Luc Rare

7/21/2019 Luc Rare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/luc-rare-56d9fdb846e8f 1/42

Contents

1 Introduction.....................................................................................................1

2 Mood and modality..........................................................................................2

2.1 Epistemic modality....................................................................................3

2.2 Deontic modality......................................................................................5

3 Modal verbs.....................................................................................................8

3.1 General features.......................................................................................8

3.2 Modal verbs according to modal meaning..............................................11

3.2.1 ossibility! "#$% M#&% "'()D% MIG*+...............................................11

3.2.2 robability! ,I))% M#&% MIG*+...........................................................11

3.2.3 -upposition! ,I))% "#$$'+% M(-+...................................................12

3.2. )ogical necessity! M(-+% -*'()D% *#/E +'% '(G*+ +'% $EED%

$EED$0+........................................................................................................12

3.2.5 "ertainty! M(-+% "#$$'+.................................................................1

3.2. ,illingness! ,I))% -*#))% ,'()D% "#$...........................................15

3.2. /olition! ,I))% ,'()D% -*#))..........................................................1

3.2.8 Intention! ,I))% -*#))......................................................................1

3.2. romise! -*#))% -*'()D..................................................................1

3.2.14 Insistence! ,I))% -*#))....................................................................1

3.2.11 ermission! M#&% MIG*+% "#$% "'()D..............................................18

3.2.12 roibition! M#& $'+% M(-+ $'+......................................................1

3.2.13 'bligation! M(-+% *#/E +'% '(G*+ +'% '(G*+$0+ +'% M(-+$0+.. .1

3.3 Individual modals....................................................................................21

3.3.1 "entral modals..................................................................................21

-emi6modals and oters................................................................................2

.1 Marginal modals......................................................................................2

.1.1 Dare..................................................................................................2

.1.2 $eed.................................................................................................2

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


.1.3 'ugt to............................................................................................28

.1. (sed to.............................................................................................28

.2 Modal idioms...........................................................................................2

.2.1 *ad better.........................................................................................2

.2.2 ,ould rater7 sooner........................................................................ 2

.2.3 e to.................................................................................................2

.2. *ave got to.......................................................................................2

.3 -emi6 au9iliaries......................................................................................34

.3.1 *ave to.............................................................................................34

.3.2 e bound to......................................................................................31

. "atenatives.............................................................................................31

5 +eacing modal verbs....................................................................................32

5.1 "ourse boo:s for learning Englis...........................................................38

5.1.1 ,ay #ead.......................................................................................38

5.1.2 at;ay to Englis..........................................................................3

"'$")(-I'$................................................................................................. 1

,or:s cited....................................................................................................2

1 Introduction

The following thesis will approach the English modal verbs, the theory and teaching

modal verbs to students of English as a second language. In order to teach modal verbs

2

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


more efficiently, the complex system of modal verbs can be summarized by simplifying

the meanings to a main meaning from which other meanings can be derived.

Geoffrey Leech explains, !hat ma"es it so difficult to account for the use of these

words #which may be called $modal auxiliaries% or $modals% for short& is that their

meaning has both a logical and a practical #or pragmatic& element' #()*(+ &.

-owever, I have encountered the approach of ichael Lewis, which I find positively

motivating for both teachers and students. Lewis #()/& does not see modals as

defective verbs' but believes that the language behaves much more consistently than

is often believed' #(0/, ((1&.

2irst, there will be an analysis of modal verbs in general, followed by a description of

modality from various view points. This will help set the context for the in3depth

analysis of English modals. 4ext there will be an individual analysis of modal verbs.

2or each verb, attention will be focused on the practical use of the "ey meanings of

modals in English, but there will also be an addition of different perspectives upon the

topic. oreover there will be a brief analysis according to modal meaning. 5lso, there

will be a presentation of semi3modals. 2inally, attention is drawn on teaching modal

verbs to students of English as a second language.

2 Mood and modality

!henever we communicate, the language we ma"e use of can be interpreted in terms of

our commitment to the truth of what we are saying. 2or not only do we use language to

3

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


simply ma"e an assertion of fact, but most of the time, in our statements and in the

6uestions we as" there is a personal attitude regarding the event contained in the

proposition.

5ccording to 7aeed #())*&, modality allows spea"ers to express varying degrees of

commitment to, or belief in, a proposition. odal systems 8 signal stronger or wea"er

commitment to the factuality of statements' #(9:&. ;ule #())/& adds that English

modals typically convey some indication of the spea"er%s perspective or attitude with

respect to the situation or state of affairs being described' #//&. <almer states that+ a

clear distinction is made between mood and modality, the term modality being used for

a wider category and mood for =ust one of the sub3 categories of modality #8& It is

made clear that #8& that the name used for the grammatical category is simply modality

and there are two sub3categories of modality+ mood and modal system ” #<almer, 900>3

9&

It has been agreed that mood is a grammatical #and specifically, morphological& feature

of verbs, used to signal modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow

spea"ers to express their attitude toward what they are saying #for example, whether it

is intended as a statement of fact, of desire, of command, etc.& odal systems signal

stronger or wea"er commitment to the factuality of statements.

There are several ways of expressing modality and modal verbs, are one of them. It is

agreed upon nine central modals ? can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and

must ? marginal auxiliary verbs, which exist mainly in @ritish English, and fixed

phrases which function similarly to modals. These latter two groups are called semi3

modals. oreover, modals are often associated with particular pragmatic uses, e.g. in

re6uests and offers, where the past forms tend to have implications of tentativeness and

politeness.

odality can be divided into two types and sometimes one and the same linguistic form

can have two different meanings.

2.1 Epistemic modality

5s far as the English modal system is concerned, epistemic modality is considered to be

the simplest modality to deal with. Adrenghea#())1+>/& considers that it is the "ind of

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


modality that is most clearly distinct from others and has the greatest degree of internal

regularity and completeness.

Etymologically, the word comes from a Gree" word meaning "nowledge', thus

epistemic modality is said to express the spea"er%s "nowledge about a statement, the

degree of his commitment to the truth of what he says.

The degrees of a spea"er%s certainty can be arranged as follows+

Certainty Must -e must be single. #almost certain, based on deduction&

Will -e%ll be there by now. #prediction, based on common

sense&

Probability Ought to -e ought to be at home. #doubtful probability&

Should -e should be in the

yard.

#doubtful probability&

Possibility Can Ban this be trueC #doubtful possibility&

Could This could be a lie. #doubtful possibility&

Very

uncertain

May -e may be at the office. # it%s possible, but uncertain&

Might -e might be at theoffice.

#less certain than may&

#2lorea, 7ilvia3 Dn English odality3 7ibiu, 900(3 :0&

5ccording to <almer epistemic modality is concerned solely with the spea"er%s attitude

to status of the preposition' #900>,*&. ;ule #())/& remar"s that epistemic uses often

sound li"e deductions or conclusions made by the spea"er' and that it is the spea"er%s

or writer%s perspective that is being presented' #//3)&.

Generally, epistemic modality is the present , for the =udgment and the act of spea"ing

are simultaneous therefore, epistemic modals are usually performative. 4ormally, these

epistemic modal verbs are not used in their past time forms to refer to past time their

past time forms are used with reference to present time. If we want to ma"e =udgments

about past events, we have to use the construction+ modalF have3ed. 5nother possibility

to refer to past time is to use the past tense form of the modal in reported speech+

e.g. He said she might leave him.

5

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


2.. <almer presents epistemic modality under a different form. -e divides epistemic

modality into two sub3systems, subdivided as follows+

#(& Hudgments 3 speculative #opinion&

3 deductive #conclusion&

#9& Evidentials 3 6uotative #report&

Given suggests that there are three types of propositions that can be recognized within

epistemic modality+

#a& propositions that are ta"en for granted as unchangeable by the hearer and which

don%t re6uire no evidentiary =ustifications by the spea"er # declaratives&

#b& propositions that are asserted with relative confidence, are open to challenge by the

hearer and which re6uire or admit =ustification # evidentials&

#c& propositions that are asserted as hypothesis and are thus beneath both challenge and

evidentiary substantiation #=udgments&' #()/9+91&

2.2 Deontic modality

<almer describes deontic modality as' directive in that the event is controlled by

circumstances external to the sub=ect of the sentence #more strictly person or persons

identified by the sub=ect&.' #900>, *&.

Jeontic modality is essentially performative + deontic modals always indicate that an

action is actually initiated by the spea"er or by others and that they give or refuse

permission , give advice, lay an obligation , ma"e promises or threats.

e.g. ;ou may not leave now.

;ou should 6uit smo"ing.

They must write that paper, otherwise he won%t pass the exam.

;ou shall have it before Bhristmas.

In 6uestions the use of deontic modals is non3performative. 2or example, in a 6uestion

li"e May I come in? , the spea"er does not initiate the action of granting permission, but

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


as"s if the person addressed gives permission. <almer #())1+)*& considers that deontinc

modality is both performative and sub=ective.

Jeontic modals have no past tense forms for past time, and this is a conse6uence of

their performative nature. -owever, past tense forms may occur in reported speech to

refer to past time.

e.g. 7he told him he could leave if he wanted to.

This refers to the fact that is reported that she gave him permission to leave. 5s 2lorea

notices+ the past tense forms are used to refer to past time within dynamic modality,

that is why the past tense forms are the clearest indications of dynamic, as distinct from

deontic modality. #900(+/)&

The performative nature of deontic modals is noticed by <almer, when he considers that

they will always be related to the future, since only the future can be changed or

affected as a result of them being expressed.

The deontic interpretation is excluded by the progressive and the perfect.

e.g. -e may be =ogging now. #not permission, but possibility epistemic&

-e must have left home. # not necessity, but deduction epistemic&

The deontic interpretation can occur in if- conditional clauses.

e.g. If you must leave on such a weather, I%ll give you my umbrella.

#necessity&

The deontic interpretation is not invariant under passive.

e.g. Hohn won%t confess to the crime. #volition, not prediction&

The crime won%t be confessed to. #not volition, but prediction epistemic&

7o what is the difference between the two meaningsC It as been stated that all modals

have both intrinsic and extrinsic meanings and that these often overlap and also it has

been specified that modals with intrinsic meaning tend to be accompanied by a sub=ect

which refers to a human being, and a full dynamic verb which describes controllable

activity or event. Dn the other hand, modal verbs with extrinsic meaning occur with

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


non3human sub=ects andKor with main verbs having stative meaning . 7aeed #())*& sees

the difference between deontic and epistemic modals in the fact that epistemic modals

express =udgment about the way the real world is,' whereas deontic modals express

=udgment about how people should behave in the world' #(9*&. In his view, the use of

deontic modals is connected with social "nowledge, morality, legality, power and

authority. They contain various degrees of strength, politeness and formality of

relationship between people #(9*&. -uddleston and <ullum #9009& see the difference in

temporal circumstances+ epistemic modality concerns the spea"er%s attitude to the

factuality of past or present time situations while deontic modality concerns the

spea"er%s attitude to the actualization of future situations.' They also point out that

deontic uses are more basic' #(*/&. ;ule #())/& explains that the parallel' between

the epistemic and deontic modality in English is based on what is necessary and what

is possible. The epistemic uses are "nowledge3based and can be paraphrased as

$necessary that% #must& and $possible that% #may&.' Dn the other hand, the deontic

modality is socially3based. 8 In these examples, the modals can be paraphrased as

$necessary for% #must& and $possible for% #may&' #/)3)0&. <almer #()//& ma"es

distinction between $"inds% of modality #epistemic, deontic and dynamic& and $degrees%

of modality #possibility and necessity&.' -e explains that epistemic modals express a

=udgment, deontic have influence on the behavior of the addressee, and dynamic modals

predict something about the sub=ect of the sentence #)*3)/&. !hatever definition or

explanation, modal verbs have definitely more than =ust one meaning, which ma"es

their system complex and difficult for English learners.

The following table sums up the nine central modals and other semi3modals and their

meanings+

Epistemic/extrinsi

c meaning

Deontic/intrinsi

c meaning

Central modals Semi-modals

<ossibility <ermission Can, could, may,

might

4ecessity Dbligation Must, should (Had) better, have (got) to,

need to, ought to, be

suosed to

<rediction olition !ill, "ould, shall #e going to

8

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


7ource+ @iber, Jouglas, 7tig Hohansson, Geoffrey Leech, 7usan Bonrad, and Edward

2inegan #()))&. Longman Grammar of 7po"en and !ritten English. Longman, p. 1/:.

The order of modals according to fre6uency is+ will, would, can, could, may, should,

must, might and shall. The most used modal and semi3modal verbs in conversation are

will, can, would, be going to, could, and have to. oreover, can, could, may and might

are used predominantly in their extrinsic meaning. a"ing a survey of modals and

semi3modals and charts of their fre6uency can help us to get a better idea of their

meanings. -owever, other modifications such as negation can bring an unwanted

confusion.

To sum up, general and theoretical introduction to the modal verbs has been delineated.

odals describe the spea"ers% understanding of the world and their several meanings

help them to express their views. -owever, at times, these multiple meanings can

confuse students of English in understanding and using the modal verbs.

3 Modal verbs

3.1 General features

This chapter will include a list of modal auxiliaries and description of typical

characteristics of the modal verbs. 5s modal auxiliaries have a wide range of 6ualities,

only the most important features will be mentioned. To begin with, the list of the modal

auxiliaries should be stated. any linguists, for instance @iber and Lewis, claim that

there are nine modal auxiliaries. 5s Lewis says, these particular modals can be

identified in this way+ 5ll verbs which can fill the space in this short sentence+ -e8

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


come., belong to the list of the modal auxiliaries. These are can, could, shall, should,

may, might, will, would and must #Lewis, ()/, p. (00&

The next feature that all auxiliaries have in common is that they admit inversion of

sub=ect and operator when ma"ing 6uestions. 4ow, several morphological and syntactic

criteria which apply specifically to modal verbs will be introduced. The first and very

important feature is that modal verbs are followed by infinitive without to #bare

infinitive&. 5nother important characteristic is that the modal verbs cannot occur in non3

finite forms. odal verbs can basically occur in two, finite, forms and these are present

and preterite form. The infinitive and other forms are expressed by paraphrases, which

are generally "nown as be able to for can and be allowed to for may. odal verbs also

do not form imperative and passive structures. Muir" points out that there are some

more specific features of the modal verbs, for instance there is no inflexion in > rd

person. The omission of ?s has historical origin #Muir", ()/:, p. (9/&. Muir" also states

the term abnormal time reference which means that not only the present forms, but also

past forms can refer to present or future as it is in the example I thin" he mayKmight

retire next ay. #Muir", ()/:, p. (9/&

Dwing to their morphological peculiarities, modal verbs are characterized as defective

verbs since they lac" certain forms. They have no analytical forms #no future and no

perfect tense&. !hen future or past time reference is re6uired, some of the modal verbs

can be replaced by e6uivalent verbal phrases.

− to be able t o for can

− to be allo"ed to for may

− to have to $ to be obliged to for

must

− to be one%s duty to for ought to

− to be "illing to for "ill

− There is not a substitute for shall.

#sometimes+ to be determined to&.

odal verbs have no ?s inflection in the third person singular and they have not a past

tense form. Could, "ould and might are used with past meanings in some cases, but

never to say that particular events actually happened on definite occasions. Dtherwise,

other expressions are used.

14

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


Ta"ing into consideration the syntactic properties of the modal verbs, I shall say that

they are used in combined forms in which the main verb is a short infinitive. Exceptions

to this rule are ought and used which are followed by the to' infinitive. 2or didactic

reasons they are presented as ought to and used to.

odal verbs form the negative and interrogative constructions without the auxiliary

verb to do, but by adding not in the negative and through inversion, in the interrogative.

This behavior =ustifies the label auxiliary' with reference to these verbs. Hust li"e the

auxiliaries JD, @E and -5E, they function as operators in interrogative and negative

constructions.

The following chapter will analyze modal verbs from two view points+ first it will

approach modals according to their modal meaning+

(. <ossibility+ B54, 5;, BDNLJ, IG-T

9. <robability+ !ILL, 5;, IG-T

>. 7upposition+ !ILL, B544DT, N7T

1. Logical necessity+ N7T, 7-DNLJ, -5E TD, DNG-T TD, 4EEJ, 4EEJ4%T

:. Bertainty+ N7T, B544DT

. !illingness+ !ILL, 7-5LL, !DNLJ, B54

*. olition+ !ILL, !DNLJ, 7-5LL

/. Intention+ !ILL, 7-5LL

). <romise+ 7-5LL, 7-DNLJ

(0. Insistence+ !ILL, 7-5LL

((. <ermission+ 5;, IG-T, B54, BDNLJ

(9. <rohibition+ 5; 4DT, N7T 4DT

(>. Dbligation+ N7T, -5E TD, DNG-T TD, DNG-T4%T TD, N7T4%T

11

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


7econdly, modals will be approached according to another criteria suggested by

Geoffrey Leech. Leech #()/:+(>*& uses the criteria which will provide the framewor"

for this analysis, which were used in identifying the class of auxiliaries there are eight

criteria for auxiliaries, and four criteria which more narrowly apply to the central modal

auxiliaries.

3.2 Modal verbs according to modal meaning

3.2.1 Possibility: CAN, MAY, CO!", MI#$%

Can admits only that occurrence is a possibility. !ith may, however, the situation is

different may suggests that the spea"er ta"es the possibility for granted and is willing,

further, to speculate on its probability.

!ith can , with its meaning of more possibility can be roughly paraphrased by the use of

the adverb sometimes+

e.g. Even expert driver can ma"e mista"e Even expert drivers sometimes

ma"e mista"es.' #Leech, ()*(&

The meaning of past possibility is more usually expressed by could followed by a

&erfect Infinitive, which is of a slightly smaller degree than that expressed by can and a &erfect Infinitive . The following example suggests this slight difference+

e.g. Jarling, do stop worrying about 5unt -elen. I%m sure nothing had

happened to her. 7he is so absent minded that she could easily have forgotten that we%ve

invited her for the wee"end.' #!ard, ()*&

Might , followed by a simple Infinitive expresses a smaller degree of future possibility

that the expressed by may. Might, followed by a simple Infinitive expresses the past

form of this smaller degree of possibility. The possible may-might fre6uently co3occurs

with the adverb possible which has an effect on intensification. #Adrenghea, ()):, (0&

3.2.2 Probability: &I!!, MAY, MI#$%

!ill is used to indicate that something probably is happening. In this sense it may occur

with adverbials of present time.

May and might are also used in the sense of probability+

12

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


e.g. -e may leave tomorrow. -e might leave tomorrow.

The difference in meaning is observable in the fact that might , here, is associated

with some additional remar" suggesting conditions or difficulties that reduce the

li"elihood of the event.

3.2.3 'u((osition: &I!!, CANNO%, M'%

5 supposition about something in the present can be expressed, in the second and third

persons only, with an unemphasized "ill +

e.g. It%s onday. If she has "ept to her programme, she will be home now'. #I

suppose that she is home now'&

7upposition about the future cannot easily be expressed in the same way. 5 supposition

about something in the past can be expressed, in the second and third persons, with an

unemphasized "ill followed by a <erfect Infinitive+

e.g. It%s onday. If she has "ept to her programme, she will have been home

yesterday.'

Cannot may express present supposition or deduction+

e.g. 2or heaven%s sa"e, it%s only ten o%cloc"O They can%t be in bed yet. ing the

bell again.

Jeduction and supposition about something in the present #but not in the future& can be

expressed by must .

e.g. I don%t thin" they will be at home. It is such a lovely day that they must be in

the country somewhere. #I suppose, because the day is so lovely, that they are out

somewhere in the country'&. #Adrenghea, ()):, (0&

3.2.) !o*ical necessity: M'%, '$O!", $A+ %O, O#$% %O, N",

N"N-%

The unli"elihood of an event may arise out of any of a number of considerations, the

most prominent of which, perhaps, is the disapproval of unwillingness of the potential

performer of the event. 5 statement that an event is li"ely to ta"e place, in the face of

13

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


the un"nown unwillingness of its performer, suggests, that he has to do it, whether he

wants to or not. -ence+

e.g. 7he%d li"e to read but she can%t she must finish her homewor". I really

should finish my homewor".

This semantic meaning is produced only with must and should , which play their

meaning of a high degree of li"elihood against the unli"elihood of the context.

The uses of must and have to, connected with the meaning of logical necessity convey

the certainty of logical inference. 2or example, the following rational process may be

supposed to lie behind the remar"

e.g. That must be my brother', said by a man who has heard the telephone ring+

y brother said he would phone at this time ? I have =ust heard the phone ? therefore,

my brother is phoning now'.

Must and have to are not used of facts "nown by direct observation, but of these "nown

by logical assumption. #Leech, ()*(&

'ught to may also be used to express necessity but there is a difference between themeanings of ought to and must in this respect. !e may contrast the following examples+

e.g.

That must be her daughter.

They must have finished their wor" by

now

That ought to be her daughter.

They ought to have finished their wor" by

now.

The first sentence of each pair the spea"er commits himself to the certainty of the

proposition but in the second sentence, he is not sure. Must here conveys the necessity

of logical inference. 'ught to conveys the necessity given the premise, of the

conclusion, but doubt about the conclusion is based.

Must expresses what can be described as an unexpected necessity, while have to

expresses a "nown necessity i.e. a necessity that the spea"er has not =ust suddenly

realized+

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


e.g. 4early seven o%cloc" alreadyO I must leave for school. I have to be there at

eight. The tendency nowadays, however is to prefer must to have to, even for "nown

necessity.

5s a special verb expressing necessity, need can be followed either by an infinitive

without to' or by an infinitive with to'.

!hen it is followed by an infinitive

without to', it has the following

peculiarities+

#a&It cannot be used in the affirmative ?

only in the negative and interrogative and

in the negative and interrogative it is not

con=ugated with the verb JD.

#b&In the third person singular, need is not

inflected.

#c& It has no other tenses, no other forms,

no infinitives, no participles, and no

gerunds.

!hen it is followed by an Infinitive with

to'+

#a& It has all tenses, forms, infinitives,

participles, gerunds ? and it can be used in

the affirmative as well as the negative and

interrogative.

#b& It is inflected in the third person

singular of its present tense.

#c& In the negative and interrogative form

of its present and past tenses, it must be

con=ugated with do', does' or did'.

eedn%t may be interpreted in terms of necessity when used in a context such as+

;ou needn%t bother about that. #Adrenghea, ()):, (9&

3.2. Certainty: M'%, CANNO%

Bonclusion or near certainty is expressed by must . It is not used in this sense with future

reference.

e.g. There must be a hundred people there.

In the past time, the analogous form is must have and in the negative can%t +

e.g. There must have been a hundred people there.

There can%t be a hundred people there.

15

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


3.2./ &illin*ness: &I!!, '$A!!, &O!", CAN

!illingness denotes a yielding to someone else%s will. !ill is only synonymous with

be willing' if the sub=ect of "ill and the implicit sub=ect of the following non3finite

verb are the same+ -e will tell you the whole story. #-e is willing8'&

hall may also be used in the sense of willingness but there is a difference of meaning

between shall and "ill in this report. This difference is made clear by the following

paraphrases+

e.g. y chauffeur will help you #'y chauffeur is willing to help you'&.

y chauffeur shall help you #I am willing for my chauffeur to help you'&.

!ith "ill , the sub=ect of the auxiliary #i.e. the person who is willing& is also the

notional sub=ect of the main verb #as mentioned before& but with shall , it is the spea"er

who is the willing or insisting party.

!ould is needed in the first person in reported speech if "ill was used to express a

special meaning+

e.g. I said I would lend you the money you want #i.e. from the expression of willingness I will lend you etc.'&.

5nother verb that can be used to express the meaning of willingness is can and its use

is very similar to that of "ill . In this case, can always refers to the future and can be

collocated with future time adverbials. That%s why it can be used instead of "ill when a

future expression of willingness is needed+

e.g. Ban you help me tomorrowC # 5re you willing to help me tomorrowC'&#Adrenghea, ()):, (>&

3.2.0 +olition: &I!!, &O!", '$A!!

The semantic meanings of "ill and "ould that are produced as contextual variants of

the syntactic meaning hypothetical' may be glossed as volition on the part of the

performer in the context of unli"elihood. The meaning of volition is seen in+

e.g. !e warned him not to bring charges, but he would do so.

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


In this example, the unli"elihood of the event lies in the preference of other

parties concerned for other course of action, statements of this "ind are typically

complaints.

!hen "ill is used with sense of volition, it usually refers to the future. This use of "ill

is very common, at least with all verbs that refer to activities that may be willed or

agreed.

hall may also be used to express volition. 2irst person 6uestions with shall consult

the will of the listener, instead of declaring the will of the spea"er+ 7hall I open a

windowC # Is it your will that I should8'& 7hall we go to the theater this eveningC #

Is it your will that we should8'&.

olitional shall s very rarely found in 6uestions with second3person or third3person

sub=ect, but it seems at least a possibility in sentences li"e+ 7hall irginia do your

shopping for youC # Jo you want8C'& in which #say& a mother offers her daughter%s

help to a third party. #Leech. ())(&

3.2. Intention: &I!!, '$A!!

The concept of intention may be placed somewhere between the concepts of willingness

and insistence+

e.g. I will celebrate this very night # I have the intention to celebrate'&.

Dccurring mainly with first3person sub=ects, "ill in this sense conveys, according

to the context, a promise, a threat, or corporate decision.

hall also expresses intention on the part of the spea"er+

e.g. I shall write tomorrow. !ith this meaning, shall occurs exclusively with

first3person sub=ect. !hen it expresses intention, shall becomes interchangeable with

!ILL. #Adrenghea, ()):, (/&

3.2. Promise: '$A!!, '$O!"

The verb that is most commonly used to express the meaning of promise is shall. This

use of shall covers a variety of meaning but may be formally established by the fact that

shall cannot, in this use, be replaced by "ill , and that it may occur in conditionals+

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


e.g. ;ou shall have it tomorrow.

-e shall do it If he shall do it, 8

In the second and third persons in reported speech, should is needed to express thespecial meaning of promise+

e.g. I said #that& you should have and increase in salary on the first of Hanuary.

#i.e. from the idiomatic promise+ I said+ ;ou shall have an increase in salary etc8'&

#Adrenghea, ()):, (/&

3.2.1 Insistence: &I!!, '$A!!

!ill may express insistence only if the sub=ect of "ill and the implicit sub=ect of following non3finite verb are the same #as in the case of "ill used to express

willingness&+ -e will go swimming in dangerous waters # -e insists on going

swimming.'&. !ith second and third person sub=ects, the feeling of exasperation at

someone else%s obstinacy is uppermost with a first3person sub=ect, the spea"er ma"es

his own uncompromising determination felt, with a force the verbal e6uivalent of

banging one%s fist on the table. #Leech, ()*(& In no circumstance can a sentence

containing "ill with the meaning of insistence be emotionally neutral. !ill in this sense

is always stressed and cannot be contracted to $ll.

hall may also express insistence+ ;ou shall obey my ordersO # I insist that

you obey8'&. This meaning is of very restricted use, and carries strong overtones of

imperiousness. The difference between "ill and shall in the sense of insistence is made

clear by the following paraphrases+ I will marry her. # I insist on marrying her.'& 4o

one shall stop me. # I insist that no one stop me.'&. #Adrenghea, ()):, ()&

3.2.11Permission: MAY, MI#$%, CAN, CO!"

The meaning of permission is generally expressed by may. In collo6uial English, may

characteristically signals permission given by the spea"er+ ;ou may smo"e in this

room.#i.e. ;ou are permitted #by me& to smo"e in this room.'&.

In 6uestions and if clauses, may typically indicates permission given not by spea"er,

but by the person 6uestioned+ ay I smo"eC This means !ill you allow me to smo"eC'

rather than !ill I permit myself to smo"eC' which is a pretty odd 6uestion to as". If we

ta"e a sentence such as+ ;ou may go, Hones. #spo"en, typically, by a schoolmaster in an18

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


old fashioned schoolboy story&, this is an instance of the strengthened, almost

imperative use of may. The suggestion is that so great is spea"er%s authority that nearly

for him to grant permission for something is guarantee of its instant execution.

Might is used as the analogous tentative form only in re6uest36uestions+ ay I come inC

ight I come inC but not P ;ou might go. @ut there is a situation when might may be

used to express permission, namely for the typical products of understatement3irony,

sarcasm and the li"e+

e.g. !ell, if you really have nothing else to do, you might do your homewor".

5lso, might is used in eported 7peech+

e.g. 7he said I might go out to play when I had finished my homewor".

5nother verb that is used to express permission is can. Can is more widely used than

may as an auxiliary of permission in collo6uial English, having the less specific

meaning ;ou have permission' rather than I give you permission'. ;ou can smo"e in

this room means simply the rules allow it'.

Can may refer to the future+

e.g. -e can come tomorrow.

<ast permission is expressed by could*

e.g. !e could have had brea"fast in bed in that pension whenever we li"ed. #i.e.

!e were permitted to have brea"fast in bed whenever we li"ed'&.

Could when followed by a <erfect Infinitive also expresses past permission+

e.g. !e could have had brea"fast in bed if we%d li"ed. #i.e. !e were permitted

to have it in bed if we%d li"ed ? but we didn%t'&. #Adrenghea, ()):, ()3(*(&

3.2.12 Pro4ibition: MAY NO%, M'% NO%

Dne of the modal auxiliaries that expresses prohibition is may not . -owever, its use is

ambiguous as it may express two meaning that are only differentiated by stress+ -e

$may not go swimming with stress on may strongly favors the possibility sense, whereas

-e may $not go swimming suggests the permission sense, i.e. prohibition.

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


Interestingly may not and mustn%t despite the diametrical opposition of their positive

meanings, are logical e6uivalents in negative sentences li"e+

e.g. ;ou may not go swimming.

;ou must not go swimming.

These are both prohibitions, and the only difference in their import is the more urgent

and positive tone of later. The reason for this curious e6uivalence is to be found in the

inversion rule change the place of the negative and the term of the inversion system,

and the meaning remains the same'. #Leech, ())&.

There is an instance when only may not may be used to express prohibition and this isthe case of a prohibition that usually occurs in official context. 5n example for this use

could be found on the wall of public institutions, such as

e.g. eaders may not smo"e in the library.

@ut we could never find must not with this use. #Adrenghea, ()):, (*(3(*9&

3.2.13 Obli*ation: M'%, $A+ %O, O#$% %O, O#$%N-% %O,

M'%N-%

The most common used modal that expresses obligation is must +

I must go now. #I am obliged to go now&.

Must is used with reference to "nowledge arrived at through direct experience. In

sentences with must , one can postulate a chain of logical deductions. If we ta"e into

consideration Hohn goes out' and Hohn must go out' we see that that the second

sentence adds to the meaning of the first sentence the idea of the existence of

obligation.

Have to also expresses obligation+ ;ou have to be bac" by ten o%cloc".' #;ou are

obliged8'&. The meaning of have to differs from the sense of must in that authority of

the spea"er is not involved+ have to conveys obligation generally, without specifying

who does the compelling.

24

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


5 sentence that expresses obligation by using have to such as+ ;ou have to leave your

car here.' carries the supposition 8 and I fully count on you doing so'.

In this respect, the meaning of have to differs from the auxiliary complex ought to

which is also used in a sense of obligation+ ;ou ought to leave your car here.' does

not imply ;ou will leave your car here.' This means that ought to allows for the

possibility that the constraining authority will be disobeyed. hould may be used in all

persons synonymously with ought to in this sense+ ;ou should visit him again.',

ary should get a new car. , and -e should not spea" so much.' #Adrenghea, ()):,

(*9&

The second approach of modals belongs to Geoffrey Leech #()/:+(>*&.

(one verb

hrase)

(a) Central

modals

can, could, may, might, shall, should, "ill$+ll,

"ould$%d, must

(b) Marginal

modals

dare, need, ought to, used to

(c) Modal idioms had better, "ould rather sooner, # to, H got

to

(d) emi-

au/iliaries

H to, # about to, # able to, # bound to,

# going to, # obliged to, # suosed to, #

"illing to

(e) Catenatives &&0 to, H&& to, M to ,12 3 -ed

articile, 4& 3 -ing articile

21

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


(t"o verb

hrases)

(f) Main verb

3nonfinite

clause

H'& 3 to-infinitive

#1I 3 -ing articile

3.3 Individual modals

3.3.1 Central modals

3.3.1.1 Can

Can with be is used to ma"e criticism 5ou can be really annoying, you 6no"7

with be is used to refer to capability !inter here can be really cold.

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1.2 Could

Could to express possibility or uncertainty 2his could be the house.

Is used with comparative ad=ectives to

express possibility or impossibility+

It could be better.

2he situation couldn%t be "orse.

Is used to ma"e suggestions+ !e could go to that ne" restaurant

oosite the cinema.

Is used to express unwillingness I couldn%t ossibly leave 2im on his

o"n.

Could

a!e

efers to past permission or past

ability+ 3

!hen I "as si/teen I could stay u

until 88.(I "as allo"ed to)

Mary could s"im "hen she "as

three. (she actually did)

Mary could have s"um "hen she

"as three. (but she didn%t)

efers to past possibility and

uncertainty+

9avid could have "on the race if

he had tried (ossibility$ ability)

It could have been ue, I suose.

(uncertainty)

22

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


Nnwillingness he could have gone to the arty.

(but she didn%t)

!e couldn%t have let the dog on its

o"n. (so "e didn%t)

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1.3 "ay

"ay Ban be used to express although clauses he may be the boss, but that%s

no e/cuse for shouting that "ay.

To express possibility or uncertainty informal language

2he eace conference may find a solution to the roblem.

"ay/

migt

as #ell

This describes the last thing left to do,

something which the spea"er is not

enthusiastic about

obody else is going to turn u

or the lesson, so "e might as

"ell go home.

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1.$ "igt"igt In the expression try as I might 2ry as I might I could not ass

the driving test.

"igt a!e <ast possibility which didn%t

happen

5ou might have dro"ned7

Express annoyance at someone%s

failure to do something

5ou might have told me my

trousers "ere slit7

% migt a!e

&no#n '

#ould

Is an idiom by which the spea"er

expresses ironically that an action

was typical of someone else

I might have 6no"n he "ould

be late7

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1.( Sall

Sall Ban be use with all persons to

emphasize something which the spea"er

feels is certain to happen or wants to

I shall definitely give u smo6ing this

year.

23

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


happen

To form rules and regulations o layer shall 6no"ingly ic6 u or

move the ball o another layer.

3.3.1.) Sould

Sould 5fter in case to emphasize

unli"elihood

I%m ta6ing an umbrella in case it

should rain.

Expectation 2his film should$ ought to be really

good.

ecommendation I thin6 you should$ ought to tal6 it over

"ith your arents.

In writing should can be use to

express a strong obligation

politely+

1uests should vacate their rooms by

midday.

Briticism of an action 5ou shouldn%t eat so much late at

night.

Nncertainty+ hould I leave these aers here on

your des6?

Sould

and

!erbs o*

tin&ing

To ma"e an opinion less direct+ I should thin6 the boo6 "ould sell

:uite nicely.

Sould

' be

F ad=ectives describing chance

#odd, strange, funny and the

expression what a coincidenceO'+

It%s strange that you should be staying

at the same hotel7

Sould

a!e

efers to something that was

supposed to happen #expectation&+

2he arcel I sent you should have

arrived by no".

Briticism of an action 5ou shouldn%t have eaten so much last

night.

Fverbs o thin"ing3 the past form I should have thought you 6ne"

2

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


6ne" in the example is an unreal

verb form and should have is used

according to se6uence of verb

forms'

F be and ad=ectives describing

change

It "as strange that you should have

been staying in the same hotel last

year

5s a polite expression o than"s on

receiving a gift or a favor

* I%ve done the "ashing u or you.

#* 'h, you shouldn%t have7

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1., ill

ill/

#ont

To express an assumption * the hone%s ringing.

#* 2hat%ll be for me.

Ban be used emphatically to tell someone of the

spea"ers intention, or forbid and action in

response to a will expression

* I%ll ta6e the money

any"ay, so there7

#* 5ou "on%t7

* I "ill7

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1. ould

ould is often used in situations where a

conditional sense is understood but not

stated

obody "ould agree to that

idea.

ould

not

shows unwillingness in the past veryone "as angry because

am "ouldn%t turn the 2 off.

ould

a!e

can refer to events in the past which did not

actually happen

I "ould have acceted the ;ob,

but I didn%t "ant to move house.

25

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


assumptions about the past * omeone called after you let

but didn%t leave a message.

#* that "ould have been ue,

robably

#ince, 900>&

3.3.1.0 "ust

"ust not efers to an obligation not

to do something

5ou must not leave the

room before the end of the

test.

"ust and cant efer to present tome only.

In expressing certainty ,

they are opposites

2his must be our sto (I%m

sure it is).

2his can%t be our sto( I%m

sure it isn%t)

"ust a!e/ cant a!e- refer to the spea"er%s

certainty about a past action

omeone must have ta6en

it( I%m sure they did)

5ou can%t have lost it( I am

sure you didn%t)

#ince, 900>&

) 'emi5modals and ot4ers

4.1 Marginal modals

5ccording to Leech #()/:+(>)&, modal auxiliaries are positive for all criteria, where

main verbs li"e hope are negative and the marginal modals are verbs which closely

resemble the central modal auxiliaries. It can be argued, indeed, for dare and need that

these are proper modals, but that for each there is also a homomorphic verb #J5E,

4EEJ& constructed as a main verb. Dught, too, may be treated as a central modal if

spea"ers construct it with the bare infinitive.

2

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


).1.1 "are

9are and need can be constructed either as main verbs #with to3infinitive and with

inflected 37, 3ing and past forms&, or, under restricted conditions, as modal auxiliaries

#with the bare infinitive and without the inflected forms&. Leech #()/:+(10&

Dare !ithout a following infinitive <ight "ith him if you dare.

2ollowed by a short infinitive 7he dare

not ta"e such a ris". #4DT 7he dares not

to ta"e such a ris".&

He dare not do so. ('2 He dares

not do so.)

9are she say that to him?

Ho" dare he do such a thing?

% dare

say

Is no longer used with its original force.

It now merely means $perhaps%.

I dare say he "ill agree to our

roosal. (=&erhas, he "ill agree

to our roosal.)

I dare say that she is correct.

(=&erhas she is correct.)

5s a modal, dare exhibits abnormal time reference in that it can be used, without

inflection, for past as well as present time+

e.g. The "ing was so hot3tempered that no one dare tell him the bad news.

Leech #()/:+(10&

).1.2 Need

eed is a modal auxiliary and behaves li"e a normal verb+

e.g. Jo you need to use the photocopierC

eed functions as a modal auxiliary, but mainly in 6uestions and negative forms+

e.g. 4eed you ma"e so much noiseC

#ince, 900>,(*/&

5s a modal auxiliary, need has no tense contrast. To express past time, however, we can

place need before the perfective aspect+

2

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


e.g. ;ou need not have done it. This is then approximately e6uivalent to the past

tense.

eed as a main verb+ ;ou did not need to do it. @ut the need to construction does not

have the counterfactual implication of the need have construction. 2or instance, in the

following the counterfactual meaning is inappropriate, and we could not therefore

replace did not need to say by need not have said +

e.g. 5nne was too nervous to reply, but fortunately she did not need to say

anything.

Leech #()/:+(1(&

eedn%t have #done& refers to an unnecessary action which was actually done.

9idn%t need to refers to an unnecessary action which was actually done+

e.g. I didn%t need to go the dentist again, actually.

ince #900>,(*/&

).1.3 Ou*4t toIt normally has the to-infinitive #although occasionally in familiar style the bare

infinitive occurs in nonassertive contexts&+

e.g. ;ou ought to stop smo"ing.

;ou oughtnQt to smo"e so much.

Dught you to smo"e so muchC

The to is also optional following ought in ellipsis+

e.g. ;es, I thin" I ought #to&.

Leech #()/:+(1*&

ugt to Expectation 2his film ought to be really good.

ecommendation I thin6 you ought to tal6 it over "ith your

28

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


arents.

).1.) sed to

>sed to denotes a habit or a state that existed in the past and is therefore semantically

not so much a modal auxiliary as an auxiliary of tense and aspect. In formal terms,

however, it fits the marginal modal category.

It always ta"es the to-infinitive and only occurs in the past tense+

e.g. 7he used to attend regularly. #was in the habit of attending&

I used to be interested in bird3watching. #I was formerly&

4.2 Modal idioms

This category contains the following four multi3word verbs, as well as some less

common verbal constructions+ had better , "ould rather have, got to, be to.

They all begin with an auxiliary verb, and are followed by an infinitive #sometimes

preceded by to&. Leech #()/:+(1/&

).2.1 $ad better

Had better is a recommendation and refers only to the present or the future.

e.g. ;ou%d better not phone her again.

ince #900>,(/>&

).2.2 &ould rat4er6 sooner

!ould rather has the volitional meaning Qwould prefer toQ.

!ould rather differs from central modals and marginal modals in that it is incapable of

showing active3passive synonymy+

e.g. IQd rather rent the cottage. PThe cottage would rather be rented by me.

).2.3 7e to

#e to is an idiom expressing futurity, with varied connotations of QcompulsionQ, QplanQ,

QdestinyQ, etc, according to context. In the past, "as to and "ere to express futurity from

2

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


the standpoint of past time orientation in conditional clauses, the sub=unctive "ere to

expresses hypothetical future meaning. Leech #()/:+(1/&

).2.) $ave *ot to

Have got to expresses necessity+

e.g. <eople have got to be on time if they want to get a seat in the crowded

theater.

Haven+t got to refers to future obligation+

e.g. -avenQt you got to finish that pro=ect todayC

R-avenQt got toR is primarily used to as" about future obligations. It can be used in

statements, but this is less common. ince #900>,(/:&

4.3 Semi au!iliaries

The semi3auxiliaries consist of a set of verb idioms which express modal or aspectual

meaning and which are introduced by one of the primary verbs have and be. The

boundaries of this category are not clear+ they might be extended, for example, to

include the negative be unable to, be unwilling to, etc. 5ll these constructions satisfythe criteria for auxiliary verbs in the sense that, for example, be going to has be as an

operator in negation and inversion, rather than having do3support. Leech #()/:+(1&

).3.1 $ave to

Have to is the only semi3auxiliary beginning with have rather than be, but its inclusion

in this category is partly =ustified by its occurrence in the full range of nonfinite forms,

a respect in which it differs from the semantically parallel have got I may have to leave

early. #PI may have got to leave early.&

e.g. <eople are having to boil their drin"ing water during this emergency.

The administration has had to ma"e unpopular decisions.

5s these examples show, have to can occur in modal, perfective, and progressive

constructions. It would be impossible to substitute have got to for have to in these cases.

34

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


In meaning, have to is similar to must and can stand in for must in past constructions

where must cannot occur+

These days you must wor" hard if you want to succeed. K In those days you had to wor"

hard if you wanted to succeed.

There must be some solution to the problem.K There had to be some solution to the

problem. Leech #()/:+(:9&

9on%t have to refers to an absence of obligation+

e.g. ;ou don%t have to wor" tomorrow.

Had not is the past form of must and refers to a past obligation+

e.g. 7orry I%m late I had to post some letters

The negative form is didn%t have to and refers to a past obligation.

ince #900>,(*/&

).3.2 7e bound to

#e bound to ma"es a future prediction of certainty+

e.g. It%s bound to rain tomorrow

4.4 "atenatives

The term catenative will in practice be used to denote verbs in such constructions as

aear to, come to, fail to, get to, haen to, manage to, seem to, tend to , and turn out

to followed by the infinitive.

7am

appeared

came

failed

seemed

got

to realize the importance of the problem.

31

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


7uch constructions have meanings related to aspect or modality, but are nearer to main

verb constructions than are semi3auxiliaries, patterning entirely li"e main verbs in

ta"ing do3support.

e.g. 7am didn%t appearK seem to realize the importance of the problem.

ost of them do, however, resemble auxiliary constructions in satisfying the

Qindependence of sub=ectQ criterion.

Thus has the corresponding passive+

The importance of the problem

appeared

came

failed

gotseemed

to be realized by 7am.

This criterion, however, applies somewhat marginally to agentive verbs li"e fail and

manages, and does not apply at all to get.

Nnli"e main verb constructions such as expect #to&, want #to&, and attempt #to&,

catenative constructions are in no way syntactically related to transitive verb

constructions in which the verb is followed by a direct ob=ect or prepositional ob=ect.

Bompare+

Hohn attemted$ aeared to attac" the

burglar.

@ut+ Hohn aeared$ attemted an attac"

on the burglar.

!e may also include among catenative verbs certain verbs which resemble the auxiliary

be in combining either with the -ing articile in progressive constructions, or with the

-ed articile in passive constructions+

e.g. The girl "ept #on& K went on wor"ing.

Dur team got beaten by the visitors. Leech #()/:+(1*&

%eac4in* modal verbs

English language learners are often confused by modal verbs because they are used

differently than other verbs and in a wide variety of situations such as as"ing for

permission and giving advice.

32

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


There are a couple methods you can use to teach students modal verbs. Dne is to

introduce only a few words at a time and complete several practice activities before

attempting to introduce additional vocabulary. 5nother way you can teach modal verbs

is to structure your lessons around their uses. ;ou could leave all the modal verbs

written on the board for the whole chapter but use only the ones appropriate for giving

advice in one lesson and as"ing for permission in another for instance.

Dne of the most important problems when teaching grammar is our conviction that

grammar inputs helps or doesn%t help students to learn the language. Dn the other hand,

we felt most comfortable using a broadly communicative methodology in our teaching,

and were disappointed to find that our course boo"s provided very few ideas for

interesting, meaning and contextualized grammar practice. There are usually either

communicative' activities designed to develop general fluency, or grammatical'

exercises that are for most part based on uninteresting manipulation of forms. 5 few

boo"s and periodicals suggest a number of good ideas for the "ind of activities we

wanted, but there seemed to be no comprehensive, systematically.

In natural learning' ?such as the learning of a first language by a child ?the amount of

time and motivation devoted to learning is so great that there is no necessity for

conscious planning of the learning process+ sooner or later the material absorbed.

-owever, in a formal course of study, there is very much less time available, and often

less motivation, which means that learning time has to be organised for optimum

efficiency. This means preparing a programme of study 3a syllabus3 so that bits of the

total corpus of "nowledge are presented one after other for gradual, systematic

ac6uisition, rather than all at once. 5nd it also means preparing organized, balanced

plan of classroom teachingKlearning procedures through which the learners will be

enabled to spend some of their time concerning which the learners will be enabled to

spend some of their time concentrating on mastering one or more of the components of

the target language on their way to ac6uiring it as a whole. These components may be

things li"e spelling or pronunciation or vocabulary ?or grammar.

@efore planning the organisation of our teaching, we need to have clear in our minds

exactly what our sub=ect3matter is+ what sorts of things are included under the heading

grammar, and what is involved in "nowing' a structureC

33

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


5ny generalisation about the best' way to teach grammar #what "inds of teaching

procedures should be used, and in what order& will have to ta"e into account both the

wide range of "nowledge and s"ills that need to be taught, and the variety of different

"inds of structures subsumed under the heading grammar'.

In what follows I will refer to teaching modal verbs in a usual grammar class. I usually

begin by presenting the class with the text in which the grammatical structure ?in our

case the modal verbs appears. The aim of the presentation is to get the learners to

perceive the modal verbs ?their forms and meanings3 in both speech and writing and to

ta"e them into short3term memory. Dften a story or short dialogue is used which

appears in written form in textboo" and is also about by the teacher andKor students.

5t the isolation and presentation stage I move away from the context, and focus,

temporarily, on the grammatical items themselves+ what they sound and loo" li"e, what

they mean, how they function ?in short, what rules govern them. The ob=ective is that

the learners should understand these various aspects of the modal verbs. In some

classes we may need to ma"e extensive use of the students% native language to explain,

translate, ma"e generalizations and so on. In more academic classes, or where the

structures may seem difficult for the students to grasp, this stage may ta"e some time.

5t this stage, it is very important for the students to understand very well the forms and

meanings of the modal verbs and that is why the explanations should be delivered very

carefully by the teacher. 2irst, I start by presenting the main features of the modal verbs

in general, then I continue by ta"ing them one by one and explaining their meanings,

providing the students with a lot of examples. 7o, presentation is the stage at which

students are introduced to the form, meaning and use of a new piece of language, in our

case the modal verbs. @ut, at the same time, it is very used since at the presentation

stage students learn the grammar that they will need for their most important

experience of the new language ?applying in to themselves. !e can this experience

piece of grammar to say things that really mean something to the modal verbs, the

personalization stage is where they apply it to not do, what they have to do and so on.

7ometimes presentation ta"es place3using personalization immediately+ the teacher

uses the students and their lives to introduce new language. 7ometimes personalization

is the final part of a presentation that is done through the use of tents or pictures.

3

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


5 good presentation should be clear and students should have no difficulty in

understanding the situation or what the new language means. 5 good presentation

should also efficient since the aim is to get the personalization stage as soon as students

can manipulate the new language. 7o, the more efficiently we can do this the better.

oreover, a good presentation should be lively and interesting. !e want students to get

interested and be involved during a presentation stage. !ith the help of a good

situation and language course. 5nd if it is, there is a good chance that students will

remember the new grammar more easily. 5ppropriateness is another characteristic of a

good presentation. -owever interesting, funny or demonstrative a situation is, it should

be appropriate for the language that is being presented. In other words it should be a

good vehicle for the presentation of meaning and use. Lastly, a good presentation

should be productive. In other words the situation the teacher introduces should allow

students to ma"e many sentences andKor 6uestions with the new language.

5s far as explanation is concerned, teachers fre6uently explain new grammar. The

explanation might well present problems to a lot of students, because of the technical

words being used, and because abstract grammar explanations are always 6uite difficult

to swallow. Df course, said in the students% mother tongue it would be a lot more

comprehensible. @ut we will want to be careful about the amount of mother tongue that

we use in the English class. In general it seems that grammar explains for beginners

and elementary students are better handed with more obvious techni6ues, such as

isolation and demonstration. Df course this is not always the case, and where a rule is

easy to explain at the students% level, then clearly an explanation would be appropriate.

In the case of modal verbs an explanation provided in the students% mother tongue

would be appropriate since there is an important difference between the English modal

verbs and the omanian moods.

@elow I will refer the discovery techni6ues, another way of presenting efficiently the

new grammar structures. The discovery techni6ues are those where students are given

examples of language and told to find out how they wor" ?to discover the grammar

rules rather than be told them. The students are exposed to the new language, with no

focus, same time before it is presented. 5t a more conscious level, students can be

as"ed to loo" at some sentences and say how the meaning is expressed and what the

differences are between the sentences. 5s students puzzle through the information and

35

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


solve the problem in front of them, they find out grammar rule. The advantages of this

approach are clear. @y involving the students% reasoning processes in the tas" of

grammar ac6uisition, we ma"e sure that they are concentrating fully, using their

cognitive powers. !e are also ensuring that our approach is more student3centered+ it%s

not =ust the teacher telling the students what the grammar is. They are actually

discovering information for themselves.

5s a conclusion, encouraging students to discover grammar for themselves is one

valuable way of helping them to get to grips with the language. ery often this

discovering of grammatical facts involves students in a fairly analytical study of the

language. Teachers will have to decide how much of this "ind of material is appropriate

for their students, but one thing is certain+ the use of grammatical techni6ues can be

highly motivating and extremely beneficial for their students% understanding of English

grammar. 7o then the 6uestion is whether these techni6ues are particularly time3

consuming. Dbviously reading a text ta"es time, but teachers should remember that the

students will get reading practice as well as focusing on the grammar. 7o the time is not

really a problem. !hat is much more important is whether teachers feel happy with

these techni6ues and whether or not they suit the students.

5fter a period of grammar presentation the practice stage consists of a series exercises

done both in the classroom and for home assignments, whose aim is to cause the

learners to absorb the structures, that is to transfer what they "now from short3term to

long3term memory. Dbviously, not every grammar practice procedure can cover all

aspects of the structures, therefore we shall need to use a series of varied exercises

which will complement each other and together provide thorough coverage. Generally,

the activities are designed so that the students practise the language while at the same

time being involved in an en=oyable activity. 7tudents need to practise their grammar a

lot. !here possible this will be done in pairs using interaction activities and so on. @ut,

where drills are used, the teacher must always remember that they are only a means to

an end. 5s soon as possible they should be abandoned in favour of one of the creative

activities.

-aving presented the practice tas", we then need to ma"e sure that our students do in

fact perform it successfully and get through as much volume of language as possible

3

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


and maintain interest. There should be very little correction of mista"es if there has

been proper pre3learning, and if the exercise is really success3oriented. Teacher activity

in the course of the practice should therefore be largely directed towards supporting

and assisting the students in their production of acceptable responses rather than

towards assessing and correcting. Examples of such assistance are+ simple giving extra

time to reread or thin" repeating or simplifying a text approving the beginning of an

utterance in order to encourage production of the whole suggestions, hints, prompts.

5ll this means that we have to be very alert to sense when and where help is needed

and what form it should ta"e. 5gain, there is a wider message+ I, the teacher, am here to

help you, the learner, succeed and progress in your learning, not to =udge, scold or

ma"e you feel inferior.

It is very important to "now that a well3designed grammar practice activity should be

based on a tas" that has clear ob=ectives and entails active use of the structure being

practised and it should maintain learner interest and motivation through careful choice

of topic, use of information3gap procedures, role play, personalisation etc.

@ut much of the effect of all this may be lost on a large proportion of the class if we do

not do something to ensure maximum, balanced participation of its members. The way

learners are activated when performing an exercise, moreover, may affect not only the

amount of participation, but also the level of motivation and involvement, and the

learning value of the practice given. !e all "now that the main techni6ues of learner

activation available to the teacher have both advantages and disadvantages for various

teaching situations or "inds of practice activities. 7ome techni6ues are based on

language reception with little or no learner response and it is the teacher who does

most, if not all, of the language production, and clearly controls what little learner

activity there is. In one3to3one teacher3student exchanges #probably the most common

form of classroom activation& the teacher is still dominant, but there is increasingly

active participation on the part of the learners. This participation increases still further

in brainstorming #the students are given a single stimulus which serves as the cue for a

large number of responses& or chain' techni6ues #instruction and a initial cue are

given by the teacher, resulting in a large number of responses by the learners, but only

the first response is related to the original cue, the rest of the utterances being made in

response to the one before& and in the most forms of pair or group wor", nearly all the

3

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


actual learning production is in the hands of the learners, the teacher merely providing

instructions and materials and acting as monitor and helper.

2inally, testing grammar is the last important part in the grammar teaching process.

Learners do tests in order to demonstrate ? to themselves and to the teacher3 how well

they have mastered the material they have been learning. The main ob=ective of tests

within a taught course is to provide feedbac", without which neither teacher nor learner

would be able to progress very far. !e have to "now where we are in order to "now

where to go next. 2ormal examinations, usually preceded by revision on the part of the

learners, and followed by written evaluation on the part of the teacher, are only one

"ind of testing, useful for immediate teaching purposes. ost testing, however, is doneautomatically and almost unconsciously by teacher and learners as the course proceeds,

the most valuable feedbac" on learning being supplied by the learners% current

performance in class and in home assignments. Dften practice exercises are used to

supply such informal feedbac", in which case they may function virtually as tests.

#.1 Course books for learning English

In this chapter, the material analyzed according to theoretical findings will be

introduced briefly. I have chosen two sets of course boo"s of English as a second

language+ !ay 5head published by acmillan and <athway to English which is a

product of Dxford Nniversity <ress. The choice is based on the fact that these textboo"s

belong to the most widely used course boo"s in English courses. oreover, two

different sets eliminate one3sidedness and allow simple comparison.

.1.1 &ay A4ead

!ay 5head, written by ary @owen and <rintha Ellis, presents itself as successful

material for ac6uisition of accurate and fluent English and its use for communicative

purposes. This course is a multi3level course which provides students with the structure

of the language and teaches grammar, vocabulary and functions of English. Dn the

Internet, the textboo"s present the methodology as follows+ their approach to grammar

is clear and structured grammar is presented in context and students are encouraged to

38

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


discover the rules for themselves integrated s"ills wor" is an important feature of the

course and activities in every unit contextualize and bring together much previously

introduced language. The present analysis focuses on levels three to four #Elementary&.

(. The course boo" !ay 5head ( is for both true and false beginners and

provides the basic "nowledge of the structure of English. Dnly one modal verb is

introduced here 3 can? and it is e presented in functional approach in conversation.

9. !ay 5head 9 continues in widening and extending the students% abilities of

understanding and using English for communicative purposes. In summary, students

learn two additional modals ? will, must. The more modal verbs they get to "now, the

more information they ac6uire about the system of modality and interrelations in it.

.1.2 Pat48ay to n*lis4

The Dxford Nniversity <ress course <athway to English presents itself as a tool to

develop real3life communicative s"ills and powers of self3expression. Dn the Internet,

these textboo"s are mar"eted as a material that is built around structured wor" on

grammar and lexis, planned spea"ing tas"s, and motivating reading and listening texts.

The course boo" provides a fully3integrated grammar syllabus together with

entertaining practice. 7pea"ing s"ills and their development are seen as the "ey area

but students also re6uire a solid grammatical framewor" to ma"e progress. The authors

encourage students to discover new grammar themselves and they present it in contexts

where the meaning is clear. 7tudents get a lot of opportunities to manipulate the new

language+ they try it out in different situations through a rich variety of engaging

practice and personalized activities.

(. <athway to English3English 2actfile seems to neglect modals among the

grammar topics of individual units. -owever, they are present and presented to the

students in a rather unusual way+ in lexis and conversation exercises. The course boo"s

presents will and might in a conversation about the weather forecast would #would

li"e& in a shopping conversation and later among expressions about the future

#including the semi3modal be going to&. 7hould appears as a tool to give advice, and

can#%t& and #don%t& have to in the discussion of possibilities and necessities of rich film

stars.

3

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


9. <athway to English ? English 7crapboo" extends the students% "nowledge of

modals from five to seven #must and could& and practices their uses to express advice,

obligation and permission #must#n%t&, couldn%t, should#n%t&, #don%t& have to&. 7ome of

them #can, could, would, shall& are covered in polite 6uestions of offers and re6uests,

opinions, advice and suggestions.

/ CONC!'ION

To conclude, modal verbs constitute a complex issue in the English grammar.

Epistemic, or extrinsic, modality is rather impersonal and expresses various degrees of

logical li"elihood. Jeontic, or intrinsic, modality regulates interpersonal relations and

expresses desirable behaviour. odal or semi3modal verbs are often near synonyms in

their meanings but differ in intensity and formality.

Learners of English want to spea" English well, master the language in a very short

time, learn as easily as possible and avoid ambiguities and obscurities. They expect

teachers to help them with all imaginable obstacles. odal verbs prove to be one of

such stumbling bloc"s. ichael Lewis%s definitions of the central meanings of modal

verbs contribute to the simplification of both teaching and learning. 5s he says, even in

the complex area of the modal auxiliaries, there are powerful patterns which may be

seen and understood, and which lead to a deeper understanding in individual examples'

4

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


#()/+ (01&. The central meanings that he assigns to individual modals help teachers

and students to see them in more positive ways.

0 &or9s cited

@iber, Jouglas, 7tig Hohansson, Geoffrey Leech, 7usan Bonrad, and Edward 2inegan

#()))&. Longman Grammar of 7po"en and !ritten English. Longman.

2lorea, 7ilvia #900(&. Dn English odality. 7ibiu 900(

-armer, Heremy #()/*&. Teaching and Learning Grammar, Longman Group NS Limited,

Leech, Geoffrey 4. #()*(&. eaning and the English erb. London+ Longman.

Leech, Geoffrey 4. #())&. Towards a 7emantic Jescription of English. London+

Longmans.

Lewis, ichael #()/&. The English erb+ 5n Exploration of 7tructure and eaning.

-ove+ LT<.

<almer, 2ran" obert #()//&. The English erb. -arlow+ Longman.

1

7/21/2019 Luc Rare


<almer, 2ran" obert, Srug, anfred, 2acchinetti, oberta .#900>&odality in

contemporary English3 outon de Gruyter

7aeed, Hohn I. #())*&. 7emantics. @lac"well.

Nr, <enny #()//& Grammar <ractice 5ctivities. 5 <ractical Guide for Teachers,

Bambridge Nniversity <ress

ince, ichael #900>&. 5dvanced Language <ractice, acmillan

;ule, George #())/&. Explaining English Grammar. Dxford+ DN<.

Documents

Luc Rare