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METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE ONE
THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module the student should be able to:
1. understand the meaning of research in its different categories
2. acquire a sense of commitment as a researcher and scholar
3. understand research as a discovery and problem solving process
Since the beginning of time the urge to look for the unknown, to look for something or someone has been instilled in human beings. From Edenic paradise through the years the search goes on. The term research stems from this continuing endeavor. In academe, this is a skill that must be developed and enhanced and the graduate student must know how this is done.
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LESSON 1 SOME DEFINITIONS CLASSIFICATIONS OF
RESEARCH
Research has been defined in different ways by authorities. The definitions are based on the intended output and purpose of the activity.
Classified according to purpose we have:
1. Pure/ Basic/Fundamental research , an inquiry to determine the truth about a plunomenon. Its output is a contribution to a body of scientific knowledge.
2. Applied research , the use of existing scientific knowledge in order to solve a problem or to make generalizations about behavior. This is a systematic endeavor a) to locate b) to collect c) to evaluate d) to analyze and e) to interpret data.
These two basic definitions serve as the bases of understanding the task that a researcher undertakes.
Research may be classified according to the method used. These are:
1. Historical research, an inquiry about past events2. Descriptive - survey research, an inquiry about present conditions3. Experimental research, an inquiry about cause and effect relationship4. Case study, a merger of the other three methods.
Research is also classified according to subject matter as: natural science research, social science research, educational research, theological research, literary research, and so on.
In our globalized academic environment technological research has come into the picture. The academic researcher must henceforth become familiar with the technological devices used in the research process.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss the types of research that are most applicable to problems in education.
2. What kind of basic or fundamental research can be carried out in education? Explain and give examples.
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LESSON 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHER AD\ND
SCHOLAR
The researcher and scholar have characteristics that are often acquired in academic institutions and developed through the years. Sometimes the student remains unaware of these characteristics and fail to develop them.
Here are some of these characteristics:
Intellectual curiosity
This is the inquiring frame of mind, the desire for knowledge. This is the mind that keeps asking “why?”
Prudence and Wisdom
While curiosity leads the researcher to the discovery of truth, it can also lead to disaster. Hence, prudence and wisdom come in. This means knowing when to stop the inquiry because its consequence can be dangerous or harmful.
Awareness of obstacles to Progress
As we walk along the highway of life we meet “obstacles to progress”. In research these are hindrances to the realization of objectives that promote social, economic, political, educational, scientific and moral development. The researcher must be aware of these in order to conduct inquiries that can eliminate or diminish these hindrances.
Intellectual honesty
Intellectual honesty means acknowledging intellectual indebtedness. When one quotes or takes information from existing sources, one must specify these sources. For example, CD piracy is a violation of intellectual property rights. It is intellectual dishonesty.
Healthy skepticism
The healthy skeptic is an open-minded doubter. This is the “doubting Thomas” who refuses to accept statements as true until the evidence is there.
Patience and determination
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Research is a tedious, time consuming task. Locating, collecting, evaluating, analyzing, interpreting information and writing the final research report, require a steadfast commitment to the activities involved.
Competence and Skill
The reliable researcher undergoes rigid training to develop his/her competence and skill in the task of data collection, assessment and interpretation. Research is not a haphazard undertaking, but a systematic endeavor to accomplish its goals and objectives.
Objectivity
The researcher must be free from bias and prejudices. The output of research can be reliable and dependable if the researcher is objective in the task of data collection analysis and interpretation.
From this discussion one can see that a researcher is not “produced” overnight. It takes years to develop all these characteristics of a scholar and researcher.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss the implication of intellectual honesty to the flagrant CD piracy even in academe.
2. How does skepticism trigger research in the area of education? Explain and give specific examples.
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LESSON 3 ETHICAL, SOCIAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES
The researcher operates in a community and interacts with individuals in this milieu. He/She has responsibilities related to the sense of right and wrong, to the social and scientific output. These are the ethical, social, and scientific responsibilities.
Ethical Responsibilities
The ethical concept applies to the sources of information and to the participants/subjects/ respondents of the research. Here are some of the ethical responsibilities of a researcher.
1. A researcher must respect the privacy of the participants. Only public not private behavior can be the focus of observation.
2. Respondents have a right to confidentiality. The identity of the respondent is not revealed unless permission is given.
3. The subject of research has the right to “informed consent”. This means that the researcher informs the subject about the consequence of participating in the research.
4. The researcher must respect “intellectual property rights”. He/she must acknowledge intellectual indebtedness.
Social Responsibilities
The researcher operates in a global milieu and the output of research will have social and global significance. The researcher has a commitment to improve and develop the “global village” although the immediate concern is the welfare of the people and the surrounding environment.
The researcher output must enhance the life style of the community. It must strengthen the positive cultural values and maintain cohesiveness among the social units. The research output must not initiate divisiveness, it must inculcate unity.
The researcher is a “builder” not a “destroyer”. The socially responsible researchers tries to build up family solidarity and community stability with a citizenry that is physically, mentally, morally and spiritually healthy – a citizenry that is politically and economically responsive. The socially – oriented output of research creates a community aware of environmental issues and promotes ecological protection and nurture.
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Scientific Responsibility
Science is a discipline that focuses on the reliability and validity of research output. Hence, the researcher has the scientific responsibility to interpret objectively and accurately the data gathered through the research activity. The researcher maintains “emotional distance” during the research process and the interpretation of results.
Research reporting must be accurate and complete. And a vital aspect of scientific responsibility is the dissemination of research findings.
The out put of research must be reliable and dependable. The researcher must see to it that reliable and appropriate data collecting devices are used. The researcher must interpret the data objectively. He/she must be aware of technological techniques that enhance the reliability of the research out put. As a part of the scientific responsibilities of the researcher, he/she must share the output of research through the publication of the results.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss the role of an academic researcher in the area of environmental management. Give situational examples.
2. In what way can a researcher enhance the lifestyle of his/her social milieu? Give situational examples.
3. How can an educational researcher eliminate or lessen the flagrant violation of intellectual property right.
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LESSON 4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process both as a problem-solving devise and truth discovery activity is an expansion of the “reflective thinking” process. It starts with a felt need which brings about a problem on to the options and choices, to the collection and evaluation of evidence, on to the concluding belief and the decision to act.
Below is a diagram of the reflective thinking process.
Diagram
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A “Felt” Need
A Problem
You feel the need to attend a Luncheon meeting
Options/Choices to Solve the Problem
Evidences for or Against Each
Option
But there is the problem of reaching the venue on time
You have the choice to take the LRT, the taxi, or jeep
You then analyze the pro’s and con’s of these choices
Concluding Belief
Decision to Act
You reach the conclusion that the LRT would get you there on time
You decide to follow this concluding belief
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Attached is my diagram of the research process, which is the structural organization of the modular discussion.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
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Selecting the Problem AreaSTEP ONE
Defining and Stating the Problem
Formulating the Hypothesis
Initial Survey of Literature
Survey of the Need Situation
STEP TWO Review of the Related Literature
STEP THREE Determining the Research Design
Determining the Data Collecting
Techniques
Planning the Research Writing The Research Proposal
Determining the Materials and Instruments
STEP FOUR Selecting the Sample/Subjects
STEP FIVE Collecting the Data
STEP SIX Classifying, Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
STEP SEVEN Reporting the Results
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Illustrate how a need initiates a research project. Give examples using your own work environment.
2. Explain how a researcher’s curiosity can trigger the research activity.
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METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE TWO
SELECTING THE PROBLEM AREA
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module the student should be able to:
1. understand the factors to consider when choosing a problem for research2. identify the problem areas in educational research3. identify the characteristics of a researchable problem
Selecting the problem area, which is the first stage in the research process, is a crucial undertaking. The chosen problem serves as the main focus of the research activity. The researcher must consider some guidelines when choosing the problem area, formulating the problem and the hypothesis.
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LESSON 1 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING THE PROBLEM AREA
There are a number of factors that a researcher must consider when choosing the problem area. Here are some of these factors:
First, the researcher’s curiosity interest and motivation serve as the primary consideration in determining the area of research. For instance, the educational researcher is interested in technological management. This is the focus of his/her inquiry.
Second, the researcher’s observation and experience both actual and vicarious can lead him/her to the research area. Vicarious experience may be what other people communicate to him/her or what is acquired through reading or media exposure. Internet exposure also serves as a vicarious experience. This technological exposure serves not only to lead the researcher to problems in education research but even to research methodologies.
A third factor is the availability and accessibility of the sources of data needed in the research, the availability of tools and devices for data collection.
In some instances the information may be available but inaccessible. Accessibility may refer to geographical distance or to the confidentiality of the information. For instance a researcher wants to study the psychological orientation of teachers. There is the possibility that some psychological test results of the respondents will not be accessible due to confidentiality.
A fourth consideration is the researcher’s training and competence, both in implementing the methodology in analyzing and interpreting the data. If the researcher has no statistical competence the research problem should he in the area of qualitative research.
A fifth consideration is the “need situation” both practical and theoretical. One must consider the contribution of the research undertaking to the social milieu and to the body of scientific knowledge in education.
And finally one considers the logistics involved in the research activity – the parameters and dimensions of the undertaking. Consider also existing literature and documents in the problem area.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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1. In your research experience what factors led you to a specific problem area? Explain
2. Among the factors to consider when choosing the problem area for research which is the most important? Why?
LESSON 2 PROBLEM AREAS IN EDUCATION RESEARCH
The problem areas in education cover a broad spectrum. Just about every course of the education program in the colleges and universities are problem area.
Below are some of these problem areas:
Curriculum Development
Formulating the curriculum Evaluation of the curricular offerings Relevance of curricular offerings Curriculum changes
Management of Technological Changes
On line teaching its acceptability Managing Audio-visual devices Effectiveness of T.V lecturing Power point and CDROM
Supervision and Teaching Skills
Leadership styles of supervisors Monitoring techniques Interpersonal interaction between supervisors and teachers Faculty development and training programs Communication strategies Classroom management styles Performance evaluation strategies Teaching methods Teacher-learner relationship
Values Education
Values classification
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Values integration strategies Effects of internet and computer addition Environment values Split- level values resolution Work values classification Religion and cultural values Cultural values and beliefs integration Moral and social values integration Physical and mental health values education Nationalism and political values
Instructional Materials Development
Module monitoring techniques Instructional material evaluation Module writing skills development Lesson planning Internet access and material accumulation
The problem-area dimension in education is broad and there are others that one can add to this list. Consult the Commulative International Abstracts of research in education to discover the global dimension of research in this area.
Consult the Internet for global problem areas in education research.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. List down some specific problems in the area of curriculum change. Briefly explain each problem.
2. Discuss the problem area of values education
3. List down some possible topics for research in the area of technological management.
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LESSON 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCHABLE
PROBLEM
The research problem must be chosen with care. Certain characteristics, must guide the researcher when choosing the problem. Here are some practical considerations that can enlighten the researcher.
Manageability
This refers to the scope and dimension of the problem. A complicated problem with a wide frame of reference can be unmanageable when the allotted time is limited. The scope and coverage must be determined by the time frame and logistics of the research.
Timeliness and Relevance
Education research operates in a dynamic environment, hence its output must resolve contemporary problems. The focus of education research is the resolution of education issues that beset educational institutions. The answer to the “question” must be pertinent to present conditions. For example values education problems are very relevant and timely. The “culture of death” and criminality in our social milieu can he traced to the educational background of the citizenry.
Significance
The research problem serves an important purpose. It must reflect the needs of the educational milieu. And it must provide answers to the questions raised by educators, learners and society in general.
Originality
With the advent of globalization and the new millennium, no research problem in education can perhaps be considered “original”. However one can equate originality with “newness”:
newness of the “question”, or newness of the answer, or newness of the method or newness of the milieu
If the research problem reflects any one of these factors, then one can claim “originality”.
Availability and Accessibility of Data
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Availability means that information exists. Information about the research problem must be within the access of the researcher. Accessibility means within reach geographically. Confidentiality of information may he an obstacle to accessibility.
To a large extent the viability, feasibility and researchability of the problem depend on these characteristics.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss fully the characteristics of a researchable problem.
2. List down some timely and relevant topics in education research.
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LESSON 4 STATING THE PROBLEM
The problem statement is the researcher’s guiding light during the research process. It is the verbalization and articulation as well as the analysis of the “question” which the researcher wants the research to answer.
The problem statement must divide into the major or main problem and the minor or sub-problems.
Main / Major Problem
The major or main problem corresponds to the verbalization of the specific “question” which the researcher wants to answer. It may be stated declaratively or interrogatively. Generally the researcher in education uses the interrogative form.
Here are some examples:
Major Problem: (Interrogative)
What are the factors that affect the teaching skills of teachers?
Major Problem: (Declarative)
This study aims to design and develop an On-line Course in Human Behavior in Organizations at the graduate school level.
Major Problem: (Interrogative)
Is there a significant relationship between the academic environment and the morale of the teaching staff?
Major Problem: (Interrogative)
Is there a significant relationship between spiritual commitment and the performance of teachers in the academic setting?
Major Problem: (Declarative)
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This research aims to determine the attitude of school administrators towards cyberspace teaching.
Minor Problem
The minor problem is an analytical presentation of the main problem. Below is an example of the minor problems for the Cyberspace teaching main problem.
On Cyberspace teaching
1. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching effective for the learners?
2. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching culturally viable?
3. Do school administrators consider Cyberspace teaching acceptable to the academic environment?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. State the major problem and sub-problems for this topic: “The Effects of Media on the Value Orientation of College Students”.
2. State the major problem and sub-problems for this topic “E-Learning and Its Effectiveness in the Tertiary Level”.
3. State the minor problems for the examples of main problems presented in this lesson.
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METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE THREE
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module the student should be able to:
1. understand the functions of the literature search in education research
2. recognize the importance of respecting intellectual property rights through the acknowledgement of sources.
3. acquire training in the techniques of documentation
4. develop the ability of evaluating existing literature in the research problem area
5. develop the ability of presenting and writing the review of literature
The literature search is a tedious and time consuming activity. But in research it is a necessity. The researcher must know what other researchers had discovered in the past. Literature as used in this context refers to all recorded information related to the problem focus or the problem dimension of the research.
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LESSON 1 FUNCTIONS OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
The review of related literature has functions that every researcher must be aware of. Below are some of these functions.
It provides an awareness of the status of research in the problem area. It gives the researcher an idea on how much research has been undertaken and it serves as a measure of the “theoretical need” situation
It provides suggestions on the techniques of problem formulation. It gives clues on methodology and research design. It provides information on instrumentation and analytical method in quantitative
research. It provides suggestions on tools and devices for data collection. It provides clues on the vocabulary that must be used in writing the research
report. It provides enlightenment on the viability and workability of the research
undertaking.
One can see that a systematic review of related literature serves as a cornerstone, a stronghold of reliable research. It broadens the researcher’s understanding of the research investigation.
The word “review” means that the researcher goes over the materials-books, periodical articles, theses/dissertations and internet presentations. The purpose is to determine what has been written about the “problem.” The word “related” means “similar” to, especially on the problem dimension.
The researcher takes down notes on the findings of previous researches and authoritative works. There are different kinds of notes that the researchers must take. These are direct quotation notes, indirect quotation notes, comment notes and summary notes.
Direct Quotations Notes
Direct quotations are word for word or verbatim notes from the contents of the materials reviewed. These must be complete, exact and accurate. If any portion of the source is omitted use the ellipsis – three spaced dots (…). If there is a perceived error in the source use [sie] within a bracket after the error. Do not quote out of context.
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Indirect quotations
These are paraphrases. The researcher uses his/her own words to express the ideas from the source. When in doubt about the meaning of the words in the source it is better to use a direct quotation.
Summary Notes
These are the synopses or abstracts of the materials. The abstract is a concise statement of the “problem”, the method, the results and the generalizations or conclusions/
Comments Notes
These are the researcher’s evaluational statements about the source. These can serve as parts of the presentation of the “review of related literature.”
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. In what way does the Review of Related Literature provide the vocabulary needed to present the research output?
2. In what way does the Review of Related Literature provide information on the “viability” of the research project? Explain by giving specific examples.
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LESSON 2 FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework is the conceptual base of the research. It deals with the basic concepts, the definition of terms the assumptions and the hypothesis.
The Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a statement of expectations, a response to the question, to be tested statistically. There are two categories of hypothesis: the Conceptual / Theoretical hypothesis and the Predictive / Operational hypothesis. And there are two types of hypothesis formulated under sea category: the null and the alternate or affirmative hypothesis.
The conceptual / theoretical hypothesis uses theoretical constructs. Here is one example:
Null: There is no significant relationship between intelligence and achievement.Ho
Alternate: There is a significant relationship between intelligence and achievement.H1
In the predictive and operational hypothesis the theoretical constructs like intelligence
and achievement are changed to the quantitative measure to be used, intelligence becomes I.Q. (intelligence quotient) and achievement becomes income.
For example:
Null: The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I.Q. test distribution is the same of those in the lower quartile.
Ho
Alternate: The income of bank executives in the upper quartile of the Stanford-Binet I. Q. test distribution is higher than those in the lower quartile.
H1
These hypotheses are subjected to statistical tests of significance.
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Assumption
The assumption is a statement that somehow echoes the limitation of the study. In a sense it states the theories that are not to be “tested” nor proven in the proposed research, for the researcher takes it for granted that these theories are acceptable to the recipients for the research output.
Definition of Terms
This part of the research focuses on terminologies, on variables or concepts that are used in a special way by the researcher. A dictionary definition is not acceptable. An amplified and operational definition is required.
For example the word creative has a dictionary definition as the “ability to bring into being or to produce”. In research this may have a different concentration. For instance the researcher may define it this way “Creative refers to the teachers strategy of using visual aids in different forms and styles”.
Paradigm
This section is sometimes included to illustrate the pattern of relationship among the variables used in the research design. It provides a general framework for the interrelationships among the variables visually. Below is an example of a paradigm.
In some researches this paradigm is omitted, when the pattern of relationships is clear
and simple.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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training
incentives
motivation
Working
Environment
Teaching
Performance
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1. List down related sources for a research topic that you have chosen.
2. Surf the internet and list down some sources related to a problem area like values education.
LESSON 3 DOCUMENTATION STYLE
Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of sources. These sources are cited as direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases). The citation of these sources follows styles that have been used over the years by researchers.
The discussion in this Lesson is an excerpt from my book Writing Proposals: A Concise Guide, Manila; UST Publishing House 1994.
There are three styles of documentation recommended in style guides. These are:
Documentation Reference Listing
Institutions make their own choice of documentation style, which is defined here as the style of citation or acknowledgement of authorities or sources. Two commonly accepted style guides are Kate Turabian’s and William Campbell and Stephen Ballou’s Form and Style in Thesis Writing. These two books may be consulted for any clarification of instructions given in this section.
The style presented here is the Author - year References Cited style which is also called the journal style and the APA (American Psychological Association) style.
The brief explanations and illustrations on the following pages demonstrate the use of this style. The abbreviation Doc. means Documentation and Ref. means Reference listing.
1. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text but no specific statement is cited:
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Foot note Bibliography
Author-number References Cited
Author - yearAPA American-Psychological Association
References Cited (Literature Cited)
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2. When the author’s name is not mentioned in the text and no specific statements is cited.
3. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text and a specific statement is referred to, indicate the page/pages:
4. When citing direct quotations:
a. Short quotations (five lines or less), run into the text and enclose within quotation marks:
1.) At the end of the sentence:
2.) In the middle of a sentence
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Doc. Maslow (1954) says that man has a hierarchy of needs which must be satisfied.
Ref. Maslow, Abraham 1954. Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row.
Doc. Ethnomethodologists tend to use direct rather than indirect measurements in their study of human behavior (Churchill, 1971).
Ref. Churchill, Lindsey 1971 “Ethnomethodology and Measurements.” Social Forces 50 (December): 182-191
Doc. According to Ardey (1961, p.87) the displacement activity observed in animals is carried over into human psychology.
Ref. Ardey, Robert. 1961. The Territorial Imperative. New York: Atheneum.
Doc. Ethnography is defined as “the task of describing a particular culture.” (Spradley and McCurdy, 1972, p. 3)
Ref. Spradley, James and David McCurdy, eds. 1972. The Cultural Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Chicago: Science Research Associates
Doc. The “killer instinct” in man can be given a new turn, a “redirection of the attack is evolution’s most ingenious expedient for guiding aggression into harmless channels” (Lorenz, 1971, p. 54) thus neutralizing its deadly consequences.
Ref. Lorenz, Konrad 1971. On Aggression, New York: Bantam Books Inc.
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3.) Short quotations with omitted portions:
4.) Long quotations (more than five liens), set off the text; no quotation marks:
From the reference listing entitled REFERENCES CITED use single space and hanging indention. Each entry begins at the left margin and succeeding lines in the entry are indented five spaces. Arrange the entries alphabetically. You may divide the listing into: A Books, B. Periodicals, C. Unpublished Materials and D. Miscellaneous. For studies in the Humanities the listing may be divided into: Primary Sources and Secondary Sources. Double space between entries.
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Doc. Critics note that the main artistic achievement of Finnegan’s Wake lies in the way Joyce “found the absolute in time and … reconciled it with eternity.” (Noon, 1957, p. 131 citing Tindall, p. 93).
Ref. Noon, William T., S.J. 1957. Joyce and Aquinas. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.
Doc. Trying to explain the disunity that has stalked the nation for generations, Polo (1994, p. 79) says:
While it is true that we are “one people when we pray” and we are “one people when we sing”, one generation is separated from the next by changes that spell divisiveness. A national anthem sung in three languages, four different constitutions, streets, towns, provinces known to one generation go by different names in the next generation. Church hymns, prayers, rituals even the name of the nation, the color and design of the flag threaten to change. This psychological manipulation must stop somewhere.
This perceptive reflection on the root cause of a people’s identity crisis is worth considering.
Ref. Polo, Elma Ursula. 1994. Reflections from the Cloister. Himalayan Heights: Deo Press.
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When there are two or more entries by the same Author, type ten hyphens in place of the author’s name in the following entry.
A. Books
Bronowski, Jacob. 1973. The Ascent of Man. Boston: Little Brown.
March, James G. and Herbert, A. Simon. 1958. Organizations, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Bereday, George Z., William W. Brickman and Gerald H. Read. 1960. The Changing Soviet School. Boston: Houghton-Miffin.
Webb, Eugene J., et. al. 1966. Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences. Chicago: Mcnally.
Spradley, James P. and David W. McCurdy, eds. 1972. The Cultural Experience: Ethnography in a Complex Society. Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Polo, Elena P. 1991. “Men and Women for All Seasons.” A Review of Saints Are People by Rev. Fr. Alfred McBride, O. Praem. Makati, M.M.: Salesiana Publishers Philippine Educational Forum 26:112.
Aronson, Elliot E. 1969. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Vol. 17 ed. By William J. Arnold. Lincoln: University of Nebraska.
Restless Paradise in Anguish. 1991. Timbukto: Unbriddle Press.
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One Author
Two Authors
Three Authors
More than three
Authors
Anthology with Editor
Volume in a Series
No author
Book Review
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Freud, Sigmund. 1965. New Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis. Ed and trans. by J. Strachey. New York: Norton (First printing, 1993)
B. Periodicals
Gillard, Thomas E. 1963. “Evolution of Bowerbirds.” Scientific American. Aug.
Baxter, George W., Jr. 1973. “Prejudiced Liberals. Race and Information Effects in a Two-Person Game.” Journal of Conflict Resolution. 17 (March) 131-61.
Merill, J.C. 1965. “How Time Stereotyped Three Presidents.” Journalism Quarterly. 42: 536-70.
Nalenpol, Minihaha. 1944. “Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of Squatters on Paradise Street.” Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Timbukto: University of Dreams.
Polo, Elena P. 1970. “Themes and Meanings in the American and Filipino Novels of the Second World War in the Pacific.” Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich.
Hotair, Bolabola, 1994. “A Political Utopia in Orbit.” A Speech Delivered at the National Convention of Sleepwalkers, Inc. Bayan Matapang, Nova Monde.
Lynch, Fr. Frank. 1977. “Pre-Departure Orientation Seminar Information.” 14-26. Mimeographed. Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.
C. Miscellaneous
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Journals
Translation of an old
edition with an editor
Theses/ Dissertations
Speeches
Mimeographed Material
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Clements, S.D. Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office NINDS Monograph No. 3, U.S. Public Health Publication, No. 1415.
U.S. Printing Office. 1973. Style Manual. Rev. Ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Piger, Lilli (Producer). 1991. War in Man’s Genes. Timbukto: New Life Films.
Rodriguez, A.M. 1991. Multicultural education: Some considerations for a university Setting (CD-ROM). Abstract from: Silver Platter’s Eric Item: ED337094.
Lawrence, O.J. 1984. Pitfalls in electronic writing land. (Online). English Education, 16. 2;94-100. Abstract from: Dialog file: Eric item: EJ297923.
Herz, J.C. 1995, April. Surfing on the internet. A net head’s adventurers online. (Online serial). Urban Desires 1.3. Available internet: www/desires.com/ud/html.
Electronic Correspondences, such as e-mail messages and conversations via bulletin boards and electronic discussion groups, is typically cited as personal
communication.
Name of the listserv, bulletin board, or e-mail discussion group Available from: e-mail address.
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Government Publication
Corporate Author/Authors
as Publisher
Film
Abstract on CD-ROM
Online Abstract
Online Journal Article
Author, date, subject of the message
On the footnote-bibliography, here are some reminders:
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The footnotes which appear at the foot of the page may be numbered sequentially either throughout the page, throughout the chapter or throughout the whole work.
The footnotes may be placed at the end of the work and labeled Notes
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Submit an example of an abstract.
2. Explain briefly the footnote-bibliography style of documentation. Consult William Campbell and Stephen Ballon: Form and Style in Thesis Writing. 4th Edition.
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LESSON 4 ORGANIZING THE REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
Researchers in academe organize the review of related literature, chronologically, according to variable relatedness and according to venue. When the researcher wants to show the changes in research generalizations over the years, the chronological organization is used. When the authoritative sources deal with related variables, the review is organized according to variables or conditions studied. And when the researcher wants to show the differences in results according to the place where the research was conducted, then the review is organized according to geographical venue.
Chromological Organization
Many researches have been conducted through the years on educational changes-such as curriculum changes, technological strategies management, changes in instructional material development. When presented in the review of related literature these works can be presented from the earliest to the most recent studies to illustrate the differences in research findings through the years.
Topical Organization
The works discussed are organized according to the variable/problem areas covered. For instance: in the examples given on teaching strategies in communication skills, studies may be presented thus, those using audio-visual devices, lecture, group dynamics and role playing. This provides coherence in the discussion.
According to Venue
Studies done in different milieus, foreign, tribal, rural urban and so on may be presented according to locale. This is to show the differences in findings based on the venue or setting of the study.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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1. Explain and give the justification of organizing the review of related literature chronologically.
2. Consult the theses/dissertations in the library and photo copy at least two pages of the review of related literature organized topically.
METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE FOUR
SELECTING THE RESEARCH METHOD
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module the student should be able to:
1. comprehend the guidelines in the selection of research methods
2. understand the different methods of research
3. implement each method of research
Research method and design refers to the process of locating, collecting, analyzing and interpreting information. The method usually depends on the time focus, source of information and purpose. If the focus is the past and the sources of information are existing records the documentary methods (historical research and content analysis) are need. When the research focuses on present conditions, on trends and future condition the descriptive-survey method is appropriate. When the focus is “futuristic”, experimental designs may be used. If the research activity is a merger of these three, then the case study is the appropriate method.
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LESSON 1 DOCUMENTARY METHODS
Documentary methods rely on existing records as sources of information. The two methods presented here are the historical research method, and content analysis.
Historical research is defined as an endeavor to:
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-
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There are two types of sources in historical research- primary and secondary.
Primary sources refer to “first hand information, usually found in archives and museums. These are:
- manuscripts - remains- relics - artifacts- diaries - memoir- letters - murals
For example in recounting the Rise and Full of the Third Reich historical events were recapitulated in the investigation. Letters and diaries of Adolf Hitler and his deputies were used as primary sources. Diary of Anne Frank records the Jewish experience during the tyranonical regime of Adolf Hitler and his gas chamber. In the canonization process of Catholic saints, the Vatican inquirers go to the catacombs to examine the remains and relics of those recommended for canonization.
Secondary sources refer to “second hand” information, opinions, perceptions, about past events. These may be documents, periodical articles, books and other recorded data pertinent to the events being investigated.
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locate
collect
evaluate
analyze
interpret
synthesize
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These primary sources are collected and evaluated. Evaluation divides into two stages: external criticism to determine the authenticity and genuineness of the evidences and internal criticism, to determine the meaning and significance.
External criticism deals with the form. The researcher evaluates the genuineness of the relics and remains, the authenticity of the handwriting and so on. Internal criticism deals with the content, to determine whether this has any relationship with the events under scrutiny.
These evidences are then analyzed, broken down and classified according to periods of occurrence. These historical periods serve as bases for the synthesis, the summing up.
Interpretation means deriving meaning from the information collected. In the process of synthesis this meaning serves as the eventual generalization.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is defined as the “quantitative description of the manifest content of communication”. It deals with materials used to communicate, to transmit messages. It deals both with the past and the present.
Below is a diagram of the communication process to illustrate the focus and intents of content analysis:
The analyst/ researcher goes over the message revealed by the materials. After the analytical process the analyst makes his/her prediction/judgment about the communicator/ source, the medium/channel and the receiver/ audience.
The materials subjected to content analysis are the following:
- text books - songs
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Communicator or
Source
Message Channel or
Medium
Receiver or
Audience
Analyst
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- contents of - folk tales newspapers - billboards- T.V. commercials - cartoons- radio commercials - teaching materials - movies - letters- speeches - memorandums
Through the problem formulation, the content analyst can decide on what must be measured. In written materials the researcher may focus on the sentence, the paragraph or the central idea/ theme. When analyzing figurative illustrations like billboards cartoons, T.V. commercials, and advertisements the content analyst may use the characters as measuring devices.
While historical research focuses on the past and is organized chronologically, content analysis focuses on the present.
As a guide to the content analyst here are some points to consider:
the hidden meanings in the communication materials the stress on the celebrity status in TV commercials, radio commercials and print
advertisements the values “insinuated” in text books and other devices of communication the use of songs, jokes, riddles in classroom materials to disseminate value consider the internet materials that promulgate globalization. consider the use of soterical devices to instill discrimination through the learning
process
For example, in the days when discrimination was rampant in the United States learning materials contained figures of villains as “Niggers” and characters whose eyes were oddly made.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. List down some research topics (at least five) that can use the descriptive survey method.
2. Discuss the causes of some unreliable surveys.
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3. Discuss the difference between the cross-sectional and longitudinal design in descriptive survey research.
LESSON 2 DESCRIPTIVE – SURVEY METHOD
The descriptive- survey method focuses on present and existing conditions. It deals with the opinions, perceptions and attitudes of a chosen population. When evaluation is involved it is called descriptive-normative-survey. Standards or norms are used in the evaluational process.
The descriptive- survey may use the cross-sectional design which is the collection of data from one set of participants at one point in time. The output serves to describe the existing conditions during the time of the survey. Another type is the longitudinal design which collects data over a period of time. This is sometimes called the time series design or trend study. The output determines the trend.
For instance, the researcher wants to determine the enrollment trend for the last ten years, then the yearly enrollment data from the universities are collected and analyzed.
The descriptive- survey method is also used in corelational studies. These are inquiries that try to establish the relationship between variables. For example the research problem states: “Is here a significant relationship between teen-age delinquency and parental indifference?”
A causal- comparative study also uses the descriptive-survey method. This is the study that tries to compare the casual factors of behavioral problems, among pre-school children from different socio-economic levels.
The descriptive-survey method has a broad applicability. It is one of the most commonly used strategies of eliciting the reactions of a community to issues which predominate in the social, political, economic and cultural milieu.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
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1. List down some research topics (at least five) that can use the descriptive survey method.
2. Discuss the causes of some unreliable surveys.
3. Discuss the difference between the cross-sectional and longitudinal design in descriptive survey research.
LESSON 3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimentation is a study of cause and effect relationship under controlled conditions. The cause which is manipulated during the research process is called the independent / experimental/treatment variable. The effect is called the dependent variable or criterion variable.
There are two categories of experimental designs.
They are the:
and the
Under these categories we have:
One group design Control group design Parallel group designs
You are conducting an experiment to determine the effect of music on the learners performance.
Below are diagrams to illustrate these experimental designs.
In the diagram t = test, O = observation, d = difference.
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d = t2 -t1
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Pre-test Pre-test (t1/O1) Experimental Treatment (Exposure to Music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
Pre-test Post Test
Before and After design
Post test only After only design
One group/ quasi – experimental designs
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Post-test Only x Experimental Treatment (exposure to Music)
Post-test
-
Experimental Group
Pre-test (t1/O1)
Experimental Treatment(Exposure to music)
Post-test (t1/O1)
d e = t2-t1)
Control Group
Pre-test (t1/O1) (no music)
Post-test (t1/O1)
(d c = t2-t1)
Experimental Group
Experimental Treatment(Exposure to music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
Control Group
(no experimental treatment no exposure to music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
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These are the designs used when the independent variable/treatment/experimental variable has several levels. For example Music can be classical and pop music.
Experimental Group 1
Pre-test (t1/O1)
Experimental Treatment(Classical music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
d exp = t2-t1)
Experimental Group 2
Pre-test (t1/O1)
Experimental Treatment(Pop music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
(d cx2 = t2-t1)
Control Group
Pre-test (t1/O1)
No exposure to music
Post-test (t2/O2)
d e = t2-t1
Experimental Group 1
Experimental Treatment(Classical music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
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Control Group Design / Classical Design
Parallel group designs / Solomon three groups/ four group designs
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Experimental Group 2
Experimental Treatment(Pop music)
Post-test (t2/O2)
Control Group
No exposure to music
LEARNING ACTIVITIES1. List down at least five topics that can use experimental research methods2. Illustrate the experimental design that you will use for each of the topics you have listedLESSON 4 CASE STUDY
The case study deals with the history, growth and development of a unit called the case which has a “problem”. But one can also use this method positively by investigating a “success” case. The case may be an individual, an institution, a community, an organization, a tribal group, a state or a nation. There are some terminologies that must be understood in connection with the case study. These are case method and case work.
The case study is the research process as well as the output. The case method is the instructional strategy in medicine, law, business and psychology which uses case studies to illustrate concepts and theories. The case method is also used to demonstrate problem-solving techniques.
Case work is the follow-up of the suggested remedy for evaluation purposes to determine whether the “therapeutic intervention” solved the problem.
As a research process the case study follows the following stages:
Stage One – Identification of the unit called the case giving the demographic profile
Stage Two – Historical developmenta) The beginning or the initiating stageb) Growth and developmentc) The “problem” or “crisis” stage
Stage Three – The present condition of the casea) The nature of the “problem”b) Positive and negative aspects
Stage Four – Analysis and diagnosisa) Identification of the casual factors, the root causes of the problemb) Identification of the “problem,” naming the “conflicting” issuesc) Suggestions and prescriptions of remedial, measures, also called
“therapeutic intervention”
Stage Five – Evaluation of the prescribed remedies
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Aside from these stages there may be others that can be utilized depending on the complexity of the problem.
Here are some guidelines in carrying out each stage of the case study.
Identification of the Case
In the case identification the researcher presents the background of the case. If the case is an individual the demographic profile – age, gender, marital status, place of origin, educational background, religion, ancestry, cultural origin, socio-economic status is presented. This gives the case analyst a comprehensive idea about the individual involved. If the unit is a state, a nation, a community or a tribal sector, the geographical, cultural, economic, political boundaries are presented.
Historical Development
This section includes the beginning, growth and early years of the individual. The family, social and educational upbringing as well as the changes in the environmental milieu are presented. It deals with the problem, conflicts and achievements in the growth process until the point of crisis.
In the case of groups this section constitutes the chronological changes.
Present Conditions
This is the description of the present set up, the present situation. If the case’s problem is an illness, a psychological disorder or an educational set back, the researcher provides both a physical and a psychological description. The techniques of testing, questioning, interviewing and observation may be used to gather the needed information. If the case is an institution or an organization the assets and liabilities are presented.
Case Analysis and Diagnosis
At this stage the researcher identifies the problem – the illness, the disorder, the set back as well as the casual factors. The acceptability and reliability of the diagnosis depend to a large extent of the training, skill, competence and experience of the case analyst.
After the diagnosis, a prescription or remedy is given – the solution to the problem
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Present a case study taken from an authoritative source
2. Briefly explain the usefulness of a case study as a means of problem solving.
LESSON 5 E – RESEARCH
E-Research is defined as both a conceptual and practical guide for current researchers using the Internet as a source of information. However, it does not eliminate nor demolish the old methods and techniques of research. It enhances the researcher’s curiosity to enter uncharted seas and horizons of research. The use of the Net does not increase the intrinsic value of research, but it provides opportunities to improve the research practices and introduces new challenges. The Net broadens the researcher’s global vision.
Some of the information materials that E-Research brings are:
- on-line evaluation and assessment of performance- analysis of social behavior in a realistic setting- retrieval of text-based surveys- net-based telephone interviews- net-based video or audio conferencing- computer-mediated conferencing
There are perhaps even more informative devices that one can get via E-research. The quantity of information available is even more. And one advantage of Net research is that one does not have to be a Network engineer, a systems analyst or a computer programmer to use the Net devices. All that is needed is a basic understanding of the operational features of the Internet.
E-research also serves as a tool of communication between the researcher, other researchers, communities and the subjects of research. The speedy interaction among the Net groups is also another advantage.
While E-research allows the researcher to get information for the remotest segments of our global village, it has “perils” that one must be aware of. Here are some of these:
- it is capable of amplying the best and the worst of human nature- it can disseminate misleading results because of the speedy interaction - it can easily plagiarize the work of other researchers- it can rely on the broad dimension of coverage rather than its depth - it can ignore the moral, ethical and legal aspects of research.
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One must, therefore, be cautions in the use of E-research.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss how you can overcome the “perils” of E-research.
2. Explain how you can magnify the use of E-research in your own work environment.
METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE FIVE
SELECTING THE PARTICIPANTS,THE TOOLS AND THE TECHNIQUES
OF DATA COLLECTION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
1. understand the techniques of selecting the respondents/participants representatives of the population
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2. determine the appropriate technique of collecting data
3. understand how the data collecting tools/ instruments are constructed
Selecting the sample and determining the data collection tools and procedure are vital consideration in order to have a reliable and dependable research output.
LESSON 1 SAMPLING PROCEDURE
There are two categories of sampling: random and non-random sampling. Random sampling gives every unit of the population an equal chance of being chosen, while non-random sampling depends on the researcher’s judgement.
Sample refers to the units that will provide the information. These units are taken from the population, a part of the universe, which refers to the totality of units. The population refers to the accessible portion of the universe.
For example the researcher wants to conduct a study to determine the effect of video cassette on the reading comprehension of grade six pupils. The universe will be all grade six pupils; the population will be the grade six pupils in the Philippine Women’s University. And the sample will be those chosen from the JASMS area (Jose Abad Santos Memorial School)
Random Sampling Techniques
There are three random sampling techniques often used.
Simple random/lottery style. The researcher puts the names or the assigned numbers in a box. Then the names/numbers are taken from the box until the corresponding number of units are obtained. The number of units corresponds to the percentage desired. For example if there are 500 names/numbers in the box and the researcher wants 50% of these, then 250 names/numbers are drawn.
One can also use the table of random numbers taken from any book in statistics.
The key in obtaining a random sample is to ensure that each and every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. One technique of doing this is to use a Table of Random numbers: This is shown in Table 1
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TABLE 1Part of a Table of Random Numbers
011723912334086401059397666278051965063045560132727009000037667899042397987650091126
223456679156016265022334106590004571786326345678344870121191234345045645568799021557
222167233989411148080675879809036900098000356789889567258700076567030032070070102322
032762109238251287454555899030037700510379033460324588088909090076657112143188209312
062281934128602345011563909876500098024358050521400567015460345121675897198789909036
565451654678659080237873198905046660145678342021989657223350121348079326097451342045
The Table of Random Numbers is found in statistics books.
Systematic Random. In this technique the names are systematically arranged randomly, from 1 to 500 and from a random start the researcher takes every nth number. The nth number depends on the percentage of the units in the population needed. If 50% of the population will be chosen, then the researcher takes every 2nd unit. Below is an illustration of this technique
1. Annalisa 6. Paulo2. Petria 7. Perla3. Pedro 8. Janice4. Juan 9. Jose5. Nestor 10. Lalia
11 Cynthia12. Jake
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Stratified Random The researcher divides the population into clusters or strata using a relevant stratifying variable. For instance we want to determine the effect of socio-economic level on the performance of fourth year college students in school. The illustration below shows how the students will be stratified
N n
Upper Socio-economic 100 50
Middle Socio-economic 300 150
Lower Socio-economic 50 25
This means that altogether there are 450 students in the population and the researcher wants 50% of them as participants. The sample will be 255 with 50 coming from the upper socio-economic group, 150 from the middle group and 25 from the lower socio-economic group.
Non-Random Sampling
In the non-random sampling techniques the researcher’s judgement and the “need situation” serve as the guide in the choice of respondents. Since the sample will not be representative of the population, the generalization of the research will apply only to the chosen sample and to groups with the same characteristics.
Here are some of these techniques: purposive sampling, convenience or opportune sampling, incidental sampling and volunteer sampling
Purposive sampling. In this technique the researcher sets down the characteristics to be used in choosing the sample. For instance, the sample will include only those who have Internets, those who are fifteen to eighteen years old, those who have been enrolled in the school for five years with no interruption.
Convenience/opportune sampling. This technique uses units that are immediately accessible to the researcher. Hence, one conducting a study on the attitude of barangay dwellers on the operations of the barangay will choose respondents who live close to his/her place of residence.
Incidental sampling. The researcher gets information from whoever happens to come along and who belongs to the population. For instance, the researcher wants to find out the soft drink preferences of grade school pupils. He/she stands at the doorway and asks whoever happens to pass by about his/her soft drink preferences.
Volunteer sampling. When the variable to be measured is unique or when confidentiality requires the non-recognition of participants, the researcher uses this technique. For example the focus of the study is extra-sensory perception (ESP). The researcher looks
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for volunteers, for people who think they have ESP. Suppose the research deals with the moral behavior of participants only volunteers will provide this kind of information.
Sample selection is crucial in quantitative research. The generalization depends to a large extent on the reliability and appropriateness of the sampling technique.
So that we can see at a glance, the different types of nonrandom sampling methods, the Figure presents an illustrative example.
Nonrandom Sampling Methods
Can you explain each?
Sample Size
After studying the different methods of selecting the sample population, we have to consider this question: “What constitutes an adequate or sufficient size for a sample? Unfortunately, there is no clear-cut answer to this question. Some sample sizes are too small while others can be too large. The question is “at what point exactly, does a sample stop being too small and become sufficiently large? The best answer is that a sample should be as large as the researcher can obtain with a reasonable expenditure of time and energy. This suggests that we as researchers, should try to obtain as large a sample as we reasonably can. However, if we want to be scientific about the sample size we can use Slovin’s (1960) formula.
N
n = ---------
1 + Ne2
Where:n = sample sizeN = population sizee = desired margin of error
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Explain how you will choose the sample for this research topic. Effects of Peer Group Relationship on Employee Morale.
2. When is volunteer sampling appropriate? Give situational example.LESSON 2 INSTRUMENTATION: QUESTIONING AND
TESTING TECHNIQUES
In research instrument refers to the tool or device used to collect data. In descriptive survey and experimental research we use the questioning and the testing techniques of data collection. The questionnaire and the interview are the devices used in the questioning technique and the standardized psychological tests are used in the testing technique.
The Questionnaire
Constructing, validating and administering the questionnaire require training and skill. The questionnaire as a tool in data collection has many advantages: a wider range of coverage, easier to administer, not expensive and lesser time needed.
When formulating the statement in the questionnaire consider the variables to be measured as indicated in the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the purpose of validation.
Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire. Consider the variables to be measured as indicated in the problem statement. Specify the items under each variable for the purpose of validation.
Here are the types of questions used in a questionnaire.
The open ended question does not include the response categories. The respondent is free to answer in his/her own way. For example:
In the close ended question the responses are specified
The close-ended “question” has several advantages:
- They are easy to tabulate- They are easy to categorize- They are easy to quantify
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How is values-education implemented in your school?
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Construction. The questionnaire may contain close ended and open ended questions. In the close-ended questions the categories of response are included and these may be interogative or declaration in form. For example:
The main advantage of the open-minded “question” is that it allows the researcher to have an insight on the factors that the respondents consider important. Hence a combination of the close-ended and open-ended questions is suggested.
Constructing the questionnaire is not an easy task. Hence if there are previously validated questionnaires related to your work, use it with acknowledgement.
Here are some guidelines in questionnaire construction.
Determine the objective of your research. The title of your questionnaire implies these. For example; “A Survey to Determine the Spiritual Commitment of the Teaching Staff in the Philippine Women’s University”
Determine the variables to be measured. Use the sub-problem as the bases. List Down as many items as possible under each variable Eliminate the irrelevant items through item analysis Block the related items to eliminate the possibility of confusing the respondents Determine the format and physical layout Determine the types of questions to be asked Make a draft and submit it to “judges” for validation
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Are you in favor of including population education in the grade school curriculum?
Yes No
Environmental values must be integrated in every subject
Strongly Agree (SA
Agree (A)
Disagree (DA)
Strongly Disagree (SDA)
Undecided (U)
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Make a copy of the items rated valid Pre-test this by letting a group identical to the respondents answer the questions to
determine the reliability and comprehensibility of the items.
Here are some illustrations of the different types of items that may be included in the questionnaire.
Matrix Type
Please check whether you strongly Agree (SA); (A); Disagree (DA) Strongly Disagree (SDA) or Undecided (U)
1. Spiritual commitment does not concern any of the teachers( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U
2. Spiritual commitment is a vital factor in improving teaching skills( ) SA ( ) A ( ) DA ( ) SDA ( ) U
Contingency Questions
Some questions do not apply to all the respondents. The questions are called contingency questions. Below is an example.
Have you ever tasted “ecstacy”?
Yes No
If the categories of responses in the close ended questions do not include some choices you may include
Others (specify)_______________
These are the parts of the questionnaire
- Title of the survey- A cover letter which contains the following
a) purpose of the surveyb) why the respondent was chosenc) the expected date of returning the questionnaire
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If yes, about how many times?
Once Twice to seven times Eight to twenty times Many times
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- The instructions- The items, systematically and logically organized to avoid confusing the respondents
Here are some criteria for a well-designed questionnaire
Instructions are clear; no complicated questions to confuse the respondents Items are organized logically from the easiest and most familiar to the most
difficult and least familiar There are no double-barrelled questions – two questions in one There are no ego threatening questions, making the respondent feel ignorant or
unknowledgeable There are no words with double meaning There are no “leading questions” where the answer is already suggested The layout has eye appeal, pleasing to the sense of sight.
Administration. There are two ways of administering the questionnaire through personal or group contact with the researcher or by mail (or e mail) or hand-carried. Both have advantages and disadvantages. To save time and money the mailed questionnaire has more advantages. But the percentage of return is low and one cannot be sure that the chosen respondent answered the questionnaire. In the personally administered questionnaire the return is 100% but this can be expensive since one has to pay the expenses of the participants. Another disadvantage could be the feeling of self-consciousness which can affect the candidness of the response to the question.
The Interview
The interview is the person to person technique of data collection. Using an interview guide (like a questionnaire) the researcher goes to each chosen respondent. This can be time consuming and expensive.
When conducting the person to person interview here are some guidelines.
Set the time for the interview and be there on time Be properly attired “Break the ice” by making a pleasant introductory statement If the interview is taped ask the permission of the interviwee and make the taping
subtle. When taking down notes be subtle about it Keep the communication line open by not asking ego-threatening questions or talking
too much Give the interviewee the chance to talk and to answer in his or her own way.
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The group or panel interview is another type of interviewing. The interviewer gathers a group or a panel and presents to them the purpose/objective of the interview. Questions are asked and each member of the panel responds. Here are some disadvantages or weaknesses of this technique.
- the bandwagon effect where the respondent merely goes long with the responses of the other members.
- the self conscious feeling of members who tend to avoid answering frankly
- the time and expense of gathering the respondents in one place.
The telephone interview has become one of the least time consuming and expensive of the techniques. And with “Texting” in the communication area this can be used as an interviewing technique.
Testing
Standardized tests are often used when educational research is related to psychology. The help of psychometrician to interpret the test is needed.
Here are some kinds of tests used in research:
- Pencil and Paper Tests
a) Personality testsb) IQ testsc) Emotional quotient tests
- Projective tests
a) Inkblot or Rorschrach testb) Draw a house, tree-person testc) Hand testd) Creativity test
To be able to use these tests one must consult a psychometrician or enroll in a course in psychological testing.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of panel interview
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the open-ended question.
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3. Discuss the use of the interview as a device in data collection.
4. Explain how modern technology can be used in the questioning technique of data collection.
LESSON 3 OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUE
Observation is defined by authorities as the “systematic process of witnessing and recording the behavior patterns of objects people and events without directly communicating with them.
Observation is the least reliable technique of data collection. But when the focus or the source of information is human and animal behavior or when the subjects are illiterate, there is no other technique that can be used except observation or photography.
Types of Observation
There are several types of observation in the study of human behavior. These are:
- direct or deliberate observation- indirect or non-deliberate observation- disguised observation- structured observation- unstructured observation
Direct or deliberate observation. The researcher watches the behavior or event as it occurs. For example supervisor observes the classroom management of a teacher or the strategies of value demonstration in the classroom.
Indirect or non deliberate. The researcher describes the patterns of behavior or events through the effects of the behavior rather than the behavior itself. For example an observer in the educational setting watches the students behavior after the teacher’s CD presentations, visual devices and on-line strategies.
Disguised observation. In this technique the observer becomes part of the observed group, he or she becomes “one of them”. One advantage of this technique is that the natural behavior of the units observed is revealed. One disadvantage is bias that can be generated by the observer’s close interaction with the subjects, hence “emotional distance” must be maintained. In anthropological or tribal research, this is usually one technique used. The researcher becomes immersed in the cultural milieu that allows him/her to understand and interpret better the behavior and events.
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Undisguised observation. In this observational technique the subject in aware that he/she is the focus of observation. Because of this the subject becomes self-concious1, hence, the observed behavior may not be the “real” one. There can be lack of spontaneity in the behavior of the subject.
Structured Observation. In this technique the behavior to be observed is specified before the observation. For example the researcher specifies that the focus of observation is the way the teacher comments on the responses of students in the classroom. Only this behavior and no other will be observed.
Unstructured Observation. The observer notes and records all the behavior of the subjects in the site of observation. In the analytical stage the researcher notes the relevance of the behavior to the problem under investigation.
From the discussion one can perceive the weakness of observation as a data gathering device, but there is no substitute when the focus is behavior. And its one real advantage is the authenticity of recorded information assuming that the observer is objective and the observed subject is unaware of the observation.
To increase the reliability and validity of observational outputs here are come suggections
Use a machine called people meter if this is available Plan the observation Segmentalize the observation using relevant segmentalizing variables, i.e. area
segmentation, behavior segmentation, time segmentation and others Record the observation as soon as possible; use recording gadgets (tapes, video,
camera) when possible. Make several observations Have several trained observers observing the same units or subjects Record facts rather than impressions Maintain “emotional distance” in the disguised observation or “immersion” technique
Increasing Observation Reliabilit y
To recapitulate here is a quotation” a limitation of observation is that motivations attitudes and other internal conditions cannot be observed. Only when these feelings are relatively important or readily inferred from the behavior is it appropriate to use observational research methods” (Burns and Bush, 1998, p. 216)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Explain how you can maintain “emotional distance”. Give examples.
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2. Explain “segmentalized observation. Give examples.
3. Discuss the types of observation as means of data collection. Explain, with situational examples, how the reliability of observation can be increased.
METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE SIX
WRITING THE THESIS PROPOSAL
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module the student should be able to:
1. understand the purpose of writing a research / thesis proposal2. understand the strategy of organizing the thesis / research proposal3. acquire knowledge about how to write the different sections of the proposal; the
problem section, review of related literature and the methodology section. 4. write a thesis proposal
The thesis proposal is the agenda for research. It provides the guide line in carrying out the research process. The viability or “do-ability” of the research study is demonstrated
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through the formulation of the thesis proposal. Basically It presents a discussion of the following
1. The Problem and Its Background2. The Review of Related Literature3. The Method Research Design
It also includes the Bibliography / References Cited, the Thesis Outline (if the institution requires it) and the curriculum Vita (if the institution requires it)
This Module is actually a recapitulation of Module 2, Lesson 4 and Module 3.
LESSON 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
In the introductory portion of this section present the “context” of the problem. You may cite your rationale for conducting the research study. It is assumed that you have chosen a title that reflects the main problem of the study; For example “ The Effect of Teaching Strategies on the Performance of Students in the Tertiary Level”
This section includes the following:
Statement of the ProblemObjectives of the StudySignificance of the StudyScope and LimitationsTheoretical FrameworkAssumptionsHypothesisDefinition of terms
Below is a discussion of these topics following the format of a thesis proposal.
Statement of the Problem
This is the verbalization / articulation of the problem (main problem) and its analysis, demonstrated through the sub-problems
Main Problem:
Is there a significant relationship between teaching strategies and the performance of students?
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Sub problems
1. Is the lecture strategy an effective teaching technique?2. Is role-playing an effective teaching strategy?3. Is group dynamics an effective teaching strategy?4. Are technological devices effective teaching strategies?
The problem statement can also be declarative
Purpose / Objectives of the Study
In this section do not repeat the problem statement. State the aims of the research endeavor. For instance say: This study aims to determine the effectiveness of teaching strategies on the performance of students in the tertiary level. It will also try to determine which of these strategies is the most effective.
Significance of the Study
State how the output of the study will contribute either to theory or practice or both.
Here for instance one can say : The output of this study will help the teachers to choose the teaching strategy that will effectively improve the performance of students.
Scope and Limitations
Present the coverage. Specify the population and the specific variables to be studied. One can say that this study will deal with the use of several teachings tragedies in teaching communication skills to freshmen college students of the Philippine Women’s University. Only four strategies will be the focus : lecture, role playing, group dynamics and technological devices.
Indicate what will be excluded, the limits of the study.
Theoretical Framework
This section presents the theoretical conceptual aspects of the research. It includes the assumptions, the hypothesis, the definition of terms. If the theory is conceptualized or operationalized (stated in the operational dimension) a paradigm is sometimes included here.
In the problem discussed here the basic theory is the theory of teaching / instructional strategy, operationalized into lecture, role playing, group dynamics and technological (audiovisual) devices.
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Assumptions. The assumption is a statement that needs no proof in the study. Hence the assumption for this problem discussed here can be :” It is assumed that teachers use different strategies in teaching communication skills
Hypothesis – The hypothesis is a “statement of expectations” an informed guess” on the possible answer to the Problem. This is required in quantitative research that requires statistical comparison. It is a statement of differences or relationships.
There are two types of hypothesis:Null: There is no significant relationship between teaching strategies and student performance Ho
Alternate:H2 There is a significant relationship between teaching strategies and student performance
The hypothesis can also be categorized as:
- Conceptual or theoretical hypothesis uses theoretical constructs- Operational or predictive hypothesis, uses the operation to measure the construct.
Here are some examples:
“Teaching strategies affect the performance of students. This is a conceptual hypothesis and the theoretical constructs are teaching strategies and students performance.
When operationalized this becomes:
“There is a significant difference in the communication skills of students taught through audio-visual devices and those exposed to the lecture strategy.”
Definition of Terms. In this section define the variables / terms that are used in a specific way: Avoid dictionary definitions, if possible. In the example given here one must define the lecture strategy, role playing, group dynamics and audio-visual / technological devices.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Write down the problem statements (main problem and sub-problem) for a thesis proposal that you plan to work on when you finish your course.
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2. Present the scope and limitation of the problem you have stated.
3. Discuss the significance of your problem.
LESSON 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This is the part of the proposal that presents previous studies dealing with a similar problem dimension. This was thoroughly discussed in Module Three.
In professional research this forms part of the theoretical framework. Therefore cite in the theoretical section the works that serve as the theoretical basis for the study. But in this section cite the applied researches, based on the same theories.
Studies may be related in any one of the following dimensions problem, variables and population. Variables refer to the factors / conditions being studied. In the example given here the variables are the teaching strategies and the performance in communication skills.
In the introduction to this section state the status of research in the problem area, the similarities, the disagreements among the previous research outputs. Then in the succeeding paragraphs cite the researches to illustrate the initial statement.
For instance, one can start by saying, “Researchers disagree about the effects of teaching strategies on the performance of students. But many studies show that some strategies are more effective than others.”
Then the conclusions and generalizations of the studies can be cited to prove the introductory statement.
In this section show how your proposed study intends to bridge the inconsistencies in the findings of previous researches.
Remember that the works cited must be documented. Consult Module Three on the documentation style recommended.
This section can be organized topically, chronologically and geographically.
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If the purpose is to show the relatedness of research findings on the different variables and conditions, the topical organization is logical and appropriate.
If the purpose is to show the changes in research output through the years, then the chronological organization is pertinent.
If the purpose is to illustrate the differences or similarities of research outputs in different geographical areas – Western, Asian, European – Local – Then the geographic organization is reasonable. Remember, be both exhaustive and selective.
In the concluding paragraph for this section discuss the linkage between the proposed study and the related literature cited. Include only worthwhile studies and choose from those works only the facts that will clarify and present a total picture of the “problem” involved. Indicate the gaps, the inconsistencies that your proposed study intends to bridge.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. List down some works / research studies that can be part of your Review of Related Literature for the problem presented in Lesson 2.
2. Explain how you will organize the Review of Related Literature for your chosen topic.
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LESSON 3 METHOD AND RESEARCH DESIGN
This section of the proposal presents the procedures for data collection and analysis. It includes a discussion of the technique of selecting subjects / respondents and the instrumentation. In the introductory paragraph state the methodology and in the succeeding paragraphs describe the procedure. For instance one can cay “This study will use the parallel group design in experimental research”
Selecting the Sample
Consult Module Three for the various technique of sampling. Define the population from which the sample will be taken. For this proposed study for instance, one can state the process in this way, “Four sections of freshmen students taking a course in Communication Skills at the Philippine Women’s University will be participants in this experiment.
Below is the diagram:
Instrumentation
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Section One - Lecture Format
Section Two - Role playing
Section Three - Group Dynamics
Section Four - Audio Visual Voices
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The instrument in research is the tool or device for data collection. The basic tools are the questionnaire and tests. If the research requires the use of standardized tests specify what test will be used. If the questionnaire is the instrument explain how this will be constructed, validated and administered.
Consult Module Three for guidelines on questionnaire construction and administration.
Include a copy of the questionnaire in the appendix of the proposal.
Research Design / Procedure
Explain the procedure to be used in carrying out the research. Specify the stages of the data collection process, the variables and the administration of data collecting devices.
Consult the Module on Methods and Research Design for guidelines on the specification to be included in this section.
A graphic illustration may be used to clarify the design
Data Analysis Plan
Explain how the collected data will be analyzed. Visualize the outcome of your research investigation, if possible. You can use simulated data and dummy tables for purposes of clarification.
You can include the statistical formulas you plan to use in your data analysis. Consult Module Seven for guidance on the statistical treatment of data.
After this section on Methods and Research Design present the Bibliography and the Outline / Thesis Organization. Exclude from the Bibliography books on Statistics and Research Methodology. The listing must be divided into Primary and Secondary Sources or into Books, Periodicals, Unpublished Materials and Public Documents.
The Outline / Thesis Organization follows the organizational format approved by the school or institution where the Thesis will be submitted.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the Methodology that you will use for the Problem you presented in Lesson One
2. Explain the sampling technique that you will use. Demonstrate/discuss your sampling strategy.
METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE SEVEN
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
OBJECTIVES
At end the of this module, the student should be to:
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1. Select the appropriate statistical technique to the used in analyzing and interpreting quantiative data.
2. Distinguish between parametric and non-parametric statistics.
3. To compute data using the following measures:
3.1 Central tendency
3.2 Variability
3.3 Relationship
LESSON 1 SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL
TREATMENT
Once we have collated our data, we decide on the statistical technique to be used in the computation. The choice of the statistical test for the analysis of raw data depends largely on the questions we asked in our study and the purpose of our investigation. This means we have to go over our questions and determine how to compute the data to answer our questions. For example, if a question calls for relationship, among variables, then we use measures of relationship.
To review our knowledge of statistics, Figure 1 can help refresh our memory.
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S T A T I S T I C S
P a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics involvingThe measures ofCentral tendency Variation Correlation
Inferential statistics
Statistical involving Inferences Estimations PredictionsHypothesis testing
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Figure 1. The Realm of Statistics
As the figure shows, there are two general types of statistics: the parametric and the nonparametric tests. Parametric tests are usually used for data that are of the interval or ratio levels. Further, the within group scatter of scores of each of the groups to be compared should be equal. As we can see, parametric tests are most appropriate with desciptive and inferential statistics. The nonparametic test are sometimes called distribution free statistics, since their use do not depend on some specific types of score distribution.
The most frequently used parametric tests are the Z-test, t-test, and the F-test. The t-test for independent sample means is used to determine if an observed difference between the averages of two independent groups is statistically significant while the t-test for dependent means is and to determine of there is a significant difference between the two groups of correlated scores in terms of their means.LESSON 2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
One of the techniques of summarizing quantitative data is the measures of central tendency. These include the averages such as the mode, the median and the mean.
The mode is the most frequent score in a distribution. In the following distribution, what is the mode? 25, 20, 19, 17, 16, 16,16. The answer is 16. Why?
Since the mode doesn’t tell much about a distribution, it is seldom used in research studies.
The median is the point below and above with 50 percent of the scores in a distribution fall. We can compute the median roughly by using the counting median.
For example:
Scores (X)90 888682 = Median747065
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Non parametric
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The median is 82. Why? Count the number of scores or cases. Is the total an even number or odd? This technique is used when only there are few number of cases, at least 30 scores or less.
When the total number of scores is even, we can find the median in this manner.
Scores 9088868274 706558
How did you get 78?
Outside the school setting, median is seldom used. For one thing, the median does not make use of all information in each and every score in the distribution. It tends to ignore the actual numerical values of extremes scores.
The mean is commonly used in many types of researches. The long method of computing the mean is done by adding up all the scores and divide the total by the number of scores.
The formula is:
X = XN
Where X - mean- sum of
N - total number of cases/scores
Find the mean of the following scores:25 13 26 30 47 42 28 35 32 39 55 50 48 42 36
Why is the method long, when the formula is just very simple?
Table 1Computing the mean by the Short Method.
Step Distribution Mid-points f d fd
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57-59 58 1 5 554-56 55 1 4 451-53 52 3 3 948-50 49 2 2 445-47 46 7 1 742-44 43 6 0 039-41 40 6 -1 -636-38 37 9 -2 +1833-35 34 5 -3 -15
330-32 31 3 -4 -1227-29 28 4 -5 -2024-26 25 1 -6 - 6
—— —— N=48 fd=48
Formula: M = AM fd ci
N Where: M - mean AM - assumed mean fd - algebraic sum of the products of the frequencies and their
corresponding deviations from the assumed mean.
Steps:
1. Prepare a table having step distribution column, mid-point column, frequency column, deviation column and fd column.
2. Group the scores under the Step Distribution column using a class interval of 3, 5, etc.
3. Find the mid-point column.
4. Determine the step where the assumed mean lies and enclose it with horizontal lines across the width of the table. The assumed mean is the mid-point of the scores where the assumed mean lies.
42 + 44 AM = 2 = 43
5. Fill the f column by getting the total of N. N = 48
6. Fill the d column beginning from the step where the assumed mean lies, give this O deviation. Number the steps from O upward 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., using positive signs. Below 0, number the steps downward
- 1, - 2, - 3, - 4 etc using negative signs.
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7. Multiply the frequency by the deviation for each step to get the fd column and get the summation ( ) fd. fd - 48. Summation fd is the algebraic sum of the fd. Divide the summation fd by N and multiply by the class interval (ci).
fd ci = - 48 N 48
8. Add the correction -3 to the assumed mean, 43 + (-3), equals 40. See the computation below:
AM - 43 Formula: M = AM + ( fd ) cifd - - 48 Nci - - 3N - - 48 43 + ( -48 ) 3
48
43 + (-1 ) 343 + (-3 )
43 - 3
M - 40
The short method of computing the mean is used when number of cases is large, that is more than 30.
Let’s have a pratice: Compute the mean.
Step Distribution f
65 - 69 160 - 64 055 - 59 450 - 54 345 - 49 740 - 44 1035 - 39 1130 - 34 725 - 29 320 - 24 215 - 19 1
Key Concepts
central tendency parametric class intervalaverage nonparametric step distribution
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Let’s do these:
ACTIVITY 1 Encirle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. The best measure of central tendency isa. modeb. meanc. mean
2. In computing higher statistical data, the most approriate measure isa. medianb. modec. mean
3. In computing the mean, we can assume mean at any point in the distribution. This statement is
a. trueb. falsec. absurd
4. When the number of cases is 51, the counting median is the
a. 25 th score
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b. 26 th score c. 27 th score
5. If the assume mean is 57 and the correction is 2.6, the mean is
a. 83b. 59.6c. 54.4
6. The deviation is the distance of a score away from the
a. median b. meanc. mode.
7. The mean is affected by the
a. number of scoresb. total number of scoresc. size of the scores.
8. The mean is affected by the
a. number of scoresb. total number of scoresc. size of the scores
9. What do we do when the number of scores is too large that adding them to find the sum is too cumbersome?
a. make a step distribution of the scoresb. arrange the scores from the highest to the lowestc. group the scores
10. Central tendency shows or indictes the:
a. general ability of a group of individualsb. ability of each individualc. the ability of a few members of a group
ACTIVITY 2 The following are the ages of the participants in a research
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study. Find the average age. Use both the long and short method of computing the mean. ci = 3. Start with the lowest age as he first step in the distribution.
19 30 21 19 20 31 21 33 21 19 20 31 20 2222 21 31 28 29 1922 31 20 30 20 21 20 24 19 23 24 2521 22 20 23 22 2119 20 23 24 19 20
LESSON 3 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
While the measures of central tendency are useful statistics for summarizing the score in a distribution, they are not sufficient because the spread of scores may differ from one distribution of scores to another. There is a need therefore, to describe the spread of scores or variability that exists within a score distribution. This statistical measure refers to the tendency of the scores to scatter or dispense above or below the center point in a distribution.
The most commonly used measures of variability are the range and standard deviation. The range represents the distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution. To find the range we simply subtract the lowest score from the highest score. Thus, if the highest score is 90 and the lowest is 19, the range is; 90 - 19 = 71. The range is used in determinng the class interval in a step distribution.
Although the range is a crude indication of variability, it gives a quick estimate of variability. With a range of 71 in our example, we can quickly tell that there is a wide variation of scores between 70 and 19.
The standard deviation (SD) is used in the computation of Pearson coefficient of correlation. It is also used in comparing groups. The higher the standard deviation, the more heterogeneous the group is in terms of the abilities and other characteristics of the members. The smaller the SD, the more homogeneous the group members are.
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The steps involved in calculating the standard deviation are as follows:
a. Calculate the mean of the distributionb. Subtract the mean from each score. Each result is symbolized X – Xc. Square each of the squares of these scores: ( X – X)2
d. Add up all the squares of these scores: (X – X)2
e. Divide the total by the number of scores. The result is called the variance.f. Take the square root of the variance. This is the standard deviation.
The above steps can be summarized as follows:
SD = (X - X)2 n
where SD is the symbol for standard deviation, Z is the symbol for “sum of;; X is the symbol for the raw score, x is the symbol for the mean, and N represents the number of scores in the distribution.
Let us calculate the standard deviation of this distribution of ten score: 80, 85, 60, 55, 25, 70, 40, 45, 50, 30. Follow along in Table 2.
Step 1. Calculate the mean.
X X = n = 54
Step 2. Subtract the mean from each raw score.
(X - X)Step 3. Square each of these scores.
(X - X)2
Step 4. Add up the squared scores and divide by the total number of
such scores.
(X -X)2
n The total is 3640, which, divided by 10, equals 364. This is the variance.
Step 5: Take the square root of the variance (use a calculator). It is 19.08. This is the standard deviation.
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You will notice that the more spread our scores are, the greater the deviation scores will be and hence the larger the standard deviation.
Table 2
Calculation of the Standard Deviation of a DistributionRawScore Mean X -X (X -X)2 85 54 31 961 80 54 26 676 70 54 16 256 60 54 6 36 55 54 1 1 50 54 -4 16 45 54 -9 81 40 54 -14 196 30 54 -24 576 25 54 -29 841X = 540 = 3640
M = 54 Variance (SD2) = (X - X)2 n
= 3640 10
Standard deviation (SD) = (X - X)2
√ n
= √ 364 = 19.08b
The standard deviation is 19.08. Is the group heterogeneous or homogeneous?
Key concepts
Variability Standard deviationDeviation Range
Let's try these:
ACTIVITY 1 Solve for the Standard deviation.
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A. Scores (X)
23 25 14 30 28 18 2419 22 26 12 23
B. 48 47 46 44 51 51 4745 42 37 47 52 50
Solution:
LESSON 4 MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIP
Measures of relationship are used in correlational research. They are used in determining whether relationship exists between two or more quantitiative variables, such as age and reading ability or smoking and lung cancer. The goal of correlational research is to explain or identify the causes of relationship. A common weakness among graduate student researches is to establish a relationship between two variables by using statistical data as the frame of reference. Causes of such relationships are not explained. Although causal relationship cannot be proven through correlational studies, we have to make causal statements as an outgrowth of our research work. For example, a soon as we have establish the quantitative relationship between smoking and lung cancer, we have to substantiate this by providing an explanation. It is not enough to say that there is a positive correlation between smoking and lung cancer. In other words, we have to explain why such relationhip is positive rather than negative.
The relationship or correlation is expressed by a factor called coefficient of correlation. It can range from zero where there is no correlation up to positive one (+1.00) where there is perfect positive correlation, It can also range from zero to negative one (-1.00), where there is perfect negative correlation.
Correlational research is carried out for one of two basic purposes - either to help explain important human behaviors or to predict likely outcomes.
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A positive correlation means that an increase in the amount of one of the variables produces a corresponding increase in the amount of the other variable. For example.
Grades
Pupils Reading SpellingJose 88 90Pedro 90 89Maria 85 86
As we can see, the pupils’ grades in Reading are high as their grades in Spelling. Without any computation, we can tell that there is a positive correlation between Reading and Spelling. If the correlation is negative, high grades in Reading would have a corresponding low grade in Physical Eduction.
Computation of the coefficient of correlation. The formula that is most frequently used is the Person product - moment coefficient of correlation. The Formula for calculating the Person coefficient is:
n XY - ( X) ( Y) √ [n X2 - ( X)2 ] [nXY2 - ( Y)]
Where:
n - number of pairs of scores - sum ofX - one variableY - another variable
Example: Sets of scores for Variable X and Y.
Student V a r i a b l e X Y
A 20 20B 18 16C 28 20 D 15 12 E 10 10
Solution:
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1. Find the sum of X and Y
Student X Y X2 Y2 XY A 20 20 400 400 400 X = 81B 18 16 324 256 288 Y = 78C 18 20 324 400 360D 15 12 225 144 180E 10 10 100 100 100
81 78 1373 1300 1328 X Y X2 Y2 XY
2. Find the X2 = 13733. Find the Y2 = 13004. Find the sum of the products of X and Y = 13285. Substitute the formula
r = 5(1328) - (81)(78) √ [5(1373) - 812][5(1300) - 782]
1. First, multiply XY by n: 1328(5) = 6640
2. Multiply X by Y: 81 (78) = 6318
3. Subtract step 2 from step 1: 6640 - 6318 = 322.
4. Multiply X2 by n: 1373(5) = 6865.
5. Square X: (81)2 = 6561.
6. Subtract step 5 from step 4: 6885 - 6561 = 304.
7. Multiply Y2 by n: 1300(5) = 6500
8. Square Y: 782 = 6084
9. Subtract step 8 from step 7: 6500 - 6084 = 416.
10. Multiply step 6 by step 9: 304 (416) = 126464.
11. Take the square root of step 10: √ 126464 = 355.61.
12. Divide step 3 by step 11: 322 355.61
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= 90
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Our answer or correlation index v is 90. At this instance, we ask the question: When can a correlation v be considered high or low? The following categorization can be used for our interpretation.
r Indicationbetween + .80 to + 1.00 : High correlationbetween + .60 to + .79 : Moderately high correlationbetween + .40 to + .59 : Moderate correlationbetween + .20 to + .39 : Low correlationbetween + .01 to + .19 : Negligible correlation
Since .90 is beetween + .80 to + 1.00, then we can say that there is a high correlation between variable X and variable Y.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Authorities said that correlation coefficient does not necessarily indicate a cause – and effect relationship between two variables. It means it does not always follow that one variable is causing the scores on the other variable. How do you account for this?
2. In what way does correlational research predict achievement from scores on an intelligence test?
3. What constribution(s) can correlational research offer in your work environment?
METHODS OF RESEARCH
MODULE EIGHT
WRITING AND DISSEMIANTINGTHE RESEARCH REPORT
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module the student should be able to:
1. acquire the ability to analyze, interpret and organize data adequately 2. present data logically and cohesively 3. acquire the ability to illustrate the data presentation through the use of graphic
illustrations4. know the format and style of the thesis5. understand the technique of research report dissemination
The last stage of the research process is reporting the research findings disseminating these through publication if possible. Writing the research report requires training; the report writer must know how to organize the result, how to present these aesthetically and articulate these in comprehensive language.
LESSON 1 ORGANIZING THE RESULTS
In research there are two ways of presenting and interpreting the results. One is the qualitative or verbal interpretation. Another way is the quantitative presentation and interpretation which uses statistical data.
Authorities in scientific writing have set down guidelines when writing the scientific / academic research report. Here are some of them:
=
=
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1. Have a specific reader in mind Who will read the paper?
2. Have a specific purpose of goal Why am writing this report
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=
=
=
These guidelines are clear enough for graduate students in education. These are basic course directions in written communication skills
Thesis organization
The thesis / dissertation is organized according to the specific guidelines given by academic institutions. However, the basic concepts and consideration are the same. Below are two ways of organizing the / thesis . dissertation
Here is one way :
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3. The language must be clear and comprehensive to the intended reader
Will my reader comprehend the Report?
4. Organize the report logically and cohesively
Have I followed the old writing cliche:a) tell them what you are going
to tell them. (the Introduction)b) Tell them (Body)c) Tell them what you told them (summary / conclusion)
5. Consider the layout and format Do I have enough illustrations to break the monotony of the printed page and to clarify the explanation
A. Approval Title Page________
Table of Contents
I. The Problem and Its Background.Statement of the ProblemPurpose of the studySignificance of the StudyScope and LimitationTheoretical Framework
II. Review of Related Literature
III. Method and Research DesignProcedureSamplingInstrumentation
IV. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Findings (This is sub divided into topics corresponding to the problem formulation)
V. Summary Conclusion and Recommendation BibliographyAppendix
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Below is another way:
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A. Approval SheetTitle PageAbstract
I. Introduction
The Problem and Its BackgroundReview of Related LiteratureMethod and Research Design
II. The Lecture Strategy : Its EffectDescription of the Lecture ProcessPerformance rating results
III. Role Playing and Communication Skills.The Role Playing StrategyPerformance Rating Results
IV. Audio – Visual DevicesDescription of the ProcessPerformance Rating Results
V. Group Dynamics StrategyDescription of the Strategy,Performance Rating Results
VI. Summary, Conclusion and RecommendationBibliographyAppendix
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The second type of organization is organization is topically based on the sub-problems of the thesis.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the basic guideline in Thesis Organization
2. Which type of organization do you prefer? Why?LESSON 2 LANGUAGE IN RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
In research report written communication skills are important of course. It is generally assumed that when one reaches the graduate school level, these skills are fully developed. The discussion in this lesson serves as a reminder about the scientific and the dynamic use of language in research report writing.
In scientific writing the following considerations in the use of language are suggested.
- precision and concreteness- unity and coherence- formal and objective language
Any book on scientific and technical writing will present a detailed explanation of these factors.
Here is a brief over view that will remind us of these language requirements
Precision and Concreteness
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Precision means avoiding unnecessary repetitions, Wordineans or redundancy manifests a lack of precision. Here are some redundant expressions found in scientific research reports
redundant
- make contact with- collaborate together- repeat it again- absolutely essential- completely eliminated- at the present time- with the object of- raised up his hand- blue in color- few in number
corrections
- meet- collaborate- repeat it- essential- eliminated- now- to- raised his hand- blue- few
There are many other redundant expressions found in academic writing
For a more comprehensive consult. Gordon H. Mills and John A. Walter, Technical Writing. Rev. Ed. New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980 pp. 15 – 47
To be concrete is to avoid ambivalent words or words with double meanings. It means avoiding abstraction and indefinite references.
Unity and Coherence
Unity means “oneness” wholeness or harmony; while coherence means the sticking together of ideas. In a sense they are synonymous.
Sometimes the researcher gets over enthusiastic in the presentation of the research findings. Because of this he/she tends to become haphazard in the writing style.
Here are some reminders to achieve unity and coherence in writing
- Have a specific idea to be developed in each paragraph- Avoid wordy and complex sentences- Have a” topic sentence” for each paragraph- Use complex sentences with discretion- Use transitional devices, such as conjunctions, linking sentences and paragraphs.
In quantitative research, tables and graphic illustration can also serve as means of providing unity and coherence.
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Objective and Formal Language
Research reports are intended for academic, professional and technically-oriented readers. “Imaginative” language has no place in scientific report writing.
Here are some guidelines in the use of formal and objective language
- Avoid expressions that arouse emotion- Avoid abstract figurative metaphoric language- Maintain a calm and restrained tone- Use the personal pronoun “I” with discretion- Use the third (he/she) person pronoun to replace the first person “I” when possible. - Avoid slang and idiomatic expressions
The third person and the passive voice of the verb are suggested in order to project a formal and objective presentation. However, there is no need to stick to this suggestion. The active voice conveys a more energetic tone.
Consider the examples below
Passive Voice
The teachers were exhilarated by the presence of the university president at the Faculty Development seminar.
Active Voice
The presence of the university president at the Faculty Development seminar exhilarated the teachers.
First Person Singular(Active Voice)
I. distributed the questionnaires among the participants.
Third Person(Passive)
The questionnaires where distributed by the researcher among the participants
Third Person(Active)
The researcher distributed the questionnaires among the respondents
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These examples serve as brief reminders on the formal and objective use of language in research.
In summary, the most effective research report is one that is well organized and coherent and uses language that is precise, formal, objective and adapted to the intended readers.
LEARNING ACT IVITIES
1. Explain the role of formal language in research report writing.
2. Give examples of idiomatic and metaphoric language that should be avoided in research report writing.
LESSON 3 FORMAT AND STYLE
The format and style of presenting the thesis/ dissertation follow the conventional guidelines of academic writing. These terms refer to the page layout and the use illustrations or graphic aids.
Headings
Headings indicate the relationship between the topics discussed. They also suggest the organizational positioning of these topics. Generally these are three levels of heading : Main Head (Centered Head), Free – Standing Side head (flashed to the left margin) and the Paragraph Head (at the beginning of the paragraph). The layout of this page illustrates this.
Main head. The title at the top of this page – Format and Style is the main head (centered head)
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Free-Standing Sidehead. This is the second level of importance which is flushed to the left margin. On this page this illustrated by the sub-heads- Headings, and Graphic-illustrations
Paragraph heads. This is the third level of importance. And on this page the terms, Main head, Free – standing side head and Paragraphs head are illustrations of the paragraph head.
If there is a fourth level this is indicated by simple enumeration.
Here is one reminder in dividing topics for discussion: Logically there must be at least two divisions.
Graphic Illustrations
Graphic Aids in the presentation of research findings “communicate facts dramatically emphatically. They serve as the aesthetic device to break the monotony of the printed page. They also clarify the textual discussion especially in quantitative research.The following are the graphic aids often used;
- Tables - Graphs- Charts - Pictograms
Here are some examples.
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PIE CHART
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CY 1999
PIE CHART
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Agency’s SHARE IN NATIONAL GOVERNMENT TAX REVENUES, CY 1998
CY 1999
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COMPARATIVE NUMBER OF TAX RETURNS
For the Period of January to December 1998-1999
Bar Graph
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agres, Alexander. 1995. Learning Module in Methods of Research. Manila: Phil. Women’s University.
Barrones, H.S. 1985. How to Design a Problem based Curriculum.
Baker, Theresa L. 1994. Doing Social Research. York: McGrac-Hill Book Co.. NewBell, Earl, 1995. The Practice of Social Research. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Bell, Judith. 1993. Doing Your Research Project Buckingham: Open University Press.
Breskwell, Jack R. and Norman E. Wallen. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Bums, Alvin C and Ronald Bush. 1997. Marketing Research. London: Prentice Hall International
Kearsley, Greg. 2000. Online E Learning and Teaching with Technology. New York: Wadsworth Research Center.
____________. 2000. Teaching and Learning Cyberspace. New York: Wadsworth Ed. Research Center.
Kuahl, Robert, 2000. Design of Experiments: Statistical Principles of Research Design and Analysis. Second Edition. Desbury, CA.: Pacific Grove
Lewis-Beck, Michael S. 1994. Research Practice. London: Sage University Papers
McMillan, James H. 1993. Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction. New York: Doneley & Sons., Co.
Polo, Elena P. 1994. Writing Proposals: A Concise Guide. Fourth Edition. Manila: UST Publishing House.
Rittsaran, Daniel. 1992. Research Methodology. New York: MacMillan.
Sherman, David. 2000. Learning Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. London: Sage Publishing.
Wiersma, William. 1995. Research Methods in Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Veit, Richard. 1990. Research the Student Guide to Writing Research Papers. New York: MacMillan.
Methods of Research
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