LSAT*

PrepTest 36Test ID: LL3036

A complete version of PrepTest XXXVI has been reproducedwith the permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc.

Prep Test XXXVI 2001 Law School Admission Council, Inc.

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LSAT PT36 3/25/03 1:10 PM Page ii

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION I

Reading Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION II

Logical Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION III

Analytical Reasoning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION IV

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1. Joanna: The only way for a company to be successful,after emerging from bankruptcy, is to producethe same goods or services that it did beforegoing bankrupt. It is futile for such a companyto try to learn a whole new business.

Ruth: Wrong. The Kelton Company was a majormining operation that went into bankruptcy.On emerging from bankruptcy, Kelton turnedits mines into landfills and is presently a highlysuccessful waste-management concern.

Ruth uses which one of the following argumentativetechniques in countering Joannas argument?

(A) She presents a counterexample to a claim.(B) She offers an alternative explanation for a

phenomenon.(C) She supports a claim by offering a developed

and relevant analogy.(D) She undermines a claim by showing that it

rests on an ambiguity.(E) She establishes a conclusion by excluding the

only plausible alternative to that conclusion.

2. Nutritionist: Recently a craze has developed forhome juicers, $300 machines that separate thepulp of fruits and vegetables from the juicethey contain. Outrageous claims are beingmade about the benefits of these devices:drinking the juice they produce is said to helpone lose weight or acquire a clear complexion,to aid digestion, and even to prevent cancer.But there is no indication that juice separatedfrom the pulp of the fruit or vegetable has anyproperties that it does not have whenunseparated. Save your money. If you wantcarrot juice, eat a carrot.

Which one of the following, if true, most calls intoquestion the nutritionists argument?

(A) Most people find it much easier to consume agiven quantity of nutrients in liquid formthan to eat solid foods containing the samequantity of the same nutrients.

(B) Drinking juice from home juicers is lesshealthy than is eating fruits and vegetablesbecause such juice does not contain the fiberthat is eaten if one consumes the entire fruitor vegetable.

(C) To most people who would be tempted to buya home juicer, $300 would not be a majorexpense.

(D) The nutritionist was a member of a panel thatextensively evaluated early prototypes ofhome juicers.

(E) Vitamin pills that supposedly containnutrients available elsewhere only in fruitsand vegetables often contain a form of thosecompounds that cannot be as easilymetabolized as the varieties found in fruitsand vegetables.

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1 -2- 11SECTION I

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

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3. Finnish author Jaakko Mikkeli was accused byNorwegian author Kirsten Halden of plagiarizing abook that she had written and that had beenpublished 20 years before Mikkelis. The two books,although set in different periods and regions, containenough plot similarities to make coincidentalresemblance unlikely. Mikkelis defense rests on hisargument that plagiarism was impossible in this casebecause Haldens book has been published only inNorwegian, a language Mikkeli does not understand,and because no reviews of Haldens book have everbeen published.

The argument in Mikkelis defense depends on theassumption that

(A) Mikkeli has never met Halden(B) Haldens book did not become popular in

Norway(C) nobody related the plot of Haldens book in

detail to Mikkeli before Mikkeli wrote hisbook

(D) there is a common European myth to whichboth authors referred subconsciously in thebooks in question

(E) Mikkeli is not familiar with Old Icelandic, anextinct language related to an earlier form ofNorwegian

4. Most antidepressant drugs cause weight gain. Whiledieting can help reduce the amount of weight gainedwhile taking such antidepressants, some weight gainis unlikely to be preventable.

The information above most strongly supports whichone of the following?

(A) A physician should not prescribe anyantidepressant drug for a patient if thatpatient is overweight.

(B) People who are trying to lose weight shouldnot ask their doctors for an antidepressantdrug.

(C) At least some patients taking antidepressantdrugs gain weight as a result of taking them.

(D) The weight gain experienced by patients takingantidepressant drugs should be attributed tolack of dieting.

(E) All patients taking antidepressant drugsshould diet to maintain their weight.

5. Company policy: An employee of our companymust be impartial, particularly when dealingwith family members. This obligation extendsto all aspects of the job, including hiring andfiring practices and the quality of service theemployee provides customers.

Which one of the following employee behaviors mostclearly violates the company policy cited above?

(A) refusing to hire any of ones five siblings, eventhough they are each more qualified than anyother applicant

(B) receiving over a hundred complaints about theservice ones office provides and sending acomplimentary product to all those whocomplain, including ones mother

(C) never firing a family member, even thoughthree of ones siblings work under onessupervision and authority

(D) repeatedly refusing to advance an employee,claiming that he has sometimes skipped workand that his work has been sloppy, eventhough no such instances have occurred forover two years

(E) promoting a family member over anotheremployee in the company

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Questions 67

It is widely believed that eating chocolate can causeacne. Indeed, many people who are susceptible to acnereport that, in their own experience, eating large amountsof chocolate is invariably followed by an outbreak of thatskin condition. However, it is likely that common wisdomhas mistaken an effect for a cause. Several recent scientificstudies indicate that hormonal changes associated withstress can cause acne and there is good evidence thatpeople who are fond of chocolate tend to eat morechocolate when they are under stress.

6. Of the following, which one most accuratelyexpresses the main point of the argument?

(A) People are mistaken who insist that wheneverthey eat large amounts of chocolate theyinvariably suffer from an outbreak of acne,

(B) The more chocolate a person eats, the morelikely that person is to experience thehormonal changes associated with stress.

(C) Eating large amounts of chocolate is morelikely to cause stress than it is to causeoutbreaks of acne.

(D) It is less likely that eating large amounts ofchocolate causes acne than that both thechocolate eating and the acne are caused bystress.

(E) The more stress a person experiences, themore likely that person is to crave chocolate.

7. The argument employs which one of the followingargumentative strategies?

(A) It cites counterevidence that calls into questionthe accuracy of the evidence advanced insupport of the position being challenged.

(B) It provides additional evidence that points toan alternative interpretation of the evidenceoffered in support of the position beingchallenged.

(C) It invokes the superior authority of scienceover common opinion in order to dismiss outof hand the relevance of evidence based oneveryday experience.

(D) It demonstrates that the position beingchallenged is inconsistent with certainwell-established facts.

(E) It provides counterexamples to show that,contrary to the assumption on which thecommonly held position rests, causes do notalways precede their effects.

8. It has been claimed that television networks shouldprovide equal time for the presentation of opposingviews whenever a television program concernsscientific issuessuch as those raised by the claimsof environmentalistsabout which people disagree.However, although an obligation to provide equaltime does arise in the case of any programconcerning social issues, it does so because socialissues almost always have important politicalimplications and seldom can definitely be settled onthe basis of available evidence. If a program concernsscientific issues, that program gives rise to no suchequal time obligation.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) No scientific issues raised by the claims ofenvironmentalists have important politicalimplications.

(B) There are often more than two opposing viewson an issue that cannot be definitely settledon the basis of available evidence.

(C) Some social issues could be definitely settledon the basis of evidence if the opposing sideswould give all the available evidence a fairhearing.

(D) Many scientific issues have important politicalimplications and cannot be definitely settledon the basis of the available evidence.

(E) Some television networks refuse to broadcastprograms on issues that have importantpolitical implications and that cannot bedefinitely settled by the available evidence.

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9. Raisins are made by drying grapes in the sun.Although some of the sugar in the grapes iscaramelized in the process, nothing is added.Moreover, the only thing removed from the grapes isthe water that evaporates during the drying, andwater contains no calories or nutrients. The fact thatraisins contain more iron per calorie than grapes dois thus puzzling.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toexplain why raisins contain more iron per caloriethan do grapes?

(A) Since grapes are bigger than raisins, it takesseveral bunches of grapes to provide the sameamount of iron as a handful of raisins does.

(B) Caramelized sugar cannot be digested, so itscalories do not count toward the caloriecontent of raisins.

(C) The body can absorb iron and other nutrientsmore quickly from grapes than from raisinsbecause of the relatively high water content ofgrapes.

(D) Raisins, but not grapes, are availableyear-round, so many people get a greatershare of their yearly iron intake from raisinsthan from grapes.

(E) Raisins are often eaten in combination withother iron-containing foods, while grapes areusually eaten by themselves.

10. Cotrell is, at best, able to write magazine articles ofaverage quality. The most compelling pieces ofevidence for this are those few of the numerousarticles submitted by Cotrell that are superior, sinceCotrell, who is incapable of writing an article that isbetter than average, must obviously have plagiarizedsuperior ones.

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism onwhich one of the following grounds?

(A) It simply ignores the existence of potentialcounterevidence.

(B) It generalizes from atypical occurrences.(C) It presupposes what it seeks to establish.(D) It relies on the judgment of experts in a matter

to which their expertise is irrelevant.(E) It infers limits on ability from a few isolated

lapses in performance.

11. Any sale item that is purchased can be returned forstore credit but not for a refund of the purchaseprice. Every home appliance and every piece ofgardening equipment is on sale along with selectedconstruction tools.

If the statements above are true, which one of thefollowing must also be true?

(A) Any item that is not a home appliance or apiece of gardening equipment is returnablefor a refund.

(B) Any item that is not on sale cannot bereturned for store credit.

(C) Some construction tools are not returnable forstore credit.

(D) No piece of gardening equipment is returnablefor a refund.

(E) None of the things that are returnable for arefund are construction tools.

12. The consumer price index is a measure that detectsmonthly changes in the retail prices of goods andservices. The payment of some governmentretirement benefits is based on the consumer priceindex so that those benefits reflect the change in thecost of living as the index changes. However, theconsumer price index does not considertechnological innovations that may drastically reducethe cost of producing some goods. Therefore, thevalue of government benefits is sometimes greaterthan is warranted by the true change in costs.

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable tothe criticism that the argument

(A) fails to consider the possibility that there areyears in which there is no change in theconsumer price index

(B) fails to make explicit which goods and servicesare included in the consumer price index

(C) presumes, without providing warrant, thatretirement benefits are not generally used topurchase unusual goods

(D) uncritically draws an inference from what hasbeen true in the past to what will be true inthe future

(E) makes an irrelevant shift from discussing retailprices to discussing production costs

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13. When astronomers observed the comet Schwassman-Wachmann 3 becoming 1,000 times brighter inSeptember 1995, they correctly hypothesized that itsincreased brightness was a result of the cometsbreaking upwhen comets break up, they emit largeamounts of gas and dust, becoming visibly brighter as aresult. However, their observations did not reveal cometSchwassman-Wachmann 3 actually breaking into piecesuntil November 1995, even though telescopes weretrained on it throughout the entire period.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toresolve the apparent conflict in the statements above?

(A) Comets often do not emit gas and dust untilseveral weeks after they have begun to break up.

(B) The reason comets become brighter when theybreak up is that the gas and dust that theyemit refract light.

(C) Gas and dust can be released by cracks in acomet even if the comet is not broken all theway through.

(D) The amount of gas and dust emitted steadilyincreased during the period from Septemberthrough November.

(E) The comet passed close to the sun during thisperiod and the gravitational strain caused itto break up.

14. If Slater wins the election, McGuinness will beappointed head of the planning commission. ButYerxes is more qualified to head it since she is anarchitect who has been on the planning commissionfor fifteen years. Unless the polls are grosslyinaccurate, Slater will win.

Which one of the following can be properly inferredfrom the information above?

(A) If the polls are grossly inaccurate, someonemore qualified than McGuinness will beappointed head of the planning commission.

(B) McGuinness will be appointed head of theplanning commission only if the polls are agood indication of how the election will turnout.

(C) Either Slater will win the election or Yerxes willbe appointed head of the planningcommission.

(D) McGuinness is not an architect and has notbeen on the planning commission for fifteenyears or more.

(E) If the polls are a good indication of how theelection will turn out, someone less qualifiedthan Yerxes will be appointed head of theplanning commission.

15. In one study, engineering students who prepared foran exam by using toothpicks and string did no worsethan similar students who prepared by using anexpensive computer with sophisticated graphics. Inanother study, military personnel who trained on acostly high-tech simulator performed no better on apractical exam than did similar personnel whotrained using an inexpensive cardboard model. Soone should not always purchase technologicallyadvanced educational tools.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, mosthelps to justify the reasoning above?

(A) One should use different educational tools toteach engineering to civilians than are used totrain military personnel.

(B) High-tech solutions to modern problems areineffective unless implemented byknowledgeable personnel.

(C) Spending large sums of money on educationaltools is at least as justified for nonmilitarytraining as it is for military training.

(D) One should not invest in expensive teachingaids unless there are no other tools that areless expensive and at least as effective.

(E) One should always provide students with avariety of educational materials so that eachstudent can find the materials that best suitthat students learning style.

16. A number of measures indicate the viability of anations economy. The level and rate of growth ofaggregate output are the most significant indicators,but unemployment and inflation rates are alsoimportant. Further, Switzerland, Austria, Israel,Ireland, Denmark, and Finland all have viableeconomics, but none has a very large population.Switzerland and Austria each have populations ofabout seven million; the other populations are atleast one-fourth smaller.

Which one of the following is most stronglysupported by the information above?

(A) A nations economic viability is independent ofthe size of its population.

(B) Having a population larger than seven millionensures that a nation will be economicallyviable.

(C) Economic viability does not require apopulation of at least seven million.

(D) A nations population is the most significantcontributor to the level and rate of growth ofaggregate output.

(E) A nations population affects the level and rate ofgrowth of aggregate output more than it affectsunemployment and inflation rates.

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17. The best way to write a good detective story is towork backward from the crime. The writer shouldfirst decide what the crime is and who theperpetrator is, and then come up with thecircumstances and clues based on those decisions.

Which one of the following illustrates a principlemost similar to that illustrated by the passage?

(A) When planning a trip, some people first decidewhere they want to go and then planaccordingly, but, for most of us, muchfinancial planning must be done before wecan choose where we are going.

(B) In planting a vegetable garden, you shouldprepare the soil first, and then decide whatkinds of vegetables to plant.

(C) Good architects do not extemporaneouslyconstruct their plans in the course of anafternoon; an architectural design cannot bedivorced from the method of constructing thebuilding.

(D) In solving mathematical problems, the bestmethod is to try out as many strategies aspossible in the time allotted. This isparticularly effective if the number ofpossible strategies is fairly small.

(E) To make a great tennis shot, you shouldvisualize where you want the shot to go. Thenyou can determine the position you need tobe in to execute the shot properly.

18. Moderate exercise lowers the risk of blockage of thearteries due to blood clots, since anything that lowersblood cholesterol levels also lowers the risk ofhardening of the arteries, which in turn lowers therisk of arterial blockage due to blood clots; and, if thedata reported in a recent study are correct, moderateexercise lowers blood cholesterol levels.

The conclusion drawn above follows logically ifwhich one of the following is assumed?

(A) The recent study investigated the relationshipbetween exercise and blood cholesterol levels.

(B) Blockage of the arteries due to blood clots canbe prevented.

(C) Lowering blood cholesterol levels lowers therisk of blockage of the arteries.

(D) The data reported in the recent study arecorrect.

(E) Hardening of the arteries increases the risk ofblockage of the arteries due to blood clots.

19. Although it has been suggested that Artons playshave a strong patriotic flavor, we must recall that, atthe time of their composition, her country was inanything but a patriotic mood. Unemployment washigh, food was costly, and crime rates were soaring.As a result, the general morale of her nation was atan especially low point. Realizing this, we see clearlythat any apparent patriotism in Artons work musthave been intended ironically.

The reasoning above is questionable because it

(A) posits an unstated relationship betweenunemployment and crime

(B) takes for granted that straightforwardpatriotism is not possible for a serious writer

(C) takes for granted that Arton was attuned to thepredominant national attitude of her time

(D) overlooks the fact that some citizens prosper intimes of high unemployment

(E) confuses irony with a general decline in publicmorale

20. Editorialist: To ensure justice in the legal system,citizens must be capable of criticizing anyoneinvolved in determining the punishment ofcriminals. But when the legal systems purposeis seen as deterrence, the system falls into thehands of experts whose specialty is to assesshow potential lawbreakers are affected by thesystems punishments. Because most citizenslack knowledge about such matters, justice isnot then ensured in the legal system.

The editorialists argument requires assuming whichone of the following?

(A) Most citizens view justice as primarilyconcerned with the assignment ofpunishment to those who deserve it.

(B) In order to be just, a legal system mustconsider the effect that punishment will haveon individual criminals.

(C) The primary concern in a legal system is toadminister punishments that are just.

(D) In a legal system, a concern for punishment isincompatible with an emphasis on deterrence.

(E) Citizens without knowledge about how thelegal systems punishments affect potentiallawbreakers are incapable of criticizingexperts in that area.

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21. Kostmans original painting of Rosati was not a veryaccurate portrait. Therefore, your reproduction ofKostmans painting of Rosati will not be a veryaccurate production of the painting.

Which one of the following is most similar in itsflawed reasoning to the flawed reasoning in theargument above?

(A) Georges speech was filled with half-truths andmisquotes. So the tape recording made of itcannot be of good sound quality.

(B) An artist who paints a picture of an ugly scenemust necessarily paint an ugly picture, unlessthe picture is a distorted representation of thescene.

(C) If a childs eyes resemble her mothers, then ifthe mothers eyes are brown the childs eyesalso must be brown.

(D) Jo imitated Layne. But Jo is different fromLayne, so Jo could not have imitated Laynevery well.

(E) Harolds second novel is similar to his first.Therefore, his second novel must beenthralling, because his first novel won aprestigious literary prize.

22. Any writer whose purpose is personal expressionsometimes uses words ambiguously. Every poetspurpose is personal expression. Thus no poetryreaders enjoyment depends on attaining a preciseunderstanding of what the poet means.

The conclusion can be properly inferred if which oneof the following is assumed?

(A) Writers who sometimes use wordsambiguously have no readers who try toattain a precise understanding of what thewriter means.

(B) Writers whose purpose is personal expressionare unconcerned with whether anyone enjoysreading their works.

(C) No writer who ever uses words ambiguouslyhas any reader whose enjoyment depends onattaining a precise understanding of what thewriter means.

(D) Most writers whose readers enjoyment doesnot depend on attaining a preciseunderstanding of the writers words are poets.

(E) Readers who have a precise understanding ofwhat a writer has written derive theirenjoyment from that understanding.

23. It is clear that humans during the Upper Paleolithicperiod used lamps for light in caves. Though lampscan be dated to the entire Upper Paleolithic, thedistribution of known lamps from the period isskewed, with the greatest number being associatedwith the late Upper Paleolithic period, when theMagdalenian culture was dominant.

Each of the following, if true, contributes to anexplanation of the skewed distribution of lampsEXCEPT:

(A) Artifacts from early in the Upper Paleolithicperiod are harder to identify than those thatoriginated later in the period.

(B) More archaeological sites have been discoveredfrom the Magdalenian culture than fromearlier cultures.

(C) More efficient lamp-making techniques weredeveloped by the Magdalenian culture thanby earlier cultures.

(D) Fire pits were much more common in cavesearly in the Upper Paleolithic period thanthey were later in that period.

(E) More kinds of lamps were produced by theMagdalenian culture than by earlier cultures.

24. Columnist: George Orwells book 1984 hasexercised much influence on a great number ofthis newspapers readers. One thousandreaders were surveyed and asked to name theone book that had the most influence on theirlives. The book chosen most often was theBible; 1984 was second.

The answer to which one of the following questionswould most help in evaluating the columnistsargument?

(A) How many books had each person surveyedread?

(B) How many people chose books other than 1984?(C) How many people read the columnists

newspaper?(D) How many books by George Orwell other than

1984 were chosen?(E) How many of those surveyed had actually read

the books they chose?

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25. A 1991 calculation was made to determine what, ifany, additional health-care costs beyond the ordinaryare borne by society at large for people who live asedentary life. The figure reached was a lifetimeaverage of $1,650. Thus peoples voluntary choice notto exercise places a significant burden on society.

Which one of the following, if true and not takeninto account by the calculation, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) Many people whose employment requiresphysical exertion do not choose to engage inregular physical exercise when they are not atwork.

(B) Exercise is a topic that is often omitted fromdiscussion between doctor and patient duringa patients visit.

(C) Physical conditions that eventually requiremedical or nursing-home care often firstpredispose a person to adopt a sedentarylifestyle.

(D) Individuals vary widely in the amount andkind of exercise they choose, when they doexercise regularly.

(E) A regular program of moderate exercise tendsto increase circulation, induce a feeling ofwell-being and energy, and decrease excessweight.

26. In the paintings by seventeenth-century Dutch artistVermeer, we find several recurrent items: a satinjacket, a certain Turkish carpet, and wooden chairswith lions head finials. These reappearing objectsmight seem to evince a dearth of props. Yet we knowthat many of the props Vermeer used were expensive.Thus, while we might speculate about exactly whyVermeer worked with a small number of familiarobjects, it was clearly not for lack of props that therecurrent items were used.

The conclusion follows logically if which one of thefollowing is assumed?

(A) Vermeer often borrowed the expensive propshe represented in his paintings.

(B) The props that recur in Vermeers paintingswere always available to him.

(C) The satin jacket and wooden chairs that recurin the paintings were owned by Vermeerssister.

(D) The several recurrent items that appeared inVermeers paintings had special sentimentalimportance for him.

(E) If a dearth of props accounted for therecurrent objects in Vermeers paintings, wewould not see expensive props in any of them.

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S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

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2 -10- 2

Traditionally, members of a community such as atown or neighborhood share a common location and asense of necessary interdependence that includes, forexample, mutual respect and emotional support. But asmodern societies grow more technological andsometimes more alienating, people tend to spend lesstime in the kinds of interactions that their communitiesrequire in order to thrive. Meanwhile, technology hasmade it possible for individuals to interact via personalcomputer with others who are geographically distant.Advocates claim that these computer conferences, inwhich large numbers of participants communicate bytyping comments that are immediately read by otherparticipants and responding immediately to thosecomments they read, function as communities that cansubstitute for traditional interactions with neighbors.

What are the characteristics that advocates claimallow computer conferences to function ascommunities? For one, participants often sharecommon interests or concerns; conferences arefrequently organized around specific topics such asmusic or parenting. Second, because these conferencesare conversations, participants have adopted certainconventions in recognition of the importance ofrespecting each others sensibilities. Abbreviations areused to convey commonly expressed sentiments ofcourtesy such as pardon me for cutting in (pmfci)or in my humble opinion (imho). Because ahumorous tone can be difficult to communicate inwriting, participants will often end an intentionallyhumorous comment with a set of characters that, whenlooked at sideways, resembles a smiling or winkingface. Typing messages entirely in capital letters isavoided, because its tendency to demand the attentionof a readers eye is considered the computer equivalentof shouting. These conventions, advocates claim,constitute a form of etiquette, and with this etiquette asa foundation, people often form genuine, trustingrelationships, even offering advice and support duringpersonal crises such as illness or the loss of a lovedone.

But while it is true that conferences can be bothrespectful and supportive, they nonetheless fall short ofcommunities. For example, conferences discriminatealong educational and economic lines becauseparticipation requires a basic knowledge of computersand the ability to afford access to conferences. Further,while advocates claim that a shared interest makescomputer conferences similar to traditionalcommunitiesinsofar as the shared interest isanalogous to a traditional communitys shared

locationthis analogy simply does not work.Conference participants are a self-selecting group; theyare drawn together by their shared interest in the topicof the conference. Actual communities, on the otherhand, are nonintentional: the people who inhabittowns or neighborhoods are thus more likely to exhibitgenuine diversityof age, career, or personalintereststhan are conference participants. It might beeasier to find common ground in a computerconference than in todays communities, but in sodoing it would be unfortunate if conference participantscut themselves off further from valuable interactions intheir own towns or neighborhoods.

1. Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe central idea of the passage?

(A) Because computer conferences attractparticipants who share common interests andrely on a number of mutually acceptableconventions for communicating with oneanother, such conferences can substituteeffectively for certain interactions that havebecome rarer within actual communities.

(B) Since increased participation in computerconferences threatens to replace actualcommunities, members of actualcommunities are returning to the traditionalinteractions that distinguish towns orneighborhoods.

(C) Because participants in computer conferencesare geographically separated andcommunicate only by typing, theirinteractions cannot be as mutually respectfuland supportive as are the kinds ofinteractions that have become rarer withinactual communities.

(D) Although computer conferences offer some ofthe same benefits that actual communities do,the significant lack of diversity amongconference participants makes such conferencesunlike actual communities.

(E) Even if access to computer technology is broadenough to attract a more diverse group ofpeople to participate in computerconferences, such conferences will not beacceptable substitutes for actual communities.

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22SECTION II

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated orimplied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However,you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blackenthe corresponding space on your answer sheet.

(5)

(10)

(15)

(20)

(25)

(30)

(35)

(40)

(45)

(50)

(55)

(60)

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2-11-22. Based on the passage, the author would be LEAST

likely to consider which one of the following acommunity?

(A) a group of soldiers who serve together in thesame battalion and who come from a varietyof geographic regions

(B) a group of university students who belong tothe same campus political organization andwho come from several differentsocioeconomic backgrounds

(C) a group of doctors who work at a number ofdifferent hospitals and who meet at aconvention to discuss issues relevant to theirprofession

(D) a group of teachers who workinterdependently in the same school with thesame students and who live in a variety ofcities and neighborhoods

(E) a group of worshipers who attend and supportthe same religious institution and whorepresent a high degree of economic andcultural diversity

3. The authors statement that conferences can be bothrespectful and supportive (lines 4243) servesprimarily to

(A) counter the claim that computer conferencesmay discriminate along educational oreconomic lines

(B) introduce the argument that the conventionsof computer conferences constitute a form ofsocial etiquette

(C) counter the claim that computer conferencescannot be thought of as communities

(D) suggest that not all participants in computerconferences may be equally respectful of oneanother

(E) acknowledge that computer conferences caninvolve interactions that are similar to thosein an actual community

4. Given the information in the passage, the author canmost reasonably be said to use which one of thefollowing principles to refute the advocates claimthat computer conferences can function ascommunities (line 15)?

(A) A group is a community only if its membersare mutually respectful and supportive of oneanother.

(B) A group is a community only if its membersadopt conventions intended to help themrespect each others sensibilities.

(C) A group is a community only if its membersinhabit the same geographic location.

(D) A group is a community only if its memberscome from the same educational or economicbackground.

(E) A group is a community only if its members feela sense of interdependence despite differenteconomic and educational backgrounds.

5. What is the primary function of the secondparagraph of the passage?

(A) to add detail to the discussion in the firstparagraph of why computer conferencesoriginated

(B) to give evidence challenging the argument ofthe advocates discussed in the first paragraph

(C) to develop the claim of the advocates discussedin the first paragraph

(D) to introduce an objection that will be answeredin the third paragraph

(E) to anticipate the characterization of computerconferences given in the third paragraph

6. Which one of the following, if true, would mostweaken one of the authors arguments in the lastparagraph?

(A) Participants in computer conferences aregenerally more accepting of diversity than isthe population at large.

(B) Computer technology is rapidly becomingmore affordable and accessible to people froma variety of backgrounds.

(C) Participants in computer conferences oftenapply the same degree of respect and supportthey receive from one another to interactionsin their own actual communities.

(D) Participants in computer conferences often feelmore comfortable interacting on thecomputer because they are free to interactwithout revealing their identities.

(E) The conventions used to facilitatecommunication in computer conferences aregenerally more successful than those used inactual communities.

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2 -12- 2In Intellectual Culture in Elizabethan and

Jacobean England, J. W. Binns asserts that the dramaof Shakespeare, the verse of Marlowe, and the prose ofSidneyall of whom wrote in Englishdo not alonerepresent the high culture of Renaissance (roughlysixteenth- and seventeenth-century) England. Latin, thelanguage of ancient Rome, continued during this periodto be the dominant form of expression for Englishintellectuals, and works of law, theology, and sciencewritten in Latin were, according to Binns, among thehighest achievements of the Renaissance. However,because many academic specializations do not overlap,many texts central to an interpretation of early modernEnglish culture have gone unexamined. Even the mostlearned students of Renaissance Latin generallyconfine themselves to humanistic and literary writingsin Latin. According to Binns, these language specialistsedit and analyze poems and orations, but leave worksof theology and science, law and medicinethe veryworks that revolutionized Western thoughttospecialists in those fields, historians of science, forexample, who lack philological training. Theintellectual historian can find ample guidance whenreading the Latin poetry of Milton, but little or nonewhen confronting the more alien and difficultterminology, syntax, and content of the scientistNewton.

Intellectual historians of Renaissance England, bycontrast with Latin language specialists, have surveyedin great detail the historical, cosmological, andtheological battles of the day, but too often they havedone so on the basis of texts written in or translatedinto English. Binns argues that these scholars treat theEnglish-language writings of Renaissance England asan autonomous and coherent whole, underestimatingthe influence on English writers of their counterpartson the European Continent. In so doing they ignore thefact that English intellectuals were educated in schoolsand universities where they spoke and wrote Latin, andinhabited as adults an intellectual world in which whathappened abroad and was recorded in Latin was ofgreat importance. Writers traditionally consideredcharacteristically English and modern were steeped inLatin literature and in the esoteric concerns of lateRenaissance humanism (the rediscovery and study ofancient Latin and Greek texts), and many Latin worksby Continental humanists that were not translated at thetime into any modern language became the bases ofclassic English works of literature and scholarship.

These limitations are understandable. No modernclassicist is trained to deal with the range of problemsposed by a difficult piece of late Renaissance science;few students of English intellectual history are trainedto read the sort of Latin in which such works werewritten. Yet the result of each sides inability to crossboundaries has been that each presents a distortedreading of the intellectual culture of RenaissanceEngland.

7. Which one of the following best states the main ideaof the passage?

(A) Analyses of the scientific, theological, and legalwritings of the Renaissance have proved to bemore important to an understanding of theperiod than have studies of humanistic andliterary works.

(B) The English works of such Renaissance writersas Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Sidney have beenoveremphasized at the expense of these writersmore intellectually challenging Latin works.

(C) Though traditionally recognized as the languageof the educated classes of the Renaissance, Latinhas until recently been studied primarily inconnection with ancient Roman texts.

(D) Many Latin texts by English Renaissance writers,though analyzed in depth by literary critics andphilologists, have been all but ignored byhistorians of science and theology.

(E) Many Latin texts by English Renaissance writers,though important to an analysis of the period,have been insufficiently understood for reasonsrelated to academic specialization.

8. The passage contains support for which one of thefollowing statements concerning those scholars whoanalyze works written in Latin during the Renaissance?

(A) These scholars tend to lack training both inlanguage and in intellectual history, and thusbase their interpretations of Renaissanceculture on works translated into English.

(B) These scholars tend to lack the combination oftraining in both language and intellectualhistory that is necessary for a proper study ofimportant and neglected Latin texts.

(C) Specialists in such literary forms as poems andorations too frequently lack training in theLatin language that was written and studiedduring the Renaissance.

(D) Language specialists have surveyed in too greatdetail important works of law and medicine,and thus have not provided a coherentinterpretation of early modern English culture.

(E) Scholars who analyze important Latin worksby such writers as Marlowe, Shakespeare, andSidney too often lack the historical knowledgeof Latin necessary for a proper interpretationof early modern English culture.

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2-13-29. Which one of the following statements concerning

the relationship between English and Continentalwriters of the Renaissance era can be inferred fromthe passage?

(A) Continental writers wrote in Latin more frequentlythan did English writers, and thus rendered someof the most important Continental worksinaccessible to English readers.

(B) Continental writers, more intellectuallyadvanced than their English counterparts,were on the whole responsible forfamiliarizing English audiences with Latinlanguage and literature.

(C) English and Continental writerscommunicated their intellectual concerns,which were for the most part different, by wayof works written in Latin.

(D) The intellectual ties between English andContinental writers were stronger than has beenacknowledged by many scholars and werefounded on a mutual knowledge of Latin.

(E) The intellectual ties between English andContinental writers have beenoveremphasized in modern scholarship dueto a lack of dialogue between languagespecialists and intellectual historians.

10. The author of the passage most likely citesShakespeare, Marlowe, and Sidney in the firstparagraph as examples of writers whose

(A) nonfiction works are less well known thantheir imaginative works

(B) works have unfairly been credited withrevolutionizing Western thought

(C) works have been treated as an autonomousand coherent whole

(D) works have traditionally been seen asrepresenting the high culture of RenaissanceEngland

(E) Latin writings have, according to Binns, beenoverlooked

11. Binns would be most likely to agree with which oneof the following statements concerning the Englishlanguage writings of Renaissance Englandtraditionally studied by intellectual historians?

(A) These writings have unfortunately beenundervalued by Latin-language specialistsbecause of their nonliterary subject matter.

(B) These writings, according to Latin-languagespecialists, had very little influence on theintellectual upheavals associated with theRenaissance.

(C) These writings, as analyzed by intellectualhistorians, have formed the basis of asuperficially coherent reading of theintellectual culture that produced them.

(D) These writings have been comparedunfavorably by intellectual historians withContinental works of the same period.

(E) These writings need to be studied separately,according to intellectual historians, fromLatin-language writings of the same period.

12. The information in the passage suggests which one ofthe following concerning late-Renaissance scientificworks written in Latin?

(A) These works are easier for modern scholars toanalyze than are theological works of thesame era.

(B) These works have seldom been translated intoEnglish and thus remain inscrutable tomodern scholars, despite the availability ofilluminating commentaries.

(C) These works are difficult for modern scholarsto analyze both because of the concepts theydevelop and the language in which they arewritten.

(D) These works constituted the core of an Englishuniversity education during the Renaissance.

(E) These works were written mostly byContinental writers and reached Englishintellectuals only in English translation.

13. The author of the passage mentions the poet Miltonand the scientist Newton primarily in order to

(A) illustrate the range of difficulty in RenaissanceLatin writing, from relatively straightforwardto very difficult

(B) illustrate the differing scholarly attitudestoward Renaissance writers who wrote inLatin and those who wrote in English

(C) illustrate the fact that the concerns of Englishwriters of the Renaissance differed from theconcerns of their Continental counterparts

(D) contrast a writer of the Renaissance whosemerit has long been recognized with onewhose literary worth has only recently begunto be appreciated

(E) contrast a writer whose Latin writings havebeen the subject of illuminating scholarshipwith one whose Latin writings have beenneglected by philologists

14. The author of the passage is primarily concernedwith presenting which one of the following?

(A) an enumeration of new approaches(B) contrasting views of disparate theories(C) a summary of intellectual disputes(D) a discussion of a significant deficiency(E) a correction of an authors misconceptions

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2 -14- 2Discussions of how hormones influence behavior

have generally been limited to the effects of gonadalhormones on reproductive behavior and haveemphasized the parsimonious arrangement whereby thesame hormones involved in the biology of reproductionalso influence sexual behavior. It has now becomeclear, however, that other hormones, in addition to theirrecognized influence on biological functions, can affectbehavior. Specifically, peptide and steroid hormonesinvolved in maintaining the physiological balance, orhomeostasis, of body fluids also appear to play animportant role in the control of water and saltconsumption. The phenomenon of homeostasis inanimals depends on various mechanisms that promotestability within the organism despite an inconstantexternal environment; the homeostasis of body fluids,whereby the osmolality (the concentration of solutes)of blood plasma is closely regulated, is achievedprimarily through alterations in the intake andexcretion of water and sodium, the two principalcomponents of the fluid matrix that surrounds bodycells. Appropriate compensatory responses are initiatedwhen deviations from normal are quite small, therebymaintaining plasma osmolality within relatively narrowranges.

In the osmoregulation of body fluids, themovement of water across cell membranes permitsminor fluctuations in the concentration of solutes inextracellular fluid to be buffered by correspondingchanges in the relatively larger volume of cellularwater. Nevertheless, the concentration of solutes inextracellular fluid may at times become elevated orreduced by more than the allowed tolerances of one ortwo percent. It is then that complementaryphysiological and behavioral responses come into playto restore plasma osmolality to normal. Thus, forexample, a decrease in plasma osmolality, such as thatwhich occurs after the consumption of water in excessof need, leads to the excretion of surplus body water inthe urine by inhibiting secretion from the pituitarygland of vasopressin, a peptide hormone that promoteswater conservation in the kidneys. As might beexpected, thirst also is inhibited then, to prevent furtherdilution of body fluids. Conversely, an increase inplasma osmolality, such as that which occurs after oneeats salty foods or after body water evaporates withoutbeing replaced, stimulates the release of vasopressin,increasing the conservation of water and the excretionof solutes in urine. This process is accompanied byincreased thirst, with the result of making plasmaosmolality more dilute through the consumption ofwater. The threshold for thirst appears to be slightlyhigher than for vasopressin secretion, so that thirst isstimulated only after vasopressin has been released inamounts sufficient to produce maximal water retentionby the kidneysthat is, only after osmotic dehydrationexceeds the capacity of the animal to deal with itphysiologically.

15. Which one of the following best states the main ideaof the passage?

(A) Both the solute concentration and the volumeof an animals blood plasma must be keptwithin relatively narrow ranges.

(B) Behavioral responses to changes in an animalsblood plasma can compensate forphysiological malfunction, allowing the bodyto avoid dehydration.

(C) The effect of hormones on animal behaviorand physiology has only recently beendiscovered.

(D) Behavioral and physiological responses tomajor changes in osmolality of an animalsblood plasma are hormonally influenced andcomplement one another.

(E) The mechanisms regulating reproduction aresimilar to those that regulate thirst andsodium appetite.

16. The author of the passage cites the relationshipbetween gonadal hormones and reproductivebehavior in order to

(A) review briefly the history of research into therelationships between gonadal and peptidehormones that has led to the present discussion

(B) decry the fact that previous research hasconcentrated on the relatively minor issue ofthe relationships between hormones andbehavior

(C) establish the emphasis of earlier research intothe connections between hormones andbehavior before elaborating on the resultsdescribed in the passage

(D) introduce a commonly held misconceptionabout the relationships between hormonesand behavior before refuting it with theresults described in the passage

(E) summarize the main findings of recentresearch described in the passage beforedetailing the various procedures that led tothose findings

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2-15-217. It can be inferred from the passage that which one of

the following is true of vasopressin?

(A) The amount secreted depends on the level ofsteroid hormones in the blood.

(B) The amount secreted is important formaintaining homeostasis in cases of bothincreased and decreased osmolality.

(C) It works in conjunction with steroid hormonesin increasing plasma volume.

(D) It works in conjunction with steroid hormonesin regulating sodium appetite.

(E) It is secreted after an animal becomes thirsty,as a mechanism for diluting plasmaosmolality.

18. The primary function of the passage as a whole is to

(A) present new information(B) question standard assumptions(C) reinterpret earlier findings(D) advocate a novel theory(E) outline a new approach

19. According to the passage, all of the followingtypically occur in the homeostasis of blood-plasmaosmolality EXCEPT:

(A) Hunger is diminished.(B) Thirst is initiated.(C) Vasopressin is secreted.(D) Water is excreted.(E) Sodium is consumed.

20. According to the passage, the withholding ofvasopressin fulfills which one of the followingfunctions in the restoration of plasma osmolality tonormal levels?

(A) It increases thirst and stimulates sodiumappetite.

(B) It helps prevent further dilution of bodyfluids.

(C) It increases the conservation of water in thekidneys.

(D) It causes minor changes in plasma volume.(E) It helps stimulate the secretion of steroid

hormones.

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2 -16- 2With the elimination of the apartheid system, South

Africa now confronts the transition to a rights-basedlegal system in a constitutional democracy. Amonglawyers and judges, exhilaration over the legal toolssoon to be available is tempered by uncertainty abouthow to use them. The changes in the legal system aresignificant, not just for human rights lawyers, but forall lawyersas they will have to learn a less rule-bound and more interpretative way of looking at thelaw. That is to say, in the past, the parliament was thesupreme maker and arbiter of laws; when judges maderulings with which the parliament disagreed, theparliament simply passed new laws to counteract theirrulings. Under the new system, however, aconstitutional court will hear arguments on allconstitutional matters, including questions of whetherthe laws passed by the parliament are valid in light ofthe individual liberties set out in the constitutions billof rights. This shift will lead to extraordinary changes,for South Africa has never before had a legal systembased on individual rightsone in which citizens canchallenge any law or administrative decision on thebasis of their constitutional rights.

South African lawyers are concerned about thedifficulty of fostering a rights-based culture in amultiracial society containing a wide range of politicaland personal beliefs simply by including a bill of rightsin the constitution and establishing the means for itsdefense. Because the bill of rights has been drawn invery general terms, the lack of precedents will makethe task of determining its precise meaning abewildering one. With this in mind, the newconstitution acknowledges the need to look to othercountries for guidance. But some scholars warn thatjudges, in their rush to fill the constitutional void, maymisuse foreign lawthey may blindly follow theinterpretations given bills of rights in other countries,not taking into account the circumstances in thosecountries that led to certain decisions. Nonetheless,these scholars are hopeful that, with patience andjudicious decisions, South Africa can use internationalexperience in developing a body of precedent that willaddress the particular needs of its citizens.

South Africa must also contend with the image ofthe law held by many of its citizens. Because the law inSouth Africa has long been a tool of racial oppression,many of its citizens have come to view obeying the lawas implicitly sanctioning an illegitimate, brutalgovernment. Among these South Africans the politicalclimate has thus been one of opposition, and many seeit as their duty to cheat the government as much aspossible, whether by not paying taxes or by disobeyingparking laws. If a rights-based culture is to succeed, thegovernment will need to show its citizens that the legalsystem is no longer a tool of oppression but instead away to bring about change and help further the cause ofjustice.

21. Which one of the following most completely andaccurately states the main point of the passage?

(A) Following the elimination of the apartheidsystem in South Africa, lawyers, judges, andcitizens will need to abandon their posture ofopposition to law and design a new and fairerlegal system.

(B) If the new legal system in South Africa is tosucceed, lawyers, judges, and citizens mustlearn to challenge parliamentary decisionsbased on their individual rights as set out inthe new constitution.

(C) Whereas in the past the parliament was both theinitiator and arbiter of laws in South Africa,under the new constitution these powers will beassumed by a constitutional court.

(D) Despite the lack of relevant legal precedentsand the publics antagonistic relation to thelaw, South Africa is moving from a legalsystem where the parliament is the finalauthority to one where the rights of citizensare protected by a constitution.

(E) While South Africas judges will have to lookinitially to other countries to provideinterpretations for its new bill of rights,eventually it must develop a body of precedentsensitive to the needs of its own citizens.

22. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe authors primary purpose in lines 1019?

(A) to describe the role of the parliament underSouth Africas new constitution

(B) to argue for returning final legal authority tothe parliament

(C) to contrast the character of legal practiceunder the apartheid system with that to beimplemented under the new constitution

(D) to criticize the creation of a court with finalauthority on constitutional matters

(E) to explain why a bill of rights was included inthe new constitution

23. The passage suggests that the authors attitudetoward the possibility of success for a rights-basedlegal system in South Africa is most likely one of

(A) deep skepticism(B) open pessimism(C) total indifference(D) guarded optimism(E) complete confidence

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2-17-224. According to the passage, under the apartheid system

the rulings of judges were sometimes counteracted by

(A) decisions rendered in constitutional court(B) challenges from concerned citizens(C) new laws passed in the parliament(D) provisions in the constitutions bill of rights(E) other judges with a more rule-bound approach

to the law

25. Which one of the following most accurately describesthe organization of the last paragraph of the passage?

(A) A solution to a problem is identified, severalmethods of implementing the solution arediscussed, and one of the methods is arguedfor.

(B) The background to a problem is presented,past methods of solving the problem arecriticized, and a new solution is proposed.

(C) An analysis of a problem is presented, possiblesolutions to the problem are given, and one ofthe possible solutions is argued for.

(D) Reasons are given why a problem has existed,the current state of affairs is described, andthe problem is shown to exist no longer.

(E) A problem is identified, specific manifestationsof the problem are given, and an essentialelement in its solution is presented.

26. Based on the passage, the scholars mentioned in thesecond paragraph would be most likely to agree withwhich one of the following statements?

(A) Reliance of judges on the interpretations givenbills of rights in other countries must betempered by the recognition that suchinterpretations may be based on circumstancesnot necessarily applicable to South Africa.

(B) Basing interpretations of the South African billof rights on interpretations given bills of rightsin other countries will reinforce the climate ofmistrust for authority in South Africa.

(C) The lack of precedents in South African law forinterpreting a bill of rights will likely make itimpossible to interpret correctly the bill ofrights in the South African constitution.

(D) Reliance by judges on the interpretations givenbills of rights in other countries offers anunacceptable means of attempting tointerpret the South African constitution in away that will meet the particular needs ofSouth African citizens.

(E) Because bills of rights in other countries arewritten in much less general terms than theSouth African bill of rights, interpretations ofthem are unlikely to prove helpful ininterpreting the South African bill of rights.

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S T O PIF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.

DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.

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33 -18-

1. Scientists agree that ingesting lead harms youngchildren. More lead paint remains in older apartmentbuildings than newer ones because the use of lead paintwas common until only two decades ago. Yet thesesame scientists also agree that laws requiring theremoval of lead paint from older apartment buildingswill actually increase the amount of lead that childrenliving in older apartment buildings ingest.

Which one of the following, if true, most helps toresolve the apparent discrepancy in the scientistsbeliefs?

(A) Lead-free paints contain substances that makethem as harmful to children as lead paint is.

(B) The money required to finance the removal oflead paint from apartment walls could bespent in ways more likely to improve thehealth of children.

(C) Other sources of lead in older apartmentbuildings are responsible for most of the leadthat children living in these buildings ingest.

(D) Removing lead paint from walls disperses agreat deal of lead dust, which is more easilyingested by children than is paint on walls.

(E) Many other environmental hazards posegreater threats to the health of children thandoes lead paint.

2. Several companies will soon offer personalizedelectronic news services, delivered via cable ortelephone lines and displayed on a television. Peopleusing these services can view continually updatedstories on those topics for which they subscribe.Since these services will provide people with theinformation they are looking for more quickly andefficiently than printed newspapers can, newspapersales will decline drastically if these services becomewidely available.

Which one of the following, if true, most seriouslyweakens the argument?

(A) In reading newspapers, most people not onlylook for stories on specific topics but also liketo idly browse through headlines or picturesfor amusing stories on unfamiliar or unusualtopics.

(B) Companies offering personalized electronicnews services will differ greatly in what theycharge for access to their services, dependingon how wide a range of topics they cover.

(C) Approximately 30 percent of people have neverrelied on newspapers for information butinstead have always relied on news programsbroadcast on television and radio.

(D) The average monthly cost of subscribing toseveral channels on a personalized electronicnews service will approximately equal the costof a months subscription to a newspaper.

(E) Most people who subscribe to personalizedelectronic news services will not have to payextra costs for installation since the serviceswill use connections installed by cable andtelephone companies.

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33 3SECTION III

Time35 minutes

26 Questions

Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For somequestions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are bycommonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer,blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

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3-19-33. Muscular strength is a limited resource, and athletic

techniques help to use this resource efficiently. Sincetop athletes do not differ greatly from each other inmuscular strength, it follows that a requirement foran athlete to become a champion is a superiormastery of athletic techniques.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe conclusion of the argument?

(A) Only champion athletes have a superiormastery of athletic techniques.

(B) Superior muscular strength is a requirementfor an athlete to become a champion.

(C) No athlete can become a champion without asuperior mastery of athletic techniques.

(D) The differences in muscular strength betweentop athletes are not great.

(E) Athletic techniques help athletes use limitedresources efficiently.

4. Mary: Computers will make more informationavailable to ordinary people than was everavailable before, thus making it easier for themto acquire knowledge without consultingexperts.

Joyce: As more knowledge became available inprevious centuries, the need for specialists tosynthesize and explain it to nonspecialistsincreased. So computers will probably create agreater dependency on experts.

The dialogue most strongly supports the claim thatMary and Joyce disagree with each other aboutwhether

(A) computers will contribute only negligibly tothe increasing dissemination of knowledge insociety

(B) computers will increase the need for ordinarypeople seeking knowledge to turn to experts

(C) computers will make more informationavailable to ordinary people

(D) dependency on computers will increase withthe increase of knowledge

(E) synthesizing knowledge and explaining it toordinary people can be accomplished only bycomputer experts

5. Solicitor: Loux named Zembaty executor of herwill. Her only beneficiary was her grandson, ofwhom she was very fond. Prior to distributingthe remainder to the beneficiary, Zembaty waslegally required to choose which properties inthe estate should be sold to clear the estatesheavy debts. Loux never expressed anyparticular desire about the Stoke Farm, whichincludes the only farmland in her estate. Thus,it is unlikely that Loux would have had anyobjection to Zembatys having sold it ratherthan having transferred it to her grandson.

Which one of the following, if true, most weakens thesolicitors argument?

(A) The estates debts could not have been clearedwithout selling the Stoke Farm.

(B) Loux repeatedly told her grandson that shewould take care of him in her will.

(C) Loux was well aware of the legal requirementsthe executor of her will would have to satisfy.

(D) The Stoke Farm was the main cause of theestates debts.

(E) Louxs grandson had repeatedly expressed hisdesire to own a farm.

6. Government official: A satisfactory way ofeliminating chronic food shortages in ourcountry is not easily achievable. Direct aidfrom other countries in the form of foodshipments tends to undermine our prospectsfor long-term agricultural self-sufficiency. Ifexternal sources of food are deliveredeffectively by external institutions, local foodproducers and suppliers are forced out ofbusiness. On the other hand, foreign capitalfunneled to long-term development projectswould inject so much cash into our economythat inflation would drive the price of foodbeyond the reach of most of our citizens.

The claim that foreign capital funneled into theeconomy would cause inflation plays which one of thefollowing roles in the government officials argument?

(A) It supports the claim that the officials countrymust someday be agriculturally self-sufficient.

(B) It supports the claim that there is no easysolution to the problem of chronic foodshortages in the officials country.

(C) It is supported by the claim that the officialscountry must someday be agriculturally self-sufficient.

(D) It supports the claim that donations of foodfrom other countries will not end the chronicfood shortages in the officials country.

(E) It is supported by the claim that foodproducers and suppliers in the officialscountry may be forced out of business bydonations of food from other countries.

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33 -20-7. Medical doctor: Sleep deprivation is the cause of

many social ills, ranging from irritability topotentially dangerous instances of impaireddecision making. Most people today suffer fromsleep deprivation to some degree. Therefore weshould restructure the workday to allow peopleflexibility in scheduling their work hours.

Which one of the following, if true, would moststrengthen the medical doctors argument?

(A) The primary cause of sleep deprivation isoverwork.

(B) Employees would get more sleep if they hadgreater latitude in scheduling their work hours.

(C) Individuals vary widely in the amount of sleepthey require.

(D) More people would suffer from sleepdeprivation today than did in the past if theaverage number of hours worked per weekhad not decreased.

(E) The extent of ones sleep deprivation isproportional to the length of ones workday.

8. Essayist: Knowledge has been defined as a true beliefformed by a reliable process. This definition hasbeen criticized on the grounds that if someonehad a reliable power of clairvoyance, we wouldnot accept that persons claim to know certainthings on the basis of this power. I agree that wewould reject such claims, but we would do sobecause we really do not believe in clairvoyanceas a reliable process. Were we to believe inclairvoyance, we would accept knowledge claimsmade on the basis of it.

Which one of the following most accurately describesthe essayists method of defending the definitionagainst the objection?

(A) asserting that the objection is based on a beliefabout the reliability of clairvoyance rather thanon the nature of knowledge or its definition

(B) asserting that the case of clairvoyance is one ofknowledge even though we do not reallybelieve in clairvoyance as a reliable process

(C) arguing against the assumption thatclairvoyance is unreliable

(D) explaining that the definition of knowledge is amatter of personal choice

(E) demonstrating that the case of clairvoyance isnot a case of knowledge and does not fit thedefinition of knowledge

9. I agree that Hogans actions resulted in grievousinjury to Winters. And I do not deny that Hoganfully realized the nature of his actions and the effectsthat they would have. Indeed, I would not disagree ifyou pointed out that intentionally causing sucheffects is reprehensible, other things being equal. Butin asking you to concur with me that Hogans actionsnot be wholly condemned I emphasize again thatHogan mistakenly believed Winters to be the robberwho had been terrorizing west-side apartmentbuildings for the past several months.

Which one of the following most accurately expressesthe conclusion of the argument?

(A) Hogan should not be considered responsiblefor the injuries sustained by Winters.

(B) The robber who had been terrorizing west-sideapartment buildings should be considered to beas responsible for Winterss injuries as Hogan.

(C) The actions of Hogan that seriously injuredWinters are not completely blameworthy.

(D) Hogan thought that Winters was the personwho had been terrorizing west-side apartmentbuildings for the last few months.

(E) The actions of Hogan that seriously injuredWinters were reprehensible, other thingsbeing equal.

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3-21-3Questions 1011

Peter: Because the leaves of mildly drought-stressedplants are tougher in texture than the leaves ofabundantly watered plants, insects prefer to feed onthe leaves of abundantly watered plants. Therefore, tominimize crop damage, farmers should water cropsonly just enough to ensure that there is nosubstantial threat, from a lack of water, to either thegrowth or the yield of the crops.

Jennifer: Indeed. In fact, a mildly drought-stressed plantwill divert a small amount of its resources fromnormal growth to the development of pesticidaltoxins, but abundantly watered plants will not.

10. Jennifers comment is related to Peters argument inwhich one of the following ways?

(A) It offers information that supports each of theclaims that Peter makes in his argument.

(B) It supports Peters argument by supplying apremise without which Peters conclusioncannot properly be drawn.

(C) It supports Peters argument by offering anexplanation of all of Peters premises.

(D) It supports one of Peters premises although itundermines Peters conclusion.

(E) It supports the conclusion of Peters argumentby offering independent grounds for thatconclusion.

11. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthensPeters argument?

(A) The leaves of some crop plants are muchlarger, and therefore absorb more water, thanthe leaves of some other crop plants.

(B) In industrialized nations there are more cropsthat are abundantly watered than there arecrops grown under mild drought stress.

(C) Insect damage presents a greater threat to cropplants than does mild drought stress.

(D) Farmers are not always able to control theamount of water that their crops receivewhen, for instance, there are rainstorms in theareas where their crops are growing.

(E) Mexican bean beetles are more likely to feedon the leaves of slightly drought-stressedsoybeans than oak lace bugs are to feed on theleaves of abundantly watered soybeans.

12. Vague laws set vague limits on peoples freedom,which makes it impossible for them to know forcertain whether their actions are legal. Thus, undervague laws people cannot feel secure.

The conclusion follows logically if which one of thefollowing is assumed?

(A) People can feel secure only if they know forcertain whether their actions are legal.

(B) If people do not know for certain whethertheir actions are legal, then they might notfeel secure.

(C) If people know for certain whether theiractions are legal, they can feel secure.

(D) People can feel secure if they are governed bylaws that are not vague.

(E) Only people who feel secure can know forcertain whether their actions are legal.

13. While it was once believed that the sort ofpsychotherapy appropriate for the treatment ofneuroses caused by environmental factors is alsoappropriate for schizophrenia and other psychoses, it isnow known that these latter, more serious forms ofmental disturbance are best treated by biochemicalthat is, medicinalmeans. This is conclusive evidencethat psychoses, unlike neuroses, have nothing to dowith environmental factors but rather are caused bysome sort of purely organic condition, such asabnormal brain chemistry or brain malformations.

The argument is vulnerable to criticism because itignores the possibility that

(A) the organic conditions that result in psychosescan be caused or exacerbated byenvironmental factors

(B) the symptoms of mental disturbance caused bypurely organic factors can be alleviated withmedicine

(C) organic illnesses that are nonpsychological innature may be treatable without usingbiochemical methods

(D) the nature of any medical condition can beinferred from the nature of the treatment thatcures that condition

(E) organic factors having little to do with brainchemistry may be at least partiallyresponsible for neuroses

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33 -22-14. We learn to use most of the machines in our lives

through written instructions, without knowledge ofthe machines inner workings, because mostmachines are specifically designed for use bynonexperts. So, in general, attaining technologicalexpertise would prepare students for tomorrows jobmarket no better than would a more traditionaleducation stressing verbal and quantitative skills.

The argument depends on assuming which one ofthe following?

(A) Fewer people receive a traditional educationstressing verbal and quantitative skills nowthan did 20 years ago.

(B) Facility in operating machines designed for useby nonexperts is almost never enhanced byexpert knowledge of the machines innerworkings.

(C) Most jobs in tomorrows job market will notdemand the ability to operate many machinesthat are designed for use only by experts.

(D) Students cannot attain technological expertiseand also receive an education that does notneglect verbal and quantitative skills.

(E) When learning to use a machine, technologicalexpertise is never more important than verbaland quantitative skills.

15. Environmentalists who seek stricter governmentalregulations controlling water pollution should becertain to have their facts straight. For if it turns out,for example, that water pollution is a lesser threatthan they proclaimed, then there will be a backlashand the public will not listen to them even when direthreats exist.

Which one of the following best illustrates theprinciple illustrated by the argument above?

(A) Middle-level managers who ask their companiesto hire additional employees should havestrong evidence that doing so will benefit thecompany; otherwise, higher-level managers willrefuse to follow their suggestions to hireadditional employees even when doing so reallywould benefit the company.

(B) Politicians who defend the rights of unpopularconstituencies ought to see to it that they usecool, dispassionate rhetoric in their appeals.Even if they have their facts straight,inflammatory rhetoric can cause a backlashthat results in more negative reactions tothese constituencies, whether or not they aredeserving of more rights.

(C) People who are trying to convince others totake some sort of action should make everyeffort to present evidence that is emotionallycompelling. Such evidence is invariably morepersuasive than dry, technical data, even whenthe data strongly support their claims.

(D) Whoever wants to advance a political agendaought to take the time to convince legislatorsthat their own political careers are at stake inthe matter at hand; otherwise, the agenda willsimply be ignored.

(E) Activists who want to prevent excessiveglobalization of the economy should assign toppriority to an appeal to the economic self-interest of those who would be adverselyaffected by it, for if they fail in such an appeal,extreme economic globalization is inevitable.

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3-23-316. Herpetologist: Some psychologists attribute

complex reasoning to reptiles, claiming thatsimple stimulus-response explanations ofsome reptiles behaviors, such as foodgathering, cannot account for the complexityof such behavior. But since experiments showthat reptiles are incapable of making majoralterations in their behavior, for example,when faced with significant changes in theirenvironment, these animals must be incapableof complex reasoning.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the herpetologists argument?

(A) Animals could make major changes in theirbehavior only if they were capable of complexreasoning.

(B) Simple stimulus-response explanations can inprinciple account for all reptile behaviors.

(C) Reptile behavior appears more complex in thefield than laboratory experiments reveal it tobe.

(D) If reptiles were capable of complex reasoning,they would sometimes be able to make majorchanges in their behavior.

(E) Complex reasoning and responses to stimulicannot both contribute to the same behavior.

17. The purpose of a general theory of art is to explainevery aesthetic feature that is found in any of thearts. Premodern general theories of art, however,focused primarily on painting and sculpture. Everypremodern general theory of art, even those thatsucceed as theories of painting and sculpture, fails toexplain some aesthetic feature of music.

The statements above, if true, most strongly supportwhich one of the following?

(A) Any general theory of art that explains theaesthetic features of painting also explainsthose of sculpture.

(B) A general theory of art that explains everyaesthetic feature of music will achieve itspurpose.

(C) Any theory of art that focuses primarily onsculpture and painting cannot explain everyaesthetic feature of music.

(D) No premodern general theory of art achievesits purpose unless music is not art.

(E) No premodern general theory of art explainsany aesthetic features of music that are notshared with painting and sculpture.

18. It is said that people should accept themselves as theyare instead of being dissatisfied with their ownabilities. But this is clearly a bad principle if the goalis a society whose citizens are genuinely happy, forno one can be genuinely happy if he or she is notpursuing personal excellence and is unwilling toundergo personal change of any kind.

Which one of the following is an assumptionrequired by the argument?

(A) Those who are willing to change will probablyfind genuine happiness.

(B) People who are not dissatisfied withthemselves are less likely than others topursue personal excellence.

(C) Personal excellence cannot be acquired bythose who lack genuine confidence in theirown abilities.

(D) People are justified in feeling content withthemselves when they have achieved somedegree of personal excellence.

(E) Happiness is not genuine unless it is based onsomething that is painful to obtain.

19. My father likes turnips, but not potatoes, which hesays are tasteless. So it is not true that whoever likespotatoes likes turnips.

The flawed reasoning in the argument above mostclosely resembles that in which one of the following?

(A) This book is not a paperback, but it isexpensive. So it is not true that somepaperbacks are expensive.

(B) Although this recently published work offiction has more than 75 pages, it is not anovel. Thus, it is not the case that all novelshave more than 75 pages.

(C) All ornate buildings were constructed beforethe twentieth century. This house is ornate, soit must be true that it was built before thetwentieth century.

(D) Erica enjoys studying physics, but not puremathematics, which she says is boring. So it isnot true that whoever enjoys studying physicsenjoys studying pure mathematics.

(E) People who do their own oil changes are carfanatics. My next-door neighbors are carfanatics, so it follows that they do their ownoil changes.

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33 -24-20. Critic: Although some people claim it is

inconsistent to support freedom of speech andalso support legislation limiting the amount ofviolence in TV programs, it is not. We canlimit TV program content because the damagedone by violent programs is more harmfulthan the decrease in freedom of speech thatwould result from the limitations envisionedby the legislation.

Which one of the following principles, if valid, mosthelps to justify the critics reasoning?

(A) In evaluating legislation that would impingeon a basic freedom, we should consider theconsequences of not passing the legislation.

(B) One can support freedom of speech while atthe same time recognizing that it cansometimes be overridden by other interests.

(C) When facing a choice between restrictingfreedom of speech or not, we must decidebased on what would make the greatestnumber of people the happiest.

(D) If the exercise of a basic freedom leads to someharm, then the exercise of that freedomshould be restricted.

(E) In some circumstances, we should tolerateregulations that impinge on a basic freedom.

21. Sandy: I play the Bigbucks lotterythats the onewhere you pick five numbers and all the playerswho have picked the five numbers drawn at theend of the week share the money pot. But itsbest to play only after there have been a fewweeks with no winners, because the money potincreases each week that there is no winner.

Alex: No, youre more likely to win the lotterywhen the money pot is small, because thatswhen the fewest other people are playing.

Which one of the following most accurately describes amistake in the reasoning of one of the two speakers?

(A) Sandy holds that the chances of anyoneswinning are unaffected by the number oftimes that person plays.

(B) Alex holds that the chances of Sandys winningare affected by the number of other peopleplaying.

(C) Sandy holds that the chances of anyoneswinning are unaffected by the size of the pot.

(D) Alex holds that the chances of Sandys winningin a given week are unaffected by whetheranyone has won the week before.

(E) Sandy holds that the chances of there being awinner go up if no one has won the lottery forquite a while.

22. The retail price of decaffeinated coffee is considerablyhigher than that of regular coffee. However, the processby which coffee beans are decaffeinated is fairly simpleand not very costly. Therefore, the price differencecannot be accounted for by the greater cost ofproviding decaffeinated coffee to the consumer.

The argument relies on assuming which one of thefollowing?

(A) Processing regular coffee costs more thanprocessing decaffeinated coffee.

(B) Price differences between products cangenerally be accounted for by such factors assupply and demand, not by differences inproduction costs.

(C) There is little competition among companiesthat process decaffeinated coffee.

(D) Retail coffee-sellers do not expect thatconsumers are content to pay more fordecaffeinated coffee than for regular coffee.

(E) The beans used for producing decaffeinatedcoffee do not cost much more beforeprocessing than the beans used for producingregular coffee.

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3-25-3Questions 2324

A newspaper article on Britains unions argued thattheir strength was declining. The articles evidence was thedecreasing number and size of strikes, as if the reason forthe unions existence was to organize strikes. Surely, in amodern industrial society, the calling of a strike is evidencethat the negotiating position of the union was too weak.Strong unions do not need to call strikes. They canconcentrate their efforts on working with others in the labormarket to achieve common goals, such as profitable andhumane working conditions.

23. The argument criticizing the newspaper article isdirected toward establishing which one of thefollowing as its main conclusion?

(A) The negotiating position of a union is weak ifthe only means it has of achieving its end is astrike or the threat of a strike.

(B) Although unions represent the interests oftheir members, that does not preclude themfrom having interests in common with otherparticipants in the labor market.

(C) There is no reason to believe, on the basis ofwhat the newspaper article said, that unionstrength in Britain is declining.

(