaginis Bagnall. Journal of Council of Scientific& Industrial Research, Australia, 8:281-288*.

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Bawa, K.S. (1983). Patterns of flowering in tropical plants. In: C. E Jones & R. J. Little (eds.) Hand book of experimental pollination biology, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold: 394-410*.

Billes, D.J. (1941). Pollination of Theobroma cocoa L, B. W.I. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad), 18, 151-156*.

Claire, K., Neal M. Williams and Robbin W. Throps (2002). Crop pollination from native bees at risk from agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 99(26): 16812-16816.

Darwin, C. (1876). The Effects of Cross and self Fertilization in The Vegetable Kingdoms, Murray, London*.

Darwin, C. (1877). The different Forms of flower on Plants of the same species. Murray, London*.

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Eliyahu Dorit, Andrew C. McCall, Marina Lauck, Ana Trakhtenbrrot, Judith L. Bronstein (2015). Minute Pollinators: The role of thrips (Thysanoptera) as Pollinators of Pointleaf Manzanita, Arctostaphylos pungens (Ericaceae). Journal of Pollination Ecology, 16(10): 64-71.

Engelmann, F. (1970). The Physiology of the insect reproduction. International Mon. Pure and applied Biology., (Zoology), Pergamon Press, New York, 44: 307pp.

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Grimaldi, D. and M.S. Engel (2005). Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, UK.755 pp*.

Gopinathan, K., R. Varatharajan and T.N. Ananthakrishnan (1981). Incidence of Microcephalothrips abdominalis (Crawford) Thysanoptera: Insecta) in relation to pollination biology of weed Ageratum conyzoides Linn. (Compositae). Proceedings of Indian National Science Academy, B47 (4): 505-509.

Gopinathan, K. and R. Varatharajan (1982). On the morphology, topography and the significance of stomata on floral nectarines of some compositae. Phytomorphology, 33(2-3): 265-269.

Gurusubramanian, G. (1989). Bioecology and pollination potential of Haplothrips nigricornis (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Infesting the flower of Borreria hispida (K.Sch.) (Rubiaceae). Proceedings of Indian National Science Academy, B55:139-149.

Grinfel’d, E.K. (1959). The feeding of thrips (Thysanoptera) on pollen of flower and the origin of asymmetry in their mouthparts. Ekologia Polska, 2:93- 137.

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Haydak, M.H. (1970). Honey bee nutrition. Annual Reiew of Entomology, 15:143-156.

Kevan, P.G and H.G. Baker (1983). Insects as flower visitor and pollinator. Annual Review of Entomology, 28: 407-453.

Kirk, W.D.J. (1984). Pollen feeding and the host specificity and fecundity of flower thrips (Thysanoptera). Ecological Entomology, 10:281-289.

Kirk, W.D.J. (1985). Floral display in Vicia faba, and the distribution of a flower thrips, Kakothrips pisivorus. Entomologia Experimentia et Applicata, 38:233-238.

Kirk, W.D.J. (1987a). Effect of trap size and scent on catches of Thrips imaginis Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Journal of Australian Entomological Society, 26(4):299-302.

Kirk, W.D.J. (1987b). How much pollen can thrips destroy? Ecological entomology, 12:31-40.

Kirk, W.D.J. (1997). Feeding, In: Thrips as Crops Pests. [ed] Lewis T., CAB International, Oxon, UK, 65-118*.

Kondo, T., S. Nishimura, Y. Naito, Y. Tsumura, T. Okuda, K.K.S. Ng, S.L. Lee, N. Muhammad, N. Nakagoshi and Y. Isagi (2011). Can tiny thrips provide sufficient pollination service during a general flowering period in tropical rain forest? In: Y. Isagi and Suyama (eds.) Single Pollen Genotyping, Ecological Research, 63-81.

Kukalova-Peck, J. (1991). Fossil history and the evolution of Hexapod structures. In: CSIRO (ed) The insects of Australia, 2nd edition Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, pp 141–179*.

Kunte, K. (2000). India- A landscape: Butterflies of peninsular India. Indian Academy of Sciences. University Press (India) Limited, Hyderguda, Hyderabad. 270pp.

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Laughlin, R. (1977). The gum tree thrips, Isoneurothrips australis Bagnall, Survival at different temperature and humidities and its relation to capacity for survival. Australian Journal of Ecology, 2(4):391-398.

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Lewis, T. (1973). Thrips, their Biology, Ecology and Economic Importance (London: Academic Press). 349pp.

Mathur, G. and H.Y. Mohan Ram (1978). Significance of petal colour in thrips pollinated Lantana camera L., Annals of Botany, 42, 1473-1476.

Moog, U., B. Fiala, W. Feerle and U. maschwitz (2002). Thrips pollination of the Dioecious Ant Plant Macaranga hullettii (Euphorbiaceae) in Southeast Asia. American Journal of Botany, 89: 50-59.

Mound, L.A. (2004). Australian Thysanoptera – biological diversity and a diversity of studies. Australian Journal of Entomology, 43: 248-257.

Mound, L.A and Terry (2001). Pollination of the central Australian cycad, Macrozamia macdonnellii by a new species of basal clade thrips (Thysanoptera). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 162: 147-154.

Murai, T. and T. Ishii (1982). Simple rearing method for rearing flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on pollen. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology. (Zoology), 26: 149-154.

Mustajarvi, K., P. Siikamaki, S. Rytkonen and A. Lammi (2001). Consequences of plant population size and density for plant– pollinator interactions and plant performance. Journal of Ecology, 89: 80–87.

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Nyree, J., C. Zerega, L.A. Mound and G.D. Weiblen (2004). Pollination in the New Guinea Endemic Antiaropis decipiens (Moraceae) is mediated by a new species of thrips, Thripsantiaropsidis sp. Nov. (Thysanoptera:Thripidae). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 165 (6): 1017-1026.

Priesner, H. (1960). A monograph of the Thysanoptera of the Egyptian deserts. Publications of the Institute of Disert Egypte. 13: 549pp.

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Stanley, R.G. and H.F. Linskens (1974). Pollen: Biology, biochemistry and management. Berlin: Springer*.

Syed, R.A. (1978). Thrips Pollination of Oil palm in West Malaysia; Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control-Report., 10 pp*.

Terry, I. (2001). Thrips and weevils as dual, specialist pollinators of the Australian cycad Macrozamia communis (Zamiaceae). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 162: 1293-1305.Terry, I. (2002). Thrips: the primeval pollinators? In: R. Marullo & LA Mound (eds.), Thrips and Tospoviruses. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Thysanoptera. (pp. 157-162). Australian National Collection, Canberra, Australia*.

Terry, I., G.H. Walter, J. Donaldson, E. Snow, P. Forster and P. Machin (2005). Pollination of Australian Macrozamia cycads (Zamiaceae): Effectiveness and behavior of specialist vectors in a dependant mutualism. American Journal of Botany, 92: 931-940.

Thien, L.B., H. Azuma and S. Kawano (2000). New perspectives on the pollination biology of basal angiosperms. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 161:S225– S235.

Varatharajan, R., K. Gopinathan and T.N. Ananthakrishnan (1984). Comparatives efficiency of thrips in relation to other foraging insects in pollination of Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. (Compositae). Proceeding of Indian National Science Academy, B48 (6): 735-739.

Varatharajan, R. and M. Daniel (1984). Studies on soil pupation in some phytophagous thrips. Journal of Soil Biology & Ecology, 4(2): 116-123.

Varatharajan, R. (1984). Bio-ecological studies on some anthophilous thrips from Southern India. Ph.D Thesis, Madras University.

Varatharajan, R., O.D. Singh and James Keisa (1999). Reproductive Efficiency of Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan) (Thysanoptera: Insecta) in relation to pollen and pollen free diets of few flower hosts. In: R.K. Bhola (ed.), Advances in insect endocrinology and physiologly. Kalyani Publishers, 255-259.

Velayudhan, R. and R.S. Annadurai (1987). Pollen transfer and stigma receptivity with reference to thrips (Insecta: Thysanoptera) in Solanum melongena Linn. Current Science, 56: 287-289.

Webber, A.C and G. Gottsberger (1995). Floral biology and pollination of Bocageopsis multiflora and Oxandra euneura in Central Amazonia with remarks on the evolution of Stamens in Annonaceae. Feddes Reportorium, 106: 515-524*.

Williams, G, P. Adams and L.A. Mound (2001). Thrips (Thysanoptera) pollination in Australian subtropical rainforest, with particular reference to pollination of Veiny Wilkiea, Wilkiea huegeliana (Tul.) A. DC . (Monimiaceae). Journal of Natural History, 35: 1-21.

(*original paper not referred & the sources are Lewis, T, 1973 & Ananthakrishnan, T.N, 1984).

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The Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Aves: Caprimulgiformes: Podargidae) is a bird with large head, wide gape and broad, swollen, hooked bill with eyes facing forward. It is resident and locally common in dense evergreen forest, secondary forest and cane brakes; but usually avoids plantations and disturbed forest (Ali & Ripley 1987, Rasmussen & Anderton 2012). Further, Ali & Ripley (1987) described it as apparently rare, nocturnal but seldom seen during day time. It has been categorized as Least Concern in IUCN Red List (2014).

The distributional range of these birds in India extends from the southern heavy rainfall tracts of the Western Ghats from 15°N in north Kanara district (Karnataka) southwards to Trivandrum district in Kerala (Ali & Ripley 1987). According to Rasmussen & Anderton (2012) it occurs in Western Ghats from Goa south and in Sri Lanka (Fig. 1a). Giri (2002) sighted Sri Lankan Frogmouth in Radhanagri Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolhapur district, Maharashtra and indicated that this bird has extended its range further north (of Goa). Kasambe (2012) recorded the range extension of frogmouth in Sanjay Gandhi National Park (19°18’35”N and 72°57’ 48”E), Mumbai. Further, he has mentioned the sightings of frogmouth by a birder Vaibhav Deshmukh in Alibaug and Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary (18°25’47”N and 72°56’ 20”E) in Raigad District of Maharashtra in 2009 (Fig. 1a). On 5 March, 2015 in the morning at 10:00 hrs, a local person contacted the first author (AS) stating that he has located a strange looking bird lying beneath the Ficus sp. tree near Police Headquarter, Satara City. After reaching there, it was identified as

Sri Lankan Frogmouth. After taking digital photographs it was released at the same place (Fig 2.). It disappeared in the thick foliage of tree. This could be a first record of Sri Lankan Frogmouth in Satara district, Maharashtra.

The sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth in Kolhapur district (Giri 2002) and in Raigad and Mumbai districts of Maharashtra (Kasambe 2012) (Fig 1a.) revealed that there is a large gap in their

occurrence between these districts. Therefore, we decided to undertake a preliminary survey to locate their presence particularly in districts such as Sindhudurg, Ratnagari, Sangli, Satara and Pune along with Raigad district which are forming a part of Northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra. Surveys were undertaken by team of Wildlife Protection and Research Society Satara between 10th March and 3rd April, 2015 in forested tracts of these districts. We used “call play –back” technique in which previously recorded call of the species using a digital recorder (WRU 120) and a PMC recorder in wave format (sample rate 48,000 Hz), sound played on a (WRU 120) with loudspeaker to get the response calls of the frogmouth. Besides the calling records, the numbers of frogmouths actually sighted were also noted along with their localities, co-ordinates and altitude with using Kestrel 4500 weather meter.All the recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth recorded from

Recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger in Northern Western Ghats between Kolhapur and Mumbai, IndiaAmit Sayyed1 and Anil Mahabal2

Fig 1(a). Previous Records and (b) Recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth in Western Ghats, India

1Wildlife Protection and Research Society Satara, Maharashtra. Email: amitsayyedsatara@gmail.com (corresponding author)2Scientist (Retd.) Zoological Survey of India, W.R.C. Akurdi, Pune, Maharashtra. Email: mahabal.anil@gmail.com

Fig 2. Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger

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various localities have been compiled in Table 1 and depicted in Fig1(b). Two earlier sightings (Sanjay Thakur, personal communication) have also been added.

ConclusionThe distribution and ecology of Sri Lankan Frogmouths have been adequately studied in the areas of Western Ghats Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states (viz. Sugathan 1981, Kannan 1993 and 1994, Santharam 1995, Kumara & Singh 2006, Barve 2010).Karanth (2003) while discussing the evolution of disjunct distributions among some wet-zone species including genus Batrachostomus of the Indian subcontinent by testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach: he pointed out that distribution data should be well-documented throughout India for studying such species. In this context, it can be stated that in general, the recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger in Northern Western Ghats, particularly between Kolhapur and Mumbai confirms a continuous population in suitable habitat patches by filling in the gaps.Kasambe (2012) has speculated that these birds could be found in the Dang district in Gujarat where the Western Ghats culminate. In that case, it can be stated that surveys are needed further north of Mumbai particularly in the areas of Thane and Nasik districts which are forming a part of Northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra to record the presence of Sri Lankan Frogmouth, if any.

Acknowledgments Authors are thankful to Vinay Chavan, Jitendra Patole, Datta Chavan, Abhijit Nale, Rahul Thombre, Prajakta Chavana team of Wildlife Protection and Research Society Satara, Maharashtra, for helping us in the field surveys.

References Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley (1987). Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Second Edition) Oxford University, Delhi. Pp. 1-735+ plates.Barve, S. (2010). Sri Lankan Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger of Kogar: filling in the “gaps”. Indian Birds, 5(6): 179.Giri, B.V. (2002). Occurrence of the Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger (Family: Podargidae) in Radhanagri Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra.Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 99(1): 166-117.IUCN (2014). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3 www.iucnredlist.org downloaded on 22 March 2014.Kannan, R. (1993). Resent sightings of Ceylon Frogmouth in India. Oriantal Bird Club Bulletin,17: 37-38. Kannan, R. (1994). Notes on The Stetus and Ecolodgy of the Ceylon Frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth) from the Annaimalai Hills of Tamilnadu. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 91(3): 454-455. Karanth, P.K. (2003). Evolution of disjunct distributions among wet-zone species of the Indian subcontinent: Testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach. Current Science 85(9): 1276-1283. Kasambe, R. (2012). Range Extension of Sri Lankan Frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger) up to Mumbai. Newsletter For Birdwatchers, 52(3): 37.Kumara, H.N. and M. Singh (2006). Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger Blyth in the rain forest of Western Ghats, Karnataka. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 103(1): 100-101.Rasmussen, P.C. and J.C. Anderton (2012). Birds of South Asia.The Ripley Guide, Vols.1 and 2. Second edition, Smithsonian Institute and Lynx Edicions, Washington D.C, Michigan and Barcelona, 387pp and 684pp.Sugathan, R. (1981). A survey of the Ceylon frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the western Ghats of India Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 78(2):309-316.Santharam, V. (1995). A Frogmouth “Darshan”.Bulack Buck, 11(1): 23-27.

Date Locality and District Co-ordinates Altitude Birds sighted

Habitat

21/07/2014 Amboli, Sindhudurg 15°57'36''N; 73°59'57''E 721 m 2 Dense forest01/04/2015 Devrukh, Ratnagiri 17°2'54''N; 73°38'45''E 162 m 1 Light forest near

border area of human habitation

12/ 03/2015 Chandoli (NP), Sangli 17°11′30″N; 73°46′30″E 747 m 5 Dense forest17/03/2015 Maldev Koyna (TR),

Satara17°46'48''N; 73°42'2''E 717 m 2 Dense forest

23/03/2015 Chalkewadi, Satara 17°35'18"N; 73°48'43"E 1147 m Not noticed Open forest21/03/2015 Kaas, Satara 17°42'53''N; 73°48'11''E 1165 m 1 Dense forest05/03/2015 Satara city, Satara 17°41'13''N; 73°59'52''E 707 m 1 Human habitation 15/03/2015 Mahabaleshwer, Satara 17°54'57''N; 73°39'57''E 1370 m 3 Dense forest29/03/2015 Mulshi, Pune 18°28'17''N; 73°29'19''E 700 m Not noticed Dense forest30/03/2015 Bhira, Raigad 18°27'13''N; 73°23'17''E 100 m 2 Dense forest14/03/2000 Chavani Village, Raigad 18°43'15"N; 73°19'54"E 348 m 2 Forest near border

area of human habitation

Table 1. Recent sightings of Sri Lankan Frogmouth from various localities of Northern Western Ghats, Maharashtra

Abbreviation (NP): National Park, (TR): Tiger Reserve

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AbstractPlain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) is an unpalatable butterfly. As per theory of Batesian mimicry, female Danaid Eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus) and female Indian Fritillary (Argyreus hyperbius) mimic D. chrysippus for getting protection against avian predators. Birds are believed to be the main predators of butterflies and after an initial learning period these birds are expected to discriminate between the unpalatable butterflies - including mimics - and the palatable non-poisonous ones. Birds are not expected to prey on poisonous models as a matter of routine. Contrary to this, in 2007, Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) captured D. chrysippus continuously for about 15 days during breeding season in Noida, a satellite town of Delhi, without any apparent learning. As there are very limited direct observations of birds attacking butterflies reported in the literature, I have presented my observations in this paper for the sake of record. Circumstances under which P. cafer is likely to restore to predation on these unpalatable butterflies are also examined based on ten year butterfly counts (2003-2012) in the area and data collected on the nesting behaviour of bulbuls in the same area in the year 2013.

KeywordsBatesian mimicry, Red-vented bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer, Plain Tiger, Danaus chrysippus, predator, brood-parasite, Pied-crested cuckoo, Clamator jacobinus.

IntroductionRed-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) is one of the most common birds of India, much loved and quite welcome in all homes and gardens because of its sweet, short, fluid notes and cheerful presence. Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) is one of the most common butterflies of India. Both P. cafer and D. chrysippus are quite common in Delhi area and here, just like in any other part in India, P. cafer is not reported to prey on D. chrysippus and this is probably because of two reasons: first, staple diet of the bulbul is fruits and berries (Fig 1.); and second, D. chrysippus (Fig 2.) is believed to be a poisonous, unpalatable butterfly to the birds. So, though bulbul happily picks up smaller moths and other insects in addition to its favourite berries, it generally stays away from D. chrysippus.

D. chrysippus is protected against attacks from avian and reptilian predators by virtue of the unpalatable alkaloids it ingests during its larval stage (Kunte 2000, Kehimkar 2008). In Noida, D. chrysippus

caterpillars feed on milkweed Calotropis procera and latex of this plant contains cardiac glycosides calotropin, uscharin, calotoxin, calactin and uscharidin. It increases the heartbeat respiration in animals leading to distress and death (The Wealth of India, Raw Materials, Vol. 3: Ca-Ci Revised Edition, CSIR, 1992, s.v. “Calotropis”). Feeding caterpillars of D. chrysippus store these poisons in their bodies and adult butterflies also retain them and thus become unpalatable to birds and reptiles. Female Danaid Eggfly (Hypolimnas misippus) and female Indian Fritillary (Argyreus hyperbius) are Batesian mimics of D. chrysippus.

As per Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1971), food of P. cafer includes fruits and berries (of Laranthus, Lantana, Zizyphus, Ficus, Santalum, Salvadora and others), flower nectar (of

Some observations on Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) preying on Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) butterflies Rajiv K. Singh Bais1

1A-13, Sector 33, Noida, Uttar Pradesh.Email: baisrajivsingh@gmail.com

Fig 1. Pycnonotus cafer with a Ficus religiosa fig for young

Fig 2. Danaus chrysippus on sunflower

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Erythirina, Cappris, Salmalia, Woodfordia, Lavanthus, etc). It also feeds on insects (caterpillars, moths, ants, termites etc.). Handbook also mentions of a young lizard, 9cm long, brought to the nestlings resulting in the death of a 5-6 day old chick attempting to swallow it. In one study (Bhatt and Kumar 2001), conducted from April 1995 to April 1997 in Haridwar in north India, about foraging behaviour of P. cafer, butterflies are not reported to be a part of bulbul’s food. But in May 2007 bulbuls were seen preying on D. chrysippus butterflies continuously for 15 days in Noida, a satellite town of Delhi.

Main Predators of ButterfliesWriting about mimicry in butterflies, Punnett (1915) writes that the data at present available with regard to the attacks of bird upon butterflies under natural conditions are too meagre. He also writes about experiments involving feeding of birds in captivity and cautions that the food accepted or rejected by captive animals is very little guide to its preference under natural conditions. Shapiro (1974), while proposing beak-mark scoring for estimating the frequency of predator-prey contacts in butterfly population, quotes from many different sources and concludes that direct observations of bird attacks on

butterflies are rare. He further says “… beakmark scoring is the only method (other than direct observations) currently available for estimating the frequency of predator-prey contacts in butterfly population…”. Clearly, data related to direct observations of bird attacks on butterflies in their natural habitat are very important for modifying and correcting our understanding of the concept of mimicry in butterflies. In view of such paucity of data on direct observations of bird attacks on butterflies-more so when chemically protected models are involved. It is important that all such observations are carefully recorded in proper context. This paper is presented with records of bulbul’s attack on D. chrysippus and Danaus genutia in the year 2007 and related data collected over a period of 10 years from 2003 to 2012 and possible explanations of this not-so-common behaviour of Red-vented bulbul.

Study Area I (Foraging ground of bulbul)A government nursery in the partly developed sector 33A of Noida (28.586N, 77.352E), India, (Fig 7). This nursery is surrounded by barren land and yet-to-be-developed parks. This nursery is a part of the transect I walked for ten years from 2003 to 2012 for counting butterflies. Beyond these empty plots of land are some of the most densely populated areas of

Fig 3. Re-constructed Danaus chrysippus.(Sh 1 of 3)

Fig 4. Re-constructed Danaus chrysippus. (Sh 2 of 3)

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the town. Every year during the monsoon empty plots around the nursery get overgrown with variety of flowering wild plants including milkweed (Calotropis procera), Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), Lantana camara, Sida rhombifolia, Indian Mallow (Abutilon indicum), Cassia sophera, Cassia mimosoides, Maxican Poppy (Argemone mexicana), Congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus) and Wild Field Thistle (Cirsium arvense). C. procera is

the larval food plant of D. chrysippus in the study area. There are also sparsely located trees of Millettia pinnata, Neolamarckia cadamba and Vachellia nilotica. Inside the nursery D. chrysippus is attracted to the flowers of Jatropha (Jatropha integerrima), Marigold (Tagetes spp.), Cirsium arvense and lantana camara.

MethodologyAs mentioned before, a 1.0 km transect was walked at least once every week for counting butterflies generally in line with Monitoring Butterflies for Ecology and Conservation (Pollard and Yates 1995). Records were kept for butterflies, day-flying moths and any other interesting observations related to butterflies. This methodology evolved over time as the recording progressed and newer observations (e.g. birds attacking butterflies) made.

ObservationsIn May 2007, in addition to recording butterflies, I was also documenting nesting activities of a pair of Small Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalis). 06 May 2007 was a day of D. chrysippus butterflies when I recorded 56 of them on flowering Jatropha and Cirsium arvense. This was a sudden increase in their numbers in the study area. Other butterflies present in the area were: Junonia almana (1), Catopsilia pomona (1), Belenois aurota (4) and Lampides boeticus (1). I was aware of a pair of Red-vented bulbul nesting somewhere nearby, though I was not recording its day to day progress. On this date bulbul was seen capturing and carrying small moths for the nestlings.

On 14 May 2007, bulbul chased and captured two flying D. chrysippus butterflies between 0750 and 0820 hrs. However on both the occasions butterflies escaped while being battered on the ground. I do not think these butterflies saved their lives by virtue of their unpalatability, but rather on the strength of their strong wings and muscle power. Even when the butterflies were getting away from the bird they were once again given a good chase by the bulbul. All along I believed D. chrysippus to be an unpalatable butterfly for the birds; though it was sometimes seen being captured by the preying mantids, I had never seen it being chased or captured by Merops orientalis, Dicrurus adsimilis or any other bird present in the area.

I soon discovered that both the parent bulbuls were hunting butterflies for feeding to their young – three of them – who were found perched at a height of 1.5 metre, partially hidden inside a loose cluster of bougainvillea. This day (14 May 2007), I counted following butterflies in the hunting ground of the bulbuls: D. chrysippus (31), Tirumala limniace (2). Main flowering plant: Jatropha.

Fig 5. Re-constructed Danaus chrysippus and Danaus genutia. (Sh 3 of 3)

Fig 6. Pycnonotus cafer killing a Danaus chrysippus for young. Photo: Rajiv K. Singh Bais

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On 15 May 2007, I again returned to this area at 0745 hrs and counted D. chrysippus (28), Tirumala limniace (4), Danaus genutia (1), Belenois aurota (1) and Lampides boeticus (3). Bulbul again captured a flying D. chrysippus, battered it on the ground and took it to some distant location, wings still attached. While being battered on the ground the butterfly fell twice on the ground but could not escape. I collected one long piece of the forewing from the battering site. Bird took the butterfly high up on the electric line above the boundary wall of the nursery and then flew outwards. I also collected three more broken wings of D. chrysippus from the spot where yesterday bulbul was seen feeding the young and preserved them for re-construction. Bee-eaters (Merops orientalis) were also seen carrying insects inside the nest-hole but I never saw them chasing or capturing D. chrysippus.

16 May 2007 was a bright, warm sunny day with no wind. I counted following butterflies in bulbul’s hunting ground: D. chrysippus (18), Tirumala limniace (3), Belenois aurota (1), Pieris brassicae (1), Catopsilia pomona (1), Lampides boeticus (1) and Zizeeria karsandra (4). I reached there at 0730 hrs and stayed up to 0830hrs. Today again the young were perched inside the same cluster of bougainvillea where I discovered them on 14 May 2007. Today I wanted to actually see bulbul capturing, battering and feeding a so called poisonous, unpalatable species of butterfly to the young. Soon at 0745 hrs, I was rewarded with the sight! One D. chrysippus was captured on the wings, battered on the ground and then taken to the young. Of the three young one looked slightly bigger than the other two. Butterfly,

with orange wings still attached, was first offered to the smaller ones but they could not either handle the butterfly or showed reluctance to accept it. The butterfly was immediately offered to the third one. I am not sure if wings were also swallowed as I did not come any closer for fear of disturbing them while parent bird partly obstructed my view. I think the parent bird held the butterfly in the beak while the third juvenile pecked at it. I searched for the broken wings of the butterfly once the birds moved to another location but could not locate any. I re-visited the site at 1000hrs and collected wings belonging to four D. chrysippus killed between 0830 and 1000hrs. Subsequent to these encounters, I paid daily visits to the site during the period 15-26 May 2007 and collected the broken wings of the D. chrysippus (and also Danaus genutia on one occasion). Broken wings collected during each visit were placed in a separate paper envelope with date and later butterflies were re-constructed to arrive at the number of butterflies killed on each date. Size, age, colour, time of collection and relative location of the collection points were taken in to account while re-constructing the butterflies from the broken wings placed in any particular envelope. Re-constructed butterflies were pasted on A4 size transparent plastic sheets (Fig 3, 4 & 5). Details are summarized in Table 1. Peak numbers of D. chrysippus butterflies observed for the period 2003-2012 are given in Table 2.

During this first part of the study (Study Area I), I actually saw bulbul chase / capture the D. chrysippus on 14,15,16,17 and 22 May 2007. After this period, on 09 June 2007 at around 0830hrs in the same area, I again observed a bulbul offering a D. chrysippus to a juvenile perched on a low branch which the young could not handle and subsequently parent bird ate it completely with all the wings attached. I do not know if this was the same family which I watched in the month of May 2007 or a different one. Next day on 10 June 2007, I reached the same spot with a camera fitted with a 100-400mm lens to shoot bulbul catching D. chrysippus but bulbul did not oblige. On 01 July 2007 at 1715 hrs in the evening, I was roaming around the same spot in the nursery with camera when a bulbul brought one D. chrysippus for feeding to the young. Unfortunately before I could fire the shutter the bird got disturbed and quickly moved to another spot and in the process the butterfly fell off the beak. I could not locate the dead butterfly inside the dense Lantana cluster. There was only one more D. chrysippus at this late evening hour of the day. It appears that in 2007 breeding season this patch was a part of the foraging circuit of at least two pairs of bulbuls who nested nearby. In subsequent years (2008-2013) also ground under the flowering plants was checked for the presence of any broken butterfly wings but no D. chrysippus wings were found.

SN Date Timehrs.

Danaus chrysippus

Danaus genutia

1 15-May-07 745 4 0

2 16-May-07 1000 4 0

3 17-May-07 1010 3 0

4 18-May-07 1020 0 0

5 19-May-07 750 7 1

6 20-May-07 945 5 0

7 20-May-07 1700 8 0

8 21-May-07 745 2 0

9 22-May-07 730 6 0

10 22-May-07 1400 1 0

11 23-May-07 800 1 0

12 24-May-07 800 1 0

13 25-May-07 750 0 0

14 26-May-07 810 1 0

TotalTotalTotal 43 1

Table 1. Number of butterflies reconstructed from broken wings collected during the observation period

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Observations by othersUsha Ganguli in article “Some notes on the nest behaviour of a pair of Red-vented bulbuls” (Ganguli 1963) has written about a pair of Red-vented bulbul nesting in Delhi in the month of April 1963. She writes: “… Both parents took turns to feed the young ones. To begin with they brought tiny insects, later I saw butterflies (which looked like Plain Tigers but are very likely to be female Danaid Eggflies which are excellent mimics of the Plain Tiger), green grasshoppers and grubs etc. shoved down the throats of the chicks. The butterflies were given whole – wings and all! …”

Another paper (Stimson and Berman 1990) reports that on the island of Hawaii, the Monarch butterfly Danaus plexippus has two distinct and genetically

determined wing-colour morphs, white and orange. The white morph has increased in frequency in the last 20 years perhaps because of the predation on the orange form by introduced bird Pycnonotus jocosus and P. cafer bulbuls. During the study the ground and the grass under and near milkweed bushes (Calotropis gigantea) were searched for the wings of the Monarch, presumably broken off by the predator. Most of these wings were found to be orange. These two bulbuls P. cafer and P. jocosus were introduced in Oahu in 1965 and are now most common insectivorous birds preying on insects as big as Monarch.

Study Area II (Nesting site of bulbul)After observing the predation of D. chrysippus by bulbul in the foraging ground (first part of this study

Table 2. Peak Numbers of Danaus chrysippus Butterflies in the Study Area I (Foraging ground of bulbul)

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- Study Area I), bulbul’s nesting area was discovered and chosen as Study Area II to observe bird’s feeding behaviour at nest site. Study Area II was a recently developed public park (150m x 50m), adjacent to the Study Area I (Fig 7). In this park there were about 100 saplings of Ficus benjamina, 2-3 m high. Highly forked stems of this plant with dense umbrella like canopy on the top provided excellent nesting sites to the bulbuls of the area. Other trees included Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) and guava. There were many nesting pairs of bulbuls in Study Area II but very few flowering plants or butterflies. Farthest foraging patch outside the park supported few fruiting Ficus religiosa trees. Nesting behaviour of P. cafer was observed in this park for four months, from March to June 2013.

MethodologyBulbul nests were located by closely watching the activities of

the bulbuls. Red-vented bulbuls carrying nesting material or food in the beak were followed. Distress calls and injury feigning behaviour were also monitored to locate the nests. Identified nests were marked on a map. The study area was visited every alternate day for one hour from 0700 hrs to 0800 hrs and activities of the parent birds were observed. Returning parents were closely observed for the food they brought for the young. Activities of predators and brood parasites were also observed and recorded. On many visits, especially on Sundays when more time was spent in the field, camera with a telephoto lens was also used for photographing the birds. Flower beds of nearby Study Area I were also visited to check any increase in the number of D. chrysippus butterflies. Ground was also searched under flowering plants for butterfly wings.

ObservationsUnlike bulbul’s bold and determined behaviour in the Study Area I (foraging ground), Study Area II (nest site) revealed a different situation. Presence of numerous predators and brood parasites in the nesting area did not allow bulbuls to leave the nest unguarded for longer periods during their foraging trips. Many times they returned empty-billed for the safety of the brood and looked nervous and helpless. Fear of nestling starvation under the situation forced them to look for any, even if less-than-optimal food for the young in the immediate vicinity of the nest. This food included D. chrysippus or Yellow Paper Wasp (Polistes hebraeus) or any other insect flying close to the nest. Predation pressure in Study Area II is described in the following paragraphs.

PredatorsIn the nesting site (Study Area II) main bird predators were Crow-Pheasant (Centropus sinensis) and Shikra (Accipiter badius). Centropus sinensis was routinely seen being chased by the bulbuls, though no direct predation was observed. Shikra was found to be much more secretive and worked by stealth. It used to wait for a long time hiding in the foliage of a medium sized tree and then would launch a swift, straight plunge towards its target. Shikra was often seen being chased away by House Crow (Corvus splendens), Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis) and Bank Myna (Acridotheres ginginianus) nesting in the same area. Near continuous alarm calls were raised by bulbuls, robins (Saxicoloides fulicatus) and ashy wren-warblers (Prinia socialis) during the chase. From one of the bulbul’s nest all the three nestlings were taken away by one of the predators. Built on the periphery, unlike the other nests which were well hidden in the middle, this particular nest was partly exposed and visible.

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A family of Small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) was a permanent resident in the area but I never saw it near bulbul’s nest during the study period. Rat snake (Ptyas mucosa) was occasionally spotted but again, I never saw it trying to reach bulbul’s nest. Red-wattled lapwing (Vanellus indicus) closely followed the movement of the snake and physically attacked it. Study of breeding biology of Red-vented bulbul in Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (Vijayan 1980) reports Indian grey mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) to be the greatest single cause of nesting loss in the study area. The important bird predators were reported to be Crow-Pheasant (Centropus sinensis) and Rufous treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda).

Brood parasitesIn Delhi and Noida monsoon arrived on 16 June 2013, and the same day one Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) was spotted in the Study Area II at 0900 hrs. In fact I first spotted six bulbuls (probably three nesting pairs) swiftly chasing each other in a close loop near the hedge along the boundary wall of the park. Soon they all settled on different branches of the hedge in a compact, circular formation, and at the centre of this circle was the Pied Crested Cuckoo seriously working out a way to get out of this fix. It suddenly took to wings while all the six bulbuls chased it away and returned. Clamator jacobinus is a brood parasite of P. cafer (Tooth 1901, Osmaston 1916). It is a migratory bird, presumably from Africa, that reaches North India just before monsoon.

Behaviour of P. cafer in Study Area IIDuring breeding season, especially after the young hatched out, parents defended a very small area around the nest where they frequently returned and chased away the intruders. Visits were made to different foraging patches and fruits, insects or spiders were brought for the young. These foraging patches were in different directions and were generally within 250m from the nest (Fig 7.). Both parents generally moved together, leaving the nest unattended and returned roughly every 5-10 minutes in quick succession with food. Food was brought either by one or both the parents. On few occasions both the parents returned without any food and then anxiously searched for food around the nest site. On 27 May 2013 at 0730 hrs, under similar circumstances when they returned empty-billed, a Yellow Paper Wasp (Polistes hebraeus) was killed near the nest and taken to the nestlings. Similarly on 31 May 2013 at 0705 hrs a D. chrysippus butterfly was captured near the nest, battered on the ground, all four wings removed, and body taken to the nest. Luckily this time I could get few photographs of the bird killing D. chrysippus (Fig 6.).

DiscussionWhat caused the explosion of D. chrysippus butterflies in May 2007 is one question that needs to be studied further. Butterfly population is known to follow a cyclic trend from year to year linked to many factors including availability of the food plant. Plain Tiger population generally peaks in the pre-monsoon months in Delhi area. Milkweed Calotropis procera shrubs die off completely by December end and re-appear by next March. In 2007 Delhi received more than normal share of rainfall in the months of January and February and probably this early moisture provided favourable conditions to the early growth of milkweed in the area resulting in an early appearance of D. chrysippus which coincided with the peak breeding season of P. cafer (May-June). Table 2 indicates yearly peaks of D. chrysippus butterfly population for the period (2003-2012) in the study area.

Bulbul’s choice of foraging patchesWhile selecting the nest site, birds choose a site that provides protection against potential predators, sun, wind, rain and proximity to the foraging area. As availability of food is generally quite patchy birds also decide about which food patches to visit. Fig. 7 shows the food patches chosen by bulbuls in the Study Area II in the year 2013. During the breeding season, if a particular patch of flowering plants attracted large number of D. chrysippus butterflies and their numbers crossed a certain threshold then that particular flowering patch became a part of the foraging circuit of the nesting bulbuls of the area. And if butterfly numbers were too large, then probably breeding bulbuls of relatively farther area also found it profitable (least effort per catch) to visit this patch. Bulbuls would capture the butterfly; remove one, two, three or all four wings from the body and then transport the bare body to feed to the hungry chicks. Subsequently juveniles would follow the parents to the foraging patches where parents would feed them with ease. This threshold value when a particular butterfly rich area becomes a foraging patch appears to be a function of many variables influencing the cost-benefit analysis made by P. cafer while deciding about the number of foraging patches to visit. These variables include types of prey and their nutritional value in each patch, travel time, search time, handling time etc. Based on the data presented in Table 2 for the Study Area I, this threshold seems to be a value between 26 to 56 D. chrysippus butterflies in an area measuring 25m x 75m. Once bulbuls start preying on D. chrysippus from this patch they would continue to visit it in a planned sequence for several days in a row till D. chrysippus butterflies are almost completely eliminated. This is one situation when bulbuls come to D. chrysippus with a purpose. However this appears to be true only during the

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breeding season of bulbul and in non-breeding season bulbul will not prey on D. chrysippus even if this threshold is crossed. Towards the end of August 2009, D. chrysippus concentration was higher than May 2007 levels, still no butterfly was captured by the bulbuls probably because there were no breeding pairs around and no hungry chicks to be fed in late August.

There appears to be another situation during breeding season when bulbuls do not visit butterfly patch (butterfly numbers still below the threshold level) but still capture few D. chrysippus butterflies near the nest. As observed in Study Area II, on few occasions both the parent birds returned from the foraging patch without any food. This implies that they failed to secure the food within stipulated 5-10 minutes of absence from the nest site and for the safety of their chicks they were forced to return and defend the nest from the potential predators. Now at this juncture, both the parents looked anxious and desperately searched for food in the immediate vicinity of the nest (say within a radius of 10m from the nest) - any food - not necessarily the preferred source of nutrition. Now if a Polistes hebraeus or a D. chrysippus was spotted, the same was captured, killed and offered to the young as food before resuming their next normal trip to a distant foraging patch. As mentioned before, one Polistes hebraeus was killed on 27 May 2013 and a D. chrysippus on 31 May 2013 near the nest under similar circumstances.

This is the situation when D. chrysippus butterfly inadvertently enters the nesting area and gets killed. In this case killing of D. chrysippus is not linked to the abundance of butterflies but on bulbul’s level of desperation and fear of starvation deaths of the ever-hungry nestlings. Even if there is just one D. chrysippus, it would be killed and offered to the young. When the chicks were not yet born (i.e. bird still incubating), D. chrysippus butterflies were regularly seen freely flying and sipping nectar on the flowers of the Terminalia arjuna within striking distance of the bulbul perched on the topmost branch of the same tree, close to the nest site but bulbul never showed any interest in chasing or capturing these butterflies till the young hatched out. So predation on D. chrysippus by P. cafer in the study area may now be summarized as follows:

1. P. cafer does not prey on D. chrysippus in non-breeding season.2. During nesting season P. cafer may prey on D. chrysippus and there may be two situations:i. During the nesting season, if D. chrysippus becomes abundant at some location in the foraging area then P. cafer will regularly visit this location to capture D. chrysippus as a food for the nestlings.

ii. During the nesting season if P. cafer is forced to stay put and guard the nest because of perceived threat from the predators and as a result prevented from bringing food for the nestlings from the foraging patch then if a D. chrysippus comes close to the nest the same shall be captured by the bulbul and offered to the nestlings as food.

SuggestionsAs butterfly counts in the study area are dwindling fast, I may not get any opportunity in the future to have D. chrysippus population at 2007 level coinciding with the peak breeding season of P. cafer in the area. Bird and butterfly watchers elsewhere may closely watch this interaction to check the validity of the proposed hypothesis. Toxicity levels of the milkweed in Delhi area may also be examined and compared with the toxicity records from other parts of the country where bulbuls do not prey on D. chrysippus.

ReferencesAli, S. and S.D. Ripley (1971). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6, 2nd Edition, Oxford India Paperbacks 2001, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.Bhatt, D. and A. Kumar (2001). Foraging Ecology of Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer in Haridwar, India. Forktail 17:109.Ganguli, U. (1963). Some notes on the nesting and nest behaviour of a pair of Red-vented bulbuls. Neswletter for Birdwatchers. Vol 3, October 1963, Bangalore, India.Kehimkar, I. (2008). The Book of Indian Butterflies. Oxford University Press. India.Kunte, K. (2000). Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press (India) Ltd, Hyderabad. India.Osmaston, B.B. (1916). The Pied Crested Cuckoo (Coccystes jacobinus). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. Vol XXIV, No 4. : 821-822.Pollard, E. and T.J. Yates (1995). Monitoring Butterflies for Ecology and Conservation. Chapman & Hall. London. UK.Punnett, R.C. (1915). Mimicry in Butterflies. University Press Cambridge.Shapiro, A.M. (1974). Beak-mark frequency as an index of seasonal predation intensity on common butterflies. The American Naturalist. Vol 108, No 960: 229-232.Stimson, J. and M. Berman (1990). Predator induced colour polymorphism in Danaus plexippus in Hawaii. Heredity 65: 401-406.Tooth, E.E. (1901). A Pied-crested Cuckoo egg (Coccystes jacobinus) found in the nest of the Bengal Red-vented bulbul (Molpastes bengalensis). Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. India. Vol XXIV, No 4: 821-822.Vijayan, V.S. (1980). Breeding biology of bulbuls, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus luteolus, with special reference to their ecological isolation. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. India. Vol 75(4): 1090-1117.

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 23

LOCATIONPío Nono 289, Santiago, ChilePhone: 56-2-2730 1424URL: http://www.parquemet.cl/zoologico-nacional/

KEY WORDSbamboo forest, conservation, habitat loss, immersion

DESCRIPTIONThe exhibit was conceived to present an endangered species in its natural habitat with the drama of habitat loss and the conservation plans for this species.

The goal of the design is an immersive experience for the visitors. A path meanders in a bamboo forest, with natural rocks, juniperus and ferns. The interpretive graphics explain the habitat. The visitors finally reach a covered structure where the red pandas can be seen through large panels of glass. Special design details allow children to have better views and a fun experience. Among these are a bronze sculpture donated by the Chinese embassy and some wooden steps in front of the viewing areas. SIZEThe complex is composed of three exhibits plus a service area with two dens. A. Main outdoor exhibit with an area of 55m². B. A secondary outdoor exhibit for temporary holding with an area of 10m². This enclosure can also be used for a golden pheasant. C. An indoor exhibit where temperature can be kept under 25°C during summer. D. Two dens out of the view of the visitors with temperature control.

COSTSUSD 71,000 including 12 % for design.

The National Zoo hired Gustavo Collados as a permanent consultant for 6 months to develop plans and to overlook construction.

Chile National ZooRed Panda ExhibitAuthors: Gustavo Collados/Pangea Consultants and Jaime García, National Zoo staff Editor: Monika Fiby for ZooLex Translation: Gustavo Collados/Pangea Consultantshttp://www.zoolex.org/zoolexcgi/view.py?id=1621

Family Species Common Name Capacity

Ailuridae Ailurus fulgens Red panda 1.2.2

ANIMALS

Red Panda ©Gustavo Collados, 2014

Sculpture and kids ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 24

The construction was done internally by the zoo, with its own materials existing in stock and its own workers. Additionally four external workers were hired for four months. Maintenance is done by zoo staff. OPENING DATE20 December 2014 DESIGNBeginning: 1 May 2014• Design: Gustavo Collados, Pangea Consultants, Santiago, Chile• Construction Supervision: Gustavo Collados, Pangea Consultants, Santiago, Chile

CONSTRUCTIONBeginning: 15 August 2014• Construction: Jaime García, leader of the zoo building team, Santiago, Chile

PLANTSThe plant collection was selected to replicate the animal’s natural environment: several species of bamboo, juniperus and ferns.

The plant list specifies the Latin names of the plants used for this exhibit.

FEATURES DEDICATED TO ANIMALSA total of three interconnected exhibits allow a flexible management. One of the exhibits is air-conditioned to keep the temperature below 25°C which is the maximum temperature recommended for these animals. (The temperature in Santiago can reach 37°C in summer).

The main outdoor exhibit provides a three dimensional space with perches and dead trees to provide climbing opportunities for this semi-arboreal species.

FEATURES DEDICATED TO KEEPERSThe configuration of the exhibits allows the keepers to circulate with reasonable ease between dead trees and rocks.

Keeper access to the exhibit is through the holding building in order to minimize the risk of animal escape. For major maintenance and the introduction of trunks and other big objects, there is a mesh panel that can be opened.

The holding building has two pens, a keeper’s corridor and a small kitchen with a sink. All gates can be operated from the keeper's corridor.

Exhibit: View from back of the exhibit. Visitors can be seen inside the viewing structure. ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

Viewing structure. ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

Sculpture and graphic panels: The glass viewing panel on the left provides a view to a small enclosure that can be used by a golden pheasant.©Gustavo Collados, 2015

use indoorsindoors outdoorsoutdoors total exhibit

useaccessible total accessible total

total exhibit

animals 18 18 65 83visitors 13 13 42 42 55others 204 204 204

total 31 31 107 107 343

Space allocation in square meters:

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 25

FEATURES DEDICATED TO VISITORSWith an immersion experience in mind, a meandering path penetrates in a bamboo forest, with natural rocks, juniperus and ferns. The interpretive graphics talk about the habitat. The visitors enter a covered structure where the red pandas can be seen through large panels of glass. The low roof protects the visitors from sun and rain and the glass panels from reflections. The observation windows are in different angles to allow various perspectives and in order to avoid cross viewing between visitors on opposite sides of the exhibit - which can ruin the experience and stress the animals feeling surrounded by visitors.Between the windows is a wooden platform with steps that children can use to observe the animals. INTERPRETATIONThe landscape presents intrinsic information by its topography, vegetation and rocks. Large size interpretive graphics present the geographical range of the species, the habitat characteristics, other animal species that share the habitat, the natural history of the red panda, its threats and conservation programs.

A full-scale brass sculpture gives visitors a tactile opportunity. The sculpture is a donation of the Chinese embassy and was produced by a Chinese artist.

MANAGEMENTThe animals are part of a global management program. The animals are trained with positive reinforcement in order to facilitate medical care.During the day, the animals can choose to go outside. At night, they are locked in the indoor enclosures. Visitors can see them indoors during the summer.

The animals receive fresh bamboo daily that is delivered every second week. Additionally, they receive concentrated pellets (Mazuri/folivorous) and fruit. Food based behavioral enrichment is performed by the keepers. CONSERVATIONThe animals are part of the Global Species Management Plan (GSMP). The goals of construction were to minimize the impact on the terrain and the use of sustainable materials. One example is the selection of timber. Four large pillars of 30x30cm section and 4m length were used for the observation shelter. Originally, the idea was to get local oak for its durability. However, it turned out to be more sustainable to use sawn Oregon pine from plantations. This avoided felling old oaks which is regulated and would have been legal, but still is less sustainable.

LOCAL RESOURCESOnly local labor was used from design to construction. The materials are for the most part national, with the exception of the steel mesh that was produced in China and the air conditioning equipment.

Holding pen. ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

Visitor view. ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

Access. ©Gustavo Collados, 2015

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 26

Tata Steel Zoological Park commemorates World Forestry & World Water Day at Kuiani village In order to reach out the inaccessible rural mass and spread out conservation awareness, this year Tata Steel Zoological Park commemorated World Forestry Day and Water day on 21 March 2016 at Kuiani village in Bodam Block, East Singhbhum. On that day, the Zoo Education team arranged a special programme for 100 women and children. They were addressed stressing upon the core subject of “Importance of conservation of forests and water for the survival of human beings”. The messages that were shared during the programme involved sensitizing them as to why forests and water are vital to the planet for many reasons. Forests cover more than 30% of the world's land and contain more than 60,000 tree species, many yet to be unidentified. They host and safeguard the planet’s biodiversity and act as our natural defense against climate change. They are shelters for more than half of the terrestrial species of animals, plants and insects.

Further they were told that forests also act as a balance to maintain oxygen, carbon dioxide and

humidity levels in the air and are vital for protecting watersheds, which supply fresh water to rivers. Yet despite all of these priceless benefits, global deforestation continues at an alarming rate - 13 million hectares of forest are destroyed annually. Further, pictorial depiction of water conservation, water management and water pollution were displayed amongst the participants. They were explained as to how inefficient methods of irrigation of agricultural land, a lot of water is wasted as run off. Water needs are increasing every year and the proven fact is that clean water is not available to 1 out of 5 people on earth. The increased demand in water combined with the pollution of water has had many adverse effects on the environment, growth and economy – mainly on the rural people. Later by using the Zoo museum specimens “Touch & Learn” event was also conducted for them.

As part of meeting the Aichi Target-1 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity Conservation 2020, the Zoo has taken the initiative to make more and more people aware of the value of biodiversity by organizing various educational activities throughout the year. Submitted by: Ms. Seema Rani, Biologist cum Education Officer. Email: cmarani00@rediffmail.com

World Sparrow Day actions at Orchha and Maror, Tikamghar, Madhya PradeshThe little chirruping House Sparrow (Passer domesticus indicus) is one of the commonest birds that every Indian comes across. It has been a childhood friend, nesting and singing around humans. As the name ‘House Sparrow” suggests, its habitat are human dwellings with small crevices for nesting. But due to recent fast changing human life style have severely affected the nesting sites and food availability for the House Sparrows. This is a serious issue that needs awareness so that we do not lose our little friend as we lost Dodo and other species. There are 26 species of sparrow all over the World while India has 5 species of sparrows which includes migratory and residential species: Migratory species: Passer hispaniolensis (Spanish Sparrow); Residential Species: Passer pyrrhonotus (Sind Sparrow), Passer rutilans (Russet Sparrow), Passer montanus

Education Reports

Lecture on Importance of conservation of forests and water for the survival of human beings

Touch and Learn event conducted by using zoo museum specimens

Lecture on House sparrow

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 27

(Eurasian Tree Sparrow) and Passer domesticus (House Sparrow)

In 2010, Nature Forever Society declared 20 March as World Sparrow Day that has been celebrated all over the World with great zeal. Indian Biodiversity Conservation Society (IBCS), Jhansi and Wild Geo Excursion celebrated the day in Orchha and Maror, Tikamgarh (Madhya Pradesh). Students of various schools such as Shaskiya Prathamik Shala (Maror), Shaskiya Madhyamik Shala (Maror), Adarsh Ramraja Public School (Orchha), J.K.Convent (Orchha), Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel School (Orchha) participated in the celebration. Various workshops were organized prior to World Sparrow Day. The aims of the workshop were: to create awareness amongst the students; to teach them how to prepare the artificial bird box; to make provision of safe feeding sites; to engage the students in providing water for the birds and to

encourage the students to install the self prepared bird houses.

To create awareness amongst the students, various lectures were given that included the general information about House Sparrows, their economic role, causes of decline as well as the measures that can bring them back to our courtyard. The students were instructed how to provide water and feed for the House Sparrows. The water and feed should be placed at a safe site away from the predators such as cats. The birds can be fed on grains, breadcrumbs, seeds, rice etc., but never on food items containing salt. The students were given flyers in Hindi with various details about House Sparrows. The students were taught to make their own birdhouses by using the shoeboxes that are usually thrown away as waste.

Students then installed the nest box at their homes. The birdhouses were also installed in various temples of Orchha and Maror so that people see and learn to provide the nesting space to the House Sparrows at their home. The students also planted China Rose

Students posing with House sparrow flyers

Learning and preparing bird houses out of shoe boxPlanting shrubs which are ideal for House sparrow roosting

ZOO’s PRINT, Volume XXXI, Number 4, April 2016 28

(Hibiscus rosa sinensis) and Kaner (Nerium indicum) that are ideal for roosting of House Sparrows. House Sparrows prefer to roost on bushy shrubs so that they are safe and out of the reach of predators. The House sparrows adopted the nest boxes and thus the children were rewarded for their efforts. The schoolteachers (Devendra, Rohit, Ram Lohar, Vijay Shankar Srivastav, Rajendra Kumar Adjariya) supported the students in their initiatives for the conservation of the House Sparrows. The Volunteers (Abhishek Namdev, B.S. Kushwaha, Starling James, Arvind, Saleem, Shashi Kushwaha, Mukesh Kewat) interacted with the students and helped them in installing the birdhouses made by them. Submitted by: Dr. Sonika Kushwaha, Indian Biodiversity Conservation Society. Email: ibcsforall@gmail.com

Amazing Astro-Watch and Green Birthdays Early Saturday morning of 5 March ’16 began with a group of youngsters and adults gathered at Sabarmati Riverfront of Ahmedabad city. The group was participating in Astro-Watch organised by Sundarvan as part of nature appreciation on a cosmic level. Armed with flashlights covered in red cellophane paper, our group eagerly looked towards a sky trying to find the North direction. Associated with Astronomy for more than 30 years, our invited guest, Tanmaye Vyas helped them by handing out star charts of that time. The session began with locating the Pole star or Dhruva, learning to use the star chart and went on to a discussion about constellations. Telescopic viewing of Saturn was next, as the planet was already on its way to sink below the horizon. The participants were amazed to learn that what they thought was a star with naked eye, was actually Saturn and its rings were also visible through the telescope. The youngsters were bubbling with questions while the other celestial objects were brought into focus of the telescope. Mesmerized by beautiful moon and her craters, the participants were also delighted to see Jupiter with its three natural satellites. The session was concluded with the sun gently rising upon the Sabarmati River, a huge flock of rosy starlings turning and twisting to

make a beautiful murmuration, a feeling of fascination for the colossal universe. During February and March, five green birthday celebrations were also organised at Sundarvan with eco-friendly activities like making greeting cards with handprints, nature trails, artistic animal face painting and very popular with kids, puppetry. A snake awareness programme was conducted for all the guests, under the central theme of zoo as an education platform. Questions, amazement and smiles adorned the tiny tots’ faces as they left Sundarvan with their little take-away presents. We express our sincere thanks to our volunteers Dhrumil Shah and Umang Patel for their vital role to run our events smoothly. Submitted by: S. Sivakumar, Jignasa Patel & Meena Nareshwar, Sundarvan, Ahmedabad. Email: jignasa.patel@ceeindia.org.

Participants line-up to view Jupiter through the telescope

Moon adorned in a beautiful crescent and craters during Astro-Watch

Kids are thrilled by the close approaching puppet during a birthday celebration at Sundarvan

Publication Information

ZOO’s PRINT, ISSN 0973-2543Published at: CoimbatoreOwner: Zoo Outreach Organisation, 96, Kumudham Nagar, Vilankurichi Road, CBE 35

Editor: Sally R. WalkerAssociate Editors: R.V. Sanjay Molur and Daniel B. AyyachamyManaging Editor: Latha G. RavikumarEditorial Assistant: R. Marimuthu

Zoo Outreach Organisation Trust Committee and Sr. Staff Managing Trustee: Sally R. WalkerChairman Trustee: R. NandiniExecutive Director Trustee: R.V. Sanjay MolurFinance Director Trustee: Latha G. RavikumarScientist: B.A. DanielResearcher: R. MarimuthuOther staff: B. Ravichandran, R. Pravin Kumar, K. Geetha, S. Radhika, Arul Jagadish, K. Raveendran, S. Sarojamma

ZOOs’ PRINT magazine is informal and newsy as opposed to a scientific publication. ZOOS’ PRINT magazine sometimes includes semi-scientific and technical articles which are reviewed only for factual errors, not peer-reviewed.

Address Zoo Outreach Organisation Post Box 5912, 96, Kumudham Nagar, Vilankurichi RoadCoimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 035, IndiaPhone: +91 422 2665298Fax: +91 422 2665472E-mail: zooreach@zooreach.orgWebsite: www.zooreach.org, www.zoosprint.org

ZOO’s PRINT Publication Guidelines

We welcome articles from the conservation community of all SAARC countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and other tropical countries if relevant to SAARC countries’ problems and potential.

Type — Articles of semi-scientific or technical nature. News, notes, announcements of interest to conservation community and personal opinion pieces.

Feature articles — articles of a conjectural nature — opinions, theoretical, subjective.

Case reports: case studies or notes, short factual reports and descriptions.

News and announcements — short items of news or announcements of interest to zoo and wildlife community

Cartoons, puzzles, crossword and stories

Subject matter: Captive breeding, (wild) animal husbandry and management, wildlife management, field notes, conservation biology, population dynamics, population genetics, conservation education and interpretation, wild animal welfare, conservation of flora, natural history and history of zoos. Articles on rare breeds of domestic animals are also considered.

Source: Zoos, breeding facilities, holding facilities, rescue centres, research institutes, wildlife departments, wildlife protected areas, bioparks, conservation centres, botanic gardens, museums, universities, etc. Individuals interested in conservation with information and opinions to share can submit articles ZOOS’ PRINT magazine.

Manuscript requirementsArticles should by typed into a Word format and emailed to zooreach@zooreach.org. Avoid indents, all caps or any other fancy typesetting. You may send photos, illustrations, tables.

Articles which should contain citations should follow this guideline: a bibliography organized alphabetically and containing all details referred in the following style: surname, initial(s), year, title of the article, name of journal, volume, number, pages.

Editorial detailsArticles will be edited without consultation unless previously requested by the authors in writing. Authors should inform editors if the article has been published or submitted elsewhere for publication.

Magazine of Zoo Outreach Organization

Announcement

2016 - Year of the OtterNew awards for outstanding achievements in otter conservation Support the year of the Otter.

International Otter Survival Fund IOSF has declared 2016 to be the Year of the Otter and we would like to invite you to take part. The aim of the Year is to draw attention to the plight of the world’s otters and to raise funds for their conservation.

There are 13 species worldwide – they are all listed in the IUCN Red List and 12 are still declining in number.

IOSF has a special appeal to raise £65,000 in 2016 – that is £5,000 for each species. If you need ideas on how you can get involved just download our fundraising pack at http://www.otter.org/Public/HelpUs_WhatYouCanDoToHelp.aspx.

Annual World Otter Day, this year will be on Wednesday 25 May.

As part of the Year of the Otter, IOSF is launching new awards for outstanding achievements in otter conservation worldwide. These awards are open to all and will be presented annually beginning in December 2016. The categories for the awards are:

Children – Open to anyone aged 12 years or under (as at 1 December 2016). This can include any activity aimed to promote otter conservation such as artwork, writing, fundraising, etcYoung People – Open to anyone from 13 – 18 years (as at 1 December 2016). This can include any activity aimed to promote otter conservation such as artwork, writing, fundraising, etcGroup/Organisation – For example school, natural history group, Scouts/Guides, etc.Community Achievement – Any activity which involves local communities in otter conservation. This can be in the form of practical work, education, etc.Research – Open to amateur or professional researchers. The research must have taken place during 2016, although ongoing projects may be submitted. Any projects must not involve any procedure which is invasive or in any other way harms the animal. The project may involve animals in the wild or in captivity but this must be made clear in the application.Photography – Open to amateur or professional photographers. All photos must have been taken during 2016 and entries must indicate where and when it was taken, and if the photo was taken in the wild or in captivity. Photos may also include habitat or otter signs.Special Award – Open to anyone who has made a lifelong commitment to otter conservation or for an activity which does not fit into any other category

Applications/nominations can be made in more than one category and Children and Young People can also enter other categories.

If you wish to apply or nominate someone for an award, please complete the online form at https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1YmfX7yMZjMeAjfKiGag_YrPKxx00s5e2uXVXTExDNaE/edit?usp=forms_home&ths=true by 1 November 2016. Results will be announced on 1 December 2016.

You can donate to our crowdfunding page at https://www.buzzbnk.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?projectId=266 and please also pass this on to friends and family.

Let us know how you will be supporting the Year of the Otter and we will publicise it on our website and through our monthly e-update. You can also contact us at enquiries@otter.org if you have any questions or need any further information or help.

TOGETHER WE CAN BECOME A VERY LOUD VOICE TO MAKE PEOPLE TAKE NOTICE AND LISTEN.