LTS Information Systems Int 2 - Using Informations

Information SystemsUsing Information

[INTERMEDIATE 2;HIGHER]

Alan Patterson

abc

Acknowledgement

Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National

Qualifications support programme for Information Systems.

First published 2005

© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by

educational establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.

ISBN 1 84399 076 8

The Scottish Qualifications Authority regularly reviewsthe arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of allNQ support materials, whether published by LT Scotlandor others, are reminded that it is their responsibility tocheck that the support materials correspond to therequirements of the current arrangements.

© Learning and Teaching Scotland

USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS) 3

CONTENTS

Tutor introduction 5

Student introduction 8

Section 1: Data and information 11

Section 2: Organisational information systems 31

Section 3: Information management software 73

Section 4: The social, legal, ethical and economicimplications of information systems 109

Section 5: Useful resourcesWeb links 139Bibliography 141Software evaluation form 142

Answer section 143


USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS)4



INTRODUCTION

Tutor introduction (Higher and Intermediate 2)

This unit is designed to develop knowledge and understanding of theprinciples, features and purposes of information and the systems used tocreate, store, process, retrieve and present information. It also developsknowledge and understanding of the wide-ranging implications of thegrowing use of information systems within society. It provides anopportunity to develop practical skills in the use of contemporaryinformation handling. Candidates may then apply this knowledge andthese skills to solve practical problems.

Target audience

While entry is at the discretion of the centre, candidates for the Higherlevel would normally be expected to have attained one of the followingqualifications (or equivalent experience):

• the corresponding unit at Intermediate 2.• Intermediate 2 Information Systems• Intermediate 2 Computing• Standard Grade in Computing Studies at Credit level.

The unit has two outcomes (Higher and Intermediate 2):

1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the principles,features and purposes of information, organisational informationsystems, information management software, and the social, legal,ethical and economic implications of information systems.

2. Demonstrate practical skills in the use of contemporary hardwareand software in the context of creating, storing, processing,retrieving and presenting information.

Outcome 1 is assessed by a multiple-choice test. Outcome 2 is assessedby a checklist. Both of these are included in the NAB.



INTRODUCTION

Learning and teaching approaches

The materials for Higher and Intermediate 2 have been incorporatedinto the one pack, making possible to run bi-level classes. Suitablequestions and activities have been included at the end of each section(with Intermediate 2 questions at the end of Intermediate 2 content andHigher questions at the end of each Higher section). There has alsobeen an attempt to include more activities for Intermediate 2 to allowthe tutor to concentrate on delivering the rest of the Higher content ofthe unit to Higher students.

It is recommended that the assessment of the practical element anddelivery of this unit be combined in order to maximise the amount oftime the students are working on the unit. These study materials shouldbe made freely available to the students during the Outcome 2assessment, as should any tutorials, documentation or other materialsrelevant to the hardware or software required to complete theassessment.

A mixture of student-centred, resource-based learning and tutor-ledclass teaching is recommended. Students will require access toappropriate computer hardware and software and Internet accessthroughout this unit.

The shaded margins alongside of the text indicate material for theHigher. A range of suitable questions and activities is provided at variouspoints throughout the notes, and tutors should direct students to theseactivities as they see fit. A wholly Higher class would be expected tostudy the Intermediate 2 and Higher units but would probably only beexpected to undertake activities relating to the Higher Outcome 2assessment and any others the tutor sees fit to use to enhance thecourse. The questions should also provide a means of diagnosticassessment as part of the learning and teaching of the unit.

Hardware and software requirements

This unit requires that the student has regular use of a computer system,which can be used throughout the unit for research on the World WideWeb and for completing the software tasks. At the time of going toprint, the minimum specification for such a system would be:

• A Pentium III 800MHz Processor based PC or a 600MHz G4-basedApple Power Mac.

• Windows 2000 operating system on a PC• Sufficient RAM which is 128MB on a PC



INTRODUCTION

• Internet access• Word Processing, Spreadsheet and Presentation Software including

PIM software such as Microsoft Office 97 at least (Office 95 on a Mac)but Office 2000 at least is recommended with Outlook.

• Desk Top Publishing and Web Authoring Software• Project Management Software is optional and may be demonstrated

by the tutor. (Although Project is expensive, an evaluation packagecan be downloaded and used for 30 days free of charge; eitherSmartDraw or Microsoft Project can be used.)

Practical work

The tutor should supplement this pack with a suitable range of practicalactivities using a range of software applications, in order to develop andconsolidate the learner’s experience and understanding, and to provideevidence to support the checklist of practical skills for Outcome 2.Advice on appropriate levels of treatment of practical skills is included inthe NABs provided by SQA.

How to tackle this Unit

A standard learning pattern is suggested for your use throughout thisunit, as follows:

• A clear outline of the main teaching points• Questions to check the understanding of these points• Practical work where appropriate to illustrate the learning.

What is in the pack?

Section 1: Data and information

The difference between data and information, metadata, categorisationof information and characteristics of information. Questions and tasks.

Note that in a bi-level class there is only limited Intermediate 2 materialin Section 1, and the first questions will not keep Intermediate 2students busy for the length of time taken by the Higher students tocomplete the rest of the topic. It is suggested that Intermediate 2students can follow tutorials and/or complete some of the tasks for thesoftware packages they are going to use later (Word Processing, DTP,Spreadsheet, Presentation and Web Authoring).



INTRODUCTION

Section 2: Organisational information systems

Explanation, definition, description and exemplification oforganisational information systems. Questions and tasks.

Section 3: Information management software

Explanation, definition, description and exemplification of differentclasses of software. Questions and tasks.

Section 4: The social, legal, ethical and economic implications ofinformation systems

Explanation, definition, description and exemplification of social, legal,ethical and economic implications of information systems. Questionsand tasks.

Section 5: Useful resources

Bibliography, and useful web links summarised.

Section 6: Additional resources

Software evaluation pro-forma. Answers to questions used throughoutthe unit.

PowerPoint presentation

A PowerPoint presentation linked to this pack may be downloaded fromthe Information Systems subject pages in the e-library atwww.LTScotland.org.uk/NQ



INTRODUCTION

Student introduction

We are said to live in an age where information and knowledge are soimportant that society can be divided up into two groups. These are the‘information rich’ group and the ‘information poor’. If you areinformation rich you have access to many TV and radio channels, books,newspapers and journals, and of course computers and the World WideWeb. Those who are information poor tend to not have access to theWeb and probably find it difficult to access relevant books and journals.Even in general conversations a discussion about a TV programmeshown on satellite TV will be lost on people who only have 4 or 5terrestrial channels. If you are following this course you will probably beinformation rich.

We are going to examine the nature and uses of information by lookingat:

• the differences between data and information• organisational information systems• information management software• the implications of information and communications technology.


USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS)1 0


USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS) 1 1

DATA AND INFORMATION

Data and information

Data is raw unprocessed facts and figures that have no context orpurposeful meaning and information is processed data that hasmeaning and is presented in a context.

For example, a computer operator may enter 36.41, which is data,because we do not know why or in what context it is being used.However, if this number then appears on a bill to show that you owe acompany £36.41 for goods received then this data has changed intoinformation, because it has acquired a context (it’s a bill) and meaning.

The figures 36.41 will be held as binary data on some media such as ahard disk. It is the software which accesses this data and displays it in itscontext. It may also have some structure, if it is held in a program like adatabase for example, and a database will also give it structure. So, it isthe software which turns the figures from data into information andgives them meaning.

The binary patterns on backing storage devices such as a disk, CD orDVD, or memory stick, are all classed as data. For example, the binarypatterns that describe an icon on your desktop are data. They becomeinformation after the operating system software has processed them,because then they become meaningful to you as the icons representativeof your hard disk or Internet explorer.

SECTION 1




Questions on data and information

1. Look at this list and decide whether the following are data orinformation:

(a) The registration number of a car(b) 234.73(c) SA04KRT(d) An icon on a computer’s desktop(e) 00101001(f) A binary stream held on a hard disk(g) Unprocessed raw facts(h) The contents of a field in a database(i) A paragraph of text in a word-processed document(j) 04081953 10

2. Give two examples of data that is generated in a school’sadministration and assessment system. 2

3. Give two examples of information that is generated in aschool’s administration and assessment system. 2

Total marks 14




Knowledge

Humans have an endless thirst for knowledge, but how do weobtain knowledge? We can read books and magazines, study coursematerials, and of course we can gain knowledge from watching TVand listening to the radio. The knowledge about the weekend’ssports matches can mean as much to one person as the latestadvances in rocket science does to another.

We tend to gain knowledge from information and we use thatinformation to make decisions.

Knowledge can be split into two categories: explicit and tacit.Explicit knowledge is rules or processes or decisions that can berecorded either on paper or in an information system. Tacitknowledge exists inside the minds of humans and is harder torecord. It tends to be created from someone’s experiences, soagain it is based on a set of rules or experiences.

Metadata

Metadata can be thought of as data that describes data. It may havebeen introduced to you in the Database Unit where it is defined asa data dictionary. This is one example, but other formats ofmetadata exist. It may be the card-index system used by librariesbefore computerisation, where each card told you the author, titleand location of the book. It can also be thought of as data aboutdocuments or files stored on the computer. The computer keeps afile on its hard disk where it records information about each andevery file on the computer. This includes information such aswhen the file was created or modified; who created it; the size ofthe file; the file type it is. This master or directory file is anexample of metadata.

Categorisation of information

Information can be categorised under many headings that help usto determine its overall usefulness. The main categories areSource, Nature, Level, Time, Frequency, Use, Form and Type. Wewill examine each of the categories and their sub-categories insome detail.




Sources of information

Primary informationA primary source of information is one that provides data from anoriginal source document. This may be as simple as an invoicesent to a business or a cheque received. It may be more complex,such as a set of sales figures for a range of goods for a tinned foodmanufacturer for one week, or it may be a set of sales figures overseveral weeks and several locations. There are many examples ofprimary sources in many walks of life, but generally a primarysource is defined as being where a piece of information appears forthe first time.

Secondary informationA secondary source of information is one that provides informationfrom a source other than the original. Secondary sources areprocessed primary sources, second-hand versions. Examples ofsecondary sources could be an accounts book detailing invoicesreceived, a bank statement that shows details of cheques paid inand out. Where statistical information is gathered, such as insurveys or polls, the survey data or polling data is the primarysource and the conclusions reached from the survey or the resultsof the poll are secondary sources.

Internal informationAll organisations generate a substantial amount of informationrelating to their operation. This internal information is vital to thesuccessful management of the organisation. The information maybe available from a number of sources within the organisation, forexample:

• Marketing and sales information on performance, revenues,markets shares, distribution channels, etc.

• Production and operational information on assets, quality,standards, etc.

• Financial information on profits, costs, margins, cash flows,investments, etc.

• Internal documentation such as order forms, invoices, creditnotes, procedural manuals.

External informationAn external source of information is concerned with what ishappening beyond the boundaries of the organisation. This covers




any documentation relating to a subject area produced as asummary or detailed report by an agency external to anorganisation. Such information may be obtainable fromgovernment agencies or private information providers. Examplesmight include:

• census figures • telephone directories• judgments on court cases • computer users’ yearbook• legislation, for example • gallup polls

the Data Protection Act • national opinion polls• trade journals • Ordnance Survey maps• professional publications • financial services agencies such• industry standards as Dunn and Bradstreet

• the Internet

Nature of information

Formal informationThis involves presenting information in a structured and consistentmanner. It is usually defined, within an organisation, as the mainway of communicating between and within parts of theorganisation. It is also usually the main way of communicatingexternally from an organisation. The main methods of formalcommunication are still the formal letter, properly structuredreports, writing of training materials, etc. Formal information iscommunicated in cogent, coherent, well-structured language.

Informal informationThis describes less well-structured information that is transmittedwithin an organisation or between individuals who usually knoweach other. It tends to be categorised as ‘unofficial’ information,and is communicated by casual conversations, e-mails, or textmessages between colleagues. The language used is less wellstructured than formal communication and tends to includecolloquialisms and shorthand; and spelling is less important.

Quantitative informationThis is information that is represented numerically. Any event orobject that can be represented as a set of numbers is an example ofquantitative information.




Qualitative informationThis is information that is represented using words. Any event orobject that is represented using words to describe its attributes isan example of qualitative information.

Levels of information

Within an organisation planning, control and decision-making iscarried out at various levels within the structure of theorganisation.

The three levels at which information can be used are strategic,tactical and operational and there is a direct correlation betweenthe levels of importance of individuals or groups within anorganisation and the level of information that is beingcommunicated.

Strategic informationStrategic information is used at the very top level of managementwithin an organisation. These are chief executives or directors whohave to make decisions for the long term.

Strategic information is broad based and will use a mixture ofinformation gathered from both internal and external sources.

In general a timescale may be from one to five years or even longerdepending on the project. Some oil related projects are plannedfrom the outset to last for 25 or more years. A supermarketbuilding a new superstore will look at a timescale of 20 years or so,whilst even a small business may have a five-year strategy.

Strategic plans will have little or no detail in them and moredetailed strategic plans will be made slightly lower down themanagerial ladder. A good strategic plan will be easier to flesh outlower down than a poor or vague strategic plan. Similarly, wellconstructed and more detailed plans will be easier to implementthan poorly constructed plans.

Tactical informationThe next level down is the tactical level, and tactical planning anddecision-making takes place within the guidelines set by thestrategic plan.




Tactical information will be mostly internal with a few externalsources being used. Internal information is likely to be functionrelated: for example, how much ‘down time’ a production linemust allocate for planned maintenance.

Tactical information is used by middle management (employees)when managing or planning projects.

The timescale is usually at least between 6 months and 5 years(depending on the scale of the strategic project). Circumstancesvary but a small project may have a tactical timescale of betweenone and six months.

Tactical plans have a medium level of detail and will be veryspecific; they deal with such matters as who is doing what andwithin what specific budgets and timescales.

These plans have medium scope and will address details at theoperational level. They will generally have specific objectives andbe geared towards implementation by operational level employees.

Operational informationThe lowest level is operational and operational planning takesplace based on the tactical plans.

The lowest level of management or workers in an organisationimplements operational plans. These may be section leaders orforemen in a large organisation or workers such as shop assistants,waiting staff, and kitchen staff, etc., in smaller businesses wherethere is no supervisory layer.

The timescale is usually very short, anything from immediately,daily or at most a week or month.

Results of operational work will usually be passed upwards to letthe tactical planners evaluate their plans.

Time

Historic informationThis is information gathered and stored over a period of time. Itallows decision makers to draw comparisons between previous andpresent activities. Historic information can be used to identifytrends over a period of time.




PresentThis is information created from activities during the current work-window (day, week or month). In real-time systems thisinformation would be created instantly from the data gathered (forexample, the temperature in a nuclear power plant turbine), givingaccurate and up-to-date information.

FutureThis is information that is created using present and historicinformation to try to predict the future activities, trends and eventsrelating to the operation of an organisation. An example would besales figures for a company: if the sales figures are up 10% fromthose recorded this time last year it might be anticipated that nextmonth’s sales figures will also be up by 10%.

Frequency of information

ContinuousThis is information created from data gathered several times asecond. It is the type of information created by a real-time system.For example, sensors may be set up to collect temperature andhumidity readings in a large commercial greenhouse. It will beimportant for that information to be collected constantly becauseany variation in either the temperature or the humidity couldpoint to the failure of some machinery and an alarm could besounded to alert the staff. A very important system exists onmodern aircraft where the navigation and flight-control systems arecontinuously monitoring and making adjustments; another is on acomputerised production line where constant monitoring allowsthe system to correct faults. Obviously many other types of real-time systems exist but a feature of them all will be that they checkdata continuously.

PeriodicThis is information created at regular timely intervals (hourly,daily, monthly, annually). Different examples of informationgenerated by an organisation are needed at specific periods oftime.

• Annually – On an annual basis a company must submit its reportand accounts to the shareholders.

• Monthly – Banks and credit-card companies produce monthlystatements for the majority of their customers.




• Daily – A supermarket will make daily summaries of its sales anduse the product information to update its stock levels and to re-order stock automatically.

• Hourly – A busy call centre will often update totals for eachoperator on an hourly basis and give the top employee for thehour some reward.

Use of information

PlanningPlanning is the process of deciding, in advance, what has to bedone and how it is to be done. Planning should be based on goodinformation. Planning is not an end in itself; its primary purpose isto provide the necessary structure for decision-making andresulting actions, throughout the organisation.

The process of planning provides an opportunity to construct asequence of actions that, when executed, will achieve the requiredaims and objectives.

Basically, planning means decisions by management about:

• what is to be done in the future• how to do it• when to do it• who is to do it.

An objective is something that needs to be achieved and a plancontains the activities or actions required to achieve the objective.

ControlControl can be defined as the monitoring and evaluation of currentprogress against the steps of a pre-defined plan or standard. Ifthese tasks are not proceeding in line with expectations thenaction is taken to bring the project back in line with what had beenplanned.

Control is carried out at strategic, tactical and operational levels.The type of control changes according to the level of managementas does the amount of time spent on control.

At an operational level the majority of the time of the manager orsupervisor will be spent on control activities where the work of




staff is compared to very specific financial or quantifiable terms(e.g. how many boxes have been packed).

At higher levels, planning and control are more closely linked, withmanagement being concerned with the monitoring of progressagainst the plan, assessing the suitability of the plan itself andpredicting future conditions.

Organisations and individuals must plan in order to operateeffectively. Likewise they must also operate controls to ensure thatprogress is being made against the plan. These controls are neededbecause unexpected events can cause actual results to change fromthe expected planned results.

Control activities attempt to keep the organisation in line with theoriginal plan or to enable the organisation to change to meet thenew conditions. Unexpected events range from short delays in thecompletion of an element of a plan – which may be relatively minor– to major disturbances such as a large new competitor enteringthe marketplace.

Control measures actual progress against what is expected andprovides information upon which remedial action can be taken, ifrequired, either to change performance in order to conform to theoriginal plan or to modify the plan.

Decision-makingDecision-making is the process of selecting an action or actionsfrom those possible based on the information available. Decision-making involves determining and examining the available actionsand then selecting the most appropriate actions in order toachieve the required results.

Decision-making is an essential part of management and is carriedout at all levels of management for all tasks. All decisions arearrived at in the same way. The manager must choose, by somemeans, the result or results that s/he wishes to achieve and dosome form of appraisal of the situation.

Decision-making is made up of four phases:

• finding occasions for decision making• find possible courses of action (i.e. what choices are available)




• choosing among these courses of action• evaluating past choices.

Forms of information

WrittenThe vast majority of information created within an organisation isin the written form. This can include hand-written or word-processed information and information in e-mails as well as reportsproduced from different classes of software, both general-purposepackages and bespoke software solutions. Examples of writteninformation are reports, memos and tables, receipts, invoices,statements, and summary accounting information. The list isalmost endless and different businesses will produce their owntype of written information.

AuralAnother common form of information is aural, which isinformation presented as sound. The commonest form of auralinformation is of course speech and examples of this would beformal meetings (where minutes are taken), informal meetings,talking on the phone and voice-mail messages. Nowadays manyorganisations will have employees giving a presentation or talk to agroup where there may be use made of music and sound effects aswell as speech.

VisualThis form of information includes when pictures, charts and graphsare used to communicate information. Again, many presentationswill make use of data projectors and presentation software that willinclude text, graphics and animations. Full video can also beprojected via a data projector, and presentations can use videofilmed with a digital video camera and then edited on a computerand distributed via CD or DVD now that DVD writers are quitecommon.

Types of information

DetailedDetailed information might be an inventory list showing stocklevels, actual costs to the penny of goods, detailed operatinginstructions, and so on. This information is most often used at theoperational level within an organisation.




SampledThis information usually refers only to selected records from adatabase: for example, only selected customers from a company’sfull customer list. In a supermarket this may be product and salessummaries given to departmental managers (bakery, fruit andvegetables, etc.). Sampled information is often used at a tacticallevel within an organisation. Depending on the size of theorganisation it may also be relevant at a strategic level.

AggregatedThis is information that consists of totals created when detailedinformation is collated. An example of aggregated information isthe details of all purchases made by customers totalled each monthand displayed in a chart showing total sales for each month over ayear.

In order to show all three types of information, here is an examplethat some of you should be familiar with. In a league of teams whoplay each other twice in a season, the detailed information wouldbe the score line for each game played by all the teams in theleague. Sampled information would be the details for a team in theleague relating to their performance. Aggregated informationwould be the goals for, goals against and goal difference for a teamin a league.

Characteristics of information

Good information is that which is used and which creates value.Experience and research shows that good information hasnumerous qualities.

Good information is relevant for its purpose, sufficiently accuratefor its purpose, complete enough for the problem, reliable andtargeted to the right person. It is also communicated in time forits purpose, contains the right level of detail and is communicatedby an appropriate channel, i.e. one that is understandable to theuser.

Further details of these characteristics related to organisationalinformation for decision-making follows.




Availability/accessibilityInformation should be easy to obtain or access. Information keptin a book of some kind is only available and easy to access if youhave the book to hand. A good example of availability is atelephone directory, as every home has one for its local area. It isprobably the first place you look for a local number. But nobodykeeps the whole country’s telephone books so for numbers furtherafield you probably phone a directory enquiry number. Forbusiness premises, say for a hotel in London, you would probablyuse the Internet.

Businesses used to keep customer details on a card-index system atthe customer’s branch. If the customer visited a different branch atelephone call would be needed to check details. Now, withcentralised computer systems, businesses like banks and buildingsocieties can access any customer’s data from any branch.

AccuracyInformation needs to be accurate enough for the use to which it isgoing to be put. To obtain information that is 100% accurate isusually unrealistic as it is likely to be too expensive to produce ontime. The degree of accuracy depends upon the circumstances. Atoperational levels information may need to be accurate to thenearest penny – on a supermarket till receipt, for example. Attactical level department heads may see weekly summaries correctto the nearest £100, whereas at strategic level directors may look atcomparing stores’ performances over several months to thenearest £100,000 per month.

Accuracy is important. As an example, if government statisticsbased on the last census wrongly show an increase in births withinan area, plans may be made to build schools and constructioncompanies may invest in new housing developments. In thesecases any investment may not be recouped.

Reliability or objectivityReliability deals with the truth of information or the objectivitywith which it is presented. You can only really use informationconfidently if you are sure of its reliability and objectivity.

When researching for an essay in any subject, we might makestraight for the library to find a suitable book. We are reasonablyconfident that the information found in a book, especially one that




the library has purchased, is reliable and (in the case of factualinformation) objective. The book has been written and theauthor’s name is usually printed for all to see. The publishershould have employed an editor and an expert in the field to editthe book and question any factual doubts they may have. In short,much time and energy goes into publishing a book and for thatreason we can be reasonably confident that the information isreliable and objective.

Compare that to finding information on the Internet whereanybody can write unedited and unverified material and ‘publish’ iton the web. Unless you know who the author is, or a reputableuniversity or government agency backs up the research, then youcannot be sure that the information is reliable. Some Internetwebsites are like vanity publishing, where anyone can write a bookand pay certain (vanity) publishers to publish it.

Relevance/appropriatenessInformation should be relevant to the purpose for which it isrequired. It must be suitable. What is relevant for one managermay not be relevant for another. The user will become frustrated ifinformation contains data irrelevant to the task in hand.

For example, a market research company may give information onusers’ perceptions of the quality of a product. This is not relevantfor the manager who wants to know opinions on relative prices ofthe product and its rivals. The information gained would not berelevant to the purpose.

CompletenessInformation should contain all the details required by the user.Otherwise, it may not be useful as the basis for making a decision.For example, if an organisation is supplied with informationregarding the costs of supplying a fleet of cars for the sales force,and servicing and maintenance costs are not included, then acosting based on the information supplied will be considerablyunderestimated.

Ideally all the information needed for a particular decision shouldbe available. However, this rarely happens; good information isoften incomplete. To meet all the needs of the situation, youoften have to collect it from a variety of sources.




Level of detail/concisenessInformation should be in a form that is short enough to allow forits examination and use. There should be no extraneousinformation. For example, it is very common practice tosummarise financial data and present this information, both in theform of figures and by using a chart or graph. We would say thatthe graph is more concise than the tables of figures as there is littleor no extraneous information in the graph or chart. Clearly thereis a trade-off between level of detail and conciseness.

PresentationThe presentation of information is important to the user.Information can be more easily assimilated if it is aestheticallypleasing. For example, a marketing report that includes graphs ofstatistics will be more concise as well as more aesthetically pleasingto the users within the organisation. Many organisations usepresentation software and show summary information via a dataprojector. These presentations have usually been well thought outto be visually attractive and to convey the correct amount of detail.

TimingInformation must be on time for the purpose for which it isrequired. Information received too late will be irrelevant. Forexample, if you receive a brochure from a theatre and notice therewas a concert by your favourite band yesterday, then theinformation is too late to be of use.

Value of information

The relative importance of information for decision-making canincrease or decrease its value to an organisation. For example, anorganisation requires information on a competitor’s performancethat is critical to their own decision on whether to invest in newmachinery for their factory. The value of this information would behigh. Always keep in mind that information should be available ontime, within cost constraints and be legally obtained.

Cost of information

Information should be available within set cost levels that may varydependent on situation. If costs are too high to obtain informationan organisation may decide to seek slightly less comprehensiveinformation elsewhere. For example, an organisation wants to




commission a market survey on a new product. The survey couldcost more than the forecast initial profit from the product. In thatsituation, the organisation would probably decide that a less costlysource of information should be used, even if it may give inferiorinformation.

The difference between value and cost

Many students in the past few years have confused the definitionsof value and cost. Information gained or used by an organisationmay have a great deal of value even if it may not have cost a lot.An example would be bookshops, who have used technology formany years now, with microfiche giving way to computers in themid to late 1990s. Microfiche was quite expensive and what thebookshops received was essentially a list of books in print. Bysearching their microfiche by publisher they could tell you if aparticular book was in print. Eventually this information becameavailable on CD-ROM. Obviously this information has value to thebookshops in that they can tell you whether or not you can get thebook. The cost of subscribing to microfiche was fairly high;subscribing to the CD-ROM version only slightly less so.

Much more valuable is a stock system which can tell you instantlywhether or not the book is in stock, linked to an on-line systemwhich can tell you if the book exists, where it is available from, thecost and delivery time. This information has far more value thanthe other two systems, but probably actually costs quite a bit less.It is always up-to-date and stock levels are accurate.

We are so used to this system that we cannot envisage whatfrustrations and inconvenience the older systems gave. The newsystem is certainly value for money.




Questions and tasks for data and information

1. Describe the differences between data and information. 2

2. (a) Explain the relationship between knowledge andinformation. 1

(b) Explain the difference between explicit and implicit 2knowledge, giving an example of each and of the 1kind of information that made that knowledge possible.

3. What is meant by metadata? Give an example ofmetadata. 2

4. For each of the following situations say whether theinformation is primary or secondary and internal or external.

• the minutes of a golf club committee meeting• a till roll showing the day’s transactions in a corner shop• a university prospectus• the published accounts of a large public business. 4

5. Describe the differences between:

• formal and informal communication 2• quantitative and qualitative information. 2

6. There are three levels of information, strategic, tactical andoperational. State the characteristics of:

• information used for decision making at the strategiclevel 2

• information used for decision making at the tacticallevel 2

• information used for decision making at the operationallevel 2

7. Explain the differences between information categorised bytime:

• historically 1• in the present time 1• in the future 1




8. Information can be used in planning, control and decision-making. Describe how information can be used in:

• planning 1• control 1• decision-making. 1

9. There are three forms of information, written, aural andvisual. Explain with the use of examples the differencebetween the three forms. 3

10. The type of information one may receive can be detailed,sampled or aggregated. Explain the differences betweenthe three types of information with regard to the level ofthe information. 3

11. For each of the following characteristics of informationexplain why that characteristic affects the quality of theinformation:

availability or accessibilityaccuracycompletenessreliability or objectivitytimingconcisenesspresentationvalue 8

12. Explain the distinction between value and the cost ofinformation. 2

Total marks for questions 44




Task for data and information

Imagine that a friend of yours would like you to use the Internet tofind out about university courses that he or she is interested in.They would like you to find out which universities offerInformation Systems as a degree course in Scotland. But beforedoing this you could use your knowledge of Information Systemsto make up a checklist of criteria you want to use in your search.There are two websites you want to check out, the UCAS site(www.ucas.ac.uk) and the Heriot Watt University site(www.macs.hw.ac.uk). Complete the pro-forma below giving anexample in each case of either the information you supply or thatthe website supplies to you.

Nature of information www.ucas.co.uk www.macs.hw.ac.ukand criteria

Data suppliedInformation received

Knowledge gained

Any metadata?

Categorisation ofinformation in terms of:

(a) Source (b) Nature(c) Level(d) Time(e) Frequency(f) Use(g) Form(h) Type

Comment on each of thecharacteristics of theinformation you havefound.

(a) Relevance(b) Accuracy




(c) Completeness(d) Reliability(e) Timing(f) Conciseness(g) Presentation(h) Availability

Explain the differencebetween the cost andvalue of the informationfound.



ORGANISATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

SECTION 2

Categories of information systems

An information system is a group of interrelated components thatwork to carry out input, processing, storage, output and controlactions in order to convert data into information that can be usedto support forecasting, planning, control, coordination, decisionmaking and operational activities in an organisation.

There are several categories of information system:

• Data Processing Systems (DPS)• Management Information Systems (MIS)• Decision Support Systems (DSS)• Executive Information System (EIS).

This table shows how they fit into the categories of strategic,tactical, and operational information systems:

Organisation level Type of information system

Strategic Executive information system

Tactical Decision support system

Management information system

Operational Data processing system

Data processing systems

Commercial computing systems were first developed in the 1950sand 60s, initially by what can only be called enthusiasts consistingof businessmen with a vision. These included Jo Lyon (of Lyon’scakes fame) who operated a huge catering empire in London inthe 1940s and 50s. The story of how they became computerisedwith the first commercial system is told at the site http://www.kzwp.com/lyons/leo.htm.

These systems were data processing systems that either replacedthe manual clerical procedures currently in use (like bank




records), or in new areas where humans were unable to performthe calculations involved due to their complexity.

A Data Processing System is sometimes referred to as a TransactionProcessing System (TPS), because it deals with the day-to-daytransactions of an organisation. Examples include systems foraccountancy, invoicing, stock control and data entry. For example,a clerk processing a customer order needs to know whether theitem is in stock, what the price of the item is, as well as customerdetails including name and address.

Another example is each item sold in a supermarket. For each itemthe bar code would be scanned and used to find the name and theprice of the product and then the price used to calculate the totalbill for a customer. This type of event would be stored in thesupermarket’s transaction file for each day’s business.

Data processing systems are usually tools used at the operationallevel of an organisation, since most organisations at an operationallevel produce large amounts of data from the events thatcontribute to their running.

Another simpler example of a DPS, within a school context, is thegathering of pupil attendance records. Usually some attendancedata is gathered for pupils in a school, in the morning andafternoon. This data is then input into the attendance informationsystem. It can be used to calculate pupil, class, and year-groupattendance percentages. Pupil support staff enquiring about pupilillness or poor attendance can also use the information producedby this system.

A DPS usually involves a computer at the heart of the operation.Depending on the size of the company, this could be a desktopcomputer, a network, a mini or mainframe computer with ‘dumb’terminals. The system also includes the software necessary to runthe computer and handle the data. The means of collecting andoutputting the data may well also be included. For example, theNational Lottery DPS includes terminals in shops around thecountry where data is collected.

Management information systems

An MIS is a system that converts data from internal and externalsources into information, communicated in an appropriate form to




managers at different levels of an organisation. The informationcan contribute to effective decision making or planning to becarried out.

The source of data for an MIS usually comes from numerousdatabases. These databases are usually the data storage for DataProcessing Systems.

MIS summarise and report on the organisation’s basic operations.The basic data from the DPS is condensed and is usually presentedin long reports that are produced on a regular basis.

MIS produce reports for managers interested in historic trends ona weekly, monthly and yearly basis (not on the day-to-day activitiesof the DPS). The information in these reports provides answers toroutine pre-defined questions. An example from a supermarket willprovide reports that show the sales figures for each departmenteach day for a week, with weekly totals, monthly totals,comparisons with last month and the corresponding month lastyear. Once the information is in the system many reports can beextracted.

These systems are generally not very flexible and have littleanalytical capability. Most MIS use simple routines such assummaries and comparisons as opposed to sophisticatedmathematical models or statistical techniques.

Decision support systems

A DSS provides information and models in a form to help tacticaland strategic decision-making. DSS support management decision-making by integrating:

• company performance data• business rules in a decision table• analytical tools and models for forecasting and planning• a simple user interface to query the system.

DSS are particularly useful when making ad-hoc, one-off decisions.These types of decisions tend to be unstructured and irregular.

DSS enable a manager to explore a range of alternatives under avariety of conditions. For example, a manager may wish to knowthe effects on profits if sales increase and costs decrease.




The source of data for a DSS tends to be a combination of summaryinformation gathered from lower level DPS and MIS; it alsoincludes significant information from external data sources.

Executive information system

An EIS provides senior managers with a system to assist in takingstrategic and tactical decisions. Its purpose is to analyse, compareand identify trends to help the strategic direction of theorganisation.

EIS address unstructured decisions and create a generalisedcomputing and communications environment, rather thanproviding any fixed application or specific capability. Such systemsare not designed to solve specific problems, but to tackle achanging array of problems.

EIS are designed to incorporate data about external events, such asnew tax laws or competitors, and also draw summarisedinformation from internal MIS and DSS. These systems filter,compress, and track critical data; emphasising the reduction oftime and effort required to obtain information useful to strategicmanagement. They employ advanced graphics software to providehighly visual and easy-to-use representations of complexinformation and current trends, but they tend not to provideanalytical models.

EIS allow the user to look at specific data that has beensummarised from lower levels within the organisation and thendrill down to increase the level of detail, which is provided by theinformation systems in different areas. This is an example of datawarehouse analysis, which we will discuss later.

Interrelationships between information systems

EIS

MIS DSS

DPS




Expert systems

An expert system is a computer program that tries to emulatehuman reasoning. It does this by combining the knowledge ofhuman experts and then, following a set of rules, it drawsinferences.

An expert system is made up of three parts: a knowledge base; aninference engine; a user interface.

The knowledge base stores all of the facts, rules and informationneeded to represent the knowledge of the expert. The inferenceengine is the part of the expert system that interprets the rules andfacts using backward and forward chaining to find solutions to userqueries. The user interface allows the user to enter newknowledge and query the system.

Reasons for expert systems in business:• To store information in an active form as organisational

memory, creating an organisational knowledge base that manyemployees can examine and preserving expertise that might belost when an acknowledged expert leaves the organisation.

• To create a mechanism that is not subject to human feelings,such as fatigue and worry. This may be especially useful whenjobs may be environmentally, physically or mentally dangerousto humans. These systems may also be useful advisers in times ofcrisis.

• To enhance the organisation’s knowledge base by generatingsolutions to specific problems that are too substantial andcomplex to be analysed by human beings in a short period oftime.

We will go on to look at some of the concepts in relation toorganisational information systems. Also we will look at theirfunctions and at reasons for their need, and at descriptions ofmanagement strategies and at networking.




Higher – Questions on organisational information systems

1. What is an information system? 1

2. Describe the functions likely to be performed by a DataProcessing System, giving an example to illustrate youranswer. 2

3. Explain why a Data Processing System is classed as beingat the operational level of an organisation. 2

4. For what purposes is a Management Information Systemusually used? 2

5. Explain why a Management Information System is classedas being at the tactical level of an organisation. 2

6. Why would the management of a company like to see aDecision Support System in place? 2

7. Explain why a Decision Support System is classed as beingat the operational level of an organisation. 2

8. Explain the purpose of an Executive Information System,giving an example to illustrate your answer. 2

9. Explain why an Executive Information System is classed asbeing at the tactical level of an organisation. 2

10. An Expert System is made up of three parts, a knowledgebase, an inference engine and a user interface. What is thepurpose of each of these three parts? 3

11. Describe two reasons why an Expert System would be usedin business. 2

Total marks 22




Concepts in relation to an Organisational Management System

SpeedComputers at the heart of information systems are capable of processingdata very quickly. Although the computer is able to access data frombacking storage at very high speeds this is one of the slowest aspects ofdata processing. The processor is able to carry out millions ofcalculations per second and some processors are optimised for speed ofcalculations.

AccuracyFor most practical purposes computers store and process numbers to ahigh degree of accuracy, but the accuracy also depends on the softwarewritten and, of course, on human accuracy. Much financial software isaccurate to 3 decimal places rounded to 2. Once the accuracy of acalculation has been verified the software and hardware combined willperform the calculation correctly every time.

VolumeThe number of transactions handled by an Information System in aperiod of time is referred to as the volume or number of transactions. Acommercial data system often has to handle millions of transactionsevery week. For example, take a bank with 5 million customers. If eachcustomer makes an average of 2 transactions (cash withdrawals ordeposits, cheques written, direct debits or standing orders), then thesystem has dealt with 10 million transactions. The average for a bank ofthat size is probably far higher so as you can see the volume of data ishuge. This has big implications for the size of backing storage,processing power and output capabilities of the system.

EfficiencyThe efficiency of an Information System is really a combination of thespeed, accuracy and volume of the data processed. It could bemeasured as the number of accurate transactions carried out perminute. In relation to human processing, it is substantially more efficientto carry out processing on an information system. Information systemsare capable of running without interruption 24 hours a day and 7 days aweek.




The functions of an Organisational Information System

There are four basic functions of an OIS (similar in nature to theCommercial Data Processing Cycle) relating to gathering data andstoring, processing and outputting information. Remember that we startby gathering data, and from storing it onwards it becomes information.

Gathering dataIn the past there was a wide range of methods for capturing data beforebar codes became almost universal on goods for sale. Many largecompanies employed large teams of data-processing staff often enteringdata from turnaround documents (like utility bills filled in and returnedwith a cheque).

The original mail-order companies were another area of business thatused data-processing staff. Customers chose goods from a catalogue andsent the order forms in. Operators typed in the order, and when thegoods were despatched documents including a bill were produced. Thecustomer received the goods and in time paid the bill, filling in adocument to enclose with the cheque (or to pay in at the bank). Thecompany eventually received the documents and the payment could berecorded against the customer account.

In shops there were several different ways of recording sales and stockcontrol. Some large shops used kimball tags, which were strips ofcards with holes punched in them. These cards were fed into a readerat the end of the day and the reader interpreted the sequences of holesas stock numbers and stored the data on a type of disk. The disk wassent to head office for processing and at the end of a week sales figuresand stock levels could be calculated. A similar system was employedwith metallic stripes on the cards, which were similarly read and used.

The main disadvantage of these methods is the time delay between thegoods being ordered, dispatched (remember ‘please allow 28 days fordelivery’) and the company banking the money; also shops were forevereither overstocking or running out of stock.

The current methods that are employed to capture data for aninformation system will be investigated.




Bar codesBar codes are small labels printed on food, books, newspapers andmagazines and nearly all product packages. They are made of lines,which represent numbers. A bar code stores four pieces of information:

• country of origin• manufacturer’s code• item code• check digit.

The bar code is scanned (the numbers can be entered manually as well ifthey won’t scan). The bar code data is then used by the point-of-saleterminal to search a database of products for the name and prices. Itthen prints an itemised bill and uses the data to update stock levels anda sales file which can be used there and then to calculate all sorts ofstatistics (daily sales by department, hourly sales, etc.).

Ordering goodsWhat are the other methods of gathering data in common use? Mailorder has all but disappeared and has been replaced by telephone andInternet ordering. Companies now rely on customers telephoning anorder and paying over the phone with a credit or debit card. The goodsare ordered instantly, the stock position can be given to the customerinstantly, the money is transferred to the company’s account almostinstantly, and the goods are usually despatched within a few hours andreceived usually within 48 hours by the customer.

When goods are ordered over the Internet a similar situation occursexcept that even more of the process is automated. The customerorders the goods from the Internet site, pays by credit or debit card andthe goods often arrive either at a prearranged delivery time(supermarkets), or within a day or two.

The advantages of these methods to the company are that they are paidinstantly in advance for goods ordered and hopefully increase theirbusiness. To the customer, goods are received very quickly and often atthe customer’s convenience and of course the customer does not needto leave their home (especially advantageous when young children arearound and / or the weather is very bad). The customer also hasprotection from their credit-card company if something goes wrong.

Magnetic strips and chip and PINCredit and debit cards contain either magnetic strips or microchips thatcontain the holder’s account details. When the card is passed through




the reader either the strip or the chip is read and the account detailstransferred to the point-of-sale terminal (POS).

With a magnetic strip card a bill is printed out, signed and retained bythe retailer and a receipt is printed out for the customer.

With chip and pin the customer types a pin number into a deviceattached to the till. The PIN number verifies the sale and the receipt isprinted out for the customer. It is generally quicker to use chip and PINand much less open to fraud as there is no piece of paper for a thief tocopy the number from.

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)There are numbers printed at the foot of every cheque and on the slipsin a pay-in book. These are printed not in ordinary ink, but magnetic inkand are the code numbers for the bank, branch, account and cheque.When the cheque is paid into the bank, a machine is used to read thedetails, firstly on the pay-in slip that gives the numbers for the accountthe money is to go to, and then on the cheques that give the numbers ofthe accounts the money is taken from. The bank clerk only needs totype in the amount of each cheque and the reader sends all the detailsto the branch computer that stores the data.

Optical character recognition (OCR)This is when the printed text is scanned into a computer. Pages of textcan be scanned in very quickly and then searched for words orsentences. They can also be reprinted or edited. It is very useful in anoffice that receives or uses a lot of printed text, e.g. lawyers oraccountants.

Mark sense readerThis is a device which brushes electrical contacts across the Mark SenseDocument. If the contacts touch a pen or pencil mark then a current canflow between them. This is used most commonly in the National Lottery,where a player’s numbers are read from the board they have filled in anda ticket is produced. This method is also used for marking multiple-choice question papers.

Storing informationInformation can be stored on a variety of media such as magnetic tape,hard disk, CD-ROM and DVD. These fall into two categories, those wheredata can be written to, re-written and amended, and those where datacan only be written once and read many times. Generally speaking all ofthe data input from any of the above methods of data input will be




stored on hard disks. These have very fast access allowing records onthe disk to be accessed very quickly. The access is also random or directmeaning the disk heads can go to any part of the disk without starting atthe beginning and working through towards the end, as with magnetictape.

Generally tape is only used for backing up large hard disks and usuallyonly file-servers on a network. It is totally unsuitable for most moderndata-processing applications. When fitted to a computer, CD-ROM andDVD drives that can be written to are usually used for backing up datafrom the hard disk of a personal computer.

Another popular device for transporting data from one computer toanother (home to school or work and vice versa) is the memory stick.This small, large-capacity device plugs into the USB port on thecomputer and almost immediately is recognised by the computer as anexternal disk drive and data can be saved to it just like a disk, exceptthat it can have a larger capacity and is a lot faster than a disk drive.

Processing data

There are several types of processing that can be applied to data to turnit into information, as follows:

• searching/selection• sorting/rearranging• aggregating• performing calculations.

Searching involves selecting a sub-section of the data that meets aspecified criterion. You may be familiar with this technique from workyou may have done on databases in school or college when results ofsearches or queries happened instantaneously; but on a commercialbasis searching can take a very long time. One example would be theNational Lottery where the winning numbers are entered in as searchcriteria. On average it takes half an hour to find the match for anywinning combination. Even if they find a match on the first record theymust continue to the end, as the last of around 14 million records couldalso be a match. Every time a bar code is scanned the database in thesupermarket is searched for a match and the details returned. Even with20 or so tills working and some 20,000 items in store the match is fairlyinstant.




Sorting involves arranging the data into some form of order. Thechoices are usually alphabetical or numeric, and then ascending ordescending. Large commercial organisations usually have their datasorted or indexed in some way. It is common to have the customer filepermanently sorted in customer number order and when transactionsare made over the course of a day (orders and payments usually), thetransaction file is also sorted by customer number. The files are thenmerged and a new file created with the transactions attached to thecorrect customers. A bank will sort its customers firstly into branchesand then by account number within the branch.

Aggregating involves summarising data by taking numerous data valuesand reducing them to either one value or a substantially reducednumber of data values. Financial data is often aggregated, as actualtotals of money earned or owed are wanted more often than the detail.For example, when you buy goods in a shop or supermarket and pay forthem you only pay the aggregated total and if you pay by credit or debitcard then the card company or bank is only interested in the aggregatedtotal to debit your account. When you receive the statement for thecredit card all the transactions you have made are listed on thestatement but you are only really interested in the aggregated total atthe bottom – the amount you have to pay.

Performing calculations involves applying a formula to data to compute anew value. Obviously when using examples looked at in this section,calculations have taken place. The items have been totalled or addedup; and the total found for the till receipt, the bank and credit cardstatements have been similarly totalled. When a utility bill is calculatedthen several calculations take place:

Cost of units = units used * unit costNet bill = cost of units + standing chargeTotal bill = net bill + (net bill * 0.175)

So the total bill is calculated in three stages with the VAT finally beingadded. The same principles apply for electricity, gas and phone bills,although the phone bill has many more sub-sections and performs manymore calculations.

Outputting information

PaperThe most popular output method is printing information onto paper.The list of examples of paper output is almost endless, but tying them in




to our examples we include till receipts and bills of many kinds tocustomers; in a business we call these invoices and statements. Internalreports and business communications tend to be internal printed outputwithin a business, while many businesses exist to produce printedoutput to send to customers and potential customers.

ScreenOften in a large data processing operation the operator is only allowedto see their input screen and maybe some customer details. Managersand directors are more likely to see reports and progress checks onscreen. However, with rise of web-based and web-aware software,management reports can be viewed on screen in an interesting andvisually stimulating manner, as with with intranet pages (an intranet islike an internal internet for an organisation).

FileOnce a database file has been updated with new information it will besaved to backing storage for future reference. In some situations reportsor filtered data will be selected from the file and saved as a separate file.This allows the data to pass to another part of an information systemthat deals with the subset of data. Files can be e-mailed to managers andviewed on-screen to save paper.

Organisational Information System management strategies

When an organisation decides to install a computerised informationsystem, several important decisions need to be made and lots ofplanning undertaken. There are five areas where an organisation needsto have clear strategies when planning and using information systems.These are as follows: Networks, Security, Backup and Recovery,Upgrading and Software.

Network strategyAn organisation needs a network strategy initially to plan how to set upthe network in general to manage effectively its distribution of data andinformation to assist its decision-making and general operation. Thenetwork strategy should be based on sound fundamentals so that nomatter the advances in technology the network will be able to adapt andstill deliver the services the organisation requires.

The strategy needs to address the following areas:

• Data transfer (traffic)• Distribution/coverage




• Access and security• Facilities• Storage capacity.

Security strategyAn organisation needs a security strategy to ensure that staff orcompetitors do not steal important operational data. The securitystrategy will also deal with those areas of the network that staff canaccess (you cannot have data entry clerks accessing reports meant forsenior management). Nowadays security must also deal with keepingunauthorised people from remotely accessing business networks; and,of course, it must protect against virus attacks.

Backup and recovery strategyAn organisation needs a backup and recovery strategy to ensure thatoperational data is not accidentally destroyed or damaged. Asorganisations rely more and more on information systems to store andprocess their data, it is vital that processes and procedures areintroduced to ensure data is kept safe from loss or harm.

Upgrade strategyAn organisation needs an upgrade strategy to ensure its informationsystems can continue to support the core business as the organisationgrows and changes over time. There are likely to be advances in thehardware technology such as faster cabling systems, faster and moresecure communications hardware and computers. Advances are alsolikely to be found in the software used with faster and more secureoperating systems and greater functionality in the application software.Organisations need to decide whether and when to upgrade, usuallywhen it appears cost effective to do so.

Software strategyInitially the organisation will decide whether it needs bespoke orspecially written software. The latter is common for large organisationslike banks, insurance companies, supermarkets, and companies like callcentres and modern mail-order companies. The organisation contacts asoftware house that will create the bespoke software. This is alwaysexpensive and many organisations will try and configure off-the-shelfapplication packages to suit their purposes. Often there is a mixture ofbespoke and off-the-shelf packages in use, with managers oftenmanipulating and analysing in spreadsheets figures produced in bespokesystems.




Intermediate 2 questionsConcepts in relation to Organisational Information Systems

1. How may the speed of a computer be calculated and expressed? 1

2. On what factors can the accuracy of a computer system be based? 2

3. What is meant by the volume of transactions in a computerisedsystem? 1

4. How could the efficiency of a computer system be measured? 1

5. (a) Explain what is meant by a turnaround document. 1(b) What has replaced kimball tags and magnetic stripes as

the main method of collecting data from goods? 1

6. Explain how a bar code is used to produce an itemised tillreceipt. 2

7. What are the two modern methods of buying goods withoutvisiting a shop? 2

8. (a) Explain why a hard disk is the preferred storage mediumfor data processing applications.

(b) If users wish to carry quite large files from work tohome, what backing storage device are they likely to use? 2

9. There are four main types of processing which can be appliedto data. Name and describe each of them and give an exampleof each. 4

10 . Name and describe the three commonest methods ofoutputting data and give an example of each. 3

11. Explain why an organisation needs a network strategy and statethe five areas it needs to address. 2

12. Why does an organisation need to have a security strategy inplace? 3

13. Why is a backup strategy important to an organisation? 1

14. Referring to both hardware and software issues, explain why anupgrade strategy is needed. 2




15. Why will an organisation have a software strategy in place? 1

16. What effect can a centralised database have on an organisationand what advantages can it give? 3

Total marks 32




Network strategy

Topologies

A network topology is basically the way in which the network hasbeen built. Although there are several different variations on eachof these basic topologies we are only going to look at the generictypes.

LANThis stands for Local Area Network and it is a network that isrestricted to one room, building or site. The cabling and hardware(infrastructure) that defines the network are usually owned by theorganisation. LANs allow users to share data and peripherals likeprinters, often they are able to log on anywhere on the networkand access their own data from any computer. The networkmanager is able to control access through the use of usernamesand passwords and ensure that data is kept secure and backupsmade.

WANThis stands for Wide Area Network and is a network that uses someform of external communications for computers to communicatewith each other. Some large companies, local authorities andgovernment departments operate WANs. Their regional anddistrict offices can be connected via leased lines and theircomputers will all operate as if they were workstations on a LAN.More common nowadays is for these organisations to usetelephone lines and run a web-based service or Intranet. By far thebiggest WAN in the world is the World Wide Web running theInternet.

Distributed networksDistributed networks have been made possible on LANs by the useof modern networking software and by having multiple serversaround the network. Each server can run a mini network within asub-group of switches and this can reduce network trafficsignificantly. Users’ data can be kept on the server they are mostlikely to access although their user area should be transparentfrom any station on the network. A distributed network can makethe working of a network like a school or college much moreefficient, and in a business environment much more secure as well.Server failure at one node is unlikely to render the entire networkuseless.




Network hardware

Client-server networkThis type of network has a central computer called a server,although large LANs may have more than one server. Data files andsoftware are usually stored on the server but can be accessed fromthe network stations (nodes). Some software is installed centrallyso that it only has to be installed once, although applications areusually installed on each workstation and this software can often beinstalled remotely to several stations at once. All files are storedcentrally, providing a pool of data that is accessible to allworkstations on the network. The network can support computersof differing types and usually different versions of the sameoperating system. Backup is easy to perform and there is no needto rely on users backing up their own files.

This sort of network is heavily dependent on the server. Serversneed to have fast processing speeds, large memory and large harddisks. They are expensive and server-based networks arecomplicated to install. The commonest type of server-based LAN isbased on Ethernet technology.

Peer-to-peer networkThis type of network has no central server, as all workstations onthe network are equal. Installing software takes more time, as it hasto be installed on each computer. Workstations on a peer-to-peernetwork can access work stored on other computers on thenetwork. This type of network is less secure as access to and fromworkstations needs to be open.

As a server is very expensive to buy, a small peer-to-peer network isa lot cheaper then a client-server network. A peer-to-peer networkis ideal in a small office where a handful of computers need to benetworked.

Network adapter cardEvery computer attached to a network needs a network adaptercard. Very often now the card is built-in to the computer at thetime of manufacture. The network cable plugs into the card andthe other end into a socket and it therefore allows the computerto send and receive data across the network.




Structured cablingCables are the commonest form of transmission media used tobuild a network. They are usually made from copper wire, such asco-axial and twisted pair. Fibre-optic cables are also used for fast,large-capacity networks or to connect sections of a network in alarge building like a school or college.

In an Ethernet network, twisted pair cabling is normally used, andeach network point will be connected back to a hub or switch,which in turn is connected to the server. However large a networkbecomes (and networks of 200–500 stations are not uncommon inlarge schools and colleges) this simple structure applies. Of coursecomplications develop and when longish distances are covered arepeater boosts the signal, at regular intervals to prevent the signaldeteriorating until it is unusable.

Network software

Network operating systemThere are two parts to the network operating system, the versionthat runs on the server and the version that runs on the personalcomputers to turn them into network stations. The server softwareis needed to control which users and workstations can access theserver, keep each user’s data secure, and control the flow ofinformation around the network. It is also responsible for file anddata sharing, communications between users, and hardware andperipheral sharing.

Each workstation (computer) connected to the network needs theNetwork Operating System installed before it can connectsuccessfully to the network facilities. It may be extra softwareadded to the operating system, or more likely on moderncomputers running Windows 2000 or XP it comes as part of theoperating system and only needs to be run to connect thecomputer to the network. Thereafter it runs automatically afterstart-up and makes any user log in before they can access eitherthe computer or the network

Network auditing and monitoring softwareThis software keeps a track of network activity. It not only recordsuser activity, but workstation activity as well. It records who haslogged in where, at what time, for what duration, whichapplications have been used, printer requests and file accessactivity. This allows the network manager to see exactly what was




happening if a problem is reported, and also to monitor anyperson who may be acting suspiciously as far as the network isconcerned.

In a commercial organisation this sort of auditing and monitoringcan be used to detect fraud and suspicious activity.

Security strategy

Data stored on computer is vital to the success of any business ororganisation. The loss of computer files is an extremely seriousproblem for any organisation, so it is vital that organisations takesteps to protect the security, integrity and privacy of their data.What exactly do we mean by these terms and what is the differencebetween security, integrity and privacy? We will look at thisquestion and investigate the policies and procedures forimplementing data security and access rights on a network.

Security, integrity and privacy of data

Data security means keeping data safe from physical loss. Thiscould be due to accidental damage to the computer systems, suchas a fire or flood. It might be caused by electronic problems suchas hardware failure or the data becoming altered due to magneticinfluences. We call this data corruption. This might be intentional:for example, theft by a competitor, malicious unauthorised accessdeleting or altering data, or it might be destruction of the data byviruses.

Data integrity means the correctness of the stored data. Measuresare taken when data is entered to ensure that it is correct. In anoff-line situation data is often double entered, once originally andonce again for security. If there is a mismatch the data has to bechecked and re-entered. On-line data entry (such as from callcentres) is often checked by the software; or operators may askcustomers to spell difficult names or addresses, before readingtheir details back to them so they can correct any errors. Data maybe incorrect because of program bugs, hardware breakdown,viruses or other computer crime, or through errors in datatransmission on networks or using remote terminals.

Data privacy means protecting data so that unauthorised userscannot access it. You as a user may wish to keep your personal




data at school or college private. In a commercial organisationdifferent groups of users will be allowed access to different levelsof data. Thus data is kept private to specific groups of users.

You will probably rely on a network manager to keep the datasecure. Its integrity is respected when the data is entered andstored and your privacy is protected by not letting other users intoyour personal data.

The security risks to information systems

A virus is a piece of programming code that causes someunexpected and usually undesirable event in a computer system.Viruses are often designed so that they automatically spread toother computer users on a network. They can be transmitted asattachments to an e-mail, as a download, or be present on a diskbeing used for something else. Some viruses take effect as soon astheir code takes residence in a system whilst others lie dormantuntil something triggers their code to be executed by the computer.Viruses can be extremely harmful and may erase data or require thereformatting of a hard disk once they have been removed.

Hacking is gaining unauthorised access to a computer informationsystem. This may be as simple as trying to break into your friend’saccount at school or college; or it may be as complex as terroriststrying to break into state security and military systems. Much ofthe security on networks exists to prevent hacking, whether usernames and passwords or chip-and-pin credit and debit cards. It isnot so much the breaking in that is the offence as maliciouslyaltering data or stealing information.

As organisations begin to incorporate the use of the network andInternet into their core business activities, they become morevulnerable to new risks. One of these risks comes from denial ofservice attacks. This involves flooding an organisation’s Internetserver with a surprisingly large amount of requests for information(traffic). This increase in traffic overloads the server, which isincapable of dealing with the backlog of requests, and usuallyresults in the server crashing or needing to be taken offline toresolve the problem.

This sort of attack on a company can be very costly. An examplewas the attack on Yahoo in 2000, which involved their serversbeing flooded with 1 billion hits per minute. The attack was




estimated to have cost £300,000 in lost advertising revenue alone(Financial Times, 17 November 2000).

Policies and procedures for implementing data security

Codes of conduct can be applied to anybody that uses aninformation system. Most organisations insist that users follow a setof rules for using their information system. These rules outline theorganisation’s expectations of user behaviour – a kind of schoolrules for adults and professionals. Employees in an organisationoften have to sign a code of conduct as part of their conditions ofemployment. These are not usually onerous or unduly restrictivebut more often common sense and for the employee’s protection(to prevent them from breaking any laws). A code of conduct cancover basic professional competences as well as an obviousstatement like ‘Never disclose your password to anybody else’ or‘Change your password every week’.

Members of professional associations, like the British ComputerSociety (BCS), are expected to abide by a set of principles that setout minimum standards of competence, conduct and behaviour.They have a code of conduct for members who work in theInformation Systems industry, and many professional organisationshave such regulations to govern how their membership carries outtheir work.

The BCS code of ethics covers:

• Professional conduct – members’ conduct shall uphold thedignity, reputation and good standing of the profession.

• Professional integrity – A member shall not by unfair means doanything that would harm the reputation, business or prospectsof another member and shall at all times act with integrity.

• Public interest – A member shall have proper regard to thepublic interest and to the rights of third parties.

• Fidelity – A member shall discharge his obligations to hisemployer or client with complete fidelity.

• Technical competence – A member shall offer only those serviceswhich are within his/her competence, and shall declare to hisemployer or client the relevant level of competence hepossesses when his services are being sought.




Password guidelines

When users are given access to an information system they will begiven a specific user identity (user ID) and a password. Mostsystems allow the user to change the initial password to one oftheir own choice and they also require users to change theirpassword on a regular basis.

However, this free choice can result in a poor selection ofpassword and increase the risk of a hacker guessing or deducingthe password. Most password systems try to ensure a password ischosen that cannot be easily deduced, by imposing some passwordrules; for example, all passwords should:

• have a minimum length of 5 characters• have a mix of letters and numbers• not contain any words• not be the same as the previous password• not use easily guessed strings of letters or numbers (e.g. 123456

and abcdef).

Implementing data security

Virus protection

PreventionA virus can, like any form of data, copy itself onto a computer viaportable backing storage or across the network. There are variousdifferent ways of preventing a computer system from beinginfected by a virus.

You can, as in some schools and colleges, prevent users from usingfloppy disks to transfer data. Several organisations buy PCs withouta built-in floppy disk to reduce the risk of virus infection.

Another form of infection is via e-mails, specifically withattachments. In recent years there have been several well-publicised examples of viruses being spread via attachments on e-mails. To combat this risk, organisations use filtering software toscan incoming e-mails for potentially dangerous virus attachments.The advice that users are given to prevent infection is not to openany attachments or e-mails from e-mail addresses that they do notrecognise.




DetectionIf a user does not have any anti-virus software installed on theircomputer system, they may not detect a virus until it causesdamage to their computer or someone else receives an infected e-mail or file from them.

To detect viruses on a computer system a user needs to install anti-virus software that is capable of scanning incoming data for viruses.Virus scanning involves looking at each file for a known virussignature. If the anti-virus software has not been updated recently,there may be new viruses (and their signatures) that the system isunable to recognise.

Most anti-virus software can be configured to scan floppy disks orother portable media for viruses, when they are inserted into thecomputer. If a virus is detected it will either refuse to read the diskor ask the user if they wish to repair the infected file.

RepairIt is generally a good idea to scan the hard disk of the computersystem on a regular basis to ensure no viruses have managed toinfect the system. If a virus is discovered the anti-virus software canoffer to quarantine or repair the files. Quarantining involvescoping the files into a secure sub-directory on the hard disk.Repairing a file involves the anti-virus software deleting the part ofthe file that it believes contains the virus infection.

Firewall

A firewall is an intelligent device or software item that is used toprevent unauthorised access to an organisation’s network. Thefirewall is placed between the network file server and the Internetconnection (usually a router). The firewall checks all messagessent to the fileserver from outside and filters the contents. Accessmay be blocked for certain applications whilst being restricted forothers. The firewall is a method of preventing unauthorised accessto the workstations or servers in an organisation’s network, from acomputer external to the organisation. It will check any requests tojoin the network with validated user accounts on the server andwill only grant access to authorised users.




Encryption

When someone tries to buy goods on the Internet they usuallyhave to give their credit card number. Hackers can monitor theservers used by the companies accepting credit cards and use‘packet sniffer’ software to intercept the 16-digit credit cardnumbers and store them for later use. Internet retailers thereforeuse encryption techniques to protect their customers (which theymust do if they are to maintain credibility). Encryption is themethod of scrambling or coding messages so that anyone whointercepts them cannot understand the message, and it can only berecovered by people authorised to see it. When the data is to beused it needs to be decrypted. The usual method is called 32-bitencryption (64-bit also exists) and is thought to be virtuallyimpossible to crack.

Access rights

Users of an information system usually have different kinds ofaccess rights to their own and shared areas of the system. Theserights involve how files can be accessed, modified and erased.Folders can be set so that files can be read only in the folder, filescan be created, deleted or not, and so on. The main actions areexplained below:

• Read – relates to files and the user can read the file. Files can bemade ‘read only’, which means users cannot save changes madeto them.

• Write – Usually refers to folders where users have the right towrite or save files to that folder.

• Create – Again in folders groups of users have the right to createfiles.

• Erase – Similarly groups of users may be able to erase files.• Modify – Groups of users can be given rights to modify files.

It is usual for these access rights to be grouped so that a user willhave Read/Write/Create/Erase on their own drive. Maybe studentshave ‘read only’ access to a folder containing sample files wherestaff have full access.

In another example, a group of users may be given access to acentral file space that they can all share. In this case access rightsmay be restricted to read and write access, but not to erase.




Other users, such as a Network Administrator, will have full access(super user access) to all areas of the system. This allows them tofix any problems with the system and configure the system for newusers.

Backup strategy

Archive, recovery and storage methods

Every computer user and certainly every network and MIS shouldhave a strategy in place to back up their (often irreplaceable) data.Backing up is the process of making a copy of data stored on fixedhard disks to some other media. This can be tape, externalportable hard disks, writeable CD-ROM or DVD. The purpose ofbacking up data is to ensure that the most recent copy of the datacan be recovered and restored in the event of data loss.

What can cause this data loss that so many companies worry about?Firstly, there are the natural perils of fire, flood, and buildingcollapse. Secondly, there are electronic disasters. A simpleexample of the latter is when the hard disk becomes corrupted bya disk-head crash; this is usually due to the computer beingsuddenly moved when the disk is rotating, causing the disk head tocrash into the surface of the disk and can render the whole diskinstantly useless. Another example is when files are accidentallyerased, or whole areas of the disk are attacked by a virus. This listis not exhaustive but identifies some of the main worries of acomputer user.

There are different types of backup procedures and we shallexamine only one or two different situations.

Archive

Archiving data is the process of copying data from hard disk drivesto tape or other media for long-term storage. This is often used tofree hard disk space by off-loading seldom-used data to backuptape or other media. An example of this would be to archive lastyear’s accounts when they had been finalised. This year’s accountshave already been started with carry-forward figures and it is onlyaccountants and VAT inspectors, for example, who wish to see lastyear’s. They can usually be easily recovered for that purpose. Butaccounts for the previous 10 years are usually archived and




anything older than last year is said to be a long-term archive.Long-term archives are usually stored in a fireproof safe away fromthe main site. Banks offer a long-term archiving service at a cost.

Recovery

Data verification is an important, if often forgotten, aspect ofbackup strategy. After the backup process has been completed it isimportant to check the backup has been successful. It is importantto check that the data stored on the backup media can berecovered. It would be extremely foolish to wait until the data inthe information system was corrupted before testing the backupmedia to see if it could be recovered.

Assuming that the backed-up data can be recovered it is usually afairly simple task to recover the data. The relevant tape is broughtfrom the off-site storage facility and the backup and recoverysoftware will restore the data. Usually the software can be set toarchive mode when the backup is taken and this means thatarchive data can be restored without overwriting the current data.

Another method of backup is to make a full backup of the entirecomputer at a fixed point in time. Thereafter an incrementalbackup is made at predetermined times (daily, weekly, termlyeven). This means that only files that have been added oramended since the last full or incremental backup are backed up.Again, the recovery software can be set to ‘full’, ‘incremental’ or‘full and incremental restore’.

Storage methods

Most servers have built-in tape drives to allow backup to take placeeasily. The mention of tape does not mean large reel-to-reel tapemachines with ½-inch data tape moving from reel to reel. Suchtapes were essentially analogue tapes (like VHS video and audiotapes) and nowadays we use digital tapes called DAT tapes. Theolder ones store around 2 or 4 GB of data and are like an audiocassette, but the modern ones can store around 20 or 40 GB andare more like a short video cassette in size and shape. Someorganisations backup onto USB hard drives which plug into thecomputer’s USB port (USB2 is very fast). The advantage of these isthat they are often the same capacity as the drive they are backingup.




Frequency and version control

The duration of a backup (backup window) is another importantaspect. If a backup is carried out each night after close of business(out of hours), it is important that the backup method can becompleted before the start of business the next morning. A fullbackup is usually taken at the end of a working week on Friday orSaturday night (automatically under software control – theoperator does not spend all Friday or Saturday night watching thebackup happening). Several sets of full tapes will be required for a6-week rotation. A tape will be required every night for anincremental backup, which usually does not take too long.

A version of a week’s work will then be the full backup set plus theincremental tapes made during the week. It is important thatthese tapes are kept together and clearly labelled. If using theGrandfather, Father, Son method then a set of tapes is required foreach generation. A generation may last longer than a week; amonth is quite common, with weekly incrementals. A school maykeep four generations of a full backup and then weeklyincrementals and that way a pupil’s work can be recovered rightback to the start of the year when they accidentally deleted themost important essay they have ever written. When the rotationperiod is complete then the rotation starts again.

Upgrade strategy

Future proofing

This concerns finding ways of making sure that a system has areasonable life and does not need to be totally replaced too soon.‘Too soon’ are the operative words, as any computer will have tobe replaced eventually. Look at the systems at GCHQ nowcompared to the Enigma Code Cracker of 1944. That computerworked but eventually would not run programs that themanagement wanted to run, and was far too slow.

Computers have developed so rapidly that machines which arefour or five years old seem slow and their operating systemscannot cope with recent versions of the application software. It isusually the operating system which cannot run updated software(Windows ME will not run the latest software written for XP). Theolder hardware will not accept the upgraded operating system so




you are into a cycle and the only option is to upgrade. It is notpossible to predict the future other than to say it is unpredictable.

Future proofing hardware is a bit of a wish and really means thatyou try and buy a computer that has more features than youactually need. You try and buy a more advanced and fasterprocessor, the maximum amount of RAM that you can and thebiggest hard disk you can fit into the computer. In a year or sothen the super new future-proofed computer will be the standardthat everyone else is buying.

Software is a slightly different story as there is software that hasbeen running for several years and works perfectly well and doesnot need upgraded. On the other hand some software needs to beupgraded almost immediately and is always in a state of flux. Thereis a happy medium and this is probably where most software is.Software is either written by a software house for a client’s needs(call-centre, bank, telephone ordering system, etc.) or is anapplication (like Microsoft Office). A software house will generallyrespond to individual customers’ requests for upgrades, while anapplication developer will always try and improve the product tokeep it ahead of the competition.

When upgrading an information system two main areas ofhardware and software updating need to be investigatedthoroughly. This investigation is called integration testing, and itensures that any new hardware or software can work with all theother parts of the information system.

Integration testing – there are several inter-connected elementsthat need to be tested to ensure that new developments in theinformation system work with the old. When considering theinformation system you need to ensure that all its elements arecompatible. Here are some of the questions that need to beconsidered:

• Are the peripheral devices compatible with the hardware andoperating system?

• Does the network software support the hardware and operatingsystem?

• Is the application software compatible with the operating systemand computer?

• Is the hardware compatible with the operating system?




Over the lifetime of the information system various elements willbe updated as new technology is purchased.

Legacy systems – Old information systems running on out-of-datehardware and operating systems are often referred to as ‘legacysystems’. These were originally characterised by old mainframesystems but now often refer to very old micros whose specificationis less than the minimum specified by the company. The reasonscompanies and organisations continue to use legacy systems arethat the cost of buying new hardware and re-writing theapplication software for the new hardware is so costly that it doesnot make financial sense to move to the new system. Problemsthen arise because the old hardware companies stop building andsupporting their information systems. This means that if anyproblems arise, or if the hardware breaks down, there are nospecialists available to fix the problem; however, when a centralcomputer system is upgraded it is necessary to try to maintain thelegacy systems.

These problems with legacy systems led to many computercompanies developing software that conformed to OpenStandards. This meant that applications would be developed fornon-proprietary systems. An application running on onemanufacturer’s hardware could easily be moved to another(portable) because it was designed to work with open systems.Open Standards are exemplified in Linux OS, variousCommunications software programs, and languages like Java.

Emulation – A problem occurs when changing to a new hardwareplatform if the use of the old system is still required. If a change toincompatible new hardware is made, it may be possible to run oldsoftware using a software emulator. This is system software thatacts as an interface between the hardware of a system and anyapplications running on that system in order that the applicationsoftware can run on a hardware platform other than the one forwhich it was designed. Thus the original software can be run. Thecomputer gives the appearance of being a different platform.

Using software emulation allows access to a greater range ofapplications that might not be available on the given hardwareplatform. The use of an emulator allows data to be transferredbetween platforms.




However, software emulation may not provide full functionality ofthe software and will not exploit all the facilities of the newhardware. As an extra layer of software is in place this will oftencause the application software to run slowly.

Software strategy

Every organisation with an information system needs to considervery carefully the following points when writing and implementinga software strategy. It needs to take account of several importantissues:

• evaluating the software for use, using several key criteria• the user support for the software• the training supplied for end users of the software• the upgrade path of the software.

Software evaluation

Functionality – This refers not only to the number of features anapplication program has but the number of useable features it has.Also the tasks to be completed need to be evaluated against thefeatures in the software.

Performance – The performance of software can be measured byseveral different criteria depending on the type of software:

Speed – A database program could be measured for the speed ittakes to search through, say 10,000 records, by a variety of criteria.A spreadsheet’s speed may be measured by the time it takes torecalculate a complex formula over a set number of cells.

Usability – This can be simply the look and feel of the software,whether tabs or buttons are used and whether standard menus orspecific menus are used. Usability can also mean what choices onehas in the menus (e.g. you expect to find cut, copy and paste inthe edit menu and no other) and also whether the software doeswhat you expect it to.

Compatibility – Is the software compatible with other software onthe system and also the intended hardware. The commonestcompatibility problem is with operating systems. As softwarebecomes more modern and up-to-date it is likely not to run on




older operating systems. Developers write routines that they knoware supported by the newest operating system, but not by a versionseveral years old (e.g. trying to use the USB port – Windows 98onwards supports USB, but try to use the software on Windows NTand it will not work).

Data migration – The process of translating data from one formatto another. Data migration is necessary when an organisationdecides to use a new computing system or database managementsystem that is incompatible with the current system. Typically, datamigration is performed by a set of customised programs or scriptsthat automatically transfer the data.

Reliability – Reliable software does the job it is supposed to do,and gives the expected results to test data supplied to it. It can bea long process devising suitable test data and running reliabilitytests but this is a very important area of testing. For example aprogram dealing with small decimal parts of numbers may only beaccurate to 10 decimal places when the requirement is for 12places.

Resource requirements – Software must be investigated to seewhether or not the computer going to operate it has adequateresources. This means questions must be asked about whether theprocessor is fast enough and has the correct type of processor, andhow much RAM is required to run the software and deal withassociated data files. The next level is to look at the hard diskspace required and the type of monitor and graphics adapter.Other considerations will be more peripheral, such as soundcapability and other storage requirements, CD-ROM, DVD, USBdevices.

Portability – When used to describe software, portable means thatthe software has the ability to run on a variety of computers oroperating systems. ‘Portable’ and ‘machine independent’ mean thesame thing – that the software does not depend on a particulartype of hardware.

Support – This usually means customer support, the assistance thata vendor or technical support desk offers to customers or users.Support can vary widely, from nothing at all to a phone hotline toon-site calls. The level of support usually depends on how muchmoney the organisation is paying for the support.




Training

On-the-job – This type of training comes when a new user startsusing an information system. A new user needs to be introduced tothe software; this usually takes the form of working through atutorial to become familiar with the functions of the software. Itwill either be an online tutorial program or tutorial manual thatteaches the user about the software.

In-house – This is when small groups of staff, within the companyor organisation, receive a training course usually delivered by ITstaff. This allows staff to become fully familiar with the informationsystem; if they have any complex or unusual questions relating tousing the system, the IT staff have the expert knowledge to answerthem.

External – This type of training is used when an organisation doesnot have in-house IT specialists to deliver the training internally. Itis offered by specialist training providers for popular applicationsoftware, such as software created by Microsoft, Macromedia andAdobe.

User support

There are numerous sources of user support that allow a user tosolve a problem when using a piece of software.

ManualsThere are several types of manuals available for applicationsoftware:

• Installation guide – gives advice on how to install the softwareand how to configure it to work with various hardware.

• Tutorial guide – gives step-by-step instructions on how to usethe software.

• Reference manual – Is an indexed guide detailing all thefunctions of the software.

On-line help – This is usually a facility associated with a piece ofsoftware that explains to the user what each feature of the softwaredoes. Importantly, it is a part of the program situated on thecomputer and is not on the Internet




On-line tutorials – This is usually a facility associated with a pieceof software that teaches the user how to use the software. Usersare led through a set of steps that illustrate how the software worksand this is usually very similar to the paper-based tutorial manual(replacing it very often). This facility is also situated on thecomputer and is not on the Internet.

Help desk – There are two types of help desk: internal andexternal. They both provide support information on how to usethe information system or software. Sometimes the company that isthe end user of the software and focuses on solving low-level userproblems operates an internal help desk. These problems canusually be solved very simply and do not require a complexunderstanding of the information system.

An external help desk is usually associated with the softwarecompany that provided the software. They deal with complex high-level user problems. They provide detailed technical informationto the user and are also responsible for logging any bug reports forthe software, which would require the programming team to fix.

Newsgroups – A newsgroup allows users of a piece of software topost e-mail messages to the wider user community. Users subscribeto a newsgroup and when a message is posted there it is sent to allmembers of the group. If it is a problem that another user hasexperienced then they may reply with helpful advice. A newsgrouphelps support a user by allowing the user group to share theknowledge of the community. It is also common for the moderatorof a newsgroup to create an FAQ (see below), which is updatedand posted on a regular basis.

FAQs – This stands for Frequently Asked Questions. It is usually afile that contains a list of commonly asked user queries about apiece of software. These FAQ files are often posted on newsgroupsor on a website to allow users to access them easily. They can be asimple starting point when trying to find a solution to a problem. Ifthe user can’t find the answer in the FAQ then they can try one ofthe other sources of support.

Decisions to upgrade software

There are several reasons why an organisation may decide toupgrade their software, as it is usually a large step to take and caremust be taken to ensure that the upgrade is not a costly mistake.




Data files, which may be more valuable than the computer system,must be compatible with upgraded software, and upgradedsoftware must be compatible with the current hardware, or elsethat will need to be upgraded also; and so the cycle continues.

Lack of functionality – At some time the organisation will evolveand change. For example, a mail-order company might move overto telephone ordering. The mail-order software will not be able tocope with telephone ordering. In the case of an applicationpackage there may be new features in the software that the userswant to use or need to use. An example was Web Authoringsoftware that worked perfectly well but did not support MP3 files(which came out after the software was released), so the differentcompanies released upgrades to cope with these and other newfile formats.

Hardware incompatibility – It may be that an organisation has toupgrade its computers and the new computers have an operatingsystem that will not support the original software, so upgradedsoftware will need to be ordered or bought.

Software incompatibility – Likewise, an organisation may have toupgrade its software for operational reasons and finds that theupgraded software will not run on the version of the operatingsystem installed. The next step is then to upgrade the operatingsystem.

Perfecting the software – If a software company releases softwareand it discovers there are bugs in the software, the company willtry and remove those bugs and release an update. This may wellbe free, but users should check that their data files are upwardlycompatible.

Centralised and distributed databases

At the heart of most organisational information systems will be found avery large and powerful centralised database. The database program isoften called the database engine and it saves and indexes files in tablesand manages the relationships between the tables. The other functionssuch as data entry screens, querying and reporting are part of thedatabase shell and are often seen as peripheral tools for handling thedata.




Information held by the company can be found fairly easily by queryingits centralised database. Usually a multi-user or network system is usedwhich means that any user on the system can have access to thedatabase. It can usually be configured to allow different operatorsdifferent but relevant views of the information (sales screens, accountscreens, stock screens, etc.).

The advantages of the database being centralised are that it is mucheasier to organise, edit, update and back-up the data. Communicationsare easier if the data is held on one central computer rather than spreadover several and there are no real disadvantages to having a centraliseddatabase.

A centralised database holds all of an organisation’s data on a centralcomputer, whether mainframe or server. Dumb terminals on amainframe system and PCs on a network system can access it. Theseterminals and PCs can be some distance from the central database, butthe point is that all the data is together at the same place.

The main advantage of a centralised database is that it is far easier tomanage and control if all the data is in one location. For example, in anordering system, a customer may phone orders and gives notice thattheir address has changed; when the order operator changes thataddress it has been changed across the system. If the accountsdepartment then wish to send a statement to the customer they willhave the customer’s new address.

Another advantage is that the database is far easier to back up when it iscentralised than if it was kept on different computers; a suitable backupstrategy can easily be implemented.

A distributed database is a database that consists of two or more fileslocated at different sites on a computer network. Because the databaseis distributed, different users can access it without interfering with oneanother. The DBMS must periodically synchronise the scattereddatabases to make sure they all have consistent data.

Traditionally a distributed database was a collection of data and files,which actually belonged to a system but was physically distributed to anumber of computers that were connected via some communicationnetwork. Nowadays it is more likely to be independent database systemswith facilities for exchanging data.




Data warehousing and data mining

As you can imagine with data files with different structures, userswanting different reports from their data, some users wanting touse archived data for analysis and other users only being interestedin the immediate transactions, different techniques for archivingand interrogating the data have been developed. These are datawarehousing and data mining.

Data warehouseData warehousing has been around since the 1990s. The ideabehind data warehousing is that historical data, mainly from pasttransactions and orders that the company has carried out, areseparated out from the business.

The data is re-organised in such a way as to allow it to be analysed,the newly structured data is then queried and the results of thequery are reported.

Data warehousing could be used as a predictive tool, to indicatewhat should be done in the future. However, the main use of datawarehousing is not as a predictive tool but as a review tool, tomonitor the effects of previous operational decisions made in thecourse of a business. For example, if Marks & Spencer decided toopen stores in Asia, data could be collected over the first fewmonths as the stores opened. This could then be passed to a datawarehouse. The wisdom of opening stores in Asia for the businessas a whole could then be reviewed and conclusions backed up withstatistical evidence.

Data miningData mining has been defined as ‘The non-trivial extraction ofimplicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful informationfrom data’. It uses machine learning, and statistical andvisualisation techniques to discover and present knowledge in aform that is easily comprehensible to humans.

Data mining is the analysis of data and the use of softwaretechniques for finding patterns and regularities in sets of data. Thecomputer is responsible for finding the patterns by identifying theunderlying rules and features in the data.




It is possible to ‘strike gold’ in unexpected places because the data-mining software may extract patterns not previously discernible orso obvious that no one has noticed them before.

The mining analogy is that large volumes of data are sifted in anattempt to find something worthwhile, and (as in a miningoperation) large amounts of low-grade materials are sifted throughin order to find something of value.

Data-mining software allows users to analyse large databases tosolve business decision problems. For example, consider acatalogue retailer who needs to decide who should receiveinformation about a new product. The information surveyed by thedata-mining process is contained in a historical database ofprevious interactions with customers and the features associatedwith the customers (such as age, post code, their responses, etc.).The data-mining software would use this historical information tobuild a model of customer behaviour that could be used to predictwhich customers would be likely to respond to the new product.By using this information a marketing manager can select only thecustomers who are most likely to respond. The results of thedecision can then be fed to the appropriate marketing parts of theorganisation so that the right customers receive the right offers.




Higher questions on Organisational Information Systems

1. Explain the difference between a Local Area Network anda Wide Area Network. 2

2. What does a distributed network mean? 1

3. Explain the difference between a client server networkand a peer-to-peer network. 2

4. What functions does a network adapter card give to acomputer on a LAN? 1

5. What advantage does a fibre-optic cable give over atwisted pair or co-axial cable? 1What additional piece of hardware is required in anEthernet network when longish distances need becovered? 1

6. Explain why a file server and a network computer bothrequire a network operating system, and explain the maindifference between the two versions. 2

7. What is the main function of network auditing andmonitoring software? 2

8. Why might an organisation decide to implement a securitystrategy on its network? 1

9. Describe what is meant by data security, integrity andprivacy; and highlight the differences between these threeterms. 3

10. How may a virus be transmitted to a computer andsubsequently activated, and what is the likely effect of avirus on a computer system? 3

11. Hacking is gaining unauthorised access to a computerinformation system. How may an organisation protectitself from hackers, and what offence is actually committed? 2

12. Explain what is meant by a denial-of-service attack. 1




13. Explain how having a code of conduct in place can helpenhance the security of an organisation. 1

14. Explain how having a code governing password guidelinescan help enhance the security of an organisation. Givean example of the rules which may be in place. 2

15. How may a virus be prevented from attacking a network?If present, how may it be detected and infected files berepaired? 3

16. A firewall is a method of preventing unauthorised accessto a network. Explain how it operates. 3

17. Explain why Internet retailers use encryption and describea popular system. 2

18. Access rights involve how files may be accessed on anetwork. Describe the main actions that can be applied tofiles. 5

19. Explain why an organisation should have a backup strategy. 1

20. Describe what is meant by:

(a) Data archiving(b) Data recovery(c) Storage methods, including frequency and version

control 3

21. Explain why an organisation should have an upgradestrategy in place. 1

22. What is meant by integration testing? 2

23. What problems can legacy systems give a network manager? 1

24. What does the term emulation mean in the context oforganisational information systems? 1




25. As part of a software strategy an organisation may wish toevaluate software. Explain how the software can beevaluated with reference to the criteria of functionality,performance, usability, compatibility, data migration,reliability, resource requirements, portability and support. 9

26. Describe the methods of providing training in usinginformation systems software including on-the-job training,in-house and external courses. 3

27. Identify and describe the means of obtaining user support. 5

28. Explain the factors that need to be considered if anorganisation decides to upgrade its software. 4

29. Explain the essential differences between a centralised anda distributed database. Mention the advantages ordisadvantages of both. 3

30. What does data warehousing mean and why may a companydecide to warehouse data? 2

31. (a) What is data mining defined as?(b) Describe how data mining operates.(c) Describe a business situation where data mining may

be very useful. 3

Total marks 76





INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

SECTION 3

Information management software

Up until now we have really only considered the use of databasesoftware in management information systems. But while this may be atthe core of many organisations, most users of personal computers willuse a range of software particularly at tactical and strategic levels. So inthis section we will look at the different types of software that peopleare likely to use and the use they are likely to make of each type.

Word processing

Word processing is probably one of the most widely used pieces ofapplication software available on a computer. It is likely to be used at alllevels in an organisation with clerks and typists using word processing atan operational level, e.g. for typing. Its main use is for editing andmanipulating text on a page. Originally it was simply a piece of softwarethat allowed the user to use the computer like a typewriter. Over manyyears it has developed, with more complex features and facilities beingadded. Word-processing application software is used for writing reports,letters, memos and worksheets like this. Arguably the best-known wordprocessing software is Microsoft Word.

Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet package allows the user to arrange information on thescreen as a table made up of boxes called cells. As well as layinginformation out in a table, the spreadsheet also has the facility to carryout calculations using formulae. Spreadsheet application software isused for laying out financial information like budgets, cash-flowforecasts, profit-and-loss tables. It can also be used to lay out statisticaldata in tables, or even simple budgets such as household ordepartmental expenditure. Spreadsheet software can also use the tablesof data to create a range of graphs and charts. There are two pieces ofspreadsheet software that are popular on computers. These are Lotus 1–2–3 and Microsoft’s Excel.




Database

A database package allows the user to organise and store information,which the computer will sort, search and navigate (browse) for the user.Databases contain files or tables, which may be related. The files ortables contain records and each record is made up of fields, whichcontain single items of data. We have already discussed several largeapplications of database software but on a personal or small businesslevel, database application software would be used to store informationabout pupils in a school, customers for a video shop, criminals andcrimes for the police, or any other collection of data. There are manypowerful pieces of database software available on the market to meet theneeds of an organisation. The two common pieces for desktop machinesare Access from Microsoft and FileMaker Pro from FileMaker.

Graphics design

A graphics package allows the user to create and manipulate pictures.This type of software can include packages that allow you to drawpictures, create 2D and 3D graphic images, create animations or films, orcreate and present slides of graphical information. Many professionalorganisations use graphic design software as a means to an end and willspend a lot of time creating and editing images prior to using them inweb design, publishing or even in creating animations, movies andcomputer games. If you are looking for a professional drawing packageyou might choose Adobe Illustrator, Paintshop Pro or Corel Draw. If youwanted to edit scanned photos you might select Adobe Photoshop orCorel Photo–Paint.

Browsers

Browsers are programs that allow users to retrieve information from theInternet. You may think it strange that we use the plural when the onlybrowser you may ever have seen is Explorer, but there are others. Abrowser’s main use is to display and navigate the World Wide Web bydisplaying web pages as text, graphics, animations and hyperlinks, all ofthem written in code (actually HTML and XTML). Browsers supportother functions such as allowing the user to bookmark favourite webpages for quick retrieval at a later time and they also maintain a historyof websites visited. There are also navigation functions such as forwardand back buttons, and a stop and refresh buttons.

Originally the dominant web browser was Netscape (where terms like‘bookmark’ as opposed to ‘favourite’ originated), which eventually lost




out to Microsoft Explorer. However, when any product is dominantcommercial competitors will develop what they think are betterproducts. Both AOL and BT Broadband use their own browsers, whichmake functions like e-mails and bookmarking easier, and they also plugsecurity gaps which are not standard in Explorer, such as Pop-upblocker, anti-virus, anti-spam and parental controls. There is also analternative culture that swears by browsers such as Safari, Opera andMozilla, which again offer more and better functions.

E-mail client

This is a program which allows a user to write, send, receive and read e-mail messages.

There are in fact two different ways of using e-mail, on-line and off-line.In an off-line e-mail program like Outlook Express you can compose andread e-mails without connecting to the web, but in order to send andreceive messages you need to log on. The messages are then sent andany new messages are downloaded into the mailbox where the user canread them after disconnecting from the web. The disadvantage of thismethod is that there is usually not much security and viruses can bedownloaded along with the e-mails. The advantage is the low cost ofconnection time.

The other method is to connect to an on-line provider such as Hotmail,AOL and BT. All three of these providers make the user log on and stayonline while they are reading and sending e-mails. The e-mail is neverstored on your own computer and the security is much higher. Theprovider usually scans and traps viruses before letting the user read themail, and spam can also be trapped. The disadvantage is that the usermust be on-line all the time but with cost-inclusive deals and Broadbandthis is not a problem for many people.

Chat client

This is a program which allows users who are connected to the Internetto send and receive messages interactively. There are severalgenerations of chat client. The first allowed written conversations inwhich participants entered their comments using the keyboard and readthe replies in a window on their screen. A development on thisgeneration was the introduction of Instant Messaging; allowing users tobe informed immediately when a friend on their chat list logged on tothe Internet. Another development of chat clients was the introductionof voice-based messaging. This allowed users to communicate throughthe chat client in a similar way to using the telephone.




The most recent generation of chat clients allows video-based messagingusing web cams. Now users can see and hear the messages from theirfriends or colleagues.

Examples of these types of program are MSN Messenger, IRC (InternetRelay Chat) and Yahoo Messenger.

Desk-top publishing (DTP)

This software is used to create documents that can be printed on paper.It allows you to lay out text and graphics on a page for professionalprinting. It allows text and graphics to be positioned precisely on apage, and it allows a great deal of control over multi-page documentsand different formats such as A3 foldable leaflets and A5 booklets. DTPalso allows the user to prepare the pages for professional use by printersand publishers. There are various DTP packages in common use andyou are more likely to come across Microsoft Publisher, AdobePageMaker, In-Design or Quark Express than some of the otherpackages.

Presentation

This is software which allows the user to create slide shows that can beshown on a large screen via a data projector. Current versions of thesoftware can incorporate text, graphics (real photos, clip art, etc.),sound clips and animations. Slides can be printed onto paper with 3 or6 to a page so that the audience can have a copy of the presentation.The slides can also be printed A4 size onto acetate slides for use on anoverhead projector. If you wanted to create a graphic slide presentationyou might buy Microsoft PowerPoint or Apple’s Keynote.

Reference

Reference software is any program that can be used to help someonelearn new facts, skills or information. In the early 1990s many CD-ROMswere released covering almost every subject under the sun and manyschools were given free CDs covering History, Geography and Science,etc. The Internet has superseded the subject matter of many of these.Probably the most famous reference book, Encyclopedia Britannica, hasmoved from being a paper-based collection of some 30 books costing upto thousands of pounds to a CD-ROM costing around £100. The CD-ROMhas now become defunct and for around a £10 subscription you may logon to Britannica Online. Examples of this kind of software, which havesurvived on CD, are the Encarta Encyclopedia and Dictionary CD–ROMand other language-based software like a Thesaurus.




Financial

Financial software can be used to help manage and control money aswell as to perform calculations relating to money. Budgeting at home orfor a company is an example of a job a financial package may bedesigned to solve. They can also help control the transfer of money fromone bank account to another and from one person to another. Someexamples of financial application software are Microsoft’s Money 2003,Quicken’s QuickBooks Pro and MYOB. Most businesses use a smallbusiness accounting package, which deals with customer and supplieraccounts and produces invoices, statements and payment advices. Theycan also keep the actual records up to date and handle stock control,order processing and other functions. Some companies purchasefinancial software that has been either written from scratch especially fortheir use or modified for them, whereas smaller businesses tend topurchase packages like Sage or Pegasus Accounting suites.

Web authoring

This type of program allows users to create web pages very easilywithout needing to know how to use the programming language HTML.It has developed to a level where whole websites (sometimes involvinghundreds of pages) can be managed and designed very quickly andsimply. Web pages and sites can incorporate text, graphics, animations,audio files and full video. However, one problem is that new file formatscan be introduced and the web-authoring software cannot recognisethem. An example of this was when MP3 overtook Real Player formataudio files and all the packages had to release new versions with supportfor MP3, which also tidied up lots of other loose ends. Examples of web-authoring software are DreamWeaver from Macromedia, Adobe Go-Liveand FrontPage from Microsoft.




Intermediate 2 questions – Personal and organisational uses ofInformation Management Software

1. What type of software would you use for editing andmanipulating text on a page? 1

2. What type of software would allow the user to create andmanipulate pictures? 1

3. What type of software would be used to lay out financial andstatistical data in tables and apply formulas and calculations tothe data? 1

4. What type of software would allow the user to create and storeinformation? 1

5. (a) What is e-mail client software used for? 1(b) Describe the two different methods of using e-mail. 2(c) Give an advantage and a disadvantage of using an on-line

e-mail provider. 2

6. (a) Describe what browser software is used for. 1(b) State the navigational functions supported by most

browsers. 2(c) Describe what is meant by bookmarking. 1

7. Describe the three generations of chat client software. 3

8. Describe three ways DTP software can be used. 3

9. What type of software would be used to create a slide show thatcould be used with a data projector? 1

10. What type of software is an encyclopaedia supplied on aCD-ROM? 1

11. (a) What may financial software be used for in a homeenvironment? 1

(b) What may financial software be used for in a businessenvironment? 2

12. What does web-authoring software allow the user to do? 1




13. If a company was making websites commercially what typesof software would they need and why? 3

14. If a teacher wished to make a slide show to help deliver alesson, which type of software would s/he use? 1

15. What type of software allows the user to create and maintaincustomer and supplier accounts? 1

Total marks 30




Tasks for Intermediate 2

You will have to complete a practical assessment using several differenttypes of software in order to complete the unit. As a preparation forthis work it will be necessary for you to know how to operate yourchosen packages to a reasonably high level. You have to use software toprocess and retrieve information and also to create and storeinformation. Your tutor will supply you with resources to teach you howto use your chosen packages:

• Database• Word Processor• Desk Top Publisher• Presentation Software• Web Authoring Software• Spreadsheet

There is nothing to stop you learning how to use all the packages andthen make your mind up which one to use.

Choose at least one task from List A and at least one from List B.

For the two tasks you have to submit for marking, hard-copy evidence inthe form of printouts should be included.

List A

Task 1Make up one A4-sized page which is a newsletter about your favouritecelebrity, sporting hero or team. Your page should have three columns,a suitable heading or title, and at least one graphic. Use the Internet tohelp gather your information and graphics. After your graphic has beenplaced on the page ensure that it is resized (either larger or smaller).Plan out your page on paper before you start looking for information.




Task 2You have been given the task of setting up a database to track andanalyse customer details for a large mail-order store. Here is somesample data:

Customer Address Branch Goods Ordername valueMr G Davis 12 North Road, Aberdeen Philips 28' TV £799.00

AberdeenMrs H Evans 268 Long Street, Edinburgh Bosch washing £525.00

Perth machineMiss H Smith 10 Warren Road, Edinburgh Zanussi freezer £356.00

EdinburghMrs D Carnegie The Firs, Edinburgh NEFF microwave £799.00

DunfermlineMr I James 12 Panmure Place, Glasgow Philips PC bundle £398.00

GlasgowMr H Wragg 6 Garthdee Rd, Aberdeen Sony music centre £648.00

PeterheadMs H Wyness 2 New Perth Rd, Aberdeen Playstation + FIFA £299.00

InvernessMiss F West 4 New Street, Glasgow Food processor £99.00

Stirling

• You have to enter the data into a database application.

• Sort the data by branch alphabetically ascending and valuedescending.

• Print a report or layout of your sorted data.

• Can you sort the data alphabetically by customer surname? If not,what change would you have to make to your data? Make the change;and when you have finished reorganising the data sort the data bycustomer surname.

The next tasks are probably quite difficult to perform using databasesoftware and you may wish to try the entire task in a spreadsheet andcompare the functionality of the two packages.

• Calculate the total and average order value for each branch andoverall.

• Show the total branch orders in a pie chart.




Task 3Make up a small website of between three and five pages on a topic thatinterests you. Include as many graphics as you need and try tomanipulate at least one graphic using graphics software (change thebrightness and contrast or apply a filter or texture to the graphic).

Remember to include links to allow navigation between pages.

If you are going to submit this task for assessment please print out yourfinished pages.

List B

Task 4Using presentation software, create a presentation of several slides usingtext and graphics and, if possible, sound. Some ideas are:

• A sales presentation to sell a new product (computer, magazine, etc.)• A presentation about Information Systems to persuade students to

enrol next year.• The different sports a person can play in your school or college.• Some holiday destinations either at home or abroad.

Task 5Create a spreadsheet to track a small league of eight teams over threeweeks. You will also need to make a small table to show the results ofeach week’s games.

Each week the league must be updated with the points and goals scoredand sorted in order of points and goal difference.

The headings you need are: Team Name, Games Played, Wins (3 points),Draws (1 point), Losses, Goals For, Goals Against, Goal Difference,Points.

Again, if you wish to submit this task for evidence then include aprintout of each week sorted as evidence that you have completed thetask.




Classes of software

An attempt has been made to classify software into different typesand we want to look at five classes of software and what we useeach class for.

Presenting information for print media

Virtually all the applications described on pp 73–7 are designed toproduce printed output except for graphics and web authoringwhich tend to be more visual. However only word processing(WP) and desk-top publishing (DTP) are classed in this group.

The real differences between the two are that WP tends to be usedmainly for generating text, while DTP tends to use pre-preparedtext. Although a package like Word has very good graphicsfacilities and can handle a mixture of text and graphics reasonablywell, DTP manages to handle text and graphics far more easily. WPcan deal with multi-page documents but when working with a largedocument it can take a while to move between pages and texttends to spill onto pages when you don’t want it to. DTP handlesmulti-page documents far better with a display whereby a clicktakes you to a page and what is placed on that page stays thereuntil you decide to move it. DTP files tend to be very largeespecially if real pictures are used.

If an organisation is producing a brochure, magazine or cataloguethat is created in PageMaker, commercial printers can use the filedirectly in their typesetting equipment. This can cut the cost ofprinting considerably.

Presenting information for on-line media

Probably the largest growth area in personal computer applicationsrecently has been in the use of software to create presentationsand web pages.

Mostly the reasons are to do with cost and availability in that thecost of data projectors, used to project presentations on a screen,has tumbled dramatically in recent years to the extent thatelectrical retailers are aiming them at the domestic market.

When it comes to web authoring software, not only has the choiceof packages increased and the cost dropped but many more people




and businesses are connected to the Internet. Also, many morepeople are good at creating websites so it is cheaper to have thembuilt for a company (many companies employ students to buildtheir websites).

Presentation software tends to allow the user to create a slideshow. Slides can hold a variety of multimedia objects, text,graphics (clip art, charts, real photos and animations), sound(noises like applause, etc., clips of speech or music, and full musicfiles) and video (short clips can be incorporated into a slide).Slides do not have to be shown sequentially, but can be sequencedand jumped to directly using hyperlinks. Without doubt the mostpopular package is Microsoft PowerPoint, although other packagesare popular in areas such as education, with HyperCard andHyperStudio being popular with Apple users. PowerPoint,however, also allows slide shows to be saved as HTML andconsequently attached to websites.

Web-authoring software allows users easily to make up web pagesby dragging and dropping objects onto the screen, clicking onicons to link graphics and other media files, and deal easily withlinking. Underneath all this, however, the software is writing thefile as HTML or XTML code. There may be a menu option or tabon your package to allow you to see and edit the HTML code.When you see it you will be glad that the software did all thatboring coding for you and you can use your expertise to add thelittle tweaks that will make your site different. One example of thisis copying in code (available on the net) to give cascading menus ifthe software will not allow you to create them directly. Somepackages such as Microsoft Front Page and Adobe Go-Live are veryeasy for beginners to use; Dreamweaver is probably agreed to bethe most powerful package, but also the hardest to learn of the ‘bigthree’.

Data handling – spreadsheet

There is a separate unit on database software, so to avoidrepetition here we will only briefly look at spreadsheet software inthis classification. Spreadsheets are probably the most importantmicrocomputer class of software as it was the invention of aspreadsheet program (VisiCalc), which caused sales of Apple andCommodore computers to really take off worldwide. Apple usedthe sales revenues for research and development with the




Macintosh computer being unveiled in around 1983. The successof Apple and Commodore caused IBM to rethink their Mainframe-only strategy and the IBM PC was born also around 1983; thephenomenal growth of the computer industry then began, and itwas the spreadsheet that started it all off. Why? Because it is a toolused by accountants and managers and the people with money tospend on these early computers.

Spreadsheet software is used in a variety of different situations in abusiness context, such as financial applications, modelling andsimulating, and statistical analysis. Spreadsheets are usedextensively in education for recording and analysing marks andresults and also keeping track of budgets and other financialinformation, and in a home situation people keep track ofhousehold expenditure, track share values and even keep track ofcontacts. Spreadsheet packages are very good at formatting outputand many people use them for printing address labels.

We will now look at these areas of financial applications, modellingand simulating, statistical analysis, education and home use in a bitmore depth. We will also look at charting and the use of macros inspreadsheets.

Financial application – Common examples are producing cashflow forecasts, statements of accounts, invoices, sales orders,purchase orders, customer quotations, managing travel expenses,and project management.

Modelling and simulation – This involves creating a numericrepresentation of an existing situation (modelling) or predicting anew situation (simulation). In both cases the input data (variables)of the numeric representation can be manipulated to investigatedifferent situations. This ability to experiment with the numericmodel is often referred to as ‘what-if? analysis’.

Statistical analysis – All spreadsheets applications providenumerous features for the analysis of numerical information. Twomain examples are Descriptive Statistics and Goal Seeking.

Descriptive Statistics are the functions built into the spreadsheetapplication that allow the user to summarise large blocks of data.Examples of these functions are: Average, Maximum, Minimum,Sum, Count, Standard Deviation and Variance.




Goal Seeking describes a way of automatically changing the valuesin a formula until a desired result is achieved. An example of this iswhen a formula is used to calculate the profit made on sales ofvarious items. Goal seeking could then be used to calculate thelevel of sales required to produce a specified level of profit.

Education – In education many teachers and lecturers use aspreadsheet to record marks and results. These can then be addedto give reporting information and used as a mail-merge file with aword processor to produce pupil and student reports. Heads ofdepartment may use a spreadsheet to keep account of their budgetexpenditure and photocopying or printing usage.

Home – At home many people use spreadsheets, primarily to keeptrack of household expenditure, both what they spend theirmoney on and a record of money going into and out of their bankaccount so that they can hopefully avoid getting overdrawn andincurring financial penalties.

Another use often made of spreadsheets by people who are notconfident with database software is to keep name-and-address lists.They can enter the name and address into a cell, format it nicely,sort the cells alphabetically, easily amend data and format it so thatit neatly fits onto an address label, and then print the file ontoaddress labels.

Macro use – A macro is a sequence of instructions that can be usedto automate complex or repetitive tasks. Spreadsheets were thefirst software packages to incorporate macro use within themselvesand the preferred method of creating a macro is the ‘learn anduse’ method. A user switches on the macro recorder and followsthe sequence of events through. When the recorder is stoppedthe macro is saved with that data file; when the file is opened andthe user wants to run the sequence of events they simply run themacro. This can include selecting cells and all the functions of thepackage.

Project management

This is software used specifically to help manage a project: theplanning, monitoring and control of the various activities orresources that contribute to its success.




Project management involves identifying and assigning theactivities that need to be carried out to complete the project.Duration, cost, resources, employees, inter-relationships – all needto be factored in. The project leader can use the software toschedule the activities to ensure the project is as efficient andeffective as possible.

Some examples of project management software are: MicrosoftProject; CA SuperProject and Hoskyns Project ManagersWorkbench.

When a project is under way, its objectives must be closelymonitored. This involves comparing the actual activities with thoseplanned. This should happen on a daily basis for small-scaleprojects and weekly for larger projects. The software can be usedto automate the collection of progress data and output progressreports.

Once all the activities have been defined, the software can outputthe project plan in a variety of formats. Two of the most commonare Gantt and PERT.

Personal information management

Personal information management software (PIM) is a type ofsoftware application designed to help users organise random bitsof information. Although the category is fuzzy, most PIMs enableyou to enter various kinds of textual notes – reminders, lists, anddates – and to link these bits of information together in usefulways. Many PIMs also include calendar, scheduling, and calculatorprograms. Microsoft Outlook is a good example; Lotus Notes isanother.




Document-processing software

We often define software in terms of the data objects it handles, theoperations that can be performed on these objects and the formattingfunctions that can be applied to them.

Word processing deals with the basic entering and editing of text andthe data objects associated with a word processor are characters,words, paragraphs (between two return characters) and graphic objectsembedded in the text.

Operations

If we look at the menu options in Microsoft Word then we can seewhere we are going to find the operations that can be performed.

File menu – contains operations that can be performed on whole files.Edit menu – has options like select all, cut, copy and paste on selectedtext.View menu – lists the ways in which you can view the file, includingheaders and footers.Insert menu – page break, date/time, picture, etc.Format menu – contains options whereby you can format text (quite anextensive menu).Tools menu – mail merge, spelling and grammar, options andcustomisation.Table menu – insert table then table operations.Window and Help menus – much as in other Windows applications.

Basic operations are usually to be found in the Edit menu. Afterselecting some text, you can choose to cut it, copy it, paste what was cutor copied or delete the text.

Formatting functions are found mostly in the Format menu and also onthe icons on the menu line with B I U on it. You can format the text bychanging its font, size, colour and style. Paragraphs can be centred, leftor right ranged, or fully justified and numbered, and bullet lists can becreated.




Desk-top publishing

This is a screenshot of the PageMaker menus and opening toolbars.

As you can see we now have the basic File, Edit, View, Window andHelp menus, which contain very similar functions to Word.However we now have Layout, Type, Element and Utility menus,which contain most of the formatting functions. There is also aToolbox with the very important arrow and Text tools as well asbasic drawing tools, and a colour palette.

If you can it is a good idea to have a look at a DTP program andstudy the different options within the different menus. You willsee more publishing terms and specialist terms like tracking andkerning and more object control than in word processing.

Beyond these basic functions most word processors and desk-toppublishers offer a good selection of advanced operations andfunctions, a few of which are described below.

Page layout – deals first with the size and aspect of the page andthe size of page margins. Within a document it then deals withsetting margins, inserting headers and footers, and the number ofcolumns of text on a page. This can be global (affecting the wholedocument) or local to a particular page.

Headers and footers – In the header and footer section, whichusually fits in the white space above and below the text, you caninsert text, page numbers, time and date and in some casesautotext like ‘page x of y’. It is more usual to put chapter headingsand so on in the header and page numbers in the footer althoughthere is no rule that says you must do this.




Columns – You can set up columns in a document, although in aword processor you cannot choose just one page in a multi-pagedocument to apply the columns to. DTP programs do handle theuse of columns and placing graphics, like a newspaper masthead,across the columns, without affecting the text.

Multi-page layout – Most document production software, whethera word processor or a DTP program, allows the user to definedifferent page layouts (formats) within the one document. Bothhandle multi-page documents well, but DTP allows for moreprecise control over where text is placed. Generally experiencedusers find a DTP package better for dealing with multi-pagedocuments once the text has been entered.

Pagination – There are actually two types of pagination withinword processors and DTP software. The first kind refers tonumbering pages in a document, and is often performed withinthe header or footer section. You can usually specify on what pageyou want the page numbering to start and the format of your pagenumbering.

The second kind refers to dividing a document into pages. Mostword processors automatically paginate documents based on apage size that you specify. Some word processors enable you toavoid widows and orphans during pagination.

Contents and indexing – Most modern document processingsoftware provides a feature to automatically create contents orindex pages. Generally, if you use the built-in headings feature (inWord, headings 1 to 9) you can then use the Table of Contents orIndex features (in the Insert menu in Word) and the contents willbe laid out with page numbers for you. Generally you will use acontents list at the start of a document and an index at the end.

Inserting graphics – Most modern document processing softwareallows the user to insert graphics into the document. Thesegraphics can be pasted into a document from the clipboard or froma file. Some software supports clip-art libraries that allow the userto search for a graphic from this extensive library either on CD-ROM, the hard disk or from the Internet.

There are different ways in which the graphic can behave on thepage. It can sit all by itself with white space above, below and toeither side, but sometimes that is not the desired effect.




This effect is called ‘text wrapping’. The graphic below has beenformatted with ‘Tight’ selected from the Layout Tab in the FormatPicture box in Word. The text then flows around the graphic andallows us to describe what is happening in the picture around it ordown the side.

Style sheets – The style-sheet feature allows the user to vary fontstyles, which can then very quickly and easily be applied to sectionsof the document. Usually some styles (such as headings and bodytext) are predefined, but users should be able to amend thesestyles and add their own.

When creating a document some thought should be given to thechoice of font; their styles and the sizes that are to be used forheadings, body text and sub-headings.

Text formatting – Document processing software allows the useralmost unrestricted choice of text – fonts, styles, and sizes.

If you are producing professional-looking text you should limityour use of font styles to two, Bold and Italic.

Size of text can vary depending on the context of its use. If youneed a heading or headline you want your text to be large and eye-catching. If you have a document, such as a newspaper, which has




multiple columns, then you need to reduce the font size slightly toallow enough words to fit on each line, to make it legible and easyfor the reader to absorb.

Font selection – Two basic categories of font are serif and sansserif. Serif fonts are typefaces characterised by short marksstemming from the upper and lower strokes of the letters; forexample, the thin-to-thick stroke transitions that can be seen on aTimes font. Sans-serif fonts do not have this feature: the stroke ofeach character is of an equal thickness, as seen on a font like Arialor Helvetica.

Times Times Arial Arial

When selecting fonts you need to be aware of two issues relating toproducing text documents; these are readability and legibility.Readability refers to how easy extended sections of body text areto read. Legibility refers to how easy short pieces of text (such asnewspaper headlines) are to decipher at first glance.

Common rules when selecting fonts are:

1. Choose a serif font for extended body text to make it as easyto read as possible.

2. Choose a sans-serif font for headings that you want to standout from the rest of the page.

Colour use – On most occasions using colour when wordprocessing will be unnecessary, as you will be outputting to a black-and-white printer. But on some occasions you may wish to createa poster or similar eye-catching display, and document-processingsoftware gives you a wide choice of colour options. You can selectthe font colour, the colour of lines in graphics, the fill colour ofgraphics and different gradients and mixed patterns. Use of colouris one of the strongest features of DTP and WP software.

A standard combination of font, style, layout and colour usedregularly within an organisation is called a house style.




Multimedia production – Web authoring and presentation

Page structure

Web authoring – Most web-authoring packages allow the user tomake up either an individual web page or a complete website.When making up a web page users have to consider the layout theywant and how they will incorporate text and graphics. Whenmaking up a website (two or more web pages) the question ofstructure arises regarding linkage. The pages can be linked toform a hierarchical structure, or they may be linked to form alinear structure. It is usual to offer a home or index page that linksto all other pages.

Presentation – Generally when making up a slide-show the slidesfollow each other in a linear fashion from top to bottom, althoughit is possible to hyperlink from one slide to another. A slide showis usually meant to be worked through in a linear fashion, but in alarge show it may be desirable to link from one section to another.In Microsoft PowerPoint a certain area of the slide can be givenover to a heading and it is usual to have a title running up the side.This of course reduces the area left in the slide for content.

Incorporation of graphics

Web authoring – Good web pages rely on graphics for their impactand to exemplify the text. However, the author has to be carefulthat the graphic is not included simply because there is an area ofthe page or screen that is empty. It is best to avoid this temptation.The rule to follow is only to insert a graphic if it adds to themeaning of your web page. Do not be tempted to include silly clip-art. Graphics cannot be placed directly on a web page. Spaceneeds to be set aside by whatever method the software requiresand a link established to the graphic. All graphics in web pages arelinked to that page and you cannot copy and paste them in. Forthis very reason it is also possible to link to sound, animation andvideo files, although care must be taken with these too, as they canbe very large and for many Internet users low bandwidth is still aproblem (e.g. dial-up as opposed to Broadband). Because the filesare linked to the website, it is important to keep them in the samerelative position, for example keep the pages and all files in thesame folder, if they are then to be put onto the Internet as awebsite.




Presentation – The same rules of inserting static and animatedgraphics apply to presentations as well as web pages, but themethod of inserting graphics is different as the graphic is usuallyincorporated into the slide. There is a method of linking graphicsto a slide but unless the slide show is going onto the web it is notusually so important to do that. The usual method is to insert apicture from file and that is what happens; the picture is insertedinto the show and stays there wherever it is subsequently taken.

Presentation style

Your goal as a writer is to communicate with the reader whetheron a web page or a slide show. People may not take you seriously ifyour writing contains flagrant spelling errors or uses abstruse andconfusing language. In other words, watch your spelling and don’tuse words you don’t understand. Please do not write confusingsentences. And before you start writing, you need to organise yourthoughts, so that you know what you want to say.

On a practical level there are considerations of presentation styleto do with font selection and colour use. Not every font isavailable in web-authoring software and you need to experimentwith your chosen software to see what is available. Presentationsoftware is probably able to use all the fonts in your system.

Font selection – The best category of font for legibility (ability to beseen from a distance) is a sans-serif font like Arial or Helvetica.They have a constant stroke, the lines in each letter have aconstant width, and there are no thick-to-thin transitions. Goodserif fonts include Times New Roman.

Colour use – When choosing a background colour it is best tochoose a dark background with a light foreground or text colouror vice versa (very light background and dark text). This makes iteasier to read the text on screen or when projected. One colourscheme to avoid is Red and Green. This colour combination cannotto be seen by people who are colour blind, so no matter howmuch you like the colours don’t put them together. A good plan isto visit several websites looking very carefully at the colours usedfor background and text. Ask yourself: how legible are they?

Navigation – Web pages can be linked together and when they aredisplayed in a browser the main method of moving between pages(or different parts of a page) is by hyperlinking. When you are on




the web you can set yourself a home page to which your browserreturns when you click on the icon for home. You can also use theforward and back buttons on the browser and favourites(bookmarks) and history icons to help navigate. (It is goodpractice to include a home link on every page of a website to takethe reader back to the home page of the site.) Presentationsoftware usually lets you move on to the next slide by clicking themouse. You can also use the navigation button to select a slide togo directly to. Depending on whether transitions have been usedthe mouse click will usually invoke the transition.

Templates/page masters – There are no templates as such in webauthoring packages but any page can be used as a template byopening it up and then saving as to a different file name. Stylesheets are used in web authoring and they can be used to applycertain styles to pages as you make them up. Presentationpackages come with a vast array of templates and presentationstyles that can be used to base your presentation upon. You canalso set up a master slide as a template. This backgroundinformation is then applied to every new slide that is made up.

Spreadsheets

Spreadsheets deal with the basic entering of numbers and text into cellsor groups of cells. Formulae can be applied to cells or groups of cellsand the data objects associated with a spreadsheet are cells which cancontain text, numbers or a formula.

Operations

If we look at the menu options in Microsoft Excel then we can see wherewe are going to find the operations that can be performed.

File menu – contains operations that can be performed on whole files.Edit menu – has options like Select all, Cut, Copy and Paste on selectedcells, also options like Paste Special, which allows links to be established,Fill Down and Fill Across.




View menu – the ways in which you can view the file, including headersand footers.Insert menu – rows, columns, worksheet and most importantlyfunctions.Format menu – contains options whereby you can format cells includingnumeric formatting like currency.Tools menu – Spelling, Protection Macros and of course options andcustomise.Data menu – Sort, Filter and Pivot Tables.Window and Help menus – much as in other Windows applications.

Operations in a spreadsheet are what can be done to cells or groups ofcells. The main power of a spreadsheet is the ability to replicateformulae by use of Fill Down and Fill Across. Formulae, which are foundin the Insert menu, can be inserted in cells or typed in on the entry line(next to the = sign in the graphic). The chart menu is accessed via anicon on the menu bar and a wide range of charts can be drawn.

Formatting functions are found mostly in the format menu and also onthe icons on the menu line with B I U on it. You can format the text bychanging its font, size, colour and style. Cell contents can be alignedleft, right or centred and one of the most powerful menu functions, theautosum, is one of the icons. Numeric cells can be formatted in a widevariety of styles to do with numbers (percentages, currency, fractions,etc).

Advanced functions

All spreadsheet applications provide a large number of built-infunctions that can be used to simplify the construction of aspreadsheet. Functions are normally divided into severalcategories: Date & Time, Financial, Logical, Lookup, Mathematics,Statistical and Text.

Features of spreadsheet software often used are goal seeking andforecasting, lookup tables, advanced functions such as, nested ifsand count, and the use of macros to perform what are oftenthought of as advanced functions. We shall examine each of thesein a bit more depth.

Goal seeking describes a way of automatically changing the valuesin a formula until a desired result is achieved. An example of this isa formula used to calculate the profit made on sales of various




items. Goal seeking could then be used to calculate the level ofsales required to produce a specified level of profit.

Forecasting calculates, or predicts, a future value by using existingvalues. The predicted value is a y-value for a given x-value. Theknown values are existing x-values and y-values, and the new valueis predicted by using linear regression. You can use this function topredict future sales, inventory requirements, or consumer trends.There is a Forecast function in Microsoft Excel, the syntax of whichis FORECAST (X, known_y’s, known_x’s)

X is the data point for which you want to predict a value.Known_y’s is the dependent array or range of data, such as a

column of figures.Known_x’s is the independent array or range of data.

The mathematics is quite complicated but the example given inExcel’s help shows:

FORECAST(30,{6,7,9,15,21},{20,28,31,38,40}) equals 10.60725

Lookup tables – This type of function is used when complexconditions are required to be checked when performing acalculation. It can also be used to code and decode values fromnumeric (quantitative) data into text (qualitative) data. An exampleof this would be using a lookup table to convert a percentagescored in a test into a grade.

Count – This counts the number of cells that contain numbers andnumbers within the list of arguments. We can use COUNT to getthe number of entries in a number field in a range or array ofnumbers.

Closely associated with COUNT is COUNTA that counts thenumber of cells that are not empty and the values within the list ofarguments. Use COUNTA to count the number of cells that containdata in a range or array. An example of that is counting thenumber of names in a list such as a class list.

Nested Ifs – The standard IF function has the form=IF(expression,value if true, value if false). This is often notenough for us because we may want to say that ‘value if true’ is anIF statement as well. Consider the example that a student will passthe course if they pass an exam out of 70 with 35 or more and if




they pass a practical test with 15 or more out of 30. This will giveus:

=IF(exam mark>=35,IF(practical mark>15,pass,fail),fail)

This is a nested IF function because we have used an IF functionwithin an IF function.

Macro use. A macro is a sequence of instructions that can be usedto automate complex or repetitive tasks and a brief explanation hasalready been given, but a slightly more technical explanation ofmacros in spreadsheets is exemplified here.

If you perform a task repeatedly in a spreadsheet, you canautomate the task with a macro. In Microsoft Excel a macro is aseries of commands and functions that are stored in a Visual Basicmodule and can be run whenever you need to perform the task.When you record a macro, Excel stores information about eachstep you take as you perform a series of commands. You can storethe macro under a keypress (for example Shift+Alt+1-9 allow youup to nine macros without interfering with any other commands).You then run the macro to repeat, or ‘play back’, the commands.

Project management

The main features of project management software are that whenall the data has been input and collated then differing forms ofoutput can be produced. These are timelines, resource allocation,Gantt and Pert charts, and optimisation and critical path analysis.

Timelines – These are a simple way of showing how and whencertain tasks in a project have to be completed before the next onecan be started. A good example is a design and build project of aschool. The design phase must be completed before the buildphase can start and it must be completed before the fitting outphase, then the decorating and furnishing and finally theoccupation. This can be exemplified in a chart.

May 2003 April 2005 May 2006 Jan 2007 April 2007Design Build Fitting out Decorating Occupation

andfurnishing

This chart is well behaved, as each phase must be finished beforethe next one is started but sometimes we get overlap.




Resource allocation – There are software tools that help users findthe best way to allocate scarce resources. The resources may beraw materials, machine time or people time, money, or anythingelse in limited supply. The ‘best’ or optimal solution may meanmaximising profits, minimising costs, or achieving the best possiblequality.

The tools are generally called a resource allocation solver and arefound with a good project management package. To use aresource allocation solver, the user must build a model thatspecifies the resources to be used using decision variables, thelimits on resource usage called constraints, and the measure tooptimise called the objective. The solver will find values for thedecision variables that satisfy the constraints while optimising(maximising or minimising) the objective.

Gantt chart – This is a type of bar chart showing the timings ofeach activity in the project. It can be used to monitor the progressof the project by indicating the start and stop dates for eachactivity. Some activities are called Milestones; these are significantevents in the project, such as the completion of a prototype dateor a customer inspection date.

Task Duration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Define the ProblemFeasibility StudyGather DataAnalyse Data and Develop Logical DesignWrite systems analysis report

PERT chart – This can be used to show the relationship betweenactivities. It shows the activities that must be followed in sequence,and those which can be carried out in parallel. The main routethrough the project, which defines the total duration of theproject, is called the critical path. If there are any delays orslippages in an activity on the critical path, it will lead to delays inthe completion date of the project.

Optimisation and critical path analysis – Critical path analysis is ahighly effective and useful mathematical process, which isbecoming more widely used today, mainly in the world of industry.It is a technique concerned with optimisation of time, which has anobvious effect on cost and workforce utilisation in industrialprocesses. Critical path analysis can be used to reduce the duration


USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS)1 0 0


of a process, for quicker production, the motivation behind its usebeing economisation, and reducing staff numbers involved in atask.

It can be used for very complicated processes, such as managing asteel production line, as well as any other type of manufacturing,or for very simple sets of actions, such as getting yourself ready forschool or work in the morning.

Personal information management

Personal Information Management (PIM) software has been aroundfor quite a long time, and was actually one of the first personalapplications produced. Back in 1986, when filofaxes were all therage there was a program that organised all your meetings anddiary events, contacts, and a ‘to-do list’. These sections could allbe printed out on special paper which when trimmed fitted intothe filofax. The paper was roughly A5 size with a strangearrangement of punched holes. Nowadays most computers thatare fitted with Microsoft Office also have Outlook installed.Microsoft Outlook is PIM software as opposed to Outlook Express,a dedicated e-mail program.

As you can see, Outlook has several section such as Contacts,Calendar, Tasks List and Outlook Today. The Communicationsection lets the user have access to e-mail facilities.


USING INFORMATION (INT 2, H, INFORMATION SYSTEMS) 1 0 1


Contacts – This part of the PIM software lets the user record all theimportant details that allow him/her to contact a person. It can bethought of as a very comprehensive address book.

Calendar – This part of the PIM application lets the user keep adiary of events, meetings, appointments and activities.

Task list – This is also called a ‘To-do list’. It keeps a list of all thetasks that require to be carried out and reminds the user wheneach task is due to be completed.

Communication – An important part of the PIM application is theability to communicate effectively, using e-mail, with thoseindividuals or organisations the user of the PIM needs to deal with.Most PIM applications support sending, receiving and managementof e-mails.

Evaluation of software

Before an application package is bought it is common for individuals,businesses, schools and colleges and any other organisation to acquire ademonstration or evaluation copy of the software. This can usually bedownloaded from the Internet or copied from an evaluation CD-ROM.Once installed users usually have 30 days in which to make up theirmind whether to purchase the software or not.

To aid them in their evaluation exercise it is common to refer to severalcriteria and try the evaluation over a range of packages using thesecriteria. Commonly these are: the range of data objects supported, therange of operations, formatting functions, the Human–ComputerInterface (HCI) and any on-line help and tutorials available. We shallexamine these criteria in a bit more depth.

Range of data objects – Each type of software will deal with differentobjects as we have seen already above. But even with a word processoror database one may be interested in the type of graphics files that canbe used in documents or records. Graphics programs would need tosupport bit-mapped, JPEG, GIF and even animated graphics files. Webdesign software would have to support graphics and then audio andvideo with formats such as MP3 and QuickTime video needing to beconsidered.




Range of operations – Again, the operations available will depend on thegenre of software but in general you would look carefully at what youwant to achieve with the software before considering the operations.Database would need good search, sort and report facilities, whereasweb design software would look at the way in which text and graphicscould be arranged on the page, how linking is achieved and how audioand video files are handled.

Formatting functions – Again the text-handling and graphics-orientedpackages will look at fonts, styles, paragraphs, alignment, text wrap andso on, whereas a spreadsheet will also have all the formatting of cells toconsider (percentage, currency, etc.).

Human–computer interface (HCI) – Users of all packages will have toconsider the menus (are they complete, can they be reconfigured, etc.)and toolbars and icons (can new icons be added to the toolbar and soon). Another area is that of keyboard commands (how easy are they tolearn, can keys be programmed, are all functions available on thekeyboard).

On-line help and tutorials – On-line help and tutorials are nowadaysfound in most packages. Paradoxically enough, on-line here does notmean on the Internet; it means within the program and contained onthe computer. The picture is clouded somewhat with much on-line helpnow being displayed as web pages in your browser but locally on thecomputer and not on the Internet. Both help and the tutorial should beexamined closely to see how good they are. Some manufacturerseffectively provide the software manual as a help file, which issearchable. This can save you having to buy a manual.

If you can download the software you want to evaluate, perform asatisfactory evaluation, then you can buy a licence over the Internet andyou have saved the cost of the media, manual and postage and of coursea delay in receiving it.




Higher questions – Personal and organisational uses ofInformation Management Software

1. What type of software would be required to produce a 32-page magazine? Describe at least two differences between 1word-processing and desktop-publishing software. 2

2. What are the main differences between presentation andweb-authoring software? (Outline at least two.) 2

3. Describe what spreadsheet software can be used for inboth business and education. 2

4. What are the main uses of project management software? 2

5. What functions are likely to be found in PIM software? 1

6. (a) What are the data objects likely to be found in word-processing software? 1

(b) What operations can be performed on these dataobjects? (Describe three.) 2

(c) What formatting functions can be applied to thesedata objects? (Describe three.) 2

7. (a) Explain what is meant by each of these features ofword-processing and desktop-publishing software:(i) Multi-page layout, columns, header and footer,

and pagination. 2(ii) Use of a contents and index page. 1

(b) Describe what is meant by text wrapping aroundgraphics. 1

(c) How can style sheets be used to implement a housestyle? 1

(d) What is the difference between serif and sans-seriffonts? 1

(e) Describe how the use of colour and formatting oftext can enhance the appearance of a document. 1

8. (a) Explain what is meant by each of these features ofpresentation and web-authoring software:(i) The structuring of pages and slides. 1(ii) The incorporation of graphics including

animations. 1




(iii) A presentational style including the selectionof fonts and use of colour. 1

(b) Describe how hyperlinks aid navigation. 1(c) How can page transitions be used to enhance a slide

show? 1(d) How can templates and masters be used to implement

a house style? 1

9. (a) What are the data objects likely to be found instandard spreadsheet software? 1

(b) What operations can be performed on these dataobjects? (Describe three.) 2

(c) What formatting functions can be applied to thesedata objects? (Describe three.) 2

10. Explain what is meant by each of these features ofspreadsheet software:

(a) Goal seeking and forecasting 1(b) Lookup tables 1(c) Nested IF and Count functions 1(d) How may macros be created and used? (Describe

two methods.) 2

11. Explain what is meant by each of these features of projectmanagement software:

(a) Timelining 1(b) Resource allocation 1(c) Gant and PERT charts 2(d) Critical path analysis and optimisation 2

12. Explain what is meant by each of these features of personalinformation management software and describe how eachmay be used:

(a) Communication 2(b) Contacts 2(c) Calendar 2(d) Task lists 2

Total marks 52




Tasks for Higher

You will have to complete a practical assessment using severaldifferent types of software in order to complete the unit. As apreparation for this it will be necessary for you to know how tooperate your chosen packages to a reasonably high level. Yourtutor will supply you with resources to teach you how to use yourchosen packages:

• Word processor• Desktop publisher• Presentation software• Web authoring software• Spreadsheet

There is nothing to stop you learning how to use all the packagesand then make your mind up which ones to use.

Complete all three tasks below but only provide printed evidenceof one of them. This could be the entire document for task 1; or aprintout of web pages or slides (6 to a page would be adequate) intask 2; or in task 3 two printouts of your spreadsheet showing thedata in one and the formulas in the other. Your tutor may give youalternative or equivalent tasks instead of the suggested tasks below.

Task 1 – Presenting information for print media using wordprocessing or desktop publishing. Choose one of the followingtasks.

(a) Using a word processor construct a short (4 or 5 pages)guide to using the word processing software. Use featuressuch as columns and headers and footers and use differentlevels of headings to allow you to make up a contents list andindex pages. Make sure you use some graphics and use textwrap features on them. Ensure that a suitable header andfooter appear on each page.

(b) Make up an A5 magazine of two A4 pages (giving you 8 pagesin your booklet) on a subject which interests you. This couldbe a sport or activity you enjoy, a musical act you admire, aguide to your school or college, or any subject you likewithin the bounds of decency and reason. Make good use ofcolour and graphics and ensure that you use columns,




headers and footers, and text wrapping around graphics. Ifyour software allows, also include either a contents or indexpage as appropriate.

Task 2 – Presenting information for on-line media usingpresentation or web-authoring software.

Produce either a slide show or website consisting of several slidesor web pages making sure that you use a template or style sheet asappropriate to the software and as graphics and animations asappropriate. Make sure there is a home page and suitablenavigational structure using hyperlinks in a website and a structureusing hyperlinks and page transitions if making a slide show. Ineither case the use of audio and video clips is acceptable but notnecessary.

Task 3 – Handling information using spreadsheet software.

A spreadsheet is required to help a teacher keep track of marksgained in an exam and allocate grades. Students sit an exammarked out of 80 and complete a practical test marked out of 50.The pass mark for the exam is 35/80 and for the practical test 25/80.Students must pass both sections to pass the exam and the overallmark must be greater than or equal to 50%. Grades should beallocated on the basis of C >=50%, B>=60% and A >=70% andshould be allocated automatically by the use of a lookup table.Even if the overall mark %>=50% but the student has failed onecomponent, the grade should be F. A section of the spreadsheet isshown below:

Forename Surname Exam Practical Mark Result GradeGeorge Smith 38 42 62 Pass BHelen Smart 32 46 60 Fail F




Intermediate 2 – Task on evaluating software

Using the criteria below, evaluate either Word Processor and DTP,Presentation and Web Design, or Database and Spreadsheet, comparingthe two chosen packages to find out which was better for the taskchosen above.

Criteria

• Range of data objects• Range of operations• Formatting functions• HCI (including use of keyboard commands, menus and toolbars/icons• Online help and online tutorials

Use the Software Evaluation sheet that your tutor will give you to helpyou complete this task. You may be asked to write your evaluations byhand or the form may be made available to you electronically so you canfill it in on your computer.





THE SOCIAL, LEGAL, ETHICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

Implications of ICT

In this section, we are going to investigate some of the social, legal,economic and ethical implications of using IT and Information Systems.

Social implications

Ease of access and availability

Many of us have very easy access to information systems both at school,college or work and at home. These are not just computer systemsconnected to the Internet, but digital TV with its comprehensive newschannels and the ready availability of books, magazines and newspapers,all made more available by the use made of information systems.

We can have access to the Internet in our social lives as well withlibraries having Internet access points and Internet cafes still beingpopular. Bars often have Internet access points and if you have stayedin a ‘big’ hotel lately you will find that the rooms have Internet accesspoints for your laptop to plug into.

Many people expect Internet access when they go on holiday and manyhotels and apartment complexes advertise Internet access as a desirablefeature, but many of us think that we go on holiday to get away from itall and are willing to let the e-mails pile up until we get home.

An interesting fact emerged in the late 1990s that ‘there are moretelephones in the city of New York than in the entire continent ofAfrica’. After a little research it was found that now the gap has notnarrowed but widened, presumably because of mobile phones.

Information rich/information poor

There is some concern that the widespread use of computers is dividingsociety into two kinds of people – the ‘information rich’ and‘information poor’.

The information rich have easy access to computers and electroniccommunications. They get information and news from the Internet and

SECTION 4




buy the latest products through on-line shopping. They are able tofollow computer-based learning and skills training courses at home, andlook for jobs that are advertised solely on the Internet. They tend tofind it easier to get well-paid jobs and will enjoy a more comfortable andsecure life-style.

The information poor don’t have easy access to computers and don’thave the IT skills and confidence to take part in teleshopping,telebanking, Internet chat and news groups. As corporations like theBBC seek public opinion on current matters increasingly via theInternet, the voices of the information poor may not be heard. The jobson offer to them will be less skilled, paid less and much more insecure.The information poor will have to work longer hours just to survive andwill have less leisure time. Gradually the difference in access toinformation may create a real social divide between the materially richand materially poor.

One effect of high levels of unemployment has been that families feelmore secure with two wages coming into the family. This has meant thatmore and more mothers have careers. As a result, they may not haveany children till they are thirty or older and even then they may onlyhave one child because they do not want, or are afraid, to interrupt theircareers.

Although this change in family patterns may only be indirectly and partlycaused by computerisation, are there any risks to the family and tosociety as a whole from this development?

More and more families enjoy television, computers and electronicgames in their homes. Father may be watching television; mother maybe teleshopping over the Internet while the children are in theirbedrooms playing arcade games. Research has shown that families arespending less and less time together. In addition, with the growth ofteleworking, fewer people are meeting with colleagues to discussbusiness matters during the day.

Is there a risk that computers are having an adverse effect on humancommunication skills and relations within the family and in society ingeneral?

Another less obvious effect of computers and IT on the family is thechange that banks have made to our lives. Before banks werecomputerised, mainly relatively wealthy, middle-class professionalpeople used them. Most workers were paid weekly and in cash, and




they did not need a bank account. With the introduction ofcomputerisation, banks started to persuade companies, government andlocal authorities to pay employees by cheque. In order to cash chequesit was much more convenient to have a bank account. Once a large partof the population had opened accounts, banks persuaded companies topay their staff by transferring funds from the company account directlyinto their employees’ accounts. As a result, very little cash is incirculation now compared with the 1950s and 60s. Once people hadbecome comfortable with carrying less cash, it was only a small step topersuade them to work with ‘plastic money’ – the current widespreaduse of debit and credit cards.

Educational qualifications and ICT

There have been qualifications in computing since the early 1960s, butthese were solely in universities and colleges. And it was well into the1980s before there was enough content to teach computing degrees thatwere able to concentrate on computing subjects and not need lots ofMaths, Physics and totally unrelated courses like Philosophy and Law tofill out the degree course. It was not until the mid-1980s that computingwas available in schools and not until 1999 that the two strands ofsoftware and hardware divided into Computing and InformationSystems. Now there are many different courses offered at degree andNC level all related to ICT.

Look at how modern ICT allows citizens today to communicate andparticipate in society. We use text messaging to vote on TV shows, entercompetitions and have our opinions broadcast on national TV and radio.We use digital TV to order goods, vote on TV shows like ‘I’m a computerteacher – get me out of here’, and many other functions. The mostunlikely people are using ICT either because they have to or want to –teachers, lawyers, shop assistants, nurses ... the list is endless. Evengrannies and aunties are downloading digital photos of thegrandchildren and nephews and nieces, manipulating those photos withgraphics software and saving them and producing lovely prints.

Knowledge workers

The term ‘knowledge worker’ describes someone who adds value byprocessing existing information to create new information that could beused to define and solve problems. Examples of knowledge workersinclude lawyers, doctors, diplomats, law-makers, software developers,managers and bankers. We can probably say that knowledge workers usetheir intellect to convert their ideas into products, services, orprocesses.




A knowledge worker could be a problem solver rather than a productionworker, or a person who uses intellectual rather than manual skills toearn a living, or someone who uses knowledge and information to addto existing knowledge and information.

There are thought to be two main types of knowledge worker: ‘coreknowledge workers’ and ‘everyone else’.

Core knowledge workers are those in specific ‘knowledge management’roles. Examples include Chief Information Officers, KnowledgeManagers, Librarians, Content Managers, Information Officers,Knowledge Analysts, etc.

‘Everyone else’ constitutes all the other knowledge workers. In healthcare for example, that means doctors, nurses, dentists, pharmacists,managers, technicians, administrators, etc. In short, everyone in theNHS is engaged in some form of ‘knowledge work’.

Of course there is not always a clear dividing line between the two, butthe distinction can be a useful one when starting out. It can beparticularly useful in helping people to understand that everyone is aknowledge worker to some degree, and knowledge work is everyone’sresponsibility, not just that of a few people with ‘information’ or‘knowledge’ in their job title.

Online retail

For many of you reading this, Internet shopping is already here. Wheneighty 16–18 year olds were sampled recently, sixty of them (that is75%) admitted to buying something online. In the same survey eightyadults (aged 24–60) were sampled and only 17 admitted to buyingsomething online. The young people went for music, DVDs and the topbuy was hair straighteners. The adults’ top buy was holiday-relateditems.

Regular and repeat orders were for grocery shopping and books amongthe adults whereas the young people tended to make one-off purchases(apart from some games and skateboard-related merchandise).

Why the huge difference? What is happening to our traditional shops? Itappears that many on-line shoppers buy goods they find difficult tosource. It has been suggested that the shopping malls have fuelled theon-line frenzy. If the national chains, which make every shopping centrealmost identical, do not carry what someone wants then people nowturn to the web as their first port of call.




There are recognised advantages and disadvantages to the consumerand the retailer.

Advantages for the consumer• More choice of goods on-line• Cheaper prices• Home delivery – grocery shopping on-line very useful for young

families

Disadvantages for the consumer• Often long delivery times• Temptation to spend more than intended• Social isolation (supermarkets are the new social scene)

Advantages for the on-line retailer• Can reach a far wider audience• Don’t need expensive showrooms• Don’t need to employ trained sales staff

Disadvantages for the on-line retailer• Must spend money on a website with a secure payment system• Must accept a high rate of returns• Never meets customers

The changing relationships between retailer and customer

Internet shopping has changed to a large extent the way we shop,and the relationship between retailer and customer is changingtoo.

As shoppers we are becoming intolerant of goods being unavailableor out of stock and very wary of over-pricing. If you live in a ruralor even non-Central Belt city in Scotland you will have heard thephrase ‘Oh it hasn’t reached here yet I’m afraid.’ Wherever youlive you may have heard yourself utter the words ‘How much? It’shalf that price on-line’ or ‘Out of stock and it will take three weeksto get it – I’ll go on-line and get it in three days’.

As consumers we are far more willing nowadays to go on-line andorder from whatever retailer we find with our favourite searchengine. Of course, you need a credit card to buy on-line so thatcuts out all the under 18s buying goods without their parents’




consent (or at least credit card) and we seasoned Internetshoppers know the stress of waiting for goods bought whenpresents fail to turn up on time.

We still maintain relationships with local newsagents, corner shops,post offices and specialist butchers and bakers; but we never reallyknow the staff in the local supermarket even though we have aloyalty card, trading a few points for all the information they wantto know about us. And some customers who buy their grocerieson-line and have the same delivery driver every week often buildup a good relationship with the driver.

Some retailers have a very positive relationship with the Internet,with staff at both national electrical retail stores often tellingcustomers that it will be easier and cheaper to order goods fromtheir website rather than place an order at the shop. Similarly abookshop chain’s staff will search really hard to find a particularbook, and if they can’t find it they’ll happily just refer you toAmazon.

Although the relationships between retailers and customers haschanged, there is a feeling that the two types of shopping cancomplement each other, opening up new markets to specialistretailers and giving more choice to customers.

Globalisation and the impact of IS on business and societies

Globalisation, the growing integration of economies and societiesaround the world, has been one of the most hotly debated topicsin international economics over the past few years. Rapid growthand poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries thatwere poor 20 years ago, has been a positive aspect of globalisation.But globalisation has also generated significant internationalopposition over concerns that it has increased inequality andenvironmental degradation.

Multinational companies responsible for globalisation are asdiverse in their operations as Coca-Cola and offshore oiltechnology, but they have only been able to achieve theirglobalisation through the use of information systems. Originallythis was confined to just a few large companies with mainframecomputers in North American and European cities. Their nameswould be familiar to most of you and you can probably think ofseveral who advertise on TV now.




Nowadays smaller, specialised companies can also have a globalpresence through the use of IT. They cannot afford mainframecomputers, but they can afford a computer and modem at everylocation and even satellite technology where phone lines don’texist. They can afford their own private web space and withspecialist software they can publish memos, reports, etc., ontoareas of their web, password-protected so only the employees withthe correct access see what is meant for them. There is actually acompany based in Aberdeen, with only about 13,000 employeesbased in around 80 countries, running just that sort of technology,administering their core business of oil supply and ancillaryoperations such as personnel management.

The impact on business organisation of an IS-driven businessmodel

Traditional businesses surviving today have, on the whole,embraced IT either with open arms or as a necessary evil. In the1970s many businesses that did embrace the new technologiesfoundered, as did whole industries. Businesses like banks andolder insurance companies, oil companies, national retailers andso on have IT systems that have evolved and grown with thebusiness. As a result many of these systems are a hotch-potch ofnew technology (point of sale systems, cash-points, etc.) and oldbut proven systems like mainframe accounting. At no time was allthe old thrown out and replaced with the new.

Modern businesses often exist because of an IS-driven businessmodel. New-style insurance companies who advertise heavily anddo most of their business by telephone are examples. Anotherwould be a new bank, such as the Virgin One Account that openedin 1997, based on a call centre and totally computerised systemand complemented by the launch of an Internet banking operationin February 2000. Call centres are another business existingbecause of and depending on an Information System that isactually a type of expert system (Trainline, Dell Computers, NHSdirect are good examples).

Identities and personas

As society adapts to use the Internet as a medium forcommunication, these changes are having a dramatic impact onpeople’s lives. The ability to communicate with all – regardless ofage, sex, location or knowledge – is having a liberating effect on




people’s Internet identities and the personas they project.

The Internet allows people to develop different identities whencommunicating in different forums. People do not need to beexperts or have specific knowledge to offer an opinion on aspecialised newsgroup or chat-room.

The downside of this is of course the now-criminal offence of‘grooming’, where an adult, usually male, pretends to be a youngmale keen to meet young girls. There has been much of this onthe news and many parents are frightened to let their teenagers onthe Internet without either supervision or some software whichblocks dubious sites.

You can investigate the stories of Jonathan Lebed and MarcusArnold on the Internet at the following site. The stories aresummarised here in case they are removed from the site or yourInternet access is unavailable.http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/future/tv_series_1.stm

Wall street wonder

Schoolboy Jonathan Lebed got into big trouble – for making afortune in his bedroom. Working from his computer, the 15-year-old did his homework on the US stock exchange andmade $800,000 by the time he was fifteen. In one day alone,Jonathan banked nearly $70,000 after posting hundreds ofmessages on the Internet, urging people to buy shares in a toycompany.

The price shot up and he then sold his own shares at a hugeprofit, but the US financial authorities were not happy,claiming Jonathan had manipulated the market. Jonathaneventually settled out of court with the authorities – he paidback $300,000 of the money he had made, but kept half amillion dollars.

Jonathan claims he was only doing what the professionals doevery day. He says: ‘I think that, with the technology we havetoday with the Internet, it makes everybody equal and theydefinitely do have a chance of being right up there with theWall Street professionals.’




Legal eagle

Teenager Marcus Arnold, 15, started giving legal advice on theInternet just six months ago, initially telling people he was 20.During that time, he answered almost a thousand queries,including giving advice to the mother of a man charged withfirst-degree murder.

So highly-rated was his advice, that the users of oneprominent website voted him the best legal expert out of afield of over one hundred offering advice, many of them muchbetter legally qualified. Marcus, whose ultimate ambition is tobe a Supreme Court judge, has attracted criticism from somelawyers.

But he says: ‘I’m just like everyone out there, I want to benoticed. I mean I’m 15 right now; I want people to know whoI am. I’m not there to take business away from other people,that’s not my job.’

Privacy

We nearly all believe that our private communications across theInternet are secure and safe. We rightly feel that it is our right tohave this privacy. Our e-mails and the websites we visit should beour own private business. But what about when national securityis at stake or criminal actions may have been perpetrated. Shouldthe security services not have the power to intercept and read oure-mails to prevent terrorist activities? Should the police not havethe power to check servers up the line to see if they can find outwho is responsible for Internet banking crimes?

In fact they do have the power, and the security services generallydo scan our e-mails, text messages and mobile phone calls, byusing computers which look for the digital patterns representingkey phrases used in terrorist and criminal activities, thus allowingthe police to apprehend suspects based on these calls and mails.When the FBI announced that they had found over one thousandpaedophiles living in Britain because they had accessed Internetsites in the USA and traced them by tying in their computer’s IP




address with the phone number that had been dialled from, therewas general disbelief that they had managed to do that, and thendelight that such people could be caught in this way.

Celebrities and stars believe they have a right to privacy on theInternet and the same laws that protect them in the press protectthem on the Internet. One pop singer won a court case anddamages against a website that had published pictures of her thatshe had no knowledge of and that she totally disapproved of.

Although we believe in having privacy on the Internet we generallyapprove of measures taken by the security services to monitorterrorists and catch criminals.

Legal implications of information systems

The Data Protection Act

The original Data Protection Act was introduced in 1984 to set out keyprinciples (rules) to regulate the collection, storage and use of personaldata. This law was introduced to protect and give rights to individualswho might feel their personal data was either incorrect or beingmisused. The law was updated in 1998 to cover some of theinadequacies of the original act and in the light of new technology andpolitical circumstances relating to European legislation.

A Data Commissioner was appointed and from an office on the outskirtsof Manchester dealt with all complaints from all over the country.Companies that individuals and businesses complained against wereinvestigated and if the complainant’s case was upheld then sanctionscould be made against the company misusing the data.

‘Data subjects’ were defined as being people or organisations aboutwhich data was held in electronic form. ‘Data users’ (or controllers)were defined as the companies and organisations that held the dataconcerning the data subjects.

The 1998 Data Protection Act

The Act contains eight principles, which apply to all personal dataprocessed by data controllers (the people who hold the data).




• Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully.• Personal data shall be obtained only for lawful purposes, and shall not

be further processed in any manner incompatible with thosepurposes.

• Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relationto the purposes for which it is processed.

• Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date.• Personal data processed for any purpose shall not be kept for longer

than is necessary.• Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data

subjects.• Appropriate measures shall be taken against unauthorised or unlawful

processing of data and against accidental loss or destruction of, ordamage to, personal data.

• Personal data shall not be transferred to a country outside Europe,unless that country ensures protection for the rights of data subjectsin relation to the Act.

There are some unconditional exemptions and these are:

• Data related to national security• Data which by law has to be made public (e.g. the voters’ roll)• Data held by the police and National Health Service.

There are some types of data that were and still are exempt fromRegistration. These are known as conditional exemptions and are:

• Mailing lists (names and addresses) that allow the data subject toreceive information

• Data used for calculating and paying wages• Information used for club memberships• Data used by a data subject at home.

Rights of data subjects – As well as the eight principles, the Act givesrights to individuals (data subjects) in relation to personal data which isheld about them by data controllers. An individual has the right to seeany personal data stored either electronically or manually about them.The data controller may ask that a small fee be paid to cover their costsin providing the data. As well as the right to see their personal data, datasubjects have the right to have their data corrected if it is inaccurate.They also have the right to prevent their data being used by companiesto send them junk mail.




Responsibilities of data users – data users have to register with theData Protection Registrar if they wish to hold personal informationabout data subjects. They must be willing to let data subjects see dataheld about them, and are entitled to charge a small fee, but they mustamend any false data without charge. Data users must also be willing toremove subjects’ names and addresses from mailing lists if asked to.

Changes from 1984 Act – The 1984 DPA had certain shortcomingsthat unscrupulous companies exploited. For example it onlycovered data in electronic form and companies used printedmailing lists and photocopied names and addresses onto labels tocircumvent the DPA. It also had no European or worldwidedimension and there was no obligation on any data user to tell thedata subject that they held any data about them. The 1998 Actcovers the transmission of data in electronic form, which was notreally an issue in 1984, and harmonised the European Union dataprotection legislation. It also made it a requirement of the Act toask for the prior consent of data subjects to have data held aboutthem, and that included paper-based records.

The Computer Misuse Act 1990

During the 1980s as the use of computers and telecommunicationssystems in society grew rapidly, so did incidents of computer-relatedcrime. The law as it stood was unable to deal with the new crimes beingcommitted involving computers. The Government set up a RoyalCommission to look at the whole area of computer misuse, and thisresulted in the introduction of the Computer Misuse Act 1990.

The Act contains three sections covering various misuses:

• Unauthorised access to computer material• Unauthorised access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of

further offences• Unauthorised modification of computer material.

The first section deals with ‘basic hacking’, which is getting access to acomputer system, data or a program without permission. If for examplea pupil finds the teacher’s password and uses it to access the schoolcomputer system, even though no damage to files or data has beendone, that is still a crime. This section of the Act only covers




unauthorised access of a computer system, so viewing or printing outanother user’s word-processed file without permission is also a crime.

The second section applies to situations when a computer system isbeing used to help in committing another crime. If a computer is beingused to steal money from a bank account or help disable an alarmsystem to aid a robbery, that is a crime covered by this section of the act.

The third section of the Act covers ‘expert hacking’, which is themodification of data on a computer system without permission. It is thissection that covers the deliberate planting of viruses on a computersystem. It also covers the deletion or modification of another user’s file.It could also apply to a person who changes the system setup files on acomputer, without permission.

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

Earlier in this pack the issue of software copyright was introduced. Thecopyright laws also apply to other published materials as well, whetherin the form of music, film, pictures or books, etc. so this is actually a verylarge and complex act. We only really need to concern ourselves herewith a part of the Copyright section of the Act.

There are three methods of licensing software and slightly differentcopyright laws apply to each kind.

1. Software can be legally bought and installed on as many computersas the licence permits. Home and small business users usually buya single user licence, whereas schools, colleges, local authoritiesand large businesses generally buy multiple licences

2. Shareware is generally downloaded from the Internet and can belegally installed for, usually, 30 days after which time a paymentshould be made to the author or the software taken off thecomputer.

3. Freeware is similar to shareware except that there is no need topay and therefore no trial period. It can be downloaded andinstalled free of charge.

In short, commercial software must be licensed before it is installed on acomputer and it is illegal to copy software without a licence.




As well as the applications themselves, the content created using acomputer application is also protected by copyright. One area of greatconcern commercially is that of computer databases. They can store vastamounts of very useful information, which may be commercially valuableand may have cost the originators a lot of money to set up. Thecopyright laws cover the database, or an extract from it.

It is also illegal to copy any published material without either thepermission of the copyright holder (creator) or the purchase of alicence that allows copying. If you write a story on your word processor,you as creator own the copyright to that story. It is illegal for anyoneelse, without your permission, to copy and distribute that story, freelyor for financial gain. It is also illegal for you to copy anybody else’s workwithout permission. This applies directly to material found on theInternet or the World Wide Web.

It can count as plagiarism to copy material directly from Internet sitesand try to pass it off as your own original work. If you must use thematerial it must be acknowledged in some way or another.

There is software available which allows the user to capture and savecomplete websites. It must be borne in mind that to use that webcontent for any purpose at all may be illegal.

If you are creating published material such as a web page or a poster, itis possible to use clip art in your work. You can use copyright-free clipart or alternatively buy a clip art disc with a licence to copy the graphics.

It is also possible to copy some parts of published material underthe ‘fair dealing’ provision of the Act. This permits copying forprivate study or for research of one section from a magazine,newspaper or journal. It also allows you to copy up to 5% of abook or one chapter. The material must however be for personaluse.

One area of great concern is that of software piracy, where illegalcopies of software are sold or where software is installed onmachines when no licence has been purchased. So concerned arethe software houses that an organisation called FAST – FederationAgainst Software Theft – has been set up to try and prevent thelarge scale of software theft which is thought to exist withinorganisations in the UK.




The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000

This Act provides for, and regulates the use of, a range ofinvestigative powers by a variety of public authorities, such as thePolice, Special Branch, GCHQ and MI5. It updates the law on theinterception of communications to take account of technologicalchange such as the growth of the Internet. It allows organisationsto monitor employees, e-mail and web usage. It also providespowers to help combat the threat posed by rising criminal use ofstrong encryption to try to break into electronic transactions.

The Act contains five parts providing for powers in relation tospecific investigative techniques or establishing systems of scrutiny,oversight and redress.

1. Relates to the interception of communications and theacquisition and disclosure of communications data.

2. Relates to the use of covert surveillance, agents, informantsand undercover officers.

3. Covers the investigation of electronic data protected byencryption.

4. Provides for independent judicial oversight of the powers inthe Act.

5. Covers miscellaneous and supplemental matters such asconsequential amendments, repeals and interpretation.

In practice the act allows the authorities to monitor our personale-mail and Internet usage in terms of the sites we visit.Furthermore businesses, local authorities and governmentdepartments can and do monitor e-mails, even internally, andInternet usage of staff, students and pupils. This sounds very like‘Big Brother’, and it may enrage and disturb many people torealise that this monitoring occurs. However, at a time whenterrorists can be anywhere in our society it may be a relief to knowthat the authorities are taking active steps to catch them.

The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002

The Freedom of Information Act for Scotland was passed by theScottish Executive on 28 May 2002 and came into force on 1January 2005.

It gives a general right of public access to all types of ‘recorded’information held by public authorities, sets out exemptions from




that general right, and places a number of obligations on publicauthorities.

The Act applies only to ‘public authorities’ and not to privateentities. Public authorities are, however, broadly defined in theAct, and they include not only Government Departments, localauthorities and many other public bodies, but also schools,colleges and universities.

The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 will be enforcedby the Scottish Information Commissioner.

Responsibilities of public authorities – Public authorities arerequired to adopt and maintain a Publication Scheme setting outthe classes of information available (e.g. prospectuses, almanacsand websites) and the manner in which they intend to publish theinformation, and whether a charge will be made for theinformation. The purpose of a Publication Scheme is to ensureinformation is available, without the need for a specific request.Schemes are intended to encourage organisations to publish moreinformation pro-actively and to develop a greater culture ofopenness.

Health and safety regulations

Needless to say the regulations relating to health and safety are vast andcover every conceivable work situation, but we are only concerned herewith issues such as seating, lighting, RSI and radiation as well asemployers’ responsibilities.

The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 has been updated to include theManagement of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999.

The main requirement on employers is to carry out a risk assessment.Employers with five or more employees need to record the significantfindings of the risk assessment. Risk assessment should bestraightforward in a simple workplace such as a typical office.

As a result of a risk assessment it might be pointed out to a health andsafety officer that the seating arrangements are not only uncomfortablebut causing employees pain and discomfort due to their position.Maybe the lighting is poor and employees are suffering eye strain. Over




time either of these complaints could lead to a much more seriouscondition, so these complaints must be taken seriously by management.

One injury that is a phenomenon of modern working practices,particularly for people working with computers, is repetitive straininjury or RSI. The term RSI is used by some to refer to pain in the armwhen working with computers, but is actually very serious and can leadto deformity and leave the sufferer in a great deal of long-term pain. Itis often caused by being forced to work with the same few keys over andover again (such as number keys).

Computer monitors emit radiation! This was a discovered back in the1970s and the levels of radiation given off by some of the really big, old-fashioned monitors were very high. Employees, mostly female, whowere affected by the radiation complained of headaches, feeling listlessand in one or two cases actually miscarrying during pregnancy. Speciallead-lined aprons were made available to women who were worriedabout the effects radiation could have on them.

By the 1980s computer monitors were smaller and working with muchlower power consumption and output. The trend has increased untilnowadays, and there have been shields built into the monitors so thatnow radiation does not escape. A common point of escape was from theback of the monitor, the screen acting as a shield; but people who facedthe back of a monitor for prolonged periods (all day, every working day)could suffer from problems. The routes of escape have now been sealedon modern monitors and there should be no danger of illness caused byradiation when using modern equipment.

Economic implications of ICT

Jobs in ICT

Most jobs in ICT require that some further education and training iscarried out after leaving school. The minimum qualification forprofessional jobs is probably at HND level although an IT-related degreegives access to the best jobs. There are development personnel such assystems analysts and programmers and operational personnel such asoperators and support staff who keep the systems running.

Starting development positions in organisations are usually:

Programmer/analyst – Responsible for program development andmodification, program and data changes, testing and documentation.




Web administrator – Responsible for developing, managing and co-ordinating the posting of company material from departments onto thecompany website.Network administrator – Responsible for the day-to-day managementand maintenance of the network.Salaries – As these are very responsible starting positions, salaries willbe in the region of £20,000 to £30,000 depending on the level ofresponsibility.

Advanced development positions are usually of the following types:

Database manager – Responsible for identifying needs and developingsoftware accordingly. There is an increasing role for data mining anddata warehousing experts in this field.Project leader and Senior analyst – Sometimes separate posts,sometimes a joint post; the project leader will liaise with directors andtop managers and translate ideas into computer-related documentation.IT manager – Generally in charge of the entire IT operation, staff andequipment.Salaries – These are senior posts and can carry very high salaries withfringe benefits such as company cars.

The effect of new ICT on business

When a business invests in new ICT there is bound to be some effect onindividuals within the business. For example, if a small business investsin a computerised accounting system dealing with sales and purchaseinvoices, they will have spent a lot of money. Manual book-keepers willneed to be retrained to use the computerised system effectivelyotherwise it will not be worth the company’s while investing in it.

Longer term, the company would expect increased productivity. Thiscould mean that fewer staff members are required to do the same work,or the same staff can do far more work. In an accounting systemincreased functionality would be expected (automated printing ofstatements and letters about overdue accounts for example), and thiscan help get money in more quickly (increased productivity).

A business would get an accountant to produce a profit-and-loss accountevery three or six months at great expense, but a computerised systemcan produce this sort of information at the drop of a hat, saving a lot ofmoney and keeping the managers better informed.




Generally a cost accountant would work out just how much moreprofitable an employee became after using ICT and as we have seen thiscan be a combination of earning more money (telesales as opposed tomail order), saving the company money (producing accountinginformation) and doing jobs that could not be done before (statementsand letters). All these factors build up a picture of productivity andprofitability of an individual.

Business and ICT

If a business decides to invest in an information system with all theassociated costs of equipment, software and personnel then theymust be certain that they will see a competitive advantagecompared to competitors in the same area of business who havenot made a similar investment.

A company planning this step will probably employ a systemsanalyst to complete a feasibility study covering not only technicalaspects but also legal and economic feasibility.

It would have been a huge step for the first computerised but-paper based mail-order company to move over to a call centre andtelephone ordering tied in with an ‘intelligent warehouse’. Theywould have made an exhaustive economic feasibility study to see ifthey would gain a competitive advantage over their rivals. Maybethey did, but was it an even bigger leap of faith to be among thefirst companies to introduce Internet ordering?

Business costs

Many businesses want to invest in new technology to help themmaintain a competitive advantage, whereas other businesses feelforced into making that investment to keep up with theircompetitors.

Some ICT projects are very large, such as setting up acomputerised production line or a just-in-time componentordering system in a factory, or a large call centre. These ICTinvestments will cost a company millions of pounds and will becentral to its running. The money spent is rightly called aninvestment, as the company is investing it in the core activities ofits business.




These initial costs can be very high but the pace of competition inthe marketplace can often dictate that companies invest the moneyneeded.

Running costs can be as trivial as replenishing ink cartridges orbuying printer paper for an office micro, to employing a large ICTsupport staff. Another area of running costs is software licencesand updates and some companies prefer to pay a fixed cost forsoftware licences and all updates every year so that their softwareis always up to date and there are no sudden large costs.

Most organisations with a large number of microcomputers, likefinancial institutions, run a rolling update program where a quarterof their oldest micros are replaced every year so they can budgetfor this cost.

Ethical implications of ICT

Netiquette

This is a user’s guide to the polite way you use the web and e-mail,whether on the Internet or an Intranet. It should be relevant for bothpersonal and business users, and the more public the forum (an e-groupor office internal e-forum), the more the user should be aware of andfollow basic netiquette. It comes in the form of general and then someparticular recommendations.

Some general points are:

• Treat others the way you wish to be treated yourself.• Make sure you do not contravene legislation regarding use of

computers and IT.• Use accurate details when referring to other Internet resources or

sites.• Ensure that you are not wasteful of others’ resources when sending e-

mails or in the design of your web page.• Try and contribute to the network in your area of expertise.• Adhere to Internet standards for production of e-mail

correspondence and web pages.• Always identify yourself when joining in newsgroups and try not to

interject irrelevancies.




And some particular pieces of advice are:

1. Do not type e-mails all in CAPITALS. That is regarded as equivalentto shouting. It is also harder to read.

2. Do not leave the Subject field blank. Always fill in the Subject fieldwith a brief and concise description of the content of your e-mail.This is very important in helping those you communicate with toorganise and manage their e-mails.

3. Refrain from formatting your e-mail with coloured text andbackground colours or images in your day-to-day communications.Your colour and formatting choices can make your e-mailsimpossible to read. In addition, formatting could make your e-mails difficult to reply to without obliging your recipient to gothrough a time-consuming procedure to convert your e-mail toplain text first.

4. On those rare occasions where it is necessary to send a group ofpeople the very same e-mail, it is a courtesy to those you aresending to, to list all of the recipients’ e-mail addresses in the BCCfield. (BCC = Blind Carbon Copy – from the old days whentypewriters used carbon paper to create identical copies of adocument when it was being typed.) When an e-mail address isdesignated in the BCC field, the recipient will get a copy of the e-mail while their e-mail address remains invisible to the otherrecipients of the e-mail – some of whom they may or may notknow.

5. Do not forward any stupid joke, ‘chain letter’ or unimportant e-mails to your friends without their permission. Never give outphone numbers or personal information without confirming youare communicating with a reputable party. Never give out personalcontact information of others without their specific permission todo so.

6. Make a reasonable effort to search a website for the informationyou are seeking before e-mailing a colleague for help.

7. Do not use Return Receipt Request (RR) for each and everypersonal e-mail you send because you like ‘knowing’ whensomeone opens your e-mail. Not only is this annoying to therecipient, this feature is intrusive especially in an on-line discussionforum or e-group where hundreds of people can get that RR.




8. Do not send inflammatory, highly critical or just plain nasty e-mails,especially to a group. This is called flaming and can cause greatoffence.

9. Keep in mind that all private e-mail is considered to be copyrightedby the original author. If you post private e-mail to a public list orboard, or forward it to an outside party in whole or in part, youmust include the author’s permission to post the material publicly.

10. Always minimise, compress or ‘zip’ large files before sending asyour intended recipient may have a slow connection and not beprepared to watch the ‘Lord of the Rings’ trilogy again whilewaiting for a download they may not even want to receive. Betterstill, ascertain that they actually want the file before sending it.

11. Do not forward hoax virus warnings – enough said.

Intellectual property rights

Intellectual property is a form of knowledge that society has decided canbe assigned specific property rights. These rights have someresemblance to ownership rights over physical property or land. Withrecent scientific and technical advances, particularly in ICT, knowledgehas become, more than ever, the principal source of competitiveadvantage for both companies and countries.

Much original work is regularly published on the Internet, such asnewspaper articles, university papers, reports from interest groups, andinformation from companies. All original work so published is protectedby intellectual property rights.

Intellectual property rights in relation to information also relate tomusicians and the sites where music can be downloaded. There isusually no problem with listening to music over the Internet but ifanyone tries to download copyright music without either paying oragreeing to the copyright conditions then they, and the site they havefound the music on, could both be sued for breach of copyright. Intruth, the main infringement is likely to be the website’s and it is likelyto be closed down, like Napster was in 2003.




Censorship

Current legislation already deals with unacceptable material,whether written or visual, as far as censorship is concerned.Control of what is ‘shown’ on an organisation’s premises is alreadyin force. However, there are ongoing discussions on the possiblecontrol and censorship measures that could be applied to theInternet as its uses grow. These controls could hinder freedom ofspeech.

There are socially unacceptable sites on the Internet of varyingdegrees of unacceptability, dependent on perception. Forexample, you may have arachnophobia and find a website onexotic spiders wholly offensive.

Can you visit these web pages by accident? Sometimes fairlyinnocuous searches through the Internet can produce a list ofavailable sites with links to unusual and apparently unrelated sites.In such instances, however, it is normally very clear from thesummary or titles what the contents of these sites are likely toinclude. So if you visit these sites, that is deemed to be a deliberateaction and you are accountable for using any information you view.But sometimes the description of the site bears no resemblance tothe actual contents, in which case you may plead ignorance.

There is also the problem of unsolicited e-mails. This is becoming amajor problem on the Internet. It is caused by ‘spammers’, peoplewho send out mass mailings of junk e-mail. Your software candispose of some of this junk by applying filtering rules but thespammers are getting more devious in their quest to ensure thatyour mailbox is bombarded with junk mail. There have alreadybeen several recent successful prosecutions of junk e-mailers inAmerica, but can this be regarded as a form of censorship? Shouldthese people have the right to send e-mails to anyone they wish?

Regulating the content of the Internet

If there is concern that users of computer equipment inorganisations will access ‘offensive’ or ‘unacceptable’ material,software can be installed that will monitor what access is made andfrom which terminals, when and by whom. Internal organisationalprocedures should deal with this type of situation.




The Internet is no different from other media in this respect, andany of these can contravene legislation on sensitive matters. Therehave been successful libel cases taken out against bulletin boardoperators for the materials that were published on their boards.Still the question will arise, is current legislation enough?Presumably only time will tell. Future governments and publicopinion will influence new legislation.

Privacy and encryption

Where can we expect privacy when using ICT? Already we haveseen that text messages, mobile calls, e-mail and Internet usage canall be monitored by security organisations, but it is even more scaryto think that criminals are using technology to try and interceptand read personal information.

If we are to trust on-line shopping, which demands that we pay bycredit or debit card, then the on-line vendors must apply securityto their site. To do this they have to ensure that the card numberis encrypted when it leaves the shopper’s computer until it arrivessafely at the vendor’s website.

There are different encryption methods available but probably thebest is provided by software called PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)which uses a 32-bit encryption procedure. This is generally agreedto be unbreakable and is used by good on-line retailers who willusually advertise the fact. They may also subscribe to a code ofpractice (like the Which? Code for Internet Shopping) that is basedon PGP and 32-bit encryption.

ICT and global citizenship

The study of citizenship in schools and colleges gives students theknowledge, skills and understanding to play an effective role insociety at local, national and international levels. It helps them tobecome informed, thoughtful and responsible citizens who areaware of their duties and rights. It promotes their spiritual, moral,social and cultural development, making them more self-confidentand responsible both in and beyond the classroom. It encouragesthem to play a helpful part in the life of their schools,neighbourhoods, communities and the wider world.




Global citizenship is generally thought of as awareness of globalissues such as environment, commerce, politics and society ingeneral. If a student is studying citizenship then the use of theInternet means that information and discussion papers can befound and studied very easily.

It is possible to find newsgroups about a wide range of topics inrelation to the citizenship topics mentioned and in these seriousnewsgroups the discussion is usually interesting and informed andcontributors are likely to use their own identities.

Many UK schools and colleges have e-mail links with schoolsabroad, where many overseas students want to improve theirEnglish and are happy to discuss in English issues that helpimprove our and their understanding of citizenship.




Implications of ICT – Suggested tasks

Your tutor will tell you if and when s/he wants you to undertake thesetasks (maybe after the questions). The tasks are suitable forIntermediate 2 and Higher candidates, but a greater depth of coverageof the topic is expected from Higher candidates.

TaskHigher – Either on your own or in a small group make up apresentation or website. Aim to produce about 20 to 30 slides or 5 to 9web pages and give examples.

Intermediate 2 – Aim to produce about 12 slides or 4 web pages onone of the following topics. Work through one of the topics fully or givean overview of all of them.

Pick either a topic, concept or particular Act and explore it fully –examples might include:

• The social implications of ICT• The legal implications of ICT• The economic implications of ICT• The ethical implications of ICT• E-commerce• The Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002• Competitive advantage and initial costs versus running costs• Censorship and freedom of speech.




Intermediate 2 questions – Implications of ICT

1. Describe what is meant by ease of access and availability of ICTand give an example (preferably not from the notes). 2

2. Explain the difference between information rich and informationpoor. Illustrate your answer with examples. 2

3. Why must citizens now be IT aware and have an educationalqualification in IT? 2

4. Name three jobs that are filled by knowledge workers. 1

5. Give one advantage and one disadvantage both to the retailerand to the customer of on-line shopping. 4

6. Under the terms of the Data Protection Act 1998 explain what ismeant by:

(a) Data protection principles(b) The rights of the data subject(c) The responsibilities of the data controller(d) The role of the Information Commissioner 4

7. What are the three misuses covered by the Computer Misuse Act?(Do not answer in terms of ‘hacking’, etc.) 3

8. In terms of computer usage what offence is covered under theCopyright Designs and Patents Act 1998? 1

9. How do the health and safety regulations cover seating, lighting,RSI, eye strain and radiation with regard to computer usage? 5

10. Describe the type of work carried out by someone in a startingposition and also of someone working in an advanced positionwithin an IT organisation (1 job from each level). 2

11. Explain how new ICT in a business can affect the productivityand profitability of individuals and the company. You may needto write a paragraph about this. 4

12. Netiquette is very important to both individuals and businesses.Explain why typing e-mails in capitals, flaming and sending verylarge files are contrary to good netiquette. 3




13. Explain why intellectual property rights are important and givean example of where this is important. 2

Total marks 33

Higher questions – Implications of ICT

1. Explain how a company operating in several countries canuse ICT and the web to aid communications. 1

2. Describe how a new type of business is likely to use an IS-driven business model. 1

3. Explain how the relationship between business andcustomers has changed as result of e-commerce and theInternet. 2

4. Give an advantage and a disadvantage of developingidentities and personas when communicating via theInternet. 2

5. Is the right to private communications across the Internetunder threat by the security issues involved? Discuss thisquestion making two points for and two against. 4

6. Explain how the 1998 version of the Data Protection Actdiffered from the 1984 version. 3

7. Explain how the Copyright Designs and Patents Act relates toweb content and digital media. 2

8. How does the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000)affect our use of the web and e-mail? 2

9. How has the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002affected how we can find out about decisions made andmeetings held in the public sector? 2

10. Summarise the employers’ responsibilities in the UK’sHealth and Safety regulations. 2

11. What impact does the use of ICT have on a businessorganisation in relation to competitive advantage? 2




12. What impact does the use of ICT have on a businessorganisation in relation to business costs including initialand running costs and the cost of investing in the business? 3

13. Explain how ICT can be involved in censorship andfreedom of speech. 2

14. Explain how ICT can be involved in privacy and encryption. 2

15. Explain how ICT can be involved in global citizenship. 2

Total marks 32





USEFUL RESOURCES

SECTION 5

Web links

www.bsa.orgThe Business Software Alliance provides reports and information oninternational software piracy.

http://cyberethics.cbi.msstate.eduCyberethics: A good selection of resources on computer ethics,including case studies.

www.nd.edu/~rbarger/cases.htmlA large selection of case studies regarding ethics, posing some excellentquestions and discussion points.

http://library.thinkquest.org/26658An interactive guide to computer ethics.

http://www.school.za/teachers/index.htmThe ten commandments of computer ethics.

www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htmThe text of the Data Protection Act 1998.

www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/1997050.htmThe Police Act 1997. Describes the role of the National CriminalIntelligence Service, which is entitled to authorise activities such astapping telephone lines.

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000007.htmInformation on the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act.

http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1996/1996031.htmThe Defamation Act 1996.

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000007.htmThe Electronic Communications Act 2000.

http://www.bcs.org/The British Computer Society’s code of conduct and practice.


www.bsa.org

http://cyberethics.cbi.msstate.edu

www.nd.edu/~rbarger/cases.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/26658

http://www.school.za/teachers/index.htm

www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htm

www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/1997050.htm

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000007.htm

http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1996/1996031.htm

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/20000007.htm

http://www.bcs.org/


USEFUL RESOURCES

www.cio.com/forums/ecCIO Magazine: An e-commerce resource centre.

www.ecommerce.ac.ukE-commerce innovation centre at Cardiff University provides interestingcase studies and basic explanations of concepts and terms.

www.ft.com/ftitFinancial Times IT surveys: An excellent set of monthly articles based oncase studies.

http://ecommerce.about.comAbout.com is a portal for all aspects of e-commerce.

http://www.faqs.org/faqs/Internet FAQ Archive. This archive contains Usenet Frequently AskedQuestions (FAQ) postings in HTML format and in text format.


www.cio.com/forums/ec

www.ecommerce.ac.uk

www.ft.com/ftit

http://ecommerce.about.com

http://www.faqs.org/faqs/


USEFUL RESOURCES

Bibliography

Recommended texts

Doyle, Stephen, Information Systems for You, 2nd edition, Cheltenham:Stanley Thornes, 1999

Heathcote, P M, A Level ICT, 3rd edition, Ipswich: Payne-GallowayPublishers, 2003

Lucey, T, Management Information Systems, 9th edition, London:Continuum, 2005

Mott, Julian and Leeming, Anne, Information and CommunicationTechnology for Advanced Level, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2003

Mott, Julian and Leeming, Anne, Information and CommunicationTechnology for AS Level, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2002

Suggested useful texts for background reading

Business Information Systems: Technology, Development andManagement for the e-business, edited by Dave Chaffey, Harlow: FTPrentice Hall, 2003

Curtis, Graham and Cobham, David, Business Information Systems:Analysis, Design and Practice, Harlow: FT Prentice Hall, 2002

Laudon, Kenneth C and Laudon, Jane P, Essentials of ManagementInformation Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, Prentice Hall US,2003

Lewis, Michael, The Future Just Happened, London: Coronet, 2002

Weinberger, David, Small Pieces Loosely Joined (a unified theory of theweb), New York: Perseus Publishing, 2002



USEFUL RESOURCES

Software Evaluation Form Name

Class of software:

Names of the two packages:

A short description of the task:

Range of data objects

Range of operations

Formatting functions

HCI – Use of keyboardcommands

HCI – Menus and toolbars/icons

On-line help

On-line tutorials

Which package better suitedthe task you described?Summarise the importantreasons why you chose thispackage.



ANSWER SECTION

Suggested answers to questions embedded in the text

Higher – Questions and tasks for data and information (pp27–8) – Answers

1. Describe the differences between data and information.Data is just raw facts and figures whereas information isprocessed data with structure, organisation, context ormeaning.2 marks if well explained, 1 mark if poorly explained, orsomething missed out

2. (a) Explain the relationship between knowledge andinformation.Knowledge is derived from information – 1 mark

(b) Explain the difference between explicit and implicitknowledge, giving an example of each and of the kindof information that made that knowledge possible.Explicit is rules, processes or decisions that can berecorded on paper or in an information system, Implicitexists in the minds of humans. Examples – anyappropriate, e.g. almost any written v ideas, concepts,etc.2 marks if well explained, 1 if poorly explained, 1 forexamples

3. What is meant by metadata? Give an example of metadata.Metadata is data describing data – 1 markData dictionary, directory on a disk, card index system, etc.– 1 mark

4. For each of the following situations say whether theinformation is primary or secondary and internal or external.

• the minutes of a golf club committee meeting – Primary &internal – 1 mark

• a till roll showing the day’s transactions in a corner shop –Secondary & internal – 1 mark

• a university prospectus – Primary & largely external – 1mark

ANSWERS



ANSWER SECTION

• the published accounts of a large public business –Secondary & internal – 1 mark

5. Describe the differences between:• formal and informal communication – presenting

information in a structured and consistent manner, fore.g. external or formal letter, etc. v less well structured, fore.g. internal – e-mails and memos.2 marks for well explained and examples, 1 if less wellexplained

• quantitative and qualitative information – numericallyexpressed information, prices, statistics, etc. v informationexpressed using words.2 marks for well explained and examples, 1 if less wellexplained

6. There are three levels of information, strategic, tactical andoperational. State the characteristics of:• information used for decision making at the strategic level

– top level of management, long-term plans, little or nodetail using mainly external sources. – 2 marks for wellexplained and examples, 1 if less well explained

• information used for decision making at the tactical level –middle level of management, medium-term plans, mediumlevel of detail using mixture of internal and externalsources.2 marks for well explained and examples, 1 if less wellexplained

• information used for decision making at the operationallevel – pitched at lowest level of management or workers,short-term plans, function related, using mainly internalsources.2 marks for well explained and examples, 1 if less wellexplained

7. Explain the differences between information categorised bytime:• Historically – information gathered over a period of time –

1 mark• In the present time – during current work window, e.g.

temperatures – 1 mark• In the future – Uses historic and present data to predict

future trends – 1 mark



ANSWER SECTION

8. Information can be used in planning, control and decisionmaking. Describe how information can be used in:• Planning – helps process of deciding in advance what has

to be done and how it is to be done. – 1 mark• Control – helps with monitoring and evaluation of current

progress against the steps of a predefined plan. – 1 mark• Decision-making – helps process of selecting actions from

those possible based on the information available. – 1mark

9. There are three forms of information, written, aural andvisual. Explain with the use of examples the differencebetween the three forms.Any written communication; meetings and phone calls;presentations, video clips, etc.1 mark for each point well explained with examples (3 intotal)

10. The type of information one may receive can be detailed,sampled or aggregated. Explain the differences between thethree types of information with regard to the level of theinformation.Detailed at operational level showing every piece of info, e.g.transactions; sampled is selected records from a database;and aggregated refers to totals created when detailed info issummed. 1 mark for each point well explained withexamples (3 in total)

11. For each of the following characteristics of informationexplain why that characteristic affects the quality of theinformation:availability or accessibility – ease of accessaccuracy – need for accuracy explainedcompleteness – contains all the details requiredreliability or objectivity – relevance explainedtiming – info must be on time for purpose intendedconciseness – no extraneous informationpresentation – aesthetically pleasing, etc.value – relative importance of the info, no reference to cost1 mark for each point well explained with examples (8 intotal)



ANSWER SECTION

12. Explain the distinction between value and the cost ofinformation.Value to the company of the information regardless of cost;cost is how expensive it is to obtain or set up the information– 2 marks if well explained

Total marks for questions 44

Higher – Questions on organisational information systems(p36) – Answers

1. What is an information system?A system that deals with input and processing of data andoutput and storage of information.1 mark

2. Describe the functions likely to be performed by a DataProcessing System, giving an example to illustrate youranswer.Any manual system replaced by computerised system, e.g.banking and statements.1 mark for function description, 1 mark for example

3. Explain why a Data Processing System is classed as being atthe operational level of an organisation.It’s usually at the transaction processing end, and covers allthe day-to-day transactions.1 mark for timescale, 1 mark for type of data

4. For what purposes is a Management Information Systemusually used?To summarise and report on an organisation’s basicoperations.2 marks if well explained

5. Explain why a Management Information System is classed asbeing at the tactical level of an organisation.Because it’s used by middle management (1 mark), usuallyto a regular timescale i.e. monthly, etc. (1 mark)

6. Why would the management of a company like to see aDecision Support System in place?Because it will allow management to explore a range of



ANSWER SECTION

alternative strategies to help with decision making.2 marks if well explained

7. Explain why a Decision Support System is classed as being atthe operational level of an organisation.Because it will use operational data to provide informationat the tactical and strategic levels.2 marks if well explained

8. Explain the purpose of an Executive Information System,giving an example to illustrate your answer.It will allow senior managers to make tactical and strategicdecisions, e.g. providing summarised reports showing trends.1 mark for explanation, 1 mark for example

9. Explain why an Executive Information System is classed asbeing at the tactical level of an organisation.It provides senior managers with information using dataprocessed by operational systems.2 marks if well explained

10. An Expert System is made up of three parts, a knowledgebase, an inference engine and a user interface. What is thepurpose of each of these three parts?KB stores all the facts, rules and information; IE interpretsrules and facts (chaining, etc.); UI allows user to enterknowledge and query the system.1 mark for each section fully answered (3 in total)

11. Describe two reasons why an Expert System would be used inbusiness.It provides a knowledge base employees can examine(1 mark) and creates an objective mechanism not subject tohuman feelings (1 mark)

Total marks 22



ANSWER SECTION

Intermediate 2 – Concepts in relation to OrganisationalInformation Systems (pp45–6) – Answers

1. How may the speed of a computer be calculated and expressed?By the number of calculations it can perform per second.1 mark

2. On what factors can the accuracy of a computer system be based?The accuracy depends firstly on the software written and secondlyon the human accuracy.1 mark for each factor

3. What is meant by the volume of transactions in a computerisedsystem?The number of transactions handled in a given period of time.1 mark

4. How could the efficiency of a computer system be measured?By a combination of its speed, accuracy and volume of through-put, e.g. the number of accurate transactions per second.1 mark

5. (a) Explain what is meant by a turnaround document.A document which is filled in and sent back to a companyfor data processing.1 mark

(b) What has replaced kimball tags and magnetic stripes as themain method of collecting data from goods?Bar codes.1 mark

6. Explain how a bar code is used to produce an itemised till receipt.The bar code is scanned and used to search the database for amatch. The matching description and price are then printed on thereceipt.2 marks if well explained, 1 mark if poorly explained

7. What are the two modern methods of buying goods withoutvisiting a shop?Telephone ordering via a call centre and Internet shopping.1 mark each



ANSWER SECTION

8. (a) Explain why a hard disk is the preferred storage medium fordata processing applications.It provides fast random access to data.1 mark

(b) If users wish to carry quite large files from work to home,what backing storage device are they likely to use?A memory stick (or flash memory).1 mark

9. There are four main types of processing which can be applied todata. Name and describe each of them and give an example ofeach.Searching/ selecting – selecting a sub-section of the data that meetsspecified criteria. Searching the lottery numbers to find a match.Sorting/rearranging – arranging the data into some form of order.Sorting a file into alphabetical order (any example).Aggregating – summarising data by reducing numerous values toone value. Looking for a total or summary such as on a bill or tillreceipt.Performing calculations – applying a formula to data to give anew value. Calculating a utility bill.A bit stingy but 1 mark for each complete name, descriptionand example. 4 marks in total

10. Name and describe the three commonest methods of outputtingdata and give an example of each.Paper – printed information onto any kind of paper, e.g. bills,receipts, etc.Screen – information output on to a screen, e.g. reports formanagers, etc.File – part of a database output and saved to a separate file – anyexample.Still stingy so 1 mark for each name, description and example.3 marks in total

11. Explain why an organisation needs a network strategy and state thefive areas it needs to address.It needs a strategy for planning how to set up a network and tomanage effectively its distribution of data.The five areas are Data Transfer; Distribution/coverage; Access;Security; Facilities.1 mark to explain why strategy needed and 1 mark for listingall five areas. 2 marks in total



ANSWER SECTION

12. Why does an organisation need to have a security strategy in place?To ensure staff or competitors do not steal important data.To keep unauthorised people from using a network.To keep the network secure from virus attacks.1 mark for each reason. 3 marks in total

13. Why is a backup strategy important to an organisation?To ensure that operational data is not accidentally destroyed ordamaged.1 mark

14. Referring to both hardware and software issues, explain why anupgrade strategy is needed.Advances in hardware may be needed so that a company cancontinue to support its core business. Greater functionality ofapplications and faster and more secure operating systems mayaffect a decision to upgrade.1 mark for each. 2 marks in total

15. Why will an organisation have a software strategy in place?Because software may need to be changed to take account of newfeatures or changes in the law.1 mark

16. What effect can a centralised database have on an organisation andwhat advantages can it give?It can make the company more efficient as the data is centralisedand users can access the appropriate section from anywhere on thenetwork.1 markIt keeps all the data in one place, it is easier to control, and itconnects files together and backs up the data.2 marks

Total marks 33



ANSWER SECTION

Higher – Organisational Information Systems (pp69–71) –Answers

1 Explain the difference between a Local Area Network and aWide Area Network.LAN usually operates within a building or campus, WAN overlarge area, WWW, etc.1 mark each

2. What does a distributed network mean?Multiple servers running mini-networks as part of a largernetwork. 1 mark

3. Explain the difference between a client server network and apeer-to-peer network.The first is a central server to which workstations (clients) areattached for network services, whereas P2P is when all stationshave equal status, no server cheaper, etc.1 mark for each

4. What functions does a network adapter card give to a computeron a LAN?Allows the computer to send and receive messages across thenetwork. 1 mark

5. What advantage does a fibre-optic cable give over a twisted pairor co-axial cable?Much faster/ greater bandwidth. 1 mark What additional piece of hardware is required in an Ethernetnetwork when longish distances need be covered?A repeater to boost the signal. 1 mark

6. Explain why a file server and a network computer both requirea network operating system, and explain the main differencebetween the two versions.File server to control users, keep data secure, NC to connect tothe network.1 mark for each version fully explained

7. What is the main function of network auditing and monitoringsoftware?Keeps track of user activity (1 mark) and workstation andprinter activity (1 mark )



ANSWER SECTION

8. Why might an organisation decide to implement a securitystrategy on its network?Because the loss of data is a serious problem. 1 mark

9. Describe what is meant by data security, integrity and privacy;and highlight the differences between these three terms.Security is keeping the data safe from physical loss; integrity iscorrectness of stored data; privacy is keeping data secret –expect an example of each.1 mark each (3 total)

10. How may a virus be transmitted to a computer andsubsequently activated, and what is the likely effect of a viruson a computer system?Usually transmitted as an attachment to an e-mail,downloaded from the Internet or from media. Can take effectimmediately, stay dormant until triggered, or be activatedwhen a program or the computer starts up.Effectively ½ mark each part rounded down (3 total)

11. Hacking is gaining unauthorised access to a computerinformation system. How may an organisation protect itselffrom hackers, and what offence is actually committed?Protection is by installing a firewall, and the offence iscommitted in terms described in the Computer Misuse Act.1 mark each

12. Explain what is meant by a denial-of-service attack.This happens when a server becomes flooded with requests andcannot deliver, so the server crashes.1 mark

13. Explain how having a code of conduct in place can helpenhance the security of an organisation.A code of conduct can set out minimum standards ofbehaviour, such as regular changing of passwords, etc.1 mark

14. Explain how having a code governing password guidelines canhelp enhance the security of an organisation. Give an exampleof the rules which may be in place.A code makes passwords harder to guess + suitable example ofa password rule1 mark for an explanation, 1 mark for an example



ANSWER SECTION

15. How may a virus be prevented from attacking a network? Ifpresent, how may it be detected and infected files berepaired? Prevention – use of floppy disk not allowed, e-mailsscanned for viruses. Detection via anti-virus software.Repaired by anti-virus s/ware deleting the virus part of thefile.1 mark for each part well explained (3 in total)

16. A firewall is a method of preventing unauthorised access to anetwork. Explain how it operates.Sits between server and Internet connection and stopsunauthorised joining of network from outside.1 mark for each point made and explained (3 in total)

17. Explain why Internet retailers use encryption and describe apopular system.To protect their customers and prevent fraud. 32-bitencryption is a popular system.1 mark for why and 1 for 32-bit

18. Access rights involve how files may be accessed on a network.Describe the main actions that can be applied to files.Explain read, write, create, erase, modify1 mark for each name and explanation (5 in total)

19. Explain why an organisation should have a backup strategy.To keep a copy of irreplaceable data safe and be able torestore that data. (Or similar.)1 mark

20. Describe what is meant by:(a) Data archiving is long-term storage of data. 1 mark(b) Data recovery is restoring backed-up data to the system.

1 mark(c) Storage methods, including frequency and version

control: this refers to the regularity of backups and aversion is the full backup plus increments. 1 mark

21. Explain why an organisation should have an upgrade strategyin place.To ensure a system has a reasonable life and a plannedreplacement. 1 mark



ANSWER SECTION

22. What is meant by integration testing?Checks to ensure that new elements work with old; these coversoftware, peripherals and operating systems.2 marks if well explained

23. What problems can legacy systems give a network manager?Old hardware may not run with new software or systems.1 mark

24. What does the term emulation mean in the context oforganisational information systems?Software which runs on a new system and mimics the oldsystem so that old applications will work.1 mark

25. As part of a software strategy an organisation may wish toevaluate software. Explain how the software can be evaluatedwith reference to the criteria of functionality, performance,usability, compatibility, data migration, reliability, resourcerequirements, portability and support.Look for a point made about each of the criteria. Any validpoint from the notes.1 mark for each criterion (9 in total)

26. Describe the methods of providing training in usinginformation systems software including on-the-job training, in-house and external courses.On-the-job means working through a tutorial and referring tohelp while actually working on the system; in-house refers toa company-based training unit; external courses are usuallyrun by the manufacturers, etc.1 mark each (3 in total)

27. Identify and describe the means of obtaining user support.Identify and describe manuals, on-line help and tutorials,help desk, newsgroups and FAQ1 mark each (5 in total; identify only 0 marks)

28. Explain the factors that need to be considered if anorganisation decides to upgrade its software.Explain lack of functionality, hardware and softwareincompatibility and perfecting the system.1 mark each explanation (4 in total)



ANSWER SECTION

29. Explain the essential differences between a centralised and adistributed database. Mention the advantages ordisadvantages of both.Centralised database holds all the data on one centralcomputer or server making it easier to maintain and backup. Distributed database has files spread around a network;different users can work on separate sections withoutinterfering with each other.1 mark for differences, 1 mark for advantages of each (3in total)

30. What does data warehousing mean and why may a companydecide to warehouse data?Historical data is removed from the main company’sactivities to free up disk space and make the system moreefficient.1 mark for description, 1 mark for reason

31. (a) What is data mining defined as?The non-trivial extraction of implicit, previouslyunknown and potentially useful information fromdata. 1 mark

(b) Describe how data mining operates.Use of software techniques for finding patterns andregularities in sets of data. 1 mark

(c) Describe a business situation where data mining may bevery useful.Any business where data is held on diverse subjectsacross different information systems.1 mark if well described

Total marks 76



ANSWER SECTION

Intermediate 2 – Personal and organisational uses of InformationManagement Software (pp78–9) – Answers

1. What type of software would you use for editing and manipulatingtext on a page?Word processing. 1 mark

2. What type of software would allow the user to create andmanipulate pictures?Graphics design. 1 mark

3. What type of software would be used to lay out financial andstatistical data in tables and apply formulas and calculations to thedata?Spreadsheet. 1 mark

4. What type of software would allow the user to create and storeinformation?Database. 1 mark

5. (a) What is e-mail client software used for?To write, send, retrieve and read e-mails. 1 mark

(b) Describe the two different methods of using e-mail.Off-line dials up, retrieves the e-mails allowing the user todisconnect from the Internet and read their e-mails. On-linemeans that the Internet connection is kept open throughoutand the e-mails are kept on the ISP’s computer rather than theuser’s. 1 mark each

(c) Give an advantage and a disadvantage of using an on-line e-mail provider.Advantage: viruses and spam are trapped by provider.Disadvantage: you have to stay connected to the Internet.1 mark each

6. (a) Describe what browser software is used for.It allows users to receive information from the Internet. 1 mark

(b) State the navigational functions supported by most browsers.Forward and back arrows, Home, Stop, Refresh.2 marks for all 4. 1 mark for less

(c) Describe what is meant by bookmarking.Keeping a list of favourite websites which can be easilyretrieved. 1 mark



ANSWER SECTION

7. Describe the three generations of chat client software.Written conversations in real time; Instant Messaging where user isinformed if a friend logs on; and voice-based messaging allowinguser to converse in real time over the Internet.1 mark for each well described not just named (3 in total)

8. Describe three ways DTP software can be used.Layout of text and graphics on a page; control over multi-pagedocuments and leaflets, etc.; prepare pages for professional use.1 mark for each (3 in total; accept other valid uses)

9. What type of software would be used to create a slide show thatcould be used with a data projector?Presentation. 1 mark

10. What type of software is an encyclopaedia supplied on a CD-ROM?Reference. 1 mark

11. (a) What may financial software be used for in a homeenvironment? Bugetting at home, on-line banking, etc.1 mark for any suitable example

(b) What may financial software be used for in a businessenvironment?Preparing final accounts, dealing with customers andsuppliers, statements, invoices and payments.Any 2, 1 mark each

12. What does web-authoring software allow the user to do?Create web pages and websites. 1 mark

13. If a company was making websites commercially what types ofsoftware would they need and why?Graphic design software to prepare their pictures and graphics andweb-authoring software to create the sites.1 mark for naming and 1 mark each for reasons (3 in total)

14. If a teacher wished to make a slide show to help deliver a lesson,which type of software would s/he use?Presentation. 1 mark

15. What type of software allows the user to create and maintaincustomer and supplier accounts?Financial. 1 mark

Total marks 30



ANSWER SECTION

Higher – Personal and organisational uses of InformationManagement Software (pp103–4) – Answers

1. What type of software would be required to produce a 32-pagemagazine?Desk-top publishing. 1 markDescribe at least two differences between word-processingand desk-top publishing software.WP is better for generating text. DTP uses prepared text andhandles graphics or multi-page documents better than WP.1 mark for each of 2 differences

2. What are the main differences between presentation and web-authoring software? (Outline at least two.)Presentation creating slide shows for use with LCD projectors.Web-authoring software creates websites and pages which canbe uploaded to the WWW.2 differences, 1 mark for each

3. Describe what spreadsheet software can be used for in bothbusiness and education.Business uses include modelling and simulating andstatistical analysis. Uses in education are for budgets,forecasting, education recording and analysing marks andexam results.1 mark for each of business and education

4. What are the main uses of project management software?To help with planning or monitoring (1 mark), and control ofthe various activities or resources (1 mark) of a project.

5. What functions are likely to be found in PIM software?Communications, calendar, contacts and task list.1 mark

6. (a) What are the data objects likely to be found in word-processing software?Characters, words, paragraphs, graphic objects – 1 mark

(b) What operations can be performed on these dataobjects? (Describe three.)Any three operations – file, edit menus or specificsdescribed.All 3 for 2 marks well described, 1 if poorlydescribed



ANSWER SECTION

(c) What formatting functions can be applied to these dataobjects? (Describe three.)Describe formatting, style and functions.Marks as for (b)

7. (a) Explain what is meant by each of these features of word-processing and desk-top publishing software:(i) Multi-page layout, columns, header and footer and

pagination.Different page layouts within one (multi-page)document, e.g. newspaper columns, area at topand bottom of page containing page numbering,chapter headings, etc., number of pages and pagenumbering4 features for 2 marks, 2 or 3 for 1 mark

(ii) Use of a contents and index page.Contents page(s) at start and index page(s) at endof document. 1 mark

(b) Describe what is meant by text wrapping aroundgraphics.How text can be made to flow around or embed agraphic. 1 mark

(c) How can style sheets be used to implement a housestyle?Contain formatting information that may be appliedconsistently to different sections of text. 1 mark

(d) What is the difference between serif and sans-serif fonts?Serif has ticks and tails, line thickness varies. Sans-serifhas no ticks and tails, lines are of same thickness.1 mark

(e) Describe how the use of colour and formatting of textcan enhance the appearance of a document.Any suitable description, probably mentioning legibilityand level of interest. 1 mark

8. (a) Explain what is meant by each of these features ofpresentation and web-authoring software.(i) The structuring of pages and slides

Whether hierarchical or linear. 1 mark(ii) The incorporation of graphics including

animations.Should only be added if they enhance the meaningof you web page or presentation. 1 mark



ANSWER SECTION

(iii) A presentational style including the selection offonts and use of colour.Choose sensible colours and fonts; keep languageappropriate. 1 mark

(b) Describe how hyperlinks aid navigation.They allow the user to jump straight to a page ratherthan use browser’s buttons. 1 mark

(c) How can page transitions be used to enhance a slideshow?Describe one or two such as fade-in, shutters, etc. 1 mark

(d) How can templates and masters be used to implement ahouse style?Set up with fonts, style and colours for all users on acollaborative project to use. 1 mark1 mark for each if well described

9. (a) What are the data objects likely to be found in standardspreadsheet software?Cells and groups of cells. 1 mark

(b) What operations can be performed on these dataobjects? (Describe three.)Look for specifics, paste links, fill down and across, cut,copy etc. All 3 must be well described for 2 marks

(c) What formatting functions can be applied to these dataobjects? (Describe three.)Format, BIU icons, alignment of cells, font, style, etc.Marks as for (b)

10. Explain what is meant by each of these features of spreadsheetsoftware:(a) Goal seeking and forecasting

Changing values until desired result is achieved andpredicting a future value using linear regression.Only 1 mark – copy from notes

(b) Lookup tablesCode and decode values from numeric to text.1 mark

(c) Nested IF and Count functionsUse of an IF function within an IF function, and countsthe number of cells in a range. 1 mark

(d) How may macros be created and used? (Describe 2methods.)Recording a macro with learn and use, or scriptingwithin package. 2 marks



ANSWER SECTION

11. Explain what is meant by each of these features of projectmanagement software:(a) Timelining

How and when certain tasks in a project need to becompleted. 1 mark

(b) Resource allocationSoftware tools that help find the best way to allocateresources. 1 mark

(c) Gant and PERT chartsG to monitor progress using timings, P showsrelationship between activities. 1 mark for each

(d) Critical path analysis and optimisationCPA concerned with optimisation of time to reduceduration of a process. 2 marks if well described

12. Explain what is meant by each of these features of personalinformation management software and describe how each maybe used:(a) Communication

E-mail facility to send, receive and read e-mails.(b) Contacts

Complex address book, etc.(c) Calendar

Keeps a diary, meetings, appointments, etc.(d) Task lists

Manages a ‘to-do’ list.For 2 marks each, they should be well described, 1 markfor poor description (8 in total)

Total marks 52



ANSWER SECTION

Intermediate 2 – Implications of ICT (pp135–6) – Answers

1. Describe what is meant by ease of access and availability of ICT andgive an example (preferably not from the notes).Access to digital TV, internet, etc. both at home and at work.2 marks if well explained with example

2. Explain the difference between information rich and informationpoor. Illustrate your answer with examples.Rich have access to ICT. Poor have only limited or no access.Example might be either First World v Third World, or from withinour society.1 mark for each of rich and poor explained

3. Why must citizens now be IT aware and have an educationalqualification in IT?Because of the proliferation of ICT. Because so many jobs demandit.Both points well explained 1 mark each

4. Name three jobs that are filled by knowledge workers.Any three from list or other sourceAny three suitable workers earn 1 mark

5. Give one advantage and one disadvantage both to the retailer andto the customer of on-line shopping.From bullet points in notes.1 for each advantage or disadvantage

6. Under the terms of the Data Protection Act 1998 explain what ismeant by:(a) Data protection principles

These are basically meant to protect individuals from ITabuses. 1 mark

(b) The rights of the data subjectThese are to see data about themselves, and have it correctedif untrue. 1 mark

(c) The responsibilities of the data controllerThese are to register data, allow inspection by data subjects.1 mark

(d) The role of the Information CommissionerTo enforce the terms of the Data Protection Act. 1 mark



ANSWER SECTION

7. What are the three misuses covered by the Computer Misuse Act?(Do not answer in terms of ‘hacking’, etc.)Unauthorised access; modification of data; use of computer datato help commit a crime. 1 mark for each point (3 in total)

8. In terms of computer usage what offence is covered under theCopyright Designs and Patents Act 1998?Using unlicensed computer software. 1 mark

9. How do the health and safety regulations cover seating, lighting,RSI, eye strain and radiation with regard to computer usage?Expect a short paragraph covering all five points.Well explained for 5 marks, etc.

10. Describe the type of work carried out by someone in a startingposition and also of someone working in an advanced positionwithin an IT organisation (1 job from each level).One job from each level.1 mark for each level of job well described

11. Explain how new ICT in a business can affect the productivity andprofitability of individuals and the company. You may need towrite a paragraph about this.Expect a short paragraph summarising the notes coveringproductivity and profitability from both individual and companyviewpoint. 1 mark each (4 in total)

12. Netiquette is very important to both individuals and businesses.Explain why typing e-mails in capitals, flaming and sending verylarge files are contrary to good netiquette.Shouting, should not abuse fellow users of group, time required fordownloading. 1 mark each (3 in total)

13. Explain why intellectual property rights are important and in ICTgive an example of where this is important.To protect the producers of music, journals, etc. (1 mark)published on the web (1 mark).

Total marks 33



ANSWER SECTION

Higher – Implications of ICT (pp136–7) – Answers

1. Explain how a company operating in several countries canuse ICT and the web to aid communications.They can have their own private web facility and can publishmemos, reports, etc. All can read them as if they were in thesame building.1 mark if well explained

2. Describe how a new type of business is likely to use an IS-driven business model.They can start with a fresh IT policy, e.g. call centres.1 mark

3. Explain how the relationship between business andcustomers has changed as result of e-commerce and theInternet.Customers are more demanding of quick delivery times, etc.They are less likely to speak to anyone from the company.2 points for 1 mark each

4. Give an advantage and a disadvantage of developing identitiesand personas when communicating via the InternetAdvantage: communication barriers broken down.Disadvantage: this is likely to be abused by unscrupulouspeople.1 mark for each point

5. Is the right to private communications across the Internetunder threat by the security issues involved? Discuss thisquestion making two points for and two against.For the right: e-mails and websites visited should be private.Against the right: security services need the right to use thetechnology to catch suspects, etc.2 marks for and 2 against

6. Explain how the 1998 version of the Data Protection Actdiffered from the 1984 version.The later Act harmonised EU legislation, coveredtransmission of data in electronic form, and included paper-based records.1 mark each for all 3



ANSWER SECTION

7. Explain how the Copyright Designs and Patents Act relates toweb content and digital media.Web content is subject to the same copyright laws as printedmaterials. Software piracy is illegal because that too is theftof intellectual property, etc.1 mark each point

8. How does the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000)affect our use of the web and e-mail?It allows employers and security services to monitor e-mailand web usage.2 marks if both web and e-mail are mentioned

9. How has the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002affected how we can find out about decisions made andmeetings held in the public sector?All public bodies must make information available, and theymust have a publishing policy.1 mark for availability, 1 for publishing

10. Summarise the employers’ responsibilities in the UK’s Healthand Safety regulations.Risk assessment has to be carried and recorded if theemployers has more than five employees.2 marks if well explained

11. What impact does the use of ICT have on a businessorganisation in relation to competitive advantage?If they are the first in their field to use ICT there should be alarge impact and their profitability should increase.2 marks

12. What impact does the use of ICT have on a businessorganisation in relation to business costs including initial andrunning costs and the cost of investing in the business?Initial ICT costs can be very high but can significantly cutrunning costs, reduce staff numbers, etc. Costs ofconsumables can be high also (software licences, etc.). Mustall be taken into account by potential investors.3 marks if well explained



ANSWER SECTION

13. Explain how ICT can be involved in censorship and freedomof speech.This could be argued from several different angles and creditshould be given for any two well argued points.

14. Explain how ICT can be involved in privacy and encryption.We expect privacy from our e-mail system and when we useon-line shopping or banking we expect privacy and our datato be kept secure. PGP and 32-bit encryption are used onthese sites to protect us.2 marks if well argued

15. Explain how ICT can be involved in global citizenship.Use of e-mail for correspondence with schools and collegesaround the world, websites supporting citizenship issues, etc.2 marks if well argued

Total marks 32


Documents

LTS Information Systems Int 2 - Using Informations