Mod 7: Infectious disease  Causes of infectious disease IQ: How are diseases transmitted?  • describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens, and collect 

information relating to disease transmission pathogens 

PATHOGEN  DESCRIPTION  EXAMPLE 

PRION  - Proteinaceous infections particles  - Abnormally folded protein which 

propagates by transmitting the misfolded protein state to other cellular proteins. 

Mad-cow disease Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease 

VIRUS   - Non-cellular infective agent consisting of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) inside a protein coat  

- Replicates inside living cells 

HIV Measles  

BACTERIA   - Single-celled prokaryotic organism  - Reproduce by binary fission - Secrete toxins, invade cells, and form 

colonies which disrupt cell function 

Salmonella 

PROTOZOA   - Single-celled eukaryotic organism - Heterotrophic; absorb nutrients from hosts - Secrete toxins, invade cells, and form 

colonies to disrupt cell and tissue function 

Malaria Dysentery 

FUNGI   - Eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms with cell walls  

- Absorb nutrients from environment by secreting enzymes  

- Reproduce by spreading spores that can release harmful enzymes 

Thrush  Ringworm 

MACRO-PARISITE   - Visible to the naked eye - Ectoparasite; lives on an organism - Endoparasite; lives in an organism - Invade and destroy cells, create competition 

for nutrients 

Ticks  Tapeworms 

  Modes of transmission  - Direct contact Happens when an individual physically comes into contact with a person or animal with a disease. There are three types of direct contact transmission; - Person-to-person: Touching, kissing, coughing, sneezing - Animal-to-person: Handling, bites, scratches  - Mother-to-unborn-child: Germs passing through the placenta during gestation, or 

transferring from the vaginal canal during birth  - Indirect contact 

Disease spread through inanimate objects such as door-knobs after being spread by infected people.   - Vector transmission Some pathogens are passed by vectors, which can be insects that carry diseases from person-to-person. Insect vectors include mosquitoes (malaria) and licks (Lyme disease).  - Vehicle  Involves the spread of pathogens by contaminated air, food, water  MICROBIAL TESTING OF FOOD AND WATER  AIM: To compare how 8 different types of food streaked on agar plate affect the type and amount (percentage) of microbial growth on agar plates.  HYPOTHESIS: If different types of food are streaked on the agar plates then there will be different amounts and types of agar growth on the plates, because each food has pre- existing microbes and different susceptibility levels to microbial growth.   VARIABLES: Independent: 8 different types of food streaked on agar plate Dependent: Types and amount (percentage) of microbial growth on agar plates Constant: Type and size of agar plates, type and amount of agar (beef), sterilisation of inoculating loop, 30° incubator temperature, time of incubation  MATERIALS:  - 9 agar plates  - fine tip permanent marker  - Chicken  - Salami  - Spinach  - Green apple  - Zucchini - Tomato  - Carrot  - Strawberries  - 4 x inoculating loops  - Sticky tape  - Incubator   METHOD: 1. Remove tape from agar plates and label the agar plates with the item of food 2. Set up the Bunsen burner, place it on safety flame 3. Leave a control agar plate untouched 4. Turn the Bunsen burner on the work flame 5. Sterilise an inoculating loop by putting it over the flame until it glows red 6. Dab the inoculating loop into the various items of food after waiting 10 seconds for  them to cool 7. Open the lid of the agar plates and streak the agar horizontally and then vertically  

using the inoculating loop 8. 8: Place the lid back on the agar plate 9. Repeat steps 5-8 for other items of food 10. Place sticky tape onto the agar plate to prevent an unwanted opening 11. Put the agar plates into the incubator set at 30 ̊C 12. observe and record amount of microbial growth every day from Day 3 onwards (Day  1 being the day the agar plates are placed into incubator).  RISK ASSESSMENT: Risk  Consequences  Minimise  Management 

Human pathogens can grow 

Can cause disease  Ensure that the incubator is set at 30 degrees 

Manage the risk by maintaining our own personal hygiene e.g. wash hands 

Pathogenic microbes being exposed on the bench 

Have microorganisms exposed to the lab environment that can cause the investigator to become infected. 

Sterilising the bench and aseptic technique with meth spirit 

Manage the risk by maintaining our own personal hygiene - wash hands 

Mature plates with multiple pathogenic microbes 

Can cause disease  Autoclaving the plates at the end 

Manage the risk by maintaining our own personal hygiene - wash hands  

  - Investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, to explain the causes and 

transmission of infectious diseases   

     LOUIS PASTEUR – 1850’S  - Proved beverages and food 

were ‘spoiling’ due to contact with microorganisms  

- Disease caused by bacteria and fungi were entering the body  

- Used pasteurisation to kill microbes  

- Sterilised medical equipment with heat  

- Famous ‘swan-neck’ flask experiment  

- Development of first vaccines  

ROBERT KOCH’S POSTULATES – (late 19th century)  

- The suspected causative agent must be absent from all healthy organisms, but present in all diseased organisms  

- The causative agent must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture  

- The cultured agent must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible organism  

- The same causative agent must be re-isolated from the inoculated, diseased organism   

 • Compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and 

transmission between hosts   Prion – Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)  Recent findings suggest that prions likely enter the host 'piggybacking' a ride on other proteins and then reach the brain by traveling along existing nerve pathways.   Virus – Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and rubella  Some pathogens are small enough to cross the placenta. This is known as vertical transmission from mother to child.   Bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) – Golden Staff Some bacteria are able to live and aggregate as a group, aka a biofilm. This larger group of bacteria is more protected than single living cells of the same bacterial species, enabling increased tolerance to immune system responses and therefore easier entry in a host.   Protists (Plasmodium genus) – Malaria While this pathogen itself is immobile, it is able to enter its primate hosts through a vector, the female Anopheles mosquito. A stage of the complex Plasmodium life cycle moves to the salivary glands of the mosquito. The mosquito has mouthparts enabling it to penetrate the skin (an intact defensive barrier to infection). As this happens, the mosquito injects saliva, and the immobile pathogen is able to enter the host with it.   Fungi – Some fungi infect plants via spores, which fall on a host plant and germinate to produce a germ tube. The germ tube grows, looking for an opening in the plant. These germ tubes lead to the formation of appressoria, special flattened pressing organs, which puncture the host epidermis to enter and attach.   Cjd via nerve pathways Macroparasites have specialised mouthparts to attach to and remain in/on the host. These include hooks and suckers by which intestinal worms can remain within the body unseen. In the case of ticks, burrowing mouthparts hold the tick on the skin.   • Investigate the response of a named Australian plant to a named pathogen 

through practical and/or secondary-sourced investigation, for example: 

- Fungal pathogens  

- viral pathogens  • Analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and 

chemical changes that occur in the host animals’ cells and tissues   In plants all these responses are innate (inherent). These can include: - passive defences to prevent entry - Structural/Physical barriers e.g. thick waxy cuticle, thickened cell walls, smaller 

stomates 1st line defence 

Barrier  Type  Explain 

Skin  Physical  Intact 

Mucous membrane  Sticky 

Cilia  Swept 

Flushing mechanism  Removes 

Reflex action  Removes 

Acidic levels  Chemical  Prevent repro 

Tears  Anti-bacterial 

Saliva  Anti-bacterial 

Microflora  Biological  Balance 

Sphincters  Constricts 

- Chemical barriers e.g. compounds which are anti-fungal and anti-bacterial and anti-viral vectors  

- active defences to respond after entry e.g. release of hydrogen peroxide to kill pathogens, apoptosis (programmed cell death) to isolate pathogen, gum secretion to repair wounds  

All these responses help a plant be resistant to a pathogen. We consider plant responses first, and then animals   

Immunity                 SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE  Lymphatic system:  

• Lymphatic system = lymph (milky fluid) + nodes (glands) + vessels + thymus + spleen + tonsils + adenoids  

• Lymph tubes only travel in one direction, from tissues to heart/neck  • Collect and drain fluid  • Hold white blood cells • Thymus -> makes t-cells  • Spleen -> destroys infected WBC + makes new WBC  

 White Blood Cells (leucocytes)  

Blood type  Life span in blood  Function  Image  

Neutrophil  7 hours  Pacman – immune defence, release toxins to target bacteria & fungus, most abundant 

 Eosinophil  8-12 days  Pacman – defence against parasites, 

release toxins to kill pathogen 

 Monocyte - macrophage 

3 days  Pacman - involved in phagocytosis, antigen presenting cell 

 Basophil   

 A few hours to a few days   

Histamine – defence against parasites, releases histamines -> inflammation, responsible for some allergic reactions 

     Inflammatory response:  - Protective response  - Response to physical harm; toxins, bacteria, viruses, allergies, stress, foods  

- Capillaries dilate à increased blood flow à plasma enters tissue (slows foreign invader)àcauses swellingàmore WBC come and get rid of foreign invader  

- Acute inflammation = ✓  - Chronic inflammation = X (Autoimmune disorder (attacks healthy tissue)) - Histamine – released by damaged cells à opens and permeate capillaries à more  

phagocytes can enter  - Symptoms: red, hot, swollen, painful, sometimes less mobile  

 - Phagocytosis  - WBC (e/m/n) = phagocytes  

- Pass through walls of blood vessels into tissue  - Ingest pathogen (kill) by releasing enzymes  - Chemical message to get more WBC  - Shred bacteria into pieces -> particles used by cells of release  

                  Fever - Hypothalamus contain cells responsible for regulating body temperature (37°C)  - React to pathogens by altering body temperature to a higher degree  

o releases ‘fever-causing’ chemicals known as pyrogens (‘fire starters’)  - Purpose is to kill or limit the growth of pathogens  

- May enhance activity of WBC and strengthen response to presence of pathogen  - Accompanied by sweating, chills, muscle aches and general weakness  - Temporary (2-3 days)           Third line defence 

  Prevention, treatment and control Inquiry question: How can the spread of infectious disease be controlled? 

 • Investigate and analyse the wide range of interrelated factors involved in limiting local, 

regional and global spread of a amend infectious disease 

Local factors Factors related to a neighbourhood, village, town or city. Factors that influence 

disease spread are mainly sanitation (especially sewage and waste). 

Overcrowding increases chance of host-to-host transmission. 

Regional factors 

Geography of a region influence disease transmission. Geographical factors also influence disease spread as locations with large mountain or rainforests often have more isolated populations, reducing chances of being exposed to infected individuals. 

Global factors 

Increased movement of people due to migration and immigration introduce difficulties of limiting infectious disease spread. Misuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobial medications has led to a rise in resistant bacteria. This is a global threat to infectious disease control. Communication of accurate disease outbreak information and communication between scientists is now possible due to internet, improving control of infectious disease. 

Factors involved in disease transmission 

Examples which increase the spread of an infectious disease 

Examples of strategies to limit the spread of an infectious disease 

Pathogen Factors The pathogen is virulent (fast to spread, 

severe effects, spreads easily) and is 

resilient, even when not in a host. 

Use disinfectants, personal hygiene measures, 

sanitation 

Host Factors The individual’s immune system is 

weakened, or the person may be susceptible 

due to other illnesses. The person is 

malnourished. 

If possible treat or manage the cause of the disease 

in a person eg. drugs to boost immunity, treatment 

for the primary infection, adequate diet. 

Environmental / Geographic Factors 

A recent natural disaster leads to conditions 

favouring the pathogen eg. poor sanitation, 

limited access to clean water 

 

The environment favours the reproductive 

cycle of the vector. 

Have disaster response strategies prepared. Eg. 

humanitarian aid agencies 

 

Attack the vector carrying the pathogen. 

Societal factors 

Information about the disease has not 

reached all sections of the population. Vaccination rates are falling. 

 

People are travelling and more mobile.  

Develop wide-reaching Education and Public Health 

campaigns via variety of media, including social 

media, papers, TV, radio, posters, pamphlets.  

Eg. vaccination.  

 

Have disaster response strategies prepared in case 

of epidemic / pandemic, including travel bans and 

quarantining. 

  

What are some of the limitations present at a local, regional and global scale to successfully limit the spread of influenza? Determine if each is aimed at the pathogen, host, environment/geography or society  

Level  Example  Limitation  Factor 

Local  Flu outbreak in Illawarra aged care facilities 

Cohort’ sick patients away from other patients, urge sick people not to visit, encourage flu shots 

Pathogen, host 

Regional  Encourage vaccinations to prevent ‘killer flu season’ 

Encourage flu vaccinations to prevent and reduce flu rates nation wide 

Society, host 

Global  WHO global influenza strategy  Promote research, strengthen global flu data and surveillance, expand influenza prevention and strengthen influenza response (pandemic preparedness) 

society, host 

 

 • Investigate procedures that can be employed to prevent the spread of disease, including 

but not limited to: - Hygiene practices 

Personal Hygiene practices prevent infectious disease through removing germs from the skin to prevent them from entering the body. This removes any possible germs or pathogens from the skin that can lead to infectious disease if it entered the body, protecting both the individual and community from getting sick. Staying home when sick, sneezing into tissues and exposing of them properly also controls the spread of infectious disease. As many infectious diseases can be transmitted through water, proper water treatment is vital in reducing infectious disease rates within a community. Water goes through a 6 stage process before it reaches out taps to drink, coagulation (makes dirt particles in water group together), sedimentation (collects sediment from water), filtration (removes further waste), disinfected (destroys any possible disease causing pathogens), fluidisation (treats water with fluoride) and pH correction (stabilise pH).  

- Quarantine By controlling the products that enter the country that may have possible new pathogens on them, not already present within Australia, the government is able to control possible infectious outbreaks from occurring due to diseases brought into the country on products. As diseases brought over from other countries would be foreign to Australians, there would be little to no herd immunity making the outbreaks of said disease much more deadly and susceptible to spread also. As all states are connected by land, most states are already exposed to the same infectious diseases, meaning biosecurity does not have to be as strict, therefore most items are allowed to cross between states however plants, vegetables, animals, soil or other agricultural products are more likely not allowed across the border. International travel posses more risk though as new disease not exposed to Australians before may be brought over, making biosecurity a lot stricter, not allowing any food, plant or animal materials or products as well as a lot of other products such as certain medicines.  

- Vaccination, including passive and active immunity Vaccines expose a person to a small amount of a disease so that their immune system (3rd line defence) may adapt to that disease so that if they ever encounter the disease again (secondary exposure) their immune system will act quicker, preventing the disease to develop or reducing severity of the disease. Common vaccines given in NSW are H-B max II, MMR, Chickenpox, HPV, Influenza and Pneumovax 23. By exposing the body to the virus, causing the immune system to respond by producing white blood cells (specifically B and T cells) which then produce B and T memory cells which remain after prior exposure to respond quicker and more effectively for secondary exposure, preventing infection.  There are 2 types of immunity: Active: immunity developed from antigens produced within the body Passive: Immunity developed from antigens outside of the body (eg. Through mothers breastmilk)  Heard immunity: Heard immunity is a form of indirect protection from infectious disease that occurs when a large percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, thereby providing a measure of protection for individuals who are not immune eg. Those who are 

immunocompromised due to health conditions, babies, elderly or those with medical exemptions (allergic reactions to vaccines).  

- Public health campaigns Public Health Campaigns aim to either find solutions, collect information, coordinate a response OR educate about the transmission of an infectious disease. Implementing public health programs such as government regulations on food cooking and handling, strict hospital guidelines to prevent pathogen spread. Immunisation programs are also introduces to prevent diseases.  

- Use of pesticides Pesticides are chemicals used kill pests of plants and animals, including pathogens and vectors that transmit pathogens. Killing these pests and vectors reduces the occurrence of disease or controls the spread of disease through the population. Eg. Use of DDT to kill lice that transmitted bacteria that caused typhus during WW2. There are three groups: Insecticides: kills insects Fungicides: kill fungal pathogens Herbicides: kill weeds  Pesticides however can harm the environment, as well as create resistance, causing them to be banned in many places and discouraged in others.  

- Genetic engineering Involves altering the genetic composition of an organism, to possibly make them resistant to a disease. This prevents disease and controls its spread in population. Genetic engineering to create disease-resistant plants and animals prevents the occurrence of disease. It. Does however pose a threat for biodiversity and ethical issues.  • Investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for 

the control of infectious disease, for example: - Antivirals 

Used to CONTROL viral infections. Stops specific virus’s by inhibiting the virus’s ability to reproduce or strengthening the body’s immune response to the infection, as killing the virus would kill the body cells it has infected. This stops the viral disease from spreading. Because of this, many antiviral drugs need to be taken for months or for life, making access to medication and compliance an issue. Commonly used to treat HIV, Influenza, herpes and hepatitis.   

- Antibiotics Target bacteria by damaging cell walls or destroy proteins to KILL bacteria. Can be delivered by Injection, Iv or tablet. Can also kill good bacteria, creating imbalance. Are less specific, and can create antibiotic resistant superbugs.  • Investigate and evaluate environment management and quarantine methods used to 

control an epidemic or pandemic Epidemic - outbreak of infectious disease in one specific region 

Pandemic - infectious disease outbreak across multiple areas/countries 

 

Ebola epidemic - The ebola epidemic of West Africa 2014-16 was caused due to the 

highly contagious nature of the virus, combined with the increased chance o 

transmission due to burial rituals and close contact with wild animals. To prevent 

transmission requires use of procedures and protocols called controls. 

 

Environmental controls: provision of facilities for barrier nursing and work spaces, 

water and hygiene controls, hand hygiene and safe waste management (leak-proff bags 

etc) 

 

Quarantine controls: People exposed to the virus were isolated and monitored for 21 

days after contact. Border checkpoints were established to prevent movement of people 

in and out of quarantine areas.  

 

All health care providers were required to wear full body personal protective equipment 

(PPE) to prevent disease transmission. All equipment was cleaned once a day and 

cleaners also wore PPE. Samples were only handled by trained staff and incinerated 

after use.  

 • Interpret data relating to the incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in 

populations, for example: Incidence- of an infectious disease is the number of new cases occurring during a specified time. It can also be thought of as the infection rate, or the probability of contracting the disease. It can be expressed as a percentage of the population. To calculate the incidence of a disease use the formula-     Prevalence- of a disease is the proportion of the population that have the disease at a particular point in time. Prevalence can also be expressed as a percentage-  

- Mobility of individuals and the portion that are immunised  Mobility of a population is an important factor in assessment of potential disease outbreaks. As humans move, so do the pathogens they carry, spreading diseases. Migration, immigration, interstate movements, social trends (people traveling by plane/boat overseas etc) are carefully monitored. Rate of immunisation of a population is a key factor in analysing data relating to infectious disease. When a significant proportion of the pollution have been immunised, this creates herd immunity. When a population has herd immunity, everyone in that population (including unvaccinated individuals) is protected against epidemics.   

- Malaria or dengue fever in south east Asia  In May 2019, 7 confirmed cases of Dengue fever were found in North Rockhampton, where they are not foreign. Dengue fever is transmitted from mosquitos, spread across Asia, the Pacific, Central and Southern America and Africa. Through their epidemiological study of 260 households, 13% of which had identified mosquito breeding, 50% of which had Dengue mosquitos. It is still not known how the disease got to Queensland however it is not uncommon as Dengue fever outbreaks occur each year in north Queensland, being brought from overseas.   • Evaluate historically, culturally diverse and current strategies to predict and control the 

spread of disease What is it?  Aim?  How was it meant to 

work? Was it effective? 

Blood letting Egyptians

Prevent or cure illnesses e.g Plague, Smallpox 

Nicking veins or arteries using a special tool that featured a fixed blade known as a ‘fleam’ 

Yes, people were surviving and the medical method believed to save a woman in labour as it gave her another airway through the open wound. 

Venetian Quarantine To contain and limit the spread of diseases such as the black death (bubonic plague) 

Marine travelers and their ships were isolated for 40 days at sea before being allowed to return to shore 

Yes this control was a good idea as it was minimizing the spread of diseases throughout Europe during the plague 

Chinese variolation To immunise people from smallpox 

Taking smallpox scabs, grinding them up and snorting them into people's nostrils 

Partly, it did provide immunity, however patients had to contract a mild form of the disease first. Also it was very gross and not hygenic. 

Islamic hygiene  To acquire cleanliness and purification. 

- Wudu involves washing the hands, mouth, nostrils, arms, head and feet with water - Islamic toilet etiquette: e.g. forbidden to make the toilet close to the flowing waters, Use of toilet paper is acceptable, but washing with water is still needed for purity and to minimize germs present in feces from touching the skin. 

Yes, A community is regularly washing themselves preventing the spread of disease.  The waterways are pure from human feces.  The limited use of toilet paper minimises potential to acquire and spread germs. 

Bells/Clappers & lepers 

Leprosy is a chronic, curable infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. Clappers and bells were used by leppers to notify others that they have the disease and are contagious. 

Bells and clappers were used to create noise, notifying people of their presence. This person was effectively isolated, decreasing the chance of contracting the disease. 

Not for the person with leprosy. But it did stop the spread of leprosy.  

Boundary stones & plague  

 

The aim of the boundary and plague stones were to act as a marker to separate the affected village. 

Even though the individuals were still sick, they still needed to trade. The stone holes were filled with vinegar and the money would be placed in the holes which “sterilised” the money, which was believed would kill the infection which  would be placed to exchange for food and medical supplies 

Yes, it was a good idea at the time due to quarantine measures being a significant method in reducing the spread of disease 

Daniel Bernoulli Mathematics and Smallpox 

To model the spread of disease, in particular smallpox, which was prevalent at the time. Therefore predictions can be made about a population susceptible to disease. 

An equation that describes the population in relation to time, combined with an equation on the number of people susceptible to smallpox; resulting in a single non-linear equation. x(t)=w(t)/[(1−a)e^bt+a] 

It was a good idea, as it predicts the prevalence of disease in a population. Thus, prevention and treatment measures can be taken to reduce the risk of disease. 

Florence Nightingale sanitation methods & mortality rates 

The aim was to reform the British military healthcare system by introducing clean water, nutritious food, clean linen, better waste management, more supplies and pest control. She tied mortality rates of the soldiers in the hospital to lack of sanitary practices 

Introducing holistic sanitary methods to patient care would reduce the risk and prevalence of lethal diseases (eg typhus, typhoid, cholera, scurvy etc) 

Yes. Nightingale solved many issues leading to rampant diseases within hospitals. Eg, enforcing strict hand hygiene, opening windows to provide ventilation & sunlight, changing linens daily, calling the sanitary Commission to flush out the sewers etc.  Resulted in knowledge of the importance of sanitation, therefore being enforced in hospitals since 

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu variolation & small pox 

The aim of this variolation was to develop a technique to deliberate infection with a mild infection of smallpox. So that they would become immune to the smallpox for more serious smallpox  

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Gave dried smallpox scabs (were blown into the nose of an individual who then contracted a mild form of the disease) to several prisoners and abandoned children. Several months later, the children and prisoners were deliberately exposed to smallpox. When none contracted the disease, the procedure was deemed safe and members of the royal family were inoculated.. 

It was definitely a good idea, as due to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu discovery, up to 1% to 2% of those variolated died as compared to 30% who died when they contracted the disease naturally. 

John Snow cholera map & epidemiology

To identify the source of the 1854 Soho, London cholera outbreak. 

Mapped the cases of cholera in Soho of London. It was meant to work as a method of identifying the cause of the outbreak. 

It was able to identify the source of the cholera outbreak (the pump on Broad Street), due to the mapping of cases revealing the case cluster around that area. Therefore it was a successful idea as it identified the source of the disease, which was then able to be treated. 

  • Identify 3 bush medicines and biological materials (including smoke bush) and research: 

- how each of these bush medicines/biological materials were traditionally prepared and what they were used for (in terms of diseases treatment) 

- the contemporary application (including preparation and use) of these same bush medicines/biological materials  

 Kakadu plum Traditionally - crush up and eat. High in vitamin c, used for immune system. Contemporary - High in vitamin c, contains antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-mutagenic and anti-bronchodilatory properties.  Tea tree Traditional - tea tree leafs and bark crushed up and Contemporary - oil used for antiseptics, anti-fungal  Smoke bush 

Traditional - used to heal cuts on the skin. Ate the leaves Contemporary - Capable for killing HIV virus  • Outline how recognition and protection of Indigenous cultural and intellectual property is 

important. - In 1993 the Julayinbul statement on indigenous intellectual property rights was declared. 

Aboriginal people have acquired understanding of the medicinal or healing properties of bush medicine through interaction. The Aboriginal People’s knowledge of the natural Australian ecology such as the medicinal properties of bush medicine is categorised under the “Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property” by the Australian Government.   

- Biotechnology companies that are performing research on creating plant-derived medicines may use books that contains records of Aboriginal People’s method of using various traditional techniques and knowledge on using various flora as medicine to treat diseases that are passed down over many generations.   

- Also, Aboriginal People are insisting that scientists working for biotechnology companies are submitting their patents claim for their new plant-derived medicines which contains information sourced from them directly during the research and development process.   

- Due to expenses of submitting a patent claim the Aboriginal People may not receive the recognition or monetary benefit that they otherwise could have.   

- The Commonwealth Copyright Act also contains a ‘loophole’ in the case of intellectual property. This is because the traditional knowledge of Aboriginal people on the medicinal properties of native Australian flora is, for the most part, passed down to generation verbally. Thus, there is no written or visual proof of such traditional knowledge to satisfy the criteria of the copyright protection in the Act. This means that this traditional knowledge can be used by researchers working at biotechnology companies without the consent of Aboriginal People.   

- The old books written by Aboriginal People often do not have author names and this makes it difficult to attribute copyright protection to a specific person. Therefore, legalisation must be established to protect the intellectual property of Aboriginal People’s traditional knowledge of Australia’s ecology.   

- This is a matter dealing with ensuring fairness and equity. Therefore, the protection of intellectual property of the Aboriginal people is one that involves moral, ethical, legal (e.g. copyright), socioeconomic issues with biotechnology companies.