LSA Technology report volume 1

Technology 3036

Tech 1

Student Technical Resources

Volume 1

Index Freeform surfaces and systems behind them: Tel Aviv Museum of Art 001

Glulam 015

Materials and Cladding - Guggenheim Museum 036

Low energy typologies - water harvesting 050

Freeform surfaces and the systems behind them - EMP Museum 068

Frank Gehry – 8 Prince Street, New York 081 Brick: Material/Manufacture/Applications 105

Cross Laminated Timber 106

Low energy typologies - Daylight and solar gain 112

Low energy typologies – Thermal mass and air tightness 126 Green walls and roofs 145

Cross Laminated Timber (C.L.T.) 151

Ceramics 169 Steel framing and construction 195

Nordpark Pailway Station 209

Glass 219 IAC building, Frank Gehry 231

Insitu concrete 247

Insulating Concrete Forms (ICF) 269

Kit Houses 287

Kunsthaus Graz - a case study of the friendly alien’s surface 311

Passive envelope - facades and double skin 325

Low energy typologies 335 Concrete 344

Material poetics – concrete 368

Mechanical ventilation and cooling systems 390

Avgoustinos Spyrou / P11280799Konstantinos Venieris / P11247007

BA3 TECHNOLOGY 3 ARCH 3036

TEL AVIV MUSEYM OF ARTProject 1 ‐ Freeform Surfaces + The Systems Behind Them

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Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………02

Skyfall…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..03‐04

Frame Structure………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..05

Exterior Façade…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………06

Construction Restrictions ..........................……………………………………………………………………………….07

Materials…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….08‐10

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12‐13

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The Tel Aviv Museum of Art is located in the heart of the city of Tel Aviv, Israel and is the country’s

main art museum which first opened to the public in 1932. The actual museum is located in the Tel

Aviv Performing Arts Center building complex with its central buildings being The Helena Rubinstein

Pavilion for Contemporary Arts built in 1971. In 2011 a conjoint building extension on the west side of

the museum was opened called the Herta and Paul Amir Building. The 55 million dollar structure was

designed by architect Preston Scott Cohen and consists of 5 main floors (2 of them to be found

underground) and a total of 18,500 m2. The building facilitates a range of different galleries/exhibition

spaces, an auditorium, restaurant, offices and a library. The spaces are all arranged around a central

complex designed atrium also known as the ‘Lightfall’. This atrium along with the structure’s elaborate

exterior design and complicated floor arrangements are the key features that define this building as a

contemporary conceptual design.

Fig. 01 Main Tel Aviv Museum building Fig. 02 Herta and Paul Amir Building

Fig. 03 Site master plan indicating Hetra and Paul Building site

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Skyfall

The structure’s intricate design is a result of the original tight triangular shape of the site. Due to the

fact that the architect was required to use rectangular spaces for the museum’s galleries, the space

had to be developed to serve the proper placement of these galleries. Consequently, twisting

geometric surfaces developed between the gallery arrangements which mostly concentrated in the

center of the building forming a void that crossed throughout the whole building. Cohen wielded this

void converting it into the building’s central atrium which not only provided central circulation for the

floors but also refracted natural light from a roof skylight allowing it to penetrate all five floors (two

of which located underground), hence receiving the name ‘Lightfall’. The spiraling elaborate atrium

spans to a height of 27 meters and manages to coincide with the edges of the surrounding rectangular

galleries. The actual shape contains 28 poured‐in‐place concrete hyperbolic paraboloids (also known

as ‘hypars’). In mathematics, a paraboloid is a quadric surface of a special kind. There are two kinds of

paraboloids: elliptic and hyperbolic. A hyperbolic paraboloid is an infinite surface in three dimension

with hyperbolic and parabolic cross‐sections. The term hypar was introduced by architect Heinrich

Engel in his 1967 book Structure Systems.

The process of casting these forms was accomplished by the use of bent plywood sheets which were

placed in the interior of the structure to shape out the inner hull‐like form‐work layers. Steel tubes

which were welded together on the exterior of the structure were also placed to shape out and

support the paraboloid’s curves. During the pouring of the concrete, contractors would strike the

form‐work with hammers attempting to vibrate the concrete mixture in order to avoid any air being

trapped. Other measures were taken as well such as a constant monitoring of the procedure of

consolidation and speed of hydration of the mixture in order to avoid any damaging or cracking.

Fig. 05 model and sketch of hyperbolic

paraboloid for report

Fig. 04 conceptual 3d image of Lightfall

Fig. 06 building section indicating the Lightfall

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In the interior of the concrete hypars lie a dense framework of reinforcement bars constituting them

even more durable. Hence, this tall vertical complex of adjacent hypars manages to stand alone as a

separate structure from the rest of the surrounding building framework allowing it to withstand

gravity as well as any seismic loads event though the structure’s concrete thickness does not exceed

180 mm. In some cases though where surface joints occur, the thickness may even reach 400 mm. In

other cases, where surfaces created more bowed like corners, in order to avoid applying even thicker

layers of concrete, the contractors used steel cages which remained buried within the concrete

creating interior voids. This not only decreases the amount of concrete used but also reduces the load

upon the structure. Also, this technique allowed the workers to join together the formwork with tie

rods. In addition, the structure’s surfaces are finally coated with a white plaster finish which allows

the shape to have an even more sense of a continuous geometry and better enabling the refraction

of natural light. The atrium’s exterior surfaces which face the surrounding galleries are not coated

exposing the concrete along with the imprints of the form‐work.

Fig. 12 Interior image

of atrium

Fig. 09 Final concrete finish of Lightfall

Fig. 07 Lightfall diagram

Fig. 08 casting panels and metal rods

Fig. 10 Interior image of atrium

depicting white coat Fig. 11 Interior image of atrium

without coating

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Frame Structure

The museum’s main structure consists of a steel frame incorporating a variety of different steel beams

which span out to a maximum height of 35 meters. The construction company which manufactured

and installed the steel framework is an Israeli based manufacturing company by the name of Minrav

Steel Division. The beam that they used predominantly throughout the frame, is a castellated 1300mm

beam (model HEM 1000). Due to the high loads and spans of the structure, a system of Vierendeel

trusses was also applied throughout the frames of each floor. Even though the design of the exhibition

floors of the building seems simpler than the structure of the hyperbolic paraboloids applied in the

‘Lightfall’ atrium, the actual arrangement of the spaces are similarly intricate. By examining the plans

of the building one can detect the distinct differences occurring respectively on each floor. Specifically,

there is a shifting pattern on the structural system of each floor which occurs through a 22.5o degrees

rotation of each floor’s axes in relation to the one below. Thus creating independent sets of plans

which are placed one on top of the other connected by a main vertical space in the center (“Lightfall’).

Fig. 13 Conceptual diagrams of floor arrangement

Fig. 14 frame structure

diagram

Fig. 15 frame installations

on site

Fig. 16 frame installations on

site

Fig. 17 frame installations on site

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Exterior Façade

Covering this complex steel structure, is the façade of the building. A contemporary design consisting

of 465 reinforced precast concrete panels. These panels are cast in different forms each shape unique,

taking the form of mostly quadrilaterals and triangles. The design created by these interlocking shapes

forms a type of continuation of the hyperbolic paraboloids found in the building’s atrium in the

interior. Even though the architect’s original intention was to apply the similar shapes and casting

techniques as applied in the atrium, due to reasons of expense he compromised with the appliance of

these disconnected faceted concrete surfaces. The concrete panels where shaped and cast on site

within one of the lower floor galleries of the building, measuring around 130 mm in thickness these

slabs weighed up to 9 tons. The architect argues that the onsite casting benefited the project not only

cost‐wise but also prevented any possible transportation damages that may had occurred due to the

delicate shape of the panels. The process of the pouring of the concrete to shape out the slabs was

applied in two layers with an instalment of a steel reinforcing framework in between. This technique

enabled the contractors to apply the precise amount of concrete in order to protect the steel frame

from the heavy ‘salty’ climate of Tel Aviv. The entire process of the manufacturing of these panels

lasted approximately one year and once finalized each slab was mounted up on the existing steel

frame with the use of cranes. In order to connect the panels to the facade, steel plates where

integrated on the back of each panel providing connection points with the underlying frame which

consists of vertical steel beams placed at a distance of 2.5 meters from each other. These vertical

beams are then connected to the main Vierendeel structure of the building. Finally, the contractors

applied a sealant in order to cover the 20mm joints between the cladding panels creating a smoother

and more integrated surface.

Fig. 19 Concrete panels on frame structure

Fig. 18

Fig. 20 casting of panels on site gallery

Fig. 21 detail of concrete

cladings

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Construction restrictions

As a final outcome, the façade expresses a horizontal continuation of the inner geometry created

through the ‘Lightfall’ with the use of panels in different dimensions progressively receding or

expanding at different axes. Even though this representation achieves the project’s original conceptual

intent, the architect admits to the fact that there were several construction complications which

eventually effected the final outcome of the design. A relative example was the limitations occurring

in the placement of the cranes which mounted the panels. Because of the prior construction of the

‘Lightfall’ atrium in the center of the building, there were difficulties placing the cranes in central

positions on the site, hence preventing certain originally intended (by the architect) panel

arrangements. Through this example, the architect acknowledges the close relation between the

penalization of the curves manifested and the actual construction approach applied.

In a lecture Cohen delivered, he states, “The building betrays some of its own principles due to the

production constraints of the project”. He also reveals though the significant contribution of 3d

software which was used in the representation of the building’s complex forms such as the

combination of paraboloids found in the ‘Lightfall’. Without the modern 3d software he admits that

the project could have never been implemented as it would have been impossible to depict the

contemporary intricate structure and circulation of the building.

Fig. 22 Photo indicating process of panel

instalments.

Fig. 23 Inclined angles of concrete panel

positions

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Materials

The building comprises of a number of prevailing materials one of which is concrete. Concrete is a

distinguishing feature of the building as it not only constitutes the structures interior walls but also

defines the museums exterior façade. Contrary to the client’s original preference for a stone cladding,

the architect insisted on a concrete exterior which not only gave the building a more contemporary

design, but also managed to associate it to Tel Aviv’s reoccurring architectural element of concrete

and white stucco buildings found throughout the ‘white’ city. It also allowed additional flexibility in

terms of the façade design, as concrete panels could be placed in inclined positions such as under the

south side soffits of the building as it is much lighter than any stone cladding. In addition, the fact that

it could be precast on site constituted it a more economical option allowing the contractors to cast

even larger cladding elements. In the interior of the building concrete remains a predominant material

as it forms most of the walls within the galleries. It is also the principal material used for the

construction of the central atrium (Lightfall). The architect found it to be most suitable as it allowed

him to create and experiment with complex free forms such as the stacked hyperbolic paraboloids.

The concrete supplier company was Danyan Minrave which also dealt with the pre‐casting process on

site.

Concrete, besides from being a modern looking material, also benefits from a lot of other advantages

compared to other materials. It has a high durability as it will not rust, rot, burn or bent. Also the

thermal mass properties of concrete make it a great selection for this building. Structures that use

concrete walls, foundations or floors are highly energy efficient, as they use the concrete’s inherent

thermal mass or ability to absorb and retain heat. With Tel Aviv belonging to a Mediterranean climate

region, the concrete’s absorbing properties is a fundamental benefit for the structure.

Fig. 24 Photo depicting key materials such as concrete, timber cladding and aluminum railings

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Another noticeable material found throughout the building is glass. It can be detected both on the

exterior and interior of the museum used for multiple purposes. The predominant uses are for the

window wall openings on the building’s exterior as well as within the gallery spaces. Also it plays a key

role in the central atrium as it is used on the roof skylight which allows natural light to penetrate

throughout the whole building. Glass is also applied for the museum’s top floor balconies enabling

again natural light to pass through illuminating the galleries.

Steel is also an important feature of the building even though most of it is hidden within the frame

structure. Structural steel is essential for large developments such as the Tel Aviv Museum providing

the building with several advantages. Due to the considerable weight of a public building like this, steel

is the most preferable structural material that can support such a considerate load. Steel is also highly

flexible which enabled the creation of this complex design adapting it with minimal disruption. In the

galleries were the most open and vast spaces are found, steel frame is used to create that effect

without the need of a single column, and keeping the ceiling from collapsing.

Fig. 25 Glass roof Skylight above Lightfall

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Additional secondary materials applied throughout the building can be detected such as aluminum

used for the museums interior and exterior railings, stone flooring applied on the several open gallery

spaces as well as the surrounding exterior of the building (supplied by Jerusalem Gardens Stone Works

Company) and maple timber found as a main cladding material in the lobby area, and galleries. It was

designed and installed by an acoustic design team as it was also used in the auditorium and library

areas. The great advantages of maple timber is that It serves as a great sound repelling material which

does not allow sound to escape, therefore it up scales and enriches the sound experience in those

parts of the museum.

The Tel Aviv Museum of Art Herta and Paul Amir Building is a superb example of contemporary design

as it depicts Preston Scott Cohen’s intricate conceptual exploratory forms in practice bringing modern

architecture to its greatest extent. With the use of modern 3d software as well as the optimum choice

of material use and construction process, Cohen manages to bring his complex but aesthetically

pleasing structures into life.

Fig. 26 3D diagram of model Fig. 27 Interior photo of Lightfall

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Bibliography

Pearson, Cliffort A., and Joann Gonchar. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov.

2011. Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/tel‐aviv‐

museum‐of‐art.asp>.

Gonchar, Joann. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov.

2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐Aviv‐Museum‐Faceted‐

Facade.asp>.

Gonchar, Joann. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architecture Records. N.p., Nov. 2011. Web. 18 Nov.

2014. <http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐Aviv‐Museum‐Spiraling‐

Core.asp>.

"Herta and Paul Amir Building at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Dezeen Magazine. N.p., 22 Nov. 2011.

Web. 18 Nov. 2014. <http://www.dezeen.com/2011/11/22/herta‐and‐paul‐amir‐building‐at‐the‐tel‐

aviv‐museum‐of‐art‐by‐preston‐scott‐cohen/>.

Cohen, Preston S., and Nicolai Ouroussoff. "Preston Scott Cohen, "Museum as Genealogy,""

Museum as Genealogy. USA, Boston. 8 Oct. 2014. Youtube. Web. 8 Oct. 2014.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5Ij6la0MbQ.

Pearson, Clifford A., and Joann Gonchar. "Tel Aviv Museum of Art." Architectural Record. N.p., 11

Nov. 2011. Web. 12 Nov. 2014. http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/Tel‐

Aviv‐Museum‐of‐Art.asp

"Projects." Minrav Steel Division. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2014. <http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/>.

Cohen, Preston S. "Preston Scott Cohen – Herta and Paul Amir Building, Tel Aviv Museum of Art."

Preston Scott Cohen MoMA Lecture. USA, New York. Oct.‐Nov. 2014. Preston Scott Cohen – Vimeo.

Web. 17 Oct. 2014. <http://vimeo.com/75836815>.

Cohen, Preston S. "Preston Scott Cohen, Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Preston

Scott Cohen, Inc." Preston Scott Cohen, Harvard University Lecture. USA, Boston. 17 Oct. 2014.

Vimeo. Web. 17 Oct. 2014. <http://vimeo.com/31969515>.

http://www.pscohen.com/tel_aviv_museum_of_art.html

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Appendix Figure 01: http://www.tamuseum.org.il/Data/Uploads/helena%20M.jpg

Figure 02: http://alexandrapevzner.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/tel‐aviv‐museum‐of‐art.jpg

Figure 03: http://www.pscohen.com/images/projects/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_SP.png

Figure 04: http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/2011/11/images/Tel‐Aviv‐

Museum‐8.jpg

Figure 05: Student experimentation work (model and sketch)

Figure 06: http://thesuperslice.com/2011/07/28/tel‐aviv‐museum‐of‐art‐preston‐scott‐cohen/

Figure 07: http://www.bustler.net/index.php/article_image/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_opens_its_

new_herta_and_paul_amir_building_tomorrow/image/5423


Museum‐17.jpg


Museum‐6.jpg

Figure 10: http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp‐content/uploads/2010/11/1289308653‐tama‐core‐

overview.jpg

Figure 11:

http://img5.adsttc.com/media/images/50b7/f0ce/b3fc/4b23/9a00/01a1/large_jpg/09.jpg?1354232

014

Figure 12:

http://img1.adsttc.com/media/images/50b7/f0b0/b3fc/4b23/9a00/0199/large_jpg/01.jpg?1354231

984

Figure 13: http://s124.photobucket.com/user/francojean23/media/preston‐scott‐cohen‐

lightfall.jpg.html


Museum‐drawing‐9.jpg

Figure 15: http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/showProject.asp?p_id=17

Figure 16: http://ad009cdnb.archdaily.net/wp‐content/uploads/2010/11/1289308623‐copy‐of‐

untitled‐panorama9.jpg

Figure 17: http://eng.minravsteel.co.il/showProject.asp?p_id=17


Museum‐drawing‐8.jpg

Figure 19: http://imageshack.com/f/81/8809041.jpg


Museum‐13.jpg

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Figure 21:

http://www.bustler.net/index.php/article_image/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_opens_its_new_herta_a

nd_paul_amir_building_tomorrow/image/5422


Museum‐FacetedFacade‐650x400.jpg

Figure 23: http://www.pscohen.com/images/projects/tel_aviv_museum_of_art_08.png

Figure 24: http://cdn.hw.net/UploadedImages/d43f78a0‐19d2‐483e‐8a37‐

2028b310590c/09451612‐79a5‐45e8‐bb65‐

f6529c4a19ef.jpg?w=730&h=550&mode=crop&404=default

Figure 25:

http://s3.amazonaws.com/europaconcorsi/project_images/2587410/IMG_0720_ed_full.jpg


Museum‐8.jpg

Figure 27: http://t3.thpservices.com/fotos/thum4/026/818/viw‐acnh‐0051‐0055.jpg

014

TECH Project 1 : Material/ Systems StudyGLULAM

ARCH 3036

Shaukat Patel - P11242092Pratish Odedra - P1128476X

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In recent times the demand for a versatile construction material has fueled the blooming success of engineered timber. One in particular which has become ever present is glued laminated timber or otherwise known as Glulam. It is well known for its incredible strength to weight ratio, which makes it exceptionally useful in load bearing structures that have long spans. It is also considered to be far more aesthetically pleasing than much of today’s conventional building materials.

The components of a piece of glued laminated timber (Glulam) are timber boards that are layered on top of one another with the grain parallel to each other. There are also alternative methods that can be used to produce a stronger grade of glulam. By placing the best grade of timber on the outer layers the inner layers are then protected.

Leonardo da Vinci Bridge, Oslo, Norway

Gibson Hotel in Point Village,Dublin, Ireland

Sheffield Winter Garden,Sheffield, England

Introduction

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First Use and Initial Success

A 1906 German patent signaled the true beginning for the construction method. An early Glulam structure erected in the U.S. was a research facility in Wisconsin. The structure was constructed in 1934 and is currently still standing showing its structural longevity and success. A project even earlier than this was completed in 1911 by Swiss engineering consultants Terner & Chopard. The former Hygiene Institute in Zürich which has now become the main university building still has the Glulam on show in the bell-shaped roof dome. The initial process entailed vertical columns which transitioned into curved glued laminated eaves zones and then becoming sloped rafters all within a single laminated unit. The components bond under pressure which is combined with horizontally arranged laminations. It wasn’t until after the Second World War that Glulam as we know it today began to emerge, following the arrival of powerful synthetic resin adhesives and the impetus of wartime demands for laminated marine and aircraft components. After the moderate success of the process, a major development occurred during 1942. The introduction of fully water resistant phenol-resorcinol adhesive allowed Glulam to be used in exposed exterior environments without having to worry about degradation to the glue line. This was an important development in the materials history as it meant Glulam become a material that could now be used in a variety of ways.

University of Zürich Former Hygiene Institute Completed in 1911

Southamton Registry OfficeFormer King Edward VI CollegeCompleted in 1866

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Case Study 1: Old Precedent - Canteen, Copenhagen

A very early example of Glulam structure was this arch which covered a workshop. The arch, with a span of 30m was designed and erected in 1916 in Valby. It is now being used as a canteen. The arch has a cross section with an I-shape. A steel rod is used as a tension member. Lamination thickness is 33 mm with the total depth being 700 mm, the width of the flange 166 mm and the width of the web 95 mm. The Glulam was bonded with casein adhesive. The Glulam system was invented by an engineer by the name Hetzer, who patented it.

Detail at Web StiffenerDetail at Support

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Current Usage

The British industry began to flourish as a new era was heralded by the Festival of Britain. The parabolic entrance arches for the Festival itself were made from Glulam and many of the new geometric forms of the Fifties were Glulam. Glulam was mainly chosen for its aesthetics or its non-corrosive properties hence the Glulam beams in swimming pools and ice hockey stadiums. This began to change in the 1970s. Curved beam techniques improved and modern high-volume plants were laid down throughout Europe to produce straight beams in a wide choice of standard section sizes. Many of these sizes were made available ex-stock through distributors. This revolutionized the availability and cost of Glulam, and gave it almost limitless potential. It transformed Glulam from an aesthetic indulgence or an environmental necessity into a basic structural material with substantial benefits over steel and concrete in a host of applications. It has given architects the freedom of choice that is expanding the use of this most attractive material every day.

Visitor Centre, Brockholes, Near Preston, Lancashire

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Case Study 2: Modern Precedent - Visitor Centre, Brockholes, Preston

The primary structure is the Glulam portal frame. The Glulam columns are vertical but at the top of each column the Glulam rafters spray out in a V-shape, creating a geometric pattern that belies the complexity of the connection needed to achieve it. Building stability is achieved by stiff connections at the apexes and eaves, where large forces are transferred from the rafters to the columns.

Primary Structure Secondary Structure Tertiary Structure

The new visitor and Education Centre at Brockholes Wetland and Woodland Nature Reserve near Preston is set on a floating ‘island’ on a lake. The structure as explained below is primarily made of Glulam supported by other structural elements. Glulam optimise’s the structural values of a renewable resource - wood. It has been uses due to its sustainable properties compares to other traditional building products, requiring less energy in production and being fully recyclable. Furthermore, the Glulam has excellent thermal properties and is an extremely effective insulating material with very high energy efficiency.

The secondary structure consists of the structural insulated panels (SIPs) which provide racking resistance to the structure while also giving a high level of insulation and air tightness.

The tertiary structure consists of the bolts that attach to the flitched plates that hold together the Glulam portal frame. Another tertiary structural element is the steel ring which also connects to the flitched plates and is a beam that distributes the high horizontal forces to the sides of the building.

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Structures

Three-pinned ‘A’ frame

Roof arch with tie rod

Arch fixed to foundation

Three-pinned portal

Portal frame with jointed haunches

Economy frame

Simply supported beams

Monopitched beam

Duopitched beam

Pitched cambered beam

Tied rafters

Trussed beam

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Joints

Industrial Portal Frame

Apex Connection

Steep Pitch Portal Frame

Apex ConcealedConnection

Portal Frame Base Shoe

Externally Exposed Arch

Base Connection

Half Lapped Portal Frame

Apex Connection

Arch PinnedApex Connection

Post Base Flush Fitted Connection

Concealed Beam toBeam Connection

Concealed Beam toPost Head Connection

Beam to Wall Connection

Half Check Beam to Post Head Connection

Purlin to Portal Frame Connection

Beam to wall Connection

Beam to Beam Connection

Double Beam toComposite Post

Head Connection

Tied Arch Base Connection

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Various Uses

Glulam structural members can be used for various elements of design and building including structure, flooring, roofing and cladding. Applications range from one or more small timber beams used as lintels in houses and flats, right up to sports stadiums and leisure centres. Within these structures, clear spans in excess of 67m are possible with glulam. Even larger structures exist in other parts of the world. The 162m diameter dome for the Tacoma Sports and Convention Centre in Washington State, USA, is a good example. Glulam has been used in Britain for over 100 years and, more recently, with the benefit of fully waterproof adhesives for the past 50. Uses include:

ResidencesHotelsHospitalsSwimming PoolsLeisure CentresGymnasiumIce rinksCurling RinksBridges

LibrariesShowroomsShopping CentresRestaurantsChurchesSchoolsIndustrial buildingsAir terminalAviation hangars

Cladding

FMO Tapiola is the highest wooden office building in Europe. The exterior facade is clad using 2,200m2 of split Finnforest Glulam plank.

Flooring

The Glulam flooring system is a cost effective alternative to traditional mezzanine floors. It has the ability to achieve high fire and insulation ratings.

Bridge

Glulam bridges are predominantly used in Scandinavian countries due to there versatility and low maintenance cost.

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1. Timber is dried and stress graded and stored in controlled conditions.

2. Excessively high moistture timber pieces receive additional kiln drying

3. End are cut to an interlocking profile and the glue is applied

4. After the curing period, the pieces are planed

5. Pieces are fed end to end through a joint pressing and cross cutting machine

6. The laminations are then pulled round a steel jig and cramped

7. Quality checks are made including tests looking at the joints

8. Transported to site and used in construction

Manufacturing Process

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Other Production Methods

Glulam does not require preservative treatment for most uses but certain applications may present environmental conditions which may mean that a treatment is necessary. An area where decay may occur, areas with insects and areas that have long-term or frequent presence of moisture all would require some sort of treatment in order for it to last. Some of these hazards are sometimes controlled through overhangs, flashings, ventilation and proper joint connection details. When these problems cannot be avoided then pressure-preservative-treated or a naturally durable wood species must be used. Indoor uses that normally require treatment include swimming pools, greenhouses and post-and-beam construction in some farm buildings. Outdoor uses preservative-treated Glulam include bridges, marine applications and highway noise barriers.

Impregnation is a popular treatment which works by charring the wood. This treated wood utilizes a fire retardant chemical that remains stable in high temperature environments. The fire retardant is applied under pressure at a wood treating plant. The treatment provides a physical barrier to flame spread. The treated wood chars but does not oxidize. Effectively this creates a convective layer that transfers flame heat to the wood in a uniform way which significantly slows the progress of fire to the material. The temperatures can go over 1000°C and the timber will resist heat penetration. As a result of this, a large beam which has been designed to support its design load in even the severest of fires, will maintain its strength.

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Impregnation Testing

Using layers of timber sheets and waterproof adhesive, Glulam was

produced.

Heat was applied to the outer layers of the Glulam till all sides were chared.

Testing was carried out with a specimen of non impregnated timber and Impregnated timber

The first test was carried out on the non

impregnated timber. It withheld 24 cans of coke which weighed

in at 9.6 kg before the timber gave in.

The test on the impregnated timber

was much successful. It held a total of 19.2

kg without much warping.

After excessive force of over 70 kg, the timber showed signs of weakness but still remained intact with little visible damage.

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Adhesives

With regards to adhesives, The most widely used is phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde which was formed during the 1940’s when the resin industry had a major development.

Resorcinol is produced either by using a natural resin such as a distillate of brazilwood and combining it with potassium hydroxide, or by several synthetic methods. This resorcinol is then further treated to produce the wonder adhesives.

Key advantages of the adhesive include:

1) It is waterproof and has been used for boats for many years. It is one of the few adhesives around that stay strong when wet for extended periods. Outside conditions are not a deterrent for using this glue.2) It is strong. Currently one of its main use is to put together plywood, laminated support beams and other wooden structural elements.3) Resorcinol can withstand a wide range of useful temperatures when cured. It does not soften in warm temperatures and doesn’t become brittle in colder temperatures.

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Benefits

Versatility

Can be pre-fabricated to almost any shape or size, for example portals, arches, floor beams, columns, ‘A’ frames, rafters and lintels. Due to the versatility of glulam can be used to span over 50 meters.

Members can be of uniform or varying depth.

Can be straight or curved depending on requirements. They can also be designed to accommodate larger loads for structurally efficient designs than can be achieved with straight members

No Cladding

Glulam used as structural members requires no protection or cladding this makes it a cost effective material.

Good Strength to weight Ratio

Glulam has one of the best strength to weight ratio in comparison to structural steel or concrete. A structural steel beam can be up to 20% heavier whereas reinforced concrete is up to 600% heavier than an equivalent glulam beam that can carry the same load.

Fire Resistance

Chars at a considerably low rate of 40mm per hour (European White-Wood). Even under massive pressures at high temperatures glulam is able to maintain it structural integrity. Due to its high thermal insulation properties the charred layer acts as protective layer to the inner layers during a fire. It is because of these thermal characteristics that every individual glulam member in structures burns as a single unit. This is partially also due to the fact that the adhesive used to bond the timber together is also has very high fire resistance. Glulam’s reliability and performance during fires means that it is easier to predict and design around possible weaknesses a structure may have. This makes it easier for designers to apply changes without having to do expensive testing on structures.

Chemical Resistance

Timber in general has notable resistance against chemical attacks and long periods of time in polluted environments. An example of glulam being used in volatile environments is in barns that are used to store salt for de-icing roads. The adhesive used to bond the timber components together in glulam are also significantly resistant to most chemicals.

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Disadvantages

Chemical Resistance

Although it is not totally immune to alkali’s, sulphides and oxidizing agents, as a result of these the fibers within the timber can be destroyed and weakened. This can lead to the structural integrity of timber members to become compromised. Although this is a disadvantage for using glulam, it is very rare for these agents to come in contact with the glulam in most public environments.

Extreme Climates

Timber shrinks when dried; during this process surface splits can appear although these can look harmful, they generally don’t affect the structural integrity of the member or entire structure. This can be an effect caused by excessive air conditioning as well as internal heating. As a result it is not an ideal material to use in extremely hot climates.

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Comparison to Steel

Strength

Laminated beams are stronger in comparison to natural wood that is used in construction. Glulam’s strength to weight ratio is stronger than steel. This makes it the logical choice for construction projects.

Flexibility

The flexibility of Glulam and versatility makes it ideal for use in roofing systems, arches and bridges. These can also be constructed with steel, but the heavy weight of steel makes it inefficient during transport and can often make designs complicated. The appearance of Glulam can be changed for the demands of the clients by using alternative species of timbers.

Substitution

In most architectural structures the steel beam can be replaced with a Glulam beam. It might not be possible to substitute Glulam for steel in all buildings. The selection of material used can also be dependant on clients needs, costs and availability.

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Case Study 3: Glulam Comparison - Richmond Olympic Oval, Vancouver

The Richmond Olympic Oval designed by Cannon Design, is located on a 32 acres of city-owned land along the banks of the Fraser River. The roof of the Richmond Olympic Oval, features one of the world’s largest clearspan wooden structures. The roof includes 2,400 cubic metres of Douglas-fir lamstock lumber in glulam beams. A total of 34 yellow-cedar glulam posts support the overhangs where the roof extends beyond the walls.

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Case Study 3: Glulam Comparison - Richmond Olympic Oval, Vancouver

There are numerous notable achievements in the structural design of the Oval, including:

• At a clear span of close to 100 metres, the roof features the longest composite glue- laminated wood/ steel arches in the world. • The 2.5 hectare roof structure is one of the largest timber roofs in the world comprising plywood and pine beetle kill wood.• The structurally and architecturally distinctive prefabricated ‘Wood Wave Panels’ feature an assembly of simple, curved 2 x 4’s (38 x 89mm standard dimensional lumber) that is unprecedented, and also a world first.• The degree of mechanical and electrical integration within the prefabricated arch and panel system is rare if not unprecedented.

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Case Study 4: Steel Comparison - 2012 Olympics Basketball Arena , London

Influenced from the surrounding permanent venues, the arena celebrates both the best of British engineering and the temporary nature of the structure through innovative and economic structural and cladding solutions. Lightweight, simple building components have been used instead of a concrete structure usually found in stadia architecture, allowing the Basketball Arena’s steel frame and cladding to be constructed in just six weeks.

The 30m high rectangular volume is made out of a steel portal frame and wrapped in 20,000 sqm of lightweight phthalate free and recyclable PVC. This translucent bespoke cladding is stretched across minimal steel framing modules that push the fabric out and create an elegant and three dimensional undulating pattern across the facades.

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Sustainability

Timber is called a “plus energy” product in the industry. This is due to fact that more energy can be produced using timber than is required the produce the actual timber itself. This helps to justify the heavy use of timber in today’s construction. Some of the other benefits of using timber in comparison to other traditional materials is its lightweight and east to transport. Further more the cellular structure of timber makes it a perfect natural insulator as it can trap air inside it cell walls. The sustainability of timber far over powers its alternatives such as concrete and steel.

The life span of glulam is thought to be almost unlimited. Although there are some factors such as the species of timber used, type of adhesive and its application methods can all affect the grade of glulam that is produced. With all of these factors taken into account glulam can be produced for even some of the harshest environments. A successful example of it use in a hostile environment can be seen in many indoor swimming pool designs. Glulam has proved to be durable and reliable without regular maintenance. Timber is the only renewable building material, the planting rates in countries such as Scandinavia are higher then the amount harvested.

The full potential of Glulam is yet to be explored as it has not yet passed the test of time. Being just over 100 years old and only being applied with fully waterproof adhesives for the past 50, there is still a long way for it to be fully comparable to other conventional construction methods which have been around far longer. The early structures still remain and it is implied that Glulam is almost invincible.

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Sources

[1] http://www.archdaily.com/49705/winter-olympics-2010-vancouver-skating-richmond- olympic-oval-cannon-design/

[2] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanglulam. com%2Fc5%2Feng%2Fgl-timber-bsh%2Fhistory%2F&h=BAQFd1lM-

[3] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apawood. org%2Fglulam&h=BAQFd1lM-

[4] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kanukaewp. co.nz%2Fhtml%2Fglulam_benefits.html&h=BAQFd1lM-

[5] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glulamsolutions. co.uk%2Fglulam%2F&h=BAQFd1lM-

[6] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glulamsolutions. co.uk%2Fenvironment%2F&h=BAQFd1lM- [7] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia. org%2Fwiki%2FGlued_laminated_timber%23cite_note-7&h=BAQFd1lM- [8] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.woodsolutions.com. au%2FWood-Product-Categories%2FGlulam&h=BAQFd1lM-

[9] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.keithfarmer. co.uk%2Farchitectural-services%2Fglulam-vs-steel&h=BAQFd1lM-

[10] http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehow.com%2Finfo_12176125_ steel-beams-vs-laminate.html&h=BAQFd1lM-

[11] Herzog, Thomas. (1941) Timber Construction Manual

[12] Allen, Isabel. (2000) Structure as design: 23 projects that wed structure and interior design

[13] Silver, Pete. (2014) Structural Engineering for Architects: A Handbook

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MATERIALS AND CLADDING REPORT

GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM

BILBAO, SPAIN FRANK GEHRY

BY INGRID ALEXIA SILVERIO FREIRE AND ABDUL ROHAN SAMAD

ARCH3036 - TECHNOLOGY- 2014

Word count: 2252

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INTRODUCTION In the 1990s, the city of Bilbao, Spain wanted a change from an industrial community to a high service industry based community. In Spain many urban renewal projects were underway for example the new airport control tower and a suspension bridge by architect Santiago Calatrava. In Bilbao, the Basque Administration decided to convert the Alhondiga, a former wine storage warehouse into a cultural facility. They thought an art museum would be great as a cultural facility; they wanted to partner up with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation for the new museum. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao was designed by the architect Frank Gehry, and it was inaugurated on October 18, 1997. The style used for this particular building was deconstructivism, and because of the way the building was created it became a symbol of contemporary architecture. Basically, the museum has a total of 24000 square meters, of which 600 are occupied by an auditorium, 1100 by a shop, the restaurant and cafeteria also occupy 1100 square meters, and another 200 occupied by a library. 11000 square meters are occupied by 19 galleries, which ten of those have an almost classical orthogonal look and have stone finishes. The other nine galleries have irregular shapes and titanium finishes, presented in a remarkable look.

Figure 1: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao [Source: PixAchi/Shutterstock.com]

CLADDING/MATERIALS USED Three different types of cladding were used for this building; titanium cladding was used for the galleries, as previously noted in this paper, limestone for the public facilities (e.g.

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restaurants, library and galleries as well) and blue render for the administration sections. Glass was also used not to only look aesthetically pleasing, but to also allow lots of natural light in during the day. Frank Gehry (Bruggen, 1997) said the only new material used in Bilbao was the Titanium. First, they planned to use lead copper, but they had to find out another element that could play with the light without being a toxic material. It was analyzing stainless steel that they found some samples of titanium and we realized that could be a good idea. He said “The titanium is thinner than stainless steel would have been; it is a third of a millimeter thick and it is pillowy, it doesn’t lie flat and a strong wind makes its surface flutter. These are all characteristics we ended up exploiting in the use of the material on the building” (Bruggen, 1997). As noted by Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012), in thin sheets of only 0.38 mm, titanium reveals plastic values that allow it to adapt easily and flexibly to the complex surfaces of this radical design. The titanium only had been used previously as a construction material for small areas of roofing in Japan, according to researches (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002). Also, one of the factors they decided this was that at that time titanium was very cheap if it was bought from Russia. “In an extremely fortunate coincidence, the world’s largest titanium manufacturer, Russia, put huge amounts of the product on the market just at this time, causing the price to drop dramatically. A week after the price dropped, all the titanium necessary for the Bilbao Guggenheim had been purchased.” (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002).

Figure 2: Use of titanium at Guggenheim

[Source: Amiot, 2011]

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Unlike the free flowing of the titanium in the Guggenheim, the stone was used to represent the more stationary places, Gehry wanted “to avoid, at any cost, the checkerboard effect” (Bruggen, 1997, p. 14) that even slightly different tones of stone can create. Sampling 120 different stones from the Grenada mine, only one would be chosen and it had to have these requirements: “amber colour, high resistance to erosion, possibility of being able to cut pieces of reduced thickness, and high mechanical resistance.” (Bruggen, 1997, p. 14) The survey process was easy, the ones Gehry thought matched his description he would keep, the others he would discard straight away, the several stones left he would look at again until he was left with just the one he wanted. When it came to the tower this was the hardest as they had to find a way to curve the stone into shape, this was done with a stainless steel skeletal frame with thin stone cladding on the outside. This is ironic because the tower existence was often debated since it lacked function, and therefore only limited funds were left for its design and construction. However, due to its final location next to the bridge, the stone installation became of great importance. In order to cut each piece of stone properly, the contractor used a programme called CATIA, which will be described later in this paper. They also used another machine to ensure that each piece was in the proper position. If you look close enough towards the corners and sides of the stone buildings, you can see they do not align; this is because full stone slabs were not used. They were used as stone claddings hooked onto stainless steel anchors, which were held in place by the secondary structure stonewall. The stone cladding is also revealed by a 20 mm gap at the base of the stone cladding, which allows water to escape from behind the stone.

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Figure 3: Use of Stone at the Guggenheim Bilbao

[Source: http://europaenfotos.com/vizcaya/pho_bilbao_5.html]

Figure 4: Use of stone

[Source: Sullivan, 2005]

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http://europaenfotos.com/vizcaya/pho_bilbao_5.html

Finally, another material used was the glass. The glass used in the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is treated to protect the interior against heat and radiation while letting light stream into the entire building. The windows used are called “Natural 62” and these were supplied by IDOM. “Out of the total 2,200 glass panels, 2,000 of them were uniquely shaped, and most of the shapes were quite complex. The AutoCAD drawings of the glass panels were taken to the site, then exact measurements were made to allow for slight deviations in the actual construction.” (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002). These openings where the glass was used provide to the visitor a view of the city.

Figure 5: Complex geometry of the glass walls

[Source: Sullivan, 2005]

INTERIOR LIGHTING Lam Partners are an architectural lighting company who were developing ways of creating energy efficient strategies to their lighting designs. During the development of the Guggenheim a great amount of energy analysis was being conducted so that Lam

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Partners could determine the amount of natural light that would be entering the museum through the gallery spaces. With the analysis collected they were able to create an efficient electrical system that met the needs as a primary function for the exhibition space in the museum.

The natural light that entered the upper floor gallery was redirected to the lower gallery space below. This was done through a funnel in the middle of the upper gallery. This allowed natural light to enter the lower gallery without having to create unnecessary holes in the pre-existing wall design by Gehry.

For electrical lightings dimming systems were used to reduce the power of the electrical lights by at least eight percent, this was used on occasional events. Adding to this Gehry also had lightings fitted on the exterior of the Guggenheim.

Figure 6: Interior lightning diagram

[Source:

STRUCTURE The geometric forms of the museum were the biggest challenge to the engineers. Frank Gehry named each one of these forms: River, Neo, T1000, Cobra, Flower, Fox, Potemkin, Tower S17, Fish, Canopy and boot.

According to Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, (2002), the construction of the steel structure started in September 1994. The system comprised three layers of steel, each one serving a different function. The structure was connected using high strength bolts.The primary structure was erected in modular, 3-meter square sections with a minimum of wide flange shoring. This allowed all structural members, with the exception of those in the “Boot” and “Tower S17”, to be rectilinear in section. They could achieve the complexity of the external surfaces forms using secondary structures and sheathing.

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Figure 7: Atrium with three-meter, primary structural grid

[Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002] The secondary structure is formed of horizontal galvanized steel tubes (60mm diameter) at three-meter vertical intervals, and it is responsible for establishing the horizontal curvature of the skin. Finally, the tertiary structure established the vertical curvature. Every element in the secondary and tertiary structures allowed the smooth skin curvature and thermal expansion. (Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002)

Figure 8: Tertiary structure attached to secondary structure

[Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002]

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As shown in the fig. 9 below, the internal structure of metal rods (primary structure) forms grids with triangles. To calculate the number of bars that are necessary to each location, as well its positions and orientations, they used a 3-D design software called CATIA, mentioned before, as noted by Pagnotta (2013). CATIA is used in the airplane industry, and basically consists in digitalization of points on the edges, surfaces, and intersections of Gehry’s hand-built models to construct on-screen models that can then be manipulated. As observed by Glymph (Bruggen, 1997), CATIA deals with polynomial equations instead of polygons, is pretty much capable of defining any surface as an equation. He also noted that the Guggenheim might have been a sketch idea, but they would never be able to build that without the use of the computer.

“FOG/A (Frank O. Gehry and Associates) input the forms of their wood and plastic models into CATIA using 3D scanning devices that recorded points on the model into a virtual three-dimensional coordinate system.Once each of the prototypical pieces of the building was completed in CATIA, the computer model containing its face and surface geometry was sent to a machine shop where a scale model was milled out of foam by numerically controlled machinery. Next, the files were sent to IDOM on DAT tapes. The files, each typically larger than 30 megabytes, were too large to send efficiently via e-mail using the currently available connections.” (Razz, 2012).

With the help of this software, they were able to shape the titanium as well, which almost every piece has a different shape than the others. Although they cut almost all pieces using the computer model, some of them needed to be done on site to ensure the right size.

Figure 9: CATIA Model of steel frame

[Source: Lindsey, 2011]

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Figura 10: Catia renderings

[Source: Bruggen, 1997, p. 51] According to e Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012), the second structure mentioned before, on top of the primary structure, was necessary to enable the building to be structurally strong while supporting the titanium in a free-floating form. Then, it was installed a layer of 2 mm galvanized sheet on these secondary studs, insulated from the back and waterproofed on the outer edge. Over this waterproof membrane, they installed the panels of titanium. As it is possible to see in the fig. 11 below, the lower edge of each titanium panel is curved around behind the hangers overlapped with another panel. It alleviates dust collection and water run-off.

They had to pay special attention to the titanium cladding control of the water flow and runoff from the building. As observed by the same authors, they created weep holes at the base of the titanium panels. This way they could provide an outlet to the water that may accumulate behind the panels. Another solution was creating standing seams to manage water at the seams.

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Figure 11: Panel of Titanium

[Source: Adapted from Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012)]

Figure 12: Standing seam

[Source: Adapted from Cacace, Nikaki and Stefanidou (2012)]

Figure 13: Galvanized steel cladding and Bituthene waterproofing

[Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002]

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Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley (2002) observed that the structure performed well under vertical loading, but problems were caused by lateral loads like the wind. Hybrid solutions were developed to reinforce the frame assembly during its completion. They solved this issue by the use of anchoring cables and cranes.

Another challenged face was the glass walls. Basically, those walls are made of triangle panels of glass to create the effect of curved surfaces without the additional expense and complexity of making curved glass.

Figure 14: Triangle panels creating the effect of curved surface

[Source: Source: Gonzales, Vaggione and Ackley, 2002]

Three layers of glass, one on the exterior and two on the interior, were used to insulate the building, both acoustically and thermally.

CONCLUSION

Looking at the Guggenheim Museum we can see how hard of a project this was, not only was this a project to the people of Spain, but a rescue, a help towards the economy of Bilbao as they were going through a rough patch in their economy with crime rates up and no work for the locals. This created many jobs for them and actually has made Bilbao a tourist attraction bringing in a lot of money and putting them on the map.

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The Guggenheim itself caused a lot of problems for everyone who was a part of the project from the architect to the construction workers. If it wasn’t for the advanced technology none of this would have been possible in its construction time frame, and it would not be what it is now.

Studying the materials and the way they were structured together, we can see the difficulty and the simplicity of the way things have been put together. The simple part of the construction was the titanium and the stone as they used simple hanging structures. This helped make the project a lot less complicated than it needed to be saving time and energy. The main concern came down to the glass as it was the most difficult to work with, as energy usage, heating, light and the curve had to be taken in account. Out of the 2,200 pieces of glass used 2,000 of them were different shapes making it harder to put together, but with technology it made it simpler. Any change in this would cause a domino effect changing everything in the process from the energy usage consumed to the way the natural light entered the building.

For this project technology was the centerpiece, it is thanks to this everything came out the way it did. The saved using manual labor to cut the pieces bit-by-bit, energy and a lot of money. The final result of the building amazing, one of Gehrys best work, the way the materials sync with each other, its perfect location and views, overall the building is a high standard building which gives the impression of ‘light’.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

CACACE, K., NIKAKI, M., STEFANIDOU, A. (2012) An evaluation of cladding materials. [Online] Cambridge: Harvard University. Available from: http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic502069.files/guggenheim.pdf. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. GONZALEZ-PULIDO, F., VAGGIONE, P., ACKLEY, A. (2002) Managing the construction of the Museo Guggenheim Bilbao (B). [Online] Cambridge: Harvard University Graduate School of Design. Available from: http://www.uniroma2.it/didattica/ACALAB2/deposito/case_Guggenheim.pdf. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. BRUGGEN, C. (1997) Frank O. Gehry: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. New York, NY: Guggenheim Museum Publications. LINDSEY, B. (2001) Digital Gehry. [Online] Basel: Birkhäuser. Available from: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8OOwn_KzkmIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. PAGNOTTA, B. (2013) AD Classics: The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao / Frank Gehry. [Online] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/422470/ad-classics-the-guggenheim-museum-bilbao-frank-gehry/. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014]. ILLONIEMI, L. (2014) What the Guggenheim Should Consider Before Building in Helsinki. [Online] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/475322/what-the-guggenheim-should-consider-before-building-in-helsinki/. [Acessed: 8th Oct 2014].

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http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic502069.files/guggenheim.pdf

http://www.uniroma2.it/didattica/ACALAB2/deposito/case_Guggenheim.pdf

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8OOwn_KzkmIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8OOwn_KzkmIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://www.archdaily.com/422470/ad-classics-the-guggenheim-museum-bilbao-frank-gehry/

http://www.archdaily.com/422470/ad-classics-the-guggenheim-museum-bilbao-frank-gehry/

http://www.archdaily.com/475322/what-the-guggenheim-should-consider-before-building-in-helsinki/

http://www.archdaily.com/475322/what-the-guggenheim-should-consider-before-building-in-helsinki/

Technology Project 1- Material/ systems study ‘Low Energy typologies’

BA3-ARCH 3036 TechnologyProject 1

Subject: Water harvesting

Report by

Adiljit Singh Kahlon [P12203181]Kirtee Kebla [P12227826]

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Contents

i

S. No. Topic Page Number

0 Abstract 1

1 Introduction 2

2 Need for water harvesting 2

3 Historical development 2

4 Types of water harvesting 3

5 Uses of water harvesting 5

6 Average rainfall and heatwave 5

7 Advantages of water harvesting 7

9 Design consideration in water harvesting 8

10 Components of water harvesting 9

11 Water harvesting potential 11

12 Cost analysis 12

13 Effectiveness of technologies 12

14 Safety considerations 12

15 Water harvesting thumb rules 13

16 First flush calculations 14

17 Conclusion 14

18 Case study (The Florida house learning centre) 15

19 Refrences 16References

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This technical report will focus into one particular area of environmental design, it will mainly compromise of re-search into the application, problems and possibilities of water harvesting.

The outcome of this report is to evaluate the effectiveness of both rainwater and greywater systems as water con-servation measure; and how the implications of such systems could balance existing water supplies with the water

demand of a household or premise.

Abstract

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1 Introduction

Water harvesting is a general term for collecting and storing of runoff for future use to meet the demands of human consumption or human activities. Runoff would usually be harvested within the boundaries of a property, from roofs and surrounding ground surfaces.

Rainwater use system refers to a water harvesting technique which harvest the runoff of rain or snow from roofs via traditional guttering, pumped and treated down through pipes to be distributed from an above or underground storage tank.

Greywater use system refers to the collection of greywater typically generated from baths, showers and sinks. It is disinfected for use as reclaimed water in and around properties from an above or below ground system.

2 The need for water harvesting

3 Historical development

Rainwater collection systems can be dated back to the third millennium BC as one of the oldest means of collecting water for domestic purposes. Simple stone-rubble structures were used for impounding rainwater in India (1997), another common technique of storing harvested water from roofs surfaces was into cisterns with masonry domes.

With growing demands of water from an increasing population in both urban and rural areas, coupled with climate change concerns, it has led to a gradu-al decline for water availability per capita in many countries over the years.

As ground water figure in most areas are starting to deplete, there is a dire need for water harvesting measures and revival of traditional systems.

The single largest consumer of water is currently agriculture (see fig. 2)how-ever, industrial and household demand for water faced by both homeowners and businesses has shown rapid growth.

Fig. 1 South India; Drought prone region where rivers are becoming dry

Fig. 2 Water Consumption: Global average ratios

Rainwater in Western Europe, America and Australia was sourced primarily for drinking water; early filtering technologies used natural materials such as a series of rocks, gravels and sands to effectively purify the rainwater through. (See fig. 3)

Meanwhile in other areas, rainwater equally arose to an agricultural necessity in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, harvesting techniques evolved into relatively sophisticated systems.

Water harvesting for household and recharging purposes was also evident as villagers across the world would collect roof water in vessels during rainy days.

Fig. 3 Early water filtering system

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4 Types of water harvesting

(i) Rainwater harvesting

An in-line down-pipe filter prevents leaves and other debris from getting into the storage tank. For water harvested through a pervious pavement, an oil trap separates oil and fuel residuals before the filtering process.

The non-potable water may then be disinfected through separate set of pipes. Additional filtration and disinfection of rainwater lessen the potential of oil and animal faeces contamination.

The water level in the tank is monitored by the control unit where an automatic trigger tops up the tank with mains water via an AA air gap when insufficient. This prevents back flow of rainwater into the mains to reduce the risk of contaminations. The overflow trap allows excess water to be released when it reaches a certain tank level.

The Private Water Supply Regulations 1991 would apply if the rainwater is designated for human consumption or use in a business that produces food and drink.

Fig. 4 Flowchart showing a typical rainwater system

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(ii) Greywater harvesting

Greywater is coarse-filtered prior to storage to discourage bacterial growth from any build up of debris. This can be processed through sand and carbon filters or membrane filters to provide a more consistent end result.

The control panel is often electronic with connections to the mains water supply to automatically supplement to the water levels. The final step involve chemical or ultraviolet disinfection to regulate the quality of the water for use.

Fig. 5 Flowchart showing a typical greywater system

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The recommended option for harvesting rainwater in domestic buildings is through a direct system (see Fig.6) where the collected water is pumped directly to points of use as it does not involve large distances.

Some variants pump the rainwater from an underground storage tank to a higher level header tank like in Fig. 7

For larger commercial buildings, the gravity system is more efficient as the collected water collected is pumped to an elevated cistern which flow by the means of gravity to its designated appliances.

Fig. 6 Direct pumped system Fig. 7 Indirect pumped system

Recycled greywater from showers and bathtubs is typically used for flushing toilets and outdoor uses due to source of the water supply.

Although unapproved in the UK, it is possible to make the harvested water suitable for potable uses through appropriate ultraviolet filtering and disin-fection.

Fig. 8 Schematic of a greywater system

5

(iii) Application of rain water harvesting

(iv) Application of grey water harvesting

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Fig. 9 Measured total England and Wales microcomponent use 2009-10 (%)

5 Uses of Water Harvesting

The application of rainwater harvesting in domestic and commercial installa-tions should be used for non-drinking or bathing purposes according to most European jurisdictions.

It is used generally for domestic plumb-ing system, toilet flushing, laundry, car washing, indoor plant watering and for garden irrigation purposes.

The UK currently experiences on average 550-3000mm of rainfall per year (See Fig. 10) with occasional heatwaves and predicted drier summers.

Water UK (March 2007) consider typical daily water use for a single person to be 165 litres.

A 50m2 property in south east of UK would collect 22,000 litres of rain a year, supplying around 60 litres daily.

A house with a footprint of 100m2 will supply a daily average of 120 litres, which is a significant saving. With an adequate supply, rainwater can meet this demand. In a domestic situation, it would account to 30% of the water demand while as much as 65% for commercial.

Fig. 10 Average rainfall figure in England and Wales

6 Average rainfall and Heatwave

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7 Advantages of Water Harvesting

Rainwater and greywater both contribute to sustainable water management and award credits for helping to achieve the Code For Sustainable Homes targets.

(i) Rainwater

- Makes use of an alternative water supply- Potential to save costs as reduced water bills for households or small businesses- Reduces ground water demand on the local community - Decreases volume of runoff leading to decreased flooding, erosion and the flow to stormwater drain- Benefited by plants and gardens because it had s a balanced ph and chlorine- Carbon footprint reduction

(ii) Greywater

- Reduces the amount of sewage discharged to ocean or rivers- Reduced energy use and chemical pollution from treatment- Uses nutrients in the water to support plant growth

8 Disadvantages of water harvesting

(i) Rainwater

- Unreliable rainfall; limited by the amount of rainfall and size of the catchment area- High investment costs - Requires separate pipe work to be installed while above ground tanks can be unsightly- Importance of maintenance as system can be infiltrated by rodents, algae and insect if not properly cleaned- Water quality is vulnerable as it can be affected by animal droppings, dirt and organic matter

(ii) Greywater - Health standards of the water and quality concerns- High initial costs and plumbing requirements- Prolonged use can cause long-term damage to the soil

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9 Design consideration in water harvesting

SizeEstimating is best finished with a continuous daily simulation show that ascertains runoff captured, overflow and runoff discharged. There is a point of confinement to the rate of spillover decrease RWH can attain. Regardless of how enormous the reservoir is, this limit can’t be surpassed. Even for destinations where re-utilization demand is more than the yearly overflow volume, expanding reservoir size offers unavoidable losses as a result of the irregu-larity of precipitation in many areas.

Design lifeMateriality of the project plays a vital role in the life expectancy of the structure. The local conditions and usage of material accordingly is important to prolong the life of the project. It is also important that the cisterns are water tight and have a long life as they will be sealed and leakages can result in damage. The soil conditions of the lo-cality govern the materiality of the cisterns.

Structural capacityThe size of the cistern can vary from project to project. For a large project they could be under a parking lot or for a smaller one in a green space. Sites with higher ground water levels, buoyancy calculations should be done so that the tank is strapped down well.

Installation and handlingSofter materials like fibreglass need solid back fills and local soils may not be able to hold them in place. Back fills can increase the cost of the whole project how ever using a local suitable back fill can save costs.

Fig. 11 Showing over all working of water harvesting

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Fig. 13 Metal roof with snow guard Fig. 14 Showing a grill to keep the debris away

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10 Components of water harvesting

Fig. 12

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Fig. 18 Filter showing different layers for purification

Fig. 19 Gravity mesh to remove finer suspended particles

Fig. 20 Storage tanks above ground

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Fig. 16 PVC conduit pipe

Fig. 17 First flush diverter box

Fig. 15 Gutter with a gutter guard

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11 Water harvesting potential

Parameters identification of water harvesting

a) RainfallThere are various factors which need to be studied for the system like number of days in which the rain exceeds the thresh hold rainfall of catchment, Probability and occurrence for mean monthly rainfall and frequency distribution of storms and different specific intensities

b) Land use or vegetation coverVegetation plays an important role in retention and infiltration rates thus decreasing the volume of runoff.

c) Topography and terrain profileThe type of land form and gradient of slope play a pivotal role in determination of sustainability of the catchment area and over all system.

d) Soil type and depth The feasibility of a catchment area depends on mainly (1) surface structure which governs the surface runoff pro-cess, (2) Infiltration and percolation rate shows the water movement back into the water table and (3) soil depth determines the capacity of the soil to hold water.

e) Hydrology and water resourcesThe flow and storage of water depends on the runoff of the rainfall. The runoff of water depends on the type of catchment are which could be effective if there is direct runoff or ineffective if the water gets evaporated or pecu-lated. Calculating the amount of rainfall which produces runoff for that area is very important.

f) Socio economic and infrastructure conditionsFor planning, designing and implementation of any project it is very important that the inhabitants of the local area involved and find the system useful.

g) Environmental and ecological impacts The local area must be studied thoroughly before planning any system as water harvesting systems can interfere with existing natural environment for example can deprive runoff to catchment are which form a lake or change the quality and quantity of water in water bodies around.

Fig. 21 Showing how every house helps in a larger picture

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12 Cost analysis

Installing a water harvesting system in a new constructed building is generally lower as opposed to an existing build-ing. Many new of the shared costs can designed to optimise the system.On the whole maximising water capacity and minimising water usage through reuse is very important.With careful planning and designing cost of water harvesting system can be reduced .A good quality domestic system should cost between £2,000 and £3,000 according to the UK Rainwater Har- vesting Association. In addition, the cost of running the pump is likely to cost around 5 – 10p a week

13 Effectiveness of technologies.

Feasibility of water harvesting in certain locality depends on the amount and intensity of the rainfall ,catchment ar-eas and surface. It usually depends on the consumption of the user , as rainfall is irregular throughout the year the method of rainfall collection can supplement the consumption . Harvesting is viable after keeping in mind the quality and quantity of water available from other sources and con-sumption of the consumer.The decision maker has to keep in mind cost of the project and the economic benefit from the project.

14 Safety Considerations

Tank lids should never be left open and should be child proof. Heavy winds can blow the lids thus contaminating the water. The manhole cover should be fixed mechanically so that special mechanism is required to remove it.Gutter mesh systems should be put up so as to prevent leaves and debris to flow with the water and to prevent mos-quito breeding habitats.

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15 Water harvesting thumb-rules

Collection Calculations

Symbol Description Units Notes

V Volume of collection gal/time use this to help determine tank size

R Precipitation inches/time collect this data

A Footprint of collection surface square ft this is horizontal projected area of the collection surface

e Efficiency of collection surface unitless 0.75 soil, 0.8 average, 0.95 metal

K Conversion from cubic ft to gal 7.48 gal/cubic ft combine 1ft/12in in conversion for the precipitation data here

US Example

A 1900 square foot house with slanted shingle roof in Columbia, Missouri can collect a potential 2500 gallons in the month of March:

March total volume = 2500 gallons for the month

Pipe sizing calculations

Too small of pipes will restrict water from flowing through the system fast enough.Rule of thumb: 1cm2 of gutter cross section per 1m2 of roof area.Another method would be to use pipe sizing/friction tables to find an acceptable amount of friction.ExampleUsing rule of thumb: for a 23m2 the minimum pipe size is 23 cm2.

Converting to diameter from the equation of , yields:

Converting to inches, yields:

Therefore a pipe diameter of at least 2.13 inches should be used. The most common size that meets that require-ment is 2.5 inch.

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16 First Flush Calculations

Because of contamination on the roof the first volume of rain should be diverted from the storage tank. As a rule-of-thumb, contamination is halved for each mm of rainfall flushed away .Calculation: meters squared (roof area) X pollution factor = Litres to be diverted.orTime based rule-of-thumb: Divert the first 10 minutes of rain. Downpour rain per minute * 10 minutes = volume to divertorArea based rule-of-thumb: 0,41 litres for every meter squared of roof OR 10 gallons for ever 1,000 foot squared of roof

Fig. 22 Showing size of rainwater pipe for roof drainage

17 Conclusion

Parts of the UK is subjected to severe water stress as global warming disrupts weather patterns. Any sustainable water use strategy such as rainwater or grey water harvesting are solutions to these increasing water shortages and help lower the local demand for non potable water. To conclude, rainwater harvesting systems is likely to show growth in forthcoming years as it becomes more financially viable due to higher water costs from companies. However, the effectiveness of these systems would be dependent on site specific factors and its ability to meet end use preferences.

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18 Case study: The Florida House Learning Centre

Project Type: Single-family residential Location: Sarasota, Florida

The Florida House Learning Centre introduced both a traditional rainwater and grey water catchment system in response to local water concerns. The area typically gets over 1270mm of rain a year which is harvested to;

- maximises water usage- reduce their monthly water bills- reduce the storm runoff and associated pollution of waterway- postpone the need for costly stormwater infrastructure improvements

The house obtains only 10% of its water supply from the city due water-efficiency measures installed throughout the house. The average water per capita use in Florida has been reduced by almost 40% - from 530 litres to 333 litres per day since the Florida House opened.

Some of the other consideration includes:

- kitchen faucet with automatic water sensor- dual flush toilet using 3 litres for liquid flushes, 6 litres for solid flushes- clothes washing machine using cistern water- irrigation water collected in 2500-gallon cistern - passive solar 52 litres hot water heater- closed-loop hot water re circulating system to bring hot water on demand

All cistern overflow is directed into a pond to recharge back into the ground.

Fig. 23 Standard rain-water catchment system

at the Florida House

Fig. 24 Different water harvesting components of the Florida House.

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19 References

Shaffer, P., Elliott, C., Reed, J., Holmes,J. and Ward,B. (2004) Model agreements for sustainable water manage-ment systems :model agreements for rainwater and greywater use systems. London : CIRIA

Case study: Pushard, D. [2004] Action Learning at Florida House: A Rainwater Harvesting Case Study

Fig. 1 Available: http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/01173/TY09CAUVERY_1173165f.jpg

Fig. 2 Available: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/water_use/image/pie2.png

Fig. 8 Available: http://cabiblog.typepad.com/.a/6a00d834522f2b69e20133f58cfc28970b-pi

Fig. 9 Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328084622/http:/cdn.environment-agency.gov.uk/geho1110bten-e-e.pdf

Fig. 10 Available: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328084622/http:/cdn.environment-agency.gov.uk/geho1110bten-e-e.pdf

Fig. 13 Available: http://www.rainwaterconnection.com/rainwater-harvesting/8-rainwater-harvesting/7-rainwa-ter-harvesting-components

Fig. 14 Available: http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Urban/Components.htm




Fig. 19 Available: http://www.whollyh2o.org/rainwater-stormwater/item/56-typical-components-of-a-rainwater-har-vesting-system.html

Fig. 20 Available: http://www.whollyh2o.org/rainwater-stormwater/item/56-typical-components-of-a-rainwater-har-vesting-system.html

Fig. 21 Available: http://www.ntnu.no/eit/tio4855

Fig. 22 Available: http://www.appropedia.org/Basic_rainwater_collection_calculations

Fig. 23 Available: http://www.harvesth2o.com/floridahouse.shtml#.VGP3eWR_tQP

Fig. 24 Available: http://www.sturdyproducts.com/Images/online-shop/products/Rainwater%20Harvesting/Rain-water%20Harvesting%20System%20Gallery%20Image%201.jpg

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ARCH 3036 2014-2015 TECH 3

Project 1: Material/ system study Freeform surfaces+ the systems behind them

EMP Museum by Frank GehrySeattle, Washington

1999 - 2000

Taylor Tugeman Martynas Seskas

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Frank Owen Gehry opened a professional architecture studio in 1962. However 16years later, more or less all at once , he overthrew the canons of his daily professionalism for a new and bold experimenta-tion. In 1986 he began an intense research at a one man show - it launched him into international spot-light. He has the most desirable recognitions that an architect could seek. On both sides of the atlantic many of constructions have followed one another to which some of them commended as works that are symbols of contemporary architecture.

Continual experimentation with highly different materials are behind his projects, they play with interior and exterior, space and volumes, atmosphere and material, they are all conceived in a fluid, continuous movement. An underwater, free flowing liquid feeling emerges.

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Gehry starts a project by talking a lot to his client and by drawing. He then moves into models, drawing and models are a way of thinking out loud. This step is crucial for Gehry, it relates the drawing to the 'logic' of construction. His use of the model follows a direct response to work with the client. Models are much easier to understand for those who are not trained to read drawings. His models often have the look of being thrown together or casually made. The models are built, rebuilt, torn apart and modified, often requiring a more elegant one to be made for formal presentation to clients.

Despite the important role that comput-ers play in Gehrys process, the early stages consist of playing with very neu-tral blocks for a long time until the scale is right. As his projects have became larger and more complex, the impor-tance of block models have increased. In the early stage of his process, plans and sections are drawn in autocad that correspond to the block models. These plans allow functional refinements as well as preliminary budget to be gener-ated. The block models are augment-ed by maps, photographs and surveys that allow for the site to be reconstitut-ed in the office. The numerous models are carefully documented with photo-graphs, this allows the various models to be recaptured when the design goes too far.

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Once the final design model is complete it is translated through digitalization into a digital model. The digitizer produces curves and lines corresponding to points on the model. At the heart of the process is the correspondence between a virtual point in the computer and a physical point. Generally the first stage involves drawing waterlines on the model at equal intervals as if the model is being translated into a topography model. Lines are then traced with the digitizer.Locating the extreme boundary points of the model is an-other method that is followed by the tracing of the edges of major curves. If a surface can be flattened to form a plane without compressing or stretching, the lines can be traced. The tracing of a grid superimposed on the model is a third method. The intersection points of the grid are then digi-tized. Ruling lines and edges describe features, and grids and waterlines describe the flow or curve direction. The physical model is translated into a digital model by digitiz-ing both feature and flow.Once the points, which generally describe curves, are es-tablished in the digital model, a surface is created that at-tempts to coincide with the points.Three models are usually produced. A surface model that describes the exterior surface, a Wire frame geometry model that describes the structural grid and organisation, and an interior surface model. To study the patterning of the skin the surface model will be developed. The CATIA master model basis is formed from the wire frame geome-try model, this then becomes 'the single source of informa-tion' for the project. A specific means of rationalization involves the use of modified Gaussian Analysis. The process evaluates the degree of compound curvature of building components, particularly surface panels and skins, using a set of math-ematical functions. The degree of curvature, coupled with a particular materials behavioural properties, can be repre-sented in a three dimensional digital model, allowing prob-lem areas to be identified.

Digitizing a model from the EMP project into CAT-IA with FARO digitizer

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Gaussian analysis in CATIA for the EMP project, red indicates a problem area

If the analysis shows that the curvature is within the materials limits, buts still highly ‘shaped’ - a more expensive condition - a determina-tion can be made as to the necessary action. The process of Gauss-ian analysis, which began with the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, was used extensively in the EMP project resulting in a construction contract that stipulated the maximum area of highly shaped areas.

Used in the EMP project to study efficient and aesthetic ways for laying out the aluminium shingles, spatial grammars have the capacity to use the information of the digital model in a way that extends the number of variations that the designer may evaluate.Top: Shape Grammar algorithm panel variations. Middle: front and rear elevations.

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Structure and skin development in CATIA for the EMP project

The digital model helped address several important coordination issues. Using the CATIA model, 'Hiking trails' required by code for roof access, were designed, and developed with the curving landscape-like forms of the building. Furthermore, the panels are not intended to act as waterproofing-the waterproof-ing is applied to the building’s concrete shell, which lies beneath the skin-but only as a rain screen. Threaded between the skin and the spray concrete shell of the building, the digital model allowed the elements to be coordinated with a high degree of precision. The process is continuous through the digital model, computer aided manufacturing allows the continu-ity to extend from design through construction.

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CNC guided plasma cutters were used to cut the flanges of the curving structural steel members, to which many were over forty feet long. The flanges and an automated trolley were bent using computer rolling machine along the flange, welded the assembly together. Not only are no two of the buildings 239 ribs alike, there no two feet alike. Accurate placement and alignment of the ribs was a difficult task because typical destinations such as wall, roof, beam, and column are blurred. It was accomplished by using laser positioning and surveying equipment.In addition to the manufacture of the structural member in the EMP project, CATIA information was used to produce a developed template of each of the 21,000 stainless steel and aluminium skin shingles, which were assembled into 4,800 prefabricated panels.The curving steel structure of the EMP is punctuated with hundreds of pedestals that resolve the differ-ence in geometry between the structure and the skin. These pedestals vary in length from several inch-es to eight feet. Splines, which support the roof panels, are attached to the pedestals using a pivoting ball and socket joint reminiscent of the uni-strut connector used in the Bilbao Guggenheim. These con-nectors became known as the 'rock-n-roll joint'. The 2,700 rock-n-roll joints allowed for the fine-tuning of the skin to the structure assembly.

CATIA model panel development, CNC plasma cutting of beam flanges

Pre-fabricated skin panels

Pedestals, Rock-n-roll joint

Skin and structure

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250mb of computer memory was required to define the characteristics of a single panel by the con-tractor Zahner Sheet Metal Company. Zahner used a process called ZEPPS, this stands for Zahner Engineered Profiled Panel Systems. The outcome of this process is a façade with a smooth profile, each panel aligns with the next to leave a total smooth form. Using the ZEPPS Process allowed for complex forms and minimal waste production of both material and human resources. Computer-guided machin-ery reduces human error and increases efficiency. Waste is carefully sorted and recycled. The pictures above show both the blueprint and the final form for creating a dual-curved twisting form.

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CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) information was used to produce a developed template of each of the 21,000 stainless steel and aluminium skin shingles, which were as-sembled into 4,800 prefabricated panels. By reducing the curves to large panelised sections it allowed the building to be pre-engineered and fabricated ready for delivery too site and rapid installation. The metal panels are both decorative and structural, although they are not load-bearing-the head extrusions are bolted to metal hangers and clipped to the pipe girts. A tongue that runs along the bottom of each sill extrusion fits into a slot in the top of each head extrusion. This arrangement keeps the panels from moving in windy conditions, while allowing for thermal expansion and contraction.

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The surface used includes Angel Hair stainless steel, Red interference Coated stainless steel and Fluorocarbon-coated Aluminium. Angel Hair is an innovation that scatters light particles and pre-vents glaring hot spots, the results of this are muted reflections, ambient colours and a soft gloss. This material is sustainable when properly installed, maintaining the same appearance after decades of weathering. The material is easily cleaned with water when natural pollutants and dirt begin to appear on its finish.

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Typical ZEPPS® Assemblies are fabricated and assembled at the Zahner Plant. An Export ZEPPS® Assembly consists of fabricated parts that are crated and shipped to the site. They are then assembled on-site by local workers.

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Experience Music Project, First Generation ZEPPs™ Assembly, CAD.

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Source

Digital Gehry, Bruce Lindsey (Birkhauser; 1 edition (January 1, 2002)

http://www.azahner.com/sys_zepps.cfm. Accessed on 2014.10.18.

http://www.azahner.com/surfaces_angelhair.cfm. Accessed on 2014.10.18.

https://images.google.com/

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Frank Gehry: 8 price street, New York

Michael Safo- p12216031Shreen Shakoori- p11244318

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The New York by Gehry skyscraper on Beekman St. in Manhattan is the tallest residential building in the Western Hemisphere at 870 feet high

It is the tallest residential building in the Western hemisphere at 870 feet high

Building Amenities:

Children's playroomConciergeDoormanElevatorGymLive-in SuperSwimming PoolCommunity Recreation Facilities

Generative Sketch.

His sketches showing the primary thought toward the design, giving the scuplture structure .

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An Extraordinary Architectural Vision

Permasteelisa was able to work with the developer, Forest City Ratner Co. and archi-tect, Gehry Partners, at an early stage to implement their façade design.

Bridging the Gap between conception and execution….

The New York by Frank Gehry was orig-inally known as Beekman Tower and is a 76-story skyscraper, which is located on 8 Spruce Street. It is a few blocks from ground zero and close to other historic structures such as the City of Manhattan. The conceptual design of the building began in late 2003 and between 2004 and 2005, the architects had explored and studied 50 different schemes using scale models.

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A coordinated Extierior Surface modal.

A 3D surface model was created by Gehry Partners as a working

document for designing the façade.

To control the costs of manufacturing, Permasteelisa and Gehry Partners evaluated the characteristics of these virtual sculpted surfaces

A set of rules were agreed upon to most efficiently fabricate the façade:

Developable Surfaces are more economical to produce than arbitrary, free-form geometry

Cold Forming panels is the most cost effective fabrication method for making curved metal panels

Mechanically Forming/Rolling panels were to be confined to specific rules of fabrication

A Developable Surface or Ruled Surface is one which maps perfectly to a flat plane without distortion. In other words, a developable surface can be

“un-rolled” to a flat sheet.

What Are Developable Surfaces?

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Glazing Surface Segmentation

Floor to Floor non- panel transition

Vertically planar condition: Dark Blue : Standared non- planer condition

Light Green:Bay windows condition

Surface were named toward the coordinated codification Scheme which gave inforomation and further details about each unitized panels. this naming was used as a foundation by PNA (orgernation of engi-neering.

The conclusion is a .unique location .coloumn/spandrel unit..operable vents. louvers.building location

Curtain wall panel are driven parametricallyfrom geometry taken from there modals.

The Data is connected to the original wireframe .

Using automatted process a simple surface modal with emmbedded infomration was used to produce 3d produc-tion information.

Structural engineers WSP Cantor Seinuk, New York construction management stlwarts Kreisler Borg Florman (KBF) and curtain wall fabricator Permasteelisa North America, all played crucial roles in the design assist phase. The tower was designed using “Digital Project” software developed by Gehry Technologies. This software allowed cost and fabrication information to be automat-ically shaped for every design repetition which allowed the design team to improve the design quality. The project’s exterior wall was fully documented in 3D. The curtain wall geometries were categorised into three types of geometries: standard flat panels, moderately shaped panels, and highly shaped panels. The drawings were cre-ated automatically from the digital model and connected directly to the fabricator’s machinery. Because of this coordination from design to fabrication, there were no change form the contractor on the curtain wall.

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Stainless Steel Framing -- Trimmed “ finished face” panel which shows and gives geometry. within its typical joint size, termination at vertical transitions (bay window, curbs, parapets)panel was created by radious of curvature which was limtted to a minimum geometry to avoid mechnical deformation. panels with small curvature were to be cylindrically shaped with constant knife edge. all panels were to be developable- curved in only one

directions.

Cylnidrical Panels with Consistant curvature.

Glazeing surface segment

Finish face of stainless steep panel in grey with circle.

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window washing track location the track was located using a polyline in the surface modal lo-cated toward the extrusion on the facade. a maxi-mum track segment was cordinated in advance.a maximum and minmum distance from the finsh stainless steel was coordinated

Devlopable surface

Frequent collaborataion between Gehry Partners and Permasteelisa was key to the curtain wall design, as Permasteelsia were involved during the design stage of the project, they were able to define parameters for the surface curvature and Frank Gehry adjusted their models accordingly. They would review the models, make notations where the surface wouldn’t fit within their design parameters, and then Gehry would further adjust their models accordingly. In late 2005, the design was finalised into stainless steel facade with windows. The building has a reinforced concrete structural frame, stainless steel panel sub frames that are attached to the curtain wall unit.

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Typical BIM procedure BIM models usuall provides a thought after the accuracy is not 100 % and it will be to late for this programme to be use.. Steel and Concrete are not useful modal for this format of the programme . . Usually a collision is collected by the Bim software but they had to see the struture of the curtain walls. . The the 3d modal provide too much details and is to big for it tto be transfere onto the BIM Software.

Gap in the building envelope geometry

Exsiting Bim Modal can be cumbersome when the build-ing envlope does not close or if the proper modulation is not in use.

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The typical BIM Structure

The Details shows more function for the building to connect within it window and how it fit.

Production EngineeringUsing Automatted process, PNA was able to utilized a simple surfaces modals with embedded information to produced produc-tion infomation.

Unitized Curtainwalls the Unitized Curtainwalls was design to be installed and perform similary to PNA typical Unitized system..millions profile were design for vary range of panel segmentation and were located using a automatted software. .Moadal are linked to the wireframe.Curtainwall panel are driven paramaetrically

Unitized Curtainwall/ air/water Barrier

Million profile for Varrying Unit-to- Unit segmentation

Frequent collaborataion between Gehry Partners and Permasteelisa was key to the cur-tain wall design, as Permasteelsia were involved during the design stage of the project, they were able to define parameters for the surface curvature and Frank Gehry adjusted their models accordingly. They would review the models, make notations where the surface wouldn’t fit within their design parameters, and then Gehry would further adjust their models accordingly. In late 2005, the design was finalised into stainless steel facade with windows. The building has a reinforced concrete structural frame, stainless steel panel sub frames that are attached to the curtain wall unit.

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Panel Sub-Structure parametically Driven From Gp Surfaces. The Aluminum sub-structure was precisicely manufactured to match the Design surfaceusing internal structre engineering caculation, the sub structure was stiffned and fastneners were added using paramatic rules.efficency was obtained with re-usuability of parametic modals for geometricalley - similar conditions.

Panels are precisely man-ufactured to conform to surface modals. it consist of 3 diffrent parts the curtain wall,expansion joint stainless steel joints.

Internal parametic- rules located stiffneners and fastners

Concrete Slab Design

With the interior glazing surface defined, the Gehry Partners architects were able to design the concrete sub-structure using

3D models which could be used for façade coordination and verification.

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Design of the Façade Air/Water Barrier

A typical air-and-water barrier is placed behind the stainless-steel panels, which is used as the buildings rain screen, these sheets were riveted to aluminium rain screen sub-frames, then attached to flat unitized curtain wall panels. Rain screen panels can curve out as much as 6 feet or as little as 6 inches. The stainless steel shapes made up the rain screen were fabricated according to their curve. Soft curves were cold formed and moderate curves were passed through a pyram-idal roller and then cold formed, leaving the tightest curve to be formed cyclonic rollers. The curtain wall connections were generally conventional. In case the tight curve section meeting along the curtain wall, caps were used to overcome these. The Stainless-steel panels were fabricated and assembled at a 3rd party site, since they weren’t a typical curtain wall assembly.

The vertical mullions were designed as families that allowed the archi-tect to design the interior glazing surface utilizing arbitrary segmen-tation and bay windows

The Beekman Tower design consisted of curved metal panel rainscreen elements along with the main air/water barrier skeleton system.

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Cold Forming vs. Mechanical Rolling

The panels were formed using two different methods: Cold Forming and Mechanically RollingCold Forming a panel relied on the elastic flexibility of the material to allow it to take a desired shape and fasteners and sealant to hold it into place

Mechanically Rolling/Forming a panel uses machines to yield the material into a desired shape.

Cold Forming: Paperclip in normal use Mechanically Forming: Bent PaperclipThe size of the stainless-steel sheets, the size of the machines, transportation to the site, water proofing, tolerances of the con-crete structure, and lifting the panels to the higher level of the building was taken into consideration. The wind loads, the rolling method to bend the non-uniform curvature of the panels, and the dead load force of the panel itself were also significant design considerations. The average size of a panel usually ranged from 20in to 80in wide. The depth was between 6in (flat panel) to around 60in. The panels were shipped to Permasteelisa’s factory and shop-installed on the curtain wall units. Unit were grouped anywhere from 1 to 3 per crate.

Cold Formed Surfaces

The stainless steel sheet metal has a certain degree of flexibility that allows for mechanical fixings to adequately retain a sheet to the desired curvature. Cold Forming allowed for an inexpensive fabrication process as there was no need for labor-intensive forming operations.

For sheet metal panels having a large curvature, the sheet metal needed to be worked in the factory by skilled technicians to obtain the desired shape.

This work was only necessary for curvatures as defined by the fabrication facility and the material properties of the stainless steel.

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The breakdown of the design Design is based on the typical PNA unitized system multiple million pairs to accomidate angular range.

Transation stack joint used to change vertical planes as a regular floor plan.

- Stainless Steel Panel and Baffle Box Sub-assembly–Engineered, fabricated and assembled as a separate process–Attached to unitized curtainwall after units assembled

Surface defining enclosure .

Efficency was obtained with re-usability of paramaetic modals for geomet-ricalley similar condition

3D surfaces are flattened and edge features and manufacturing information was added

More than 10,911 rectangular panels were manufactured but only 1,888 are exactly alike. All panels have interlocking male-fe-male mullions and a mating horizontal stack. 3,746 panels for the cladding of the columns of which 1570 are curved and 2178 were flat and 5177 opaque panels. All glasses are flat, despite the undulated façade cladding which makes the observer think that the glazed surfaces are curved as well.

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Some strategies were put in place in the design to reduce energy intake in the tower. All modules of the exterior curtain wall assembly are thermally broken and high-performance insulated glass was used at all glazed openings, minimizing heat loss through the exterior wall system. Light reflecting pavers were used on all roofs to minimise the amount of heat gain to the building and create a thermally protected roof slab. Radiant floor heating is provided in the public spaces to minimize the excessive loading on the mechanical systems and high efficient linear fluorescent light fixture are used through the residential corridors.

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Plan

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Technical plan

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Technical Section

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Transportation

The crating and transportation of the panels posed a unique challenge due to their shape and size.

Site Location

Due to the location of the job-site and lack of on-site storage, all deliveries had to be

carefully coordinated by the project management team.

Installation – 3D Layout

The 3D models created for fabrication allowed the installation team to precisely locate anchoring systems to

the concrete sub-structure.

The 3D models created for fabrica-tion allowed the installation team to precisely locate anchoring systems to the concrete sub-structure as well as verify the installed location of any

panel using a surveying total station.

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Installation

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.76 hight storey . placed in new york. designy by Frank Gehry . an brilliant variety of residences with sight of New York City’s downtown and midtown skylines, rivers, bridges and land-marks. asymmetrical bay windows. sculptural qualities.organic shape of the exterior. reflecting on the spectacular viewwindow has been fitted with solar shadesbrushed stainless steel entry door.

Gehry’s design a spreads which past the ex-terior of the structure and into the centres themselves. Floor plans revenue benefit of the animate shape of the exterior, and, as an outcome, niches have been shaped that offer the prospect for reading, dining, or just reflecting on the outstanding sight. Every window has been fitted with solar shades that filter light and offer privacy without obscuring views.

Interior appearances and fittings have all been designed and selected by Gehry, be-ginning with brushed stainless steel entry door hardware considered by Gehry, in-spired by the organic forms found in wildlife. Custom cabinetry in kitchens and baths is fabricated with vertical grain Douglas Fir, a material whose fine grain and amber color-ing combine to create an effect that is both polished and warm. Tones of light and charcoal gray in brushed stainless steel appliances, chrome fixtures, porcelain tile flooring, and quartz countertops complement this warmth. All elements of the interiors combine to create an aesthetic that is comfortable, light and modern.

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The bathrooms in the top floor apartments come with heated flooring and limestone walls

High-end: The kitchens in the penthouse are equipped with Miele cooktops and double ovens and marble flooring

Panoramic views: The penthouse apartments offer 360 degree views of the Woolworth Building and the Statue of Liberty

Skyline: The company renting out the building pointed out that

helicopters fly lower than the windows

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Completed Project

The design-assist collaboration allowed the project to be built at cost and 3D capabilities ensured

high quality production engineering and installation.

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History

The brick is one of the oldest building material used by man, it is known to have been used as early as 7000BC in southern Turkey

and Jericho, this backed up by biblical accounts and ancient records amongst which is a popular story of the city of Jericho fortified by a

brick wall

Bricks can also be defined as a standard unit of block which is easily handled by one man. The Egyptians created bricks with a 4:2;1 size ratio which allow them to be more easily laid. The brick can have a

range of different compounds often varying from country to country, where the clay found in ancient Egypt may have a different mineral

compound to the clay found in ancient Turkey.

The Brick - Material / Manufacture / Applications

Overview

The term brick refers to a unit of building material often made from fired clay.

Brick is has long been a preferred building material because of its heat retention, ability to withstand corrosion, and resistance to fire, with its low maintenance it last a very long time.

The brick is an inherently ideal material for the constriction of standard structures as well as curved designs due to it being only 4 inches wide and twice as long.

Bricks can be used for all types of building and can be used structural and/or decoratively. In Britain brick has a common size of 215x65x102.5

With the uses of metals for structural elements being used more often bricks are slowly becoming used for cladding. However bricks do have a potential to be load bearing and therefore can allow for an array of application from homes to towers to bridges.

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max 7.5m

Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)What is Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)?

The CLT is a wood building system that complements traditional timber framing construction methods. It consists of sequences of panels made out of lumber, each panel layer positioned crosswise to the other and glued together. It can be a sequence of 3 to 7 layers that form one strong panel. This method provides strength and dimensional stability, making the material apt to assume structural functions, consisting wall, floor and ceiling elements.

The sizes can vary according to the manufacturer and transports restrictions, but the panels can be made with customized dimensions. Usually the sizes alter between 4 to 10 feet (1.20 to 3 meters) in width and 16 to 60 feet (4.90 to 18 meters) in length. The thickness is usually between 2 to 12 inches (50.8 to 304.8 millimetres), but can get up to 20 inches (508 millimetres).

Example of the lumbers arrangement to compose the panel layers. Scheme from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

Example of panels sections. Scheme from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

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Key links consulted:http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/cross-laminated-timber-design/http://www.klhuk.com/http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminated-timber-clthttp://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/cross-laminated-timber-clt

connections > P3

spans > P3

insulation > P4

fire resistanceand seismic performance > P3

transportand building > P2

Association with other materialsto achieve better performance

What is there to know about Cross Laminated Timber (CLT):

- What is Cross Laminated Timber? - - - - - - - -

- Who are the main manufacturers? - - - - - - -

- How is the manufacturing process? - - - - - -

- How is it transported? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- How does the building process works? - - - -

- What are the main characteristics? - - - - - -

- What are the main advantages? - - - - - - - -

- What are the main disadvantages? - - - - - -

- How much does it costs? - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- Which buildings used this system? - - - - - - - -

- Consulted reference - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

P1

P2

P2

P2

P2

P3

P4

P4

P4

P5

P6

INSULATION

VENTILATED ANDDRAINED CAVITY CLT PANEL

CHARRED LAYER

HEATEDWOOD

STRUCTURALLYSOUND CORE

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Main ManufacturersThe main manufacturers of CLT in Europe are in Austria, Germany and Sweden. The most significant ones are the KLH (Austria, UK and Sweded) and the Binderholz (Austria).The KLH has a unity in the UK that supplies and ship the CLT panels to the projects in the UK, but the manufacturing factory is located in Austria. The same happens with B & K Structures, another CLT provider in the UK, that have a partnership with the Austrian Binderholz.

FPInnovations, 2010.Cross Laminated Timber: a Primer.



The transport can be done by open trucks, the wall elements are arranged on the truck and then covered by a tarpaulin. In the same way, the floor elements are stacked and covered. A forklift or a small crane is used for unload.

Transport


- What is Cross Laminated Timber?

- Who are the main manufacturers?

- How is the manufacturing process?

- How is it transported?

- How does the building process works?

- What are the main characteristics?

- What are the main advantages?

- What are the main disadvantages?

- How much does it costs?

- Which buildings used this system?

- Consulted reference

http://www.klhuk.com/ http://www.bkstructures.co.uk/

Manufacturing

1. The first step consists in kiln drying the timber boards until reaching the humidity of 12% (±2%).

4. The boards are organized lengthwise in a pressure hack to form the layers. Then, glue is applied over the boards and the second layer is arranged crosswise over the previous one and so on.

2. The second step is the visual or machine strength grading to determine the strength of timber and assign the board its proper Strength Class. The boards with lower strength and the ones with a bad appearance are discarded if necessary.

3. The boards are joined through finger joints to reach the desired length. Then, they go through planing or sanding until reaching the designated thickness.

5. To apply the necessary bonding pressure for the attachment a hydraulic or vacuum process is used.

6. With the panels finished, the necessary openings and other cuts are made with CNC routers and also the installation of insulation can be carried out.

BuildingAn assembly plan must be followed so the panels can be delivered in the correct order and place to follow with the building process. The elements are numbered according to this plan and then sent to be delivered.

The structure can be built with a small crew and the assistance of mobile cranes and light power tools, no tower cranes are needed. The panels are lifted using inserted hooks. For the first pieces to be placed a concrete base must be built on site previous to the delivery of the CLT panels, the walls are placed on top of this base and then fixed, in some cases they can only be fixed after the installation of the ceiling. The connections between the different panels and timber elements of the building are extremely important to the durability and resistance of the whole system.The building can be conduced by vertically integrated companies working on manufacturing, building and supervising, which is the most common case in Europe, or by different and separated companies, in this case the manufacturer just deliver the panels at the construction site.

Schemes from Studiengemeinschaft Holzleimbau e.V.Building with cross laminated timber

http://www.gebco.pl/media/user_files/ETAPY%20BUDOWY/DSCN04788.JPG

SUTTON, Andy and BLACK, Daniel (BRE) / WALKER, Pete (Bath). BRE, 2011.107

ConnectionsAs mentioned before, the connections are a very important part of the building wit CLT system to provide strength, stiffness, stability and ductility and also to guarantee the integrity of the wood elements. Therefore, they must be very carefully designed and executed in site. The most common types of connections on CLT systems are: wall to foundation; wall to wall (straight); wall to wall (junction); floor to floor; wall to roof; . Panel to panel connections are made using splines of engineered wood products. For the connections between wall to floor or roof or wall-to-wall intersections, metal metal brackets, hold-downs and plates are used to transfer the forces.Other types of connections can be used, such as mechanical and carpentry systems, but some of them are still being developed for better performance. An example of innovative connection system is glued-in rods which showed good potential for CLT connections.

Exemple of connections

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Panel-to-panel

wall-to-floor

Wall-to-wall












- Consulted referenceExample of folded CLT panels to increase the span without beams or columns. Credit: Courtesy Saucier + Perrotte Architectes / Hughes Condon Marler Architects _ http://www.architectmagazine.com

Brief HistoryAs mentioned before, the CLT system complements the traditional light frame and heavy frame timber building systems. Its development is considerably recent, the system was first introduced in Germany and Austria in the beginning of the 1990s. Since then the technology involved on the manufacturing process has been developed and the CLT has been progressively more used in Europe specially since the beginning of the 2000s. Its more popular use is in residential buildings, but the option for the CLT system has also grown in popularity concerning other types of buildings such as schools.

Besides the strength and dimensional stability, the CLT panels are prefabricated elements which speed up the construction process and provide great accuracy. The panels can get to the site with windows, doors, ducts and other necessary openings described on the project already cut. Also, in some cases, off-site construction can be considered.The system using CLT panels allows spans up to 7.5 meters without beams or columns, but by using folded panels the span can be increased up to 20 meters. Other methods can be used if longer spans are needed, for example the use of cassette floors or the combination of CLT panels plus a layer of reinforced concrete.

Fire resistanceSystems built with CLT panels are very resistant to the fire. When burnt the wood char on the outside at a slow and predictable rate, this characteristic is amplified by the kind of adhesive used to assemble the layers together. The charred layer form a protection to the wood below it preserving its resistance and allowing time for the occupants to evacuate the building.

Seismic performanceAs usual in wood building systems, lighter and more ductile than others, the CLT system also showed great efficiency under seismic activity. The seismic performance proved to be very satisfactory surviving several earthquake resistance tests with a 7 storeys model in the worlds biggest shake table in Japan with minimum damage.

Shaking table test. Photo courtesy of IVALSA.http://continuingeducation.construction.com/article_print.php?L=312&C=1138

CHARRED LAYER

HEATEDWOOD

STRUCTURALLYSOUND CORE

FOUNTAIN, Henry. Wood that reaches new heights. The New York Times. Tuesday, June 5, 2012.

Single internal spline

Concealed metal brackets

Schemes from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

Self tapping screws from the exterior

Metal bracket

Wood profile

Half lapped joints

Types of buildingsInitially the CLT was used only on low storeys residential buildings, but in the last few years due to improvements on the materials resistance the CLT panels has increasingly been used in higher and larger buildings such as schools and other urban buildings. Being a prefabricated wood system and given its great resistance, the CLT panels can be used in large range of building types and it can also be combined to other building systems such as reinforced concrete as in the building of Earth Sciences of University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

Environmental benefitsLife Cycle Assessment studies attest that wood materials are better for the environment compared to others such as concrete and steel when considering embodied energy, air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore the option for the CLT systems became more popular since it corroborates to the green building practices, decreasing the carbon footprints of the buildings when compared to traditional systems. Other aspects of CLT that collaborate with green building practices are: the fact that it is made out of renewable materials; the possibility for the manufacturers to get a certification for sustainable forestry management; the fact that CLT is a system based on panels and hence show potential for disassembly and reuse; the considerable thermal mass of the panels, which contributes for a better energy performance; being a prefabricated product, the use of CLT minimises waste at manufacturing and at the construction site.

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Main Advantages- CLT systems can be very resistant and therefore can work as structural elements.- It is a prefabricated product which allows much more accuracy to the elements produced and also makes the building process much faster.- As a wooden system it has very good fire resistance because it burns in a slow and predictable rate, creating a layer of char that protects and insulate the wood underneath it maintaining its structural resistance allowing plenty of time for the occupants to leave the building.- The material showed excellent seismic performance when tested on a seven storey building on the world's largest shake table in Japan.- Also, CLT panels are made from renewable and sustainable resource, which is wood, and have small carbon footprint considering that the panels keep storing the carbon absorbed by the trees wile growing.

Main Disadvantages- Although the material has some insulating capacity, it usually requires an additional insulating layer (which can be added externally or internally), a venting cavity and protection against the rain.- Not Ideal for very high buildings, though the height of buildings based on CLT system is constantly increasing. - It is necessary to have the completed designs before the start of the construction, because everything is prefabricated.- The CLT system must be used above damp-proof level or equivalent.- Being an engineered material, it has relatively high costs, and therefore in some cases it might not be profitable.

Insulation

The CLT panels are considered to have average thermal resistance, R-value around R-1.25 per inch (conductivity around � = 0.13W/[m·K]). Though, for a better thermal performance is recommended the use of external insulation. Another measure important to guarantee thermal comfort and energy efficiency is to take measures to bar the unwanted air flow from entering through the enclosure.

The uncontrolled air flow inside the building will cause unwanted loss or gain of heat, therefore provoking a decline in quality of the buildings energy and thermal comfort performances. Also it can bring unwanted moisture accumulation which might cause the decay of the building and the growth of mould, being prejudicial to the building and the occupants health. In order to protect the building from air leakage is necessary a continuous air barrier system made up of overlapping and sealed materials. It is also necessary to be very careful with the sealing of the joints, for example wall to wall, wall to floor and wall to roof joints.

Concerning the additional thermal insulation, the additional layer can be placed internally or externally to the panels. It is mostly recommended that the insulation be placed on the exterior. A few reasons can be pointed out for this: 1. It allows for the insulation to be continuous around all the enclosure, if it was placed internally it might cause some interruptions creating unwanted thermal bridges; 2. The exterior insulation protects the CLT panels from the extreme temperatures and therefore minimise the movement of expansion and contraction inside the panels; 3. It amplifies the benefits of the thermal mass of CLT panels; 4. It can affect the moisture levels increasing the durability of the panels – for cold weather environments the exterior insulation keeps the wood panels close to the warmer inside ambient keeping its warmth; for hot humid weather environments it keeps the CLT panels close to the dryer inside ambient.

Examples of how this additional insulation layer is placed on the panels combined to other weather protections can be found on the images below:

INSULATION

VENTILATED ANDDRAINED CAVITY CLT PANEL

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mineral/clay/plaster lining board60mm service zone, insulated60 x 60mm counter battens

90mm crosslam timber panel

timber cladding

200mm wood fibre insulation board

22mm impregnated wood fibre insulation board

mineral/clay/plaster lining board60mm service zone, insulatedcounter battens90mm crosslam timber panel

timber studs

fixing battensbreather membrane

timber cladding

200mm renewable insulation between studs

mineral/clay/plaster lining board60mm service zone, insulated60 x 60mm counter battens

90mm crosslam timber paneltimber studs

60mm render compatible wood fibre insulation

lime render

160mm renewable insulation between studs

circa 94mm crosslam timber panel

timber I-beams

fixing battens

breather membrane

timber cladding

330 renewable insulation between I-beams

Example from FPInnovations, 2013. CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber.

Example from http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-external-walls/

CostsStudies presented on a FPInnovations publication of 2010 attests that the CLT system can be competitive when compared to certain concrete, masonry and steel building types, saving up to 25% in shell unity costs (walls, floors and partitions). Also, on larger buildings the off-site manufacture and the increase on the construction speed can reduce the relative cost of the material. For buildings much higher than 7-8 storeys the use of CLT is usually not economically viable.

Future possibilities for CLTThe CLT system has the potential to be increasingly more used as the technology involved in its manufacturing process and building system can still be improved. Today, the costs can be considered elevated, though in most cases it can be compensated by the improvement on the speed and accuracy of the building process. The system allows very precise design specifications because it is a prefabricated product, and also, the prefabricated elements are easy to transport and lift.Besides that, one very attractive characteristic of CTL for contemporary architecture and building is its environmental performance. CLT is a wood based system and therefore has a much less environmental impact when compared to systems such as concrete and steel and hence can be a more suitable option for those interested in green building practices.As possible improvements for CLT in the future these are some to be pointed out: efforts on cheapen the manufacturing process; development of new types of connection systems; to improve the relation between the CLT panels and the insulation layer; possible associations between CLT and other building systems.

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The Graphite Apartments, London, UK

The Graphite Apartments is a nine storey building in London. It is among the tallest buildings of structural timber in the world and is the tallest of its kind in the UK. The tower was built in 2009 and used panels up to 150mm thick and 9 meters long manufactured in Austria. Even the staircases and elevator shafts are made with cross laminated panels.

http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx

http://www.stantec.com/our-work/projects/canada-projects/u/university-of-british-columbias-earth-science-building.html#.VGbIJPmsVV1

http://www.vancitybuzz.com/2013/02/ubc-campus-in-process-of-complete-transformation/

http://www.eqcanada.com/projects/earth-science-building-esb-at-university-of-british-columbia/

http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx http://www.klhuk.com/portfolio/residential/stadthaus,-murray-grove.aspx

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UBC University of British Columbia's Earth Sciences Building, Vancouver, Canada

An example of the use of CLT and other engineered timber systems on a huge structure and very demanding institutional building.

The Earth Sciences building of University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, has an area of 158,000 ft2 big and is five storeys high. It is composed by a laboratory wing made of reinforced concrete, a lecture hall wing and connecting atrium space built with engineered timber as the main structural system.

The CLT and other engineered timber systems are combined with concrete on the floors allowing longer spans and with steel on connections, transfer trusses over the lecture theatres and chevron braces. Additional insulation layers are also used associated with the wooden panels.

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Consulted references:

Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/cross-laminated-timber-clt

Cross Laminated Timber (CLT). Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminated-timber-clt

Facts about CLT. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.storaenso.com/rethink/facts-about-clt

Mass timber and fire performance. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.rethinkwood.com/masstimber/mass-timber-and-fire-performance

What is cross laminated timber? Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.awc.org/helpoutreach/faq/faqFiles/cross_laminated_timber.php

Crosslam timber - Performance characteristics. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-timber-performance-characteristics/

Crosslam timber - External wall cladding examples. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-external-walls/

MILLER, Gordon. Cross-laminated timber: the sky's the limit. The Guardian. Friday, 13 January, 2012. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/cross-laminated-timber-built-environment

CLT handbook: croos-laminated timber. Edited by Erol Karacabeyli, Brad Douglas. -- U.S. ed. FPInnovations, 2013. Downloaded from the website www.masstimber.com

Cross Laminated Timber: a Primer. Edited by Pablo Crespell & Sylvain Gagnon. FPInnovations, 2010.

Building with cross laminated timber: Load-bearing solid wood components for walls, ceilings and roofs. Studiengemeinschaft Holzleimbau e.V.

SUTTON, Andy and BLACK, Daniel (BRE) / WALKER, Pete (Bath). Cross-laminated timber: An introduction to low-impact building materials. BRE, 2011.

Examples

A Mass Timber Case Study: The Earth Systems Science Building, UBC. Video. Consulted on October, 2014. Available online at:

http://www.naturallywood.com/emerging-trends/cross-laminated-timber-clt

FOUNTAIN, Henry. Wood that reaches new heights. The New York Times. Tuesday, June 5, 2012. Consulted on October, 2014. Downloaded from the website: http://www.waughthistleton.com/press/05june2012nyt.pdf

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Daylight and Solar Gain

BA3- ARCH3036 Technology 3

TECHNOLOGY Project 1- Material/Systems Study ‘LOW ENERGY TYPOLOGIES’

Name: Kalliopi Hartoutsiou , Michele Amorim

Pnumber: P12199534 P14154052

Date: 18th November 2014

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Content: Page

1. Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………...2 2. Daylight and Solar Gain………..………………………................................................3 3. Site Consideration and early design stages………………………….............................4

3.1 Different climates and weathers………………………………………….....................4 3.2 Solar gain ………………………………………………………………………….………...4 3.3 Passive design tools and simulation software ………………………...................5-6

4. Design strategies……………………………………………………………………………….….7 4.1 Building Form ………………………………………………………………………………...7 4.2 Shading…………………………………………………………………………….…….…....9

4.2.1 Overhangs……………………………………………………….….……………...9 4.2.2 Light Shelves………………………………………………………….………...….9 4.2.3 Louvres…………………………………………………………..…………..……10 4.2.4 Innovative mechanisms……………………………………………………..10-11

4.3 Glazing………………………………………………………………………………..…….12 5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………..……………………..…….12 6. References …….……………………………………………………………………….……13-14

1. Abstract

The concept of passive daylight design is to create a building aiming to use the sunlight. Through the architecture history, most buildings were usually built in a way to guaranty the visual and thermal comfort without needing any other light mechanism. There are several architectural solutions able to provide a healthy space, and today technology can also be used to prevent energy loss. For that it is important to have a comprehension of daylight principles, measurements and design solutions. The main objective is to present passive design strategies that will be exemplified with different projects. Each project will evidence a different approach to the use of daylight solving, also demonstrating the different materials, building forms and shading devices.

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2. Daylight and Solar Gain

First of all is important to comprehend what is daylight. The light beam can be perceived in two categories: direct and diffuse. This sort of light vary along with the sun movement, depending then on time and also season. Usually in a project, shading devices or the form of building are used to avoid or control this incidence of light. However, direct daylight is important for a building during certain seasons since the solar gain is beneficial. In the other hand, the diffuse light is created due to the sky component. The sunbeams, once redirected by the clouds or other physical barriers, lose the unified direction, becoming a multi vector incidence of light. This is the source of light that is more comfortable for day activities and spaces, not causing glare or thermal discomfort. Through different ways of lightning control, a direct light can be turn into diffuse light, but the other way around is not possible.

Direct'light'beam!! Diffuse'light!!

Fig.!1!Church!of!Light!–!Tadao!Ando!

Fig!2.!Therme!Vals!=!Peter!Zumthor!!!

Fig.!3!Direct!light!penetration! Fig.!4!Diffuse!light!penetration!

Fig.5!Relation!between!openings!height!and!light.!High!windows!allowing!light!to!penetrate!further!in!the!space.!It’s!important!that!the!floor!occupied!area!is!within!the!daylight!zone.!

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3. Site Consideration and early design stages 3.1 Different climates and weathers Nowadays, adequate environmental architecture has become a major factor concerning the design strategies in order to adjust it to the different climates. The location of the building has great importance, due to the available and necessary amount of daylight and solar gain. Controlling the daylight in order to gain the right amount of direct and diffuse daylight in different temperature circumstance can be very challenging. In tropical zones where temperature and humidity is very high, the building design has specific requirements. First of all, since incidence the sun is very intense, the solar gain should be reduced, meaning that the direct daylight must be blocked. One of the first steps of succeeding is to orientate the building facing North-South. The windows that are facing the sun path will need shading devices such as horizontal louvres for diffuse daylight. External roof overhangs are also a solution to minimize the direct daylight penetration and solar gain. On the opposite façade of the solar path large windows can be applied to illuminate the space. The temperate climates are the most challenging regarding the mixture of weather condition, cold winter and sunny summers. During the summer time the heat gain can be very high causing overheat and discomfort. However the solar gain is necessary during the cold winter when the aim of the building is to gain as much heat as possible. At the north side is where the most of sunlight is penetrating into the building. During the summer the sun is higher, resulting in the necessity of shading systems such as overhangs or louvres. At the North facing site of the building skylight would be a great technique to maximize the natural daylight into the building since North windows are receiving direct daylight only in morning. The best design strategies is to use adjustable shading systems and big windows where during sunny days the shadings will be open to control the solar gain and during cold days the shadings can be closed and the big windows will receive diffuse daylight to illuminate the building. In polar/cold zones the design strategies can be very demanding due to the problems that the weather is causing when is snowing or is heavily raining. Shading systems are not the best solution. First of all, the building must receive as much solar gain as possible. Secondly, shading system would be useful only when there is clear sky and the sunbeam is very intense, even though the snow and the rain may destroy the shadings. During heating times and generous zenithal day, skylights are ideal to bring solar gain into the building but also luminance. The use of horizontal skylights can benefit with the daylight factor values. Moreover, it is important the interior part maintains the thermal mass into the building by using reflecting interior finishes

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3.2 Solar gain

Solar gain is the energy received from the sun, felt as the heat of the daylight in the space. In a building, such energy can be used and controlled from two perspectives. The direct sun energy that enters the space trough openings or glazing is intense and is recommended as a strategy for areas that need heating as well as light. While the indirect solar gain is the energy conveyed through the materials. Each material, such as the brick or wood, has a capacity of holding or passing energy. Therefore, when the goal is to control the solar gain, the opaque facades should consider the amount of energy that each material allows to pass. This way, with a well though orientation and material is possible to reduce the use of energy for heating or cooling environments.

3.3 Passive design tools and simulation software

There are several ways to obtain the necessary data concerning the light incidence and energy calculation, from simple graphics and geometric schemes to advanced 3D modelling programs for simulation. Such programs allow us to comprehend the interaction of the project with the environment and the solar energy. By using them, it is possible to calculate amounts of energy, as well as design efficient shading systems. Some of those programs are listed below: “Software being preferred in the EDP (e.g. Ecotect, RETScreen, more specific and complex tools, used more heavily in later stages (e.g. Polysun, PVSol). The most common visualiza-tion software programs were used fairly evenly across the design phases. The most common visualisation tools were Artlantis, V-Ray, RenderWorks and Maxwell Render, while Ecotect, RETScreen, Radiance, Polysun, PVSol, PVsyst were the most common tools for simulation.”

Tools and methods used by architects for solar design Jouri Kantersa, Miljana

Fig.6!Graphic!of!the!software!used!by!architects!

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-PVSOL : Dynamic simulation pv program with 3D visualization and detailed shading analysis of roof-integrated or mounted grid-connected photovoltaic systems, with storage systems.

-Radiance : Lightning simulation tool, for analyses and visualisation of light in a building. Input files specify the scene geometry, materials, luminaires, time, date and sky conditions (for daylight calculations).

Fig.7!and!Fig.!8!PVSOL!programme!simulation!!

Fig.!9,!10!and!11!Radiance!programme!simulation!!

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-Ecotect: The software provides a wide range of simulation and building energy analysis functionality that can improve performance of existing buildings and new building designs.

4. Design strategies

4.1 Building Form In the early design stages the shape of the building is crucial to enhance the use of light or thermal comfort. For instance, in a northern country, during winter, is desirable to allow the maximum of light as well as walls to absorb the heating, such as the City Hall of London (A). Its round shape allows all floors to receive daylight, and the glazing facades show the project intention. While the large business complex built in China improve the solar panels use with the sliced shape of the building (B). To bring light inside of the building skylights are largely used. But, when allied with the space configuration, such as the internal tunnel of the building (C), it enables light to reach all the levels.

A C

Fig.!12!and!13!Ecotec!programme!simulation!!

Fig.!14!City!Hall!of!London!light!incidence!! Fig.!15!Skylight!solution!light!incidence!!

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B

C

When the opposite effect is desired, such as indirect light irradiance, shadings and facades inclinations are the most welcomed. In the Barcelona Solar House (D), the jumping volumes protect the openings from the direct sunlight, while allows the solar panels to receive the daylight with the best angles possible. In another project, the Beijodromo (E), the shape is thought to avoid direct sunlight, not using glazing’s, but louvres.

D

E

E

Fig.!16!Light!incidence!in!solar!panels!!

Fig.!17!and!18!Barcelona!Solar!House!:!light!incidence!and!solar!panels!inclination!!

Fig.!19!and!20!Beijodromo!skylight!mechanism!!

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9!!

4.2 Shading

Nowadays, there are numerous of shading systems and glazing technologies that can help to minimize the direct daylight. Some of the most commonly used shading systems are the overhangs, light shelves and the louvres. 3.2.1 Overhangs: There is a wide variety of overhangs types that could be applied in order to have a pleasant designed building. The undesirable direct daylight can be blocked from the overhangs and also can reduce the sun's solar energy since overhangs are usually modelled as opaque and non-reflecting surfaces. The overhangs are mostly applied to face the South axis where the sun is stronger, especially during summer time when the sun is higher. The overhangs can be designed in a certain angle and depth where the direct daylight can be blocked and reflected, but during the wintertime daylight could penetrate into the building.

4.2.2 Light Shelves: The principle of the light shelves is to be designed horizontally and reflect the direct beam on the top of a room in order to reduce the glare but still allows the light to illuminate the space. Light shelves are ideal for high ceiling buildings because they are better to be applied higher than the eye level to minimize the glare from the sun. However the lower the light shelve is, the greater the light is reflected. There are two ways to apply, either inside a window or at the external of the window. If the light shelves are put in the inside then the daylight within a room is decreased, but it is more evenly distributed. On the other hand, if the light shelves are placed on the exterior, then the room is more illuminated because of the high proportion of light that it allows to penetrate in the building.

Fig.!21!Overhang!roof! Fig.!22!Overhangs!sun!protection!during!summer!and!winter.!

Fig.!23!Interior!light!shelve!over!the!window.!

Fig.!24!Daylight!redirection!in!the!building.!

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10!!

4.2.3 Louvres: Works similarly as the overhangs. They are usually applied on the exterior of a building to minimize the direct daylight and create a comfortable environment within the building, reducing the glare and solar gain. The louvres can be installed vertical or horizontal on the exterior depending on the requirements of the building. The horizontal position of the louvres can provide protection during the winter, when the sun's position is low. During summer, when the sun is higher, changing the angle of the louvres allows the diffuse light to be distributed inside the building. The use of horizontal louvres is mostly positioned on the south façade of a building.

4.2.4 Innovative mechanisms: From membranes to opening ceilings, the advancements in the architectural design allow flexible shadings devices. Depending on the amount of light needed, weather or season, those mechanisms control the incidence of light, creating an ever-changing space. The Arab institute in Paris has a glazing skin made of metallic devices that works like a camera obturator, creating patterns of light (a). The Al Bahar tower uses an exterior opaque device, located in the most exposed façade, and it opens and closes like an umbrella according to the amount of light needed (b). The last example is the Sarah Hospital, an organic opaque building that the only opening is a flower shaped device on top. It works like a skylight, and not only controls the amount of light but also rotate and change the angle of incidence. (c)

(a) Arab institute-Paris

Fig.!25!Vertical!Louvres! Fig.!26!Vertical!and!Horizontal!louvres!protection!

Fig.!27,!28!and!29!!Shading!adjusting!mechanism!121

11!!

(b) Al Bahar Tower

(c) Sarah’s Hospital

Fig.!30,!31,!32!and!33!!Shading!adjusting!mechanism!

Fig.!34!and!35!!Skylight!adjusting!flower!mechanism!

122

12!!

4.3_Glazing

There are different types of glazing that are specialised to control the daylight, such as the tinted glazing and the low emissivity glazing.

4.3.1Tinted glazing: This type of glass is usually used in commercial buildings. The tinted glazing reflects the solar beam and also controls the glare. It is better to be placed in areas where the daylight is not very important due to the small amount of light that it allows to penetrate.

4.3.2 Low emissivity glass: It is an energy efficient glass designed to absorb the heat and prevent it to escape the building. It is also ideal for the north and east windows where there is a great proportion of heat loss. The use of that window in south and west façades, can cause overheat a room.

5. Conclusion

Architects have a key role to play in the future low-energy buildings, since passive design is related to architectural decisions already made in the early design phase. Daylight is one of the major aspects to concern during a building’s design. The use of diffuse and direct daylight is equally important for a building either to illuminate a space or benefit from the solar gain. However, the different approaches for the daylight varies from the different weather conditions, by using the right shading system, glazing window type or even by the form of a building. To help with the design process there are several tools and programs allowing the calculation and simulation. To sum up, daylight creates interesting, dynamic interiors supportive to human’s health and activities while energy demands.

123

13!!

6. References

1. Ridchard Hyde, 'Climate responsive design’, 2000, E&FN Spon

2. Baruch Givoni, 'Climate considerations in building and urban design, 1998, John Wiley & Sons Inc.

3. Efficient Windows Collaborative Tm. (Date of Internet Publication n/a) ‘ Design Considerations: Privide Daylight’, http://www.efficientwindows.org/index.php

4. Edvard Csanyi, (Octomber 13,2012), ‘Differences between Diffuse and Direct Light’ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/

5. University of Minesoda (2002, 2005) ‘Implications’ (pdf) http://www.informedesign.org/_news/mar_v03-p.pdf

6. Lars Thomsen Nielsen and Christina Henriksen, (2010) ‘ Daylight in Buildings’ (pdf) http://www.ecbcs.org/docs/ECBCS_Annex_29_PSR.pdf

7. Mike Carter, C.E.T. and Roman Stangl, C.E.T. (November 6th, 2012) 'Considerations of Building Design in Cold Climates’. http://www.wbdg.org/resources/bldgdesigncc.php

8. Andre Potvin and Claude Demers. (July 12th 2007) Passive Environmental Control for Cold Climate’(pdf) http://www.grap.arc.ulaval.ca/attaches/Potvin/ASES-Kruger.pdf

9. Leslie, R. P. , Capturing the daylight dividend in buildings: why and how?, (2003) , Building and Environment 38 381–385

10. Stevanović, Sanja, Optimization of passive solar design strategies: A review (2013), Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 25. Available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

11. A. Zain-Ahmed, K. Sopian, M.Y.H. Othman, A.A.M Sayigh, Daylighting as a passive solar design strategy in tropical buildings: a case study of Malaysia (2002) P.N. Surendran Energy Conversion and Management 43

12. Altan Hasim; Ward, Ian; Mohelnikova, Jitka; Vajkay, František ,Daylight, Solar Gains and Overheating (2008) Studies in a Glazed Office Building Issue 2, Volume 2

13. H.W. Li, Danny, A review of daylight illuminance determinations and energy implications

(2010) Applied Energy . Available at ScienceDirect

Figures :

Fig 1. http://insomnia-devil.deviantart.com/art/tadao-ando-church-of-light-60067895

Fig. 2 - http://www.remodelista.com/posts/poetry-in-space-vals-thermal-spa-in-switzerland

Fig. 6 - Tools and methods used by architects for solar design Jouri Kantersa, Miljana Horvatb, Marie-Claude Dubois

Fig. 7 - http://www.valentin-software.com/fr/produits/pvsol

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14!!

Fig.8 - http://www.eulinxenergyservices.co.uk/services/renewable-energy/solar-pv-how-do-we-design-your-system

Fig.9 – http://www.iaacblog.com/blog/2011/passive-design-strategies/

Fig.10 – http://eetd.lbl.gov/newsletter/nl03/eetd-nl03-6-radiance.html

Fig.11 – http://eetd.lbl.gov/newsletter/nl03/eetd-nl03-6-radiance.html

Fig.12 – http://mod.crida.net/thesis/S1-2013/author/tun/

Fig.13- http://www.symphysis.net/consulting.htm

Fig.14- http://www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/city-hall/

Fig.15 - http://www.urbanbuildings.net/

Fig.16 - http://www.thenewsfunnel.com/blog/top-10-solar-structures-world#sthash.qjaLvgj1.dpbs

Fig.17 - http://sameeraparakkramablogs.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/form-follows-function-for-barcelonas.html

Fig.18 - http://duranvirginia.wordpress.com/2013/04/18/curiosities-11-buildings-with-unusual-facades/

Fig.19 - http://piniweb.pini.com.br/construcao/arquitetura/lele-apresenta-projeto-para-o-memorial-darcy-ribeiro-139521-1.aspx

Fig.20 - http://www.brconfidencial.com/aproveite-que-ainda-nao-comecaram-as-aulas-na-unb-e-faca-um-tour-pelo-campus/

Fig.21 - http://www.keywordpicture.com/keyword/overhang%20roof/

Fig.23 - http://louisville.edu/speed/ulrec/sustainable-building.html

Fig.25 - http://openbuildings.com/buildings/council-house-2-profile-42594

Fig. 27 – https://arch5541.wordpress.com/2012/10/18/movement-in-architecture/

Fig. 28 - http://theurgetowander.com/2013/09/21/a-hi-tech-mashrabiyya/

Fig. 29 - http://galleryhip.com/arab-world-institute.html

Fig. 30 - http://www.skyscraperdictionary.com/?project=shadescraper

Fig. 31– http://www.architetturaecosostenibile.it/architettura/progetti/nel-mondo/torri-abu-dhabi-schermi-solari-150/

Fig. 32 – http://solucionista.es/al-bahar-towers-abu-dhabi/al-bahar-towers-abu-dhabi-7/

Fig. 33 – http://www.pinterest.com/pin/313422455291840720/

Fig. 34 – http://www.metalica.com.br/arquitetura/a-obra-de-lele-e-as-praticas-sustentaveis-no-contexto-da-arquitetura-contemporanea-internacional

Fig. 35– http://revista-lacreatura.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/edificios-que-curan.html

125

LOW ENERGY TYPOLOGIES

THERMAL MASS AND AIR TIGHTNESS

TECHNOLOGY

ARCH3036

BILAL HASHMI & USMAN KHALID

126

Thermal Mass & Air Tightness

ARCH 3036 / TECHNOLOGY 1

Contents

Abstract

Introduction……………………………………………………………….………2

Thermal mass

What is thermal mass? ……………………………………………………………..3

Thermal mass in summer……………………………………………………………4

Thermal mass in winter………………………………………………………………5

Internal Layout

Thermal Mass and Insulation………………………………………………………..6

Air Tightness

What is air tightness?

Why is air tightness important?....................................................................7

Air leakage……………………………………………………………………………..9,10

Passivhaus…………………………………………………………………………....11, 12 & 13

Case Study

Queen’s Building, De Montfort University, Leicester………………………………14, 15, 16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….17

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..18

127



Introduction

The energy expended for space heating accounts for 20 to 50 per cent of a

buildings energy consumption depending on type, and around a third of the

carbon emissions from all UK buildings. To reduce this impact, revisions to Part l

of the building regulations, along with the introduction of other codes and

standards e.g. Passivhaus, have done much to reduce fabric heat loss through

requirements for greater levels of insulation and reduced air leakage. These are

very effective and well understood measures. Something less well known is that

reducing heat loss from a building also enhances the passive performance of

thermal mass, helping further decrease the space heating load. This is now

accounted for in the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for Part L1 of the

Building Regulations and the Fabric Energy Efficiency Standard (FEES) for new

dwellings, both of which take some account of thermal mass in the calculation of

building performance.

With the advent of a warming climate, summertime performance is also a driver

for thermal mass. When it is used in combination with good ventilation and

shading, it helps buildings adapt to the effects of hotter weather by reducing

both the risk of overheating and the cooling load in air conditioned buildings.

Abstract

To identify and diagnose the feeble application of thermal mass and air tightness

within the built environment through a study of the fundamentals of the thermal

capacity of construction materials in relation to the seasonal variance. Thermal

mass as well as air tightness are two subservient factors that contribute to the

internal comfort levels of a building, which in turn determine the successfulness

of the design, a diagnosis found in the Passivhaus standard.

128



What is Thermal Mass?

Thermal Mass refers to the ability of any material to store heat.

Materials that provide beneficial levels of thermal mass are required to have an amalgamation of three basic

properties:

1. A high specific heat capacity: to allow the level of heat gained in every kg to be maximized.

2. A high density: the heavier the material, the higher the capacity to store heat.

3. Moderate thermal conductivity- so the rate in which heat flows in and out of the material is in

accordance with the daily heating and cooling cycle of the building.

Heavyweight construction materials such as brick, stone and concrete all include these properties. They

naturally combine a high storage capacity with moderate thermal conductivity. Properties which allow heat to

shift between the surface of the material and its interior at a rate corresponding with the daily heating and

cooling cycles of the building. In contrast, materials like timber have a high thermal capacity and a low

thermal conductivity, resulting in a limited rate of heat absorption during the day and a relatively low rate of

heat release at night. Although this can be beneficial in other ways.

Steel also has the ability to store heat, but dissimilar to timber it possesses a high rate of thermal conductivity,

which means heat is absorbed and released too rapidly to be synchronized with a buildings natural heat flow.

Material Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)

Density (kg/m3)

Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)

Effective thermal mass

Timber 1600 500 0.13 Low

Steel 450 7800 50.0 Low

Lightweight aggregate block

1000 1400 0.57 Medium-high

Precast and in-situ concrete

1000 2300 1.75 High

Brick 1000 1750 0.77 High

Sandstone 1000 2300 1.8 High

129



Thermal mass in summer.

During summer, the heat gain in heavyweight buildings

is absorbed by the thermal mass in the floor and walls,

which facilitates a reduced risk of overheating.

Consequently this makes naturally ventilated buildings

more comfortable and in air-conditioned buildings with

thermal mass, the peak cooling load can be lessened

and postponed. The fabric of the building allows

significant amounts of heat to be absorbed with little

increase in the surface temperature. This is an

important quality of heavyweight construction as the

relatively low surface temperature results in a beneficial

radiant cooling effect for the occupants, allowing a

slightly higher air temperature to be tolerated.

By allowing cool night-air to ventilate the building, heat

that has built up in the fabric during the day is

removed. This day heating and cooling cycle works

relatively well in the UK as the air temperature at night

is typically around 10 degrees less than the peak

daytime temperature, so it is an effective medium for

drawing heat out of the fabric. This diurnal temperature

variation is rarely less than 5 degrees, making night

cooling reasonably dependable in the UK.

Figure 1a: Thermal mass in summer (Day).

Figure 1b: Thermal mass in summer (Night).

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Thermal mass in winter

By using thermal mass fuel consumption can be

significantly reduced during the heating season when

applied to a passive solar design. This approach to

design seeks to maximize the benefit of solar gain in

winter, using the thermal mass to absorb solar gains

from south facing windows, along with heat produced

internally by cooking, lighting, people and appliances.

These acquired gains are then gradually released

overnight as the temperature drops, helping to keep

the building warm and reducing the need for

supplementary heating. By applying simple passive

solar design technique, fuel savings of up to 10 percent

can be made, increasing to around 30 per cent where

more sophisticated passive solar techniques are

adopted such as sunspaces.

Figure 2a: Thermal mass in winter (Day).

Figure 2b: Thermal mass in winter (Night).

131



Internal Layout

Where practicable, the most frequently used rooms should be

located on the south side of the dwelling, to ensure they effectively

retain the highest levels of solar gain possible during the heating

season. Therefore bathrooms, utility room, hallways, stores etc.

should be located on the north side of accommodation. Bedrooms

comparatively experience slightly lower cooling benefits of thermal

mass than the general living spaces. So in southern England

where summer temperatures are highest, there may be some

benefit in placing bedrooms on the north side. Alternatively

through an application of a concrete upper floor can also help

achieve cooling, providing the mass remains reasonably

accessible, this can improve year- round thermal performance. A

further option is to locate south facing bedrooms on the ground

floor, so they get full benefit of stack ventilation at night. The stack

effect uses the difference in air temperature at high and low level

to draw cool night air into ground floor rooms, where it then

travels upwards through the building and exits from windows on

the upper floor(s), having absorbed heat from the building fabric

on route.

Thermal Mass and Insulation

Thermal mass is not a substitute for insulation, and a combination

of the two is needed to optimize fabric efficiency. The position of

the insulation relative to the thermal mass should be located

inside the insulated building envelope. For this reason, an outer

layer of brick offers little benefit, but can help in other ways. In

practical terms, a cavity wall already satisfies the basic rule, as the

insulation is located in the cavity, allowing the inner leaf of block

work to be exposed to the room. For solid masonry walls the

insulation should be located on the outer surface, which is usual

practice. The insulation for solid ground floors should ideally be

located under the slab, although screed placed on top of

insulation will also provide some useful thermal mass.

Figure 4: Showing the cool air being drawn

out and leaving the building with the

gathered warmth.

Exterior Interior

Exterior Interior

Exterior Interior

132



What is air tightness?

Air tightness is a term used to describe permeation of

air in or out of a building. This occurs due to cracks,

holes and gaps found in the building. Essentially the

term means air permeability or air leakage.

Why air tightness is important?

Air tightness is a large contributing factor in

determining the level of energy efficiency of a building.

This is because uncontrolled air leakage affects the

energy consumption of the building as more energy is

needed to re-cool or re-heat the air. Consequently the

production of energy produces carbon emissions –

contributing towards global warming. Additionally the

excessive use of energy leads to high costs for the

building occupiers. Air leakage can also affect comfort

levels within the building and can transport moist air

from inside the dwelling to cold areas within the

structure, triggering condensation. The control of air

leakage is now acknowledged as a key factor in

achieving energy efficiency and is referred to in

national Building Regulations.

133



There are potentially four main air leakage paths that should be considered; Joints around components, gaps between one element and another, gaps around services passing through the construction and permeable building materials.

Figure 5: Areas of air

leakage-

a. At junctions between main structural elements.

b. Around openings such as windows and doors.

c. Through gaps in membranes, linings and finishes.

d. At service penetrations

e. Through permeable materials.

a

.

b.

c.

d.

e

.

Air leakage

134



1. Suspended floors

2. Gaps in and around suspended timber floors

3. Leaky windows or doors

4. Pathways through floor ceiling voids into cavity walls and to the outside

5. Gaps around windows

6. Gaps around ceiling to wall joint at the eaves

7. Gaps in and around electrical fittings in hollow walls

8. Gaps around loft hatches

9. Service penetrations on the ceiling/roof

10. Vents penetrating the ceiling or roof

11. Bathroom wall vents or extract fans

12. Gaps around waste pipes

13. Kitchen wall vents or extractor fans

14. Gaps around floor to wall joints

Figure 6: Air leakage paths

135



The primary principles, on which the Passivhaus standard has been developed, is based around a strict criteria that every Passivhaus project must adhere to in order to gain the Passivhaus certification. For example, the primary criteria is:

Space Heating Demand at 15 kWh/(m²a) Building Heating Load at 10 W/m² Useful Cooling Demand at15kWh/(m²a) Primary Energy Demand at 120 kWh/(m²a) Building Air-tightness at 0.6 ac/h-¹ Excess Temperature at Frequency 10%

In order to achieve these standards, walls, roofs and

floor- the components that make up the thermal

envelope- need U- values of 0.15W/m2k or better.

Passivhaus

Figure 7: A comparative

analysis of Passive

House heat gains and

losses.

136



Product Information Application

Multi-purpose corner sealing tape for openings and corner joints with multiple release tapes.

Airtightness grommet, ideal for permanently airtight cable and pipe penetrations. Quick installation. The cables and pipes can be still be pulled or pushed without damaging the airtightness.

Multi-purpose joint adhesive which remains permanently flexible combined with high strength and elasticity. Penetrates deep into the substrate.

A special water vapour retardant, non-woven, laminated climate membrane for sealing and moisture protection in light weight and solid construction.

Durable elastic, self-adhesive sealant on a roll for creating airtight joint seals.

Tape designed for simple installation of durable airtight joints at edges and corners.

137



Passivhaus buildings are

dependent on their MVHR

system to ensure good

indoor air quality. The

correct design, installation

and functioning of the MVHR

system means it will save

around five times more

energy than it consumes.

This allows for effective air

control in the building and

reduces uncontrollable/

unnecessary air leakages.

Passivhaus buildings are

dependent on their MVHR

system to ensure good

indoor air.

Figure 8: Heat recovery

system

Figure 9: Typical triple

glazed window.

138



Case Study-Queen’s Building

Project Basics:

Location: Leicester, England

Building type: Educational/ Laboratory

Square footage/stories: 10,000m2 (100,000 s.f.)/ 2-4

stories

Completion date: 13 August 1993

Client: De Montfort University

Design Team:

Architects: Short Ford Associates- Alan Short & Brian

Ford

Engineers: Max Fordham Associates- Max Fordham &

Randall Thomas

139



Exposed Mass equating to effectively high thermal

performance of building.

140



Figure 11: Diagram indicating existing air leakage

paths.

Figure 10: Diagram indicating the cross ventilation

existent in the building design, a subservient

mechanism to the cooling process.

Ventilation

Air

Leakage

KEY

141



Close off

opened

chimneys

Replace

current

double

glazed

windows

with Triple

glazed

windows

Have a good

quality air tight

membrane

wrapped around

the building.

Use appropriate

and effective

application

methods in

order to

correctly airtight

areas of concern

shown. Heat recovery mechanical systems is an essential

addition, this is because the chimneys will be sealed

and therefore losing its capacity to provide natural

ventilation so an alternative out let is desired. The

addition of mechanical ventilation will allows you to

control the amount of air coming in and out of the

building.

Figure 12: Passivhaus standard applied to Queen’s

building.

142



Conclusion

Performance requirements for building materials continue to increase, driven by desires to design for higher

levels of energy efficiency and other factors such as the effects of climate change. Meeting these challenges

requires an approach to design in which the materials, structure and systems work in unison to maximize the

overall performance. The thermal mass in concrete and masonry helps to meet this challenge it can both

improve energy efficiency in summer and winter, whilst also providing a level of adaptation to our warm

climate.

Realizing these benefits is not difficult, but does require a basic appreciation of how to use thermal mass, and

the way it can work with orientation, solar gain, ventilation and shading to enhance thermal performance in a

passive way.

143



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http://greenlightfestival.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/queens_building_1.jpg

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http://foursevenfive.com/installing-window-sill-pans-waterproof-airtight-and-vapor-open/

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http://www.unige.ch/cuepe/idea/_buildings/b_040/plan/_zoom/img/axo_01z.jpg

Green Walls and Roofs

Edward Hobbs (P12200626), Phoebe Kent (P12203960)

Introduction

Green walls and roofs are architectural design principles that were first developed in the late 1960s but have seen a huge surge in popularity and exposure in recent years with 93% of all green wall installations dated from no earlier than 2007. They can be constructed indoors or outdoors and can be freestanding or attached to an existing structure. Green walls and roofs can be built to almost any size meaning they can be implemented on almost any building ranging from garden sheds to international airports. Most green walls and roofs contain soil or a similar growing medium and often feature an integrated irrigation system. Both principles are designed to improve air quality in their surroundings as well as minimising the urban heat island effect whilst also being aesthetically pleasing and offering a new addition to building design.

Green walls can be constructed in any hospitable environment in almost any climate. Successful green walls contain plants which are well suited to the environment in which they are placed be it hot and humid or cold and wet. Numerous plant varieties can be placed into them from the size of sedums up to small shrubs. Green walls offer a new and aesthetically pleasing approach to façade design and are often used as part of regeneration projects within cities. Additionally, given specific plant types are included, they can be one of the most effective ways to reduce air pollutants from urban areas. They are also particularly effective at slowing the progress of water reaching the ground during prolonged rainfall therefore lowering the flood risk in the vicinity.

Green roofs come in two forms, extensive and intensive. Extensive green roofs consist of a thin layer of plant material such as sedum which require minimal structure is as the weight is low. Intensive green roofs on the other hand require additional structure and growing medium enabling larger plants to be grown as well as trees while also able to support the weight of people walking on it. The benefits of an intensive design is that the plants don’t have to be engineered and can be similar to the nature around the roof but the more structure needed increases the cost and material volume of the design. Both options are great insulators and allow plant matter to photosynthesise more effectively than in conventional conditions. Passive cooling techniques can be used with green roofs which stop solar energy from reaching the building below.

This report looks at four case studies, two for green walls and two for green roofs, and seeks to discover the benefits they can bring to a project as well as any potential disadvantages in order to discover whether they are a cost efficient addition to a building.

Clockwise from left: Image 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

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Green Walls

Case Study 1: Edgware Road Underground Station

In 2011, Transport for London commissioned a 180m2 section of south-facing wall at Edgware Road Underground Station to become a green wall test site in order to assess the system’s ability to remove PM2.5-10 and NO2 pollutants from the air. The project was funded by the government’s Clean Air Fund who worked in partnership with Imperial College London to monitor the effectiveness of the chosen plant varieties to remove particulate matter from the air.

The wall holds approximately 14,000 plants of 15 different varieties, which were specifically chosen by botanists for their small leaves in a variety of shapes and textures which it was hoped would allow them to work best as air filters. The plants were pre-grown off site to ensure their suitability to a vertical wall before being inserted into modular hydroponic system fitted to the substructure. This allows for nutrients to be provided through horizontal irrigation channels ensuring long-term stable conditions for the plants whilst also minimizing pest hazards.

The diagram to the left gives an indication as to how plants were laid out in each modular panel. This was altered as necessary to achieve the desired pattern in the design. Each unit measures 600mm x 455mm, containing 20 plants and contains a capillary break to control water flow. This means water usage for the panels is as little as 1 litre per 1m2 where, by comparison, the traditional flower bed requires between 3-4 litres per m2. As a result, the average water bill for the wall is less than £125 per annum.

With regards to the wall’s effectiveness at reducing PM2.5-10 and NO2 particles from the atmosphere, Imperial College London are yet to publish their final report, however an initial report was released in August of 2014 establishing the wall’s effectiveness thus far. It was concluded that plants with a high density of hairs on small leaves were best at intercepting pollutants, however during prolonged spells of dry weather, the plants can reach a saturation point leading to a less efficient particulate capture. As a result, the initial conclusion was that

green walls should be used as a supplementary method to reducing air pollution and should be implemented along with additional, stringent emission reduction policies. However the report also stated that urban greening strategies should be “viewed in the context of their wider benefits” with regards to their aesthetic appeal and visual regeneration of an area.

The green wall’s substructure comprises a series of stainless steel angle brackets attached to the existing wall which hold a series of 50mm depth vertical timber cladding rails. A 20mm waterproof backing board (EcoSheet) is then attached to the rails followed by a 5mm layer of drainage geocomposite (Geoflow). On top of this, sits a 100mm thick BioTecture panel complete with integrated irrigation system and Grodan grow cubes. Plants are added into this panel at the final stage to avoid any potential damage caused to them during the construction works. The overall construction cost of a green wall is approximately £600-£800 per m2.

Image 2.1

Image 2.2

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Case Study 2: Ushuaia Beach Hotel, Ibiza

Situated in one of Ibiza’s most known resort complexes, the green wall found at the Ushuaia Beach Hotel functions both as solar shading to an outdoor café area as well being a sound barrier to protect the surrounding apartments from the resort’s synonymous club nights. The project was completed in 2011 following a joint collaboration between Spanish design firms Urbanarbolismo and Alijardín to create a new type of green wall entitled eco.bin.

The wall consists of a series of modular ceramic cells within which the plants are grown. Each ceramic cell is inclined 10° from horizontal towards the sky and is covered in a hydrophilic film that facilitates the uptake of water vapour allowing it to collect at the rear of the cell. This is particularly effective given the project’s beach front location providing a near constant supply of sea spray and mist. This is further enhanced by the teracotta’s porosity and as a result the plants require minimal additional watering and the wall as a whole needs little ongoing maintenance. As the sea breeze blows through the hollow cells, evapotranspiration (when water vapour is released from the plants in the wall) cools the surrounding air and helps to lower the temperature of the courtyard which the wall surrounds. The hollow cells also act as an anechoic unit making a sound absorption barrier.

The plants chosen for the wall are well adapted to Ibiza’s semi-arid climate. They are all relatively hardy and require a minimal amount of growing medium. Some of the plants are even able to absorb most of the water and nutrients they require from the atmosphere therefore removing the need for a mechanical irrigation system. Among the species of plants chosen are aeonium, crassula, echeveria, euphorbia, kalanchoe, sedeveria, and sedum. The plants have carefully been arranged to ensure that as the wall matures a rainbow pattern of colours and textures will emerge with different plants blooming throughout the year.

It is possible to construct the eco.bin wall against an existing wall, however for a more effective output, it is recommended to be built from scratch. The section to the left details the major components included in the wall’s construction. Laboratory tests by Urbanarbolismo show that the components remain effective at any temperature between -40°C to 80°C and are predicted to have a lifespan of upwards of thirty years. The overall cost of the eco.bin wall is approximately £400 per m2.

Wall Base

Polyurethane Mortar

Hydrophilic Membrane

Polyurethane Sedum

Species Specific Aerator Substrate

Sprinkler System

Water Pool

Stainless Steel Anchor

Image 3.1 (L), 3.2 (R)

Image 3.3

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Green Roofs

Case Study 1: Vancouver Convention Center, Canada

A great example of a green roof is the 2009 Vancouver Convention Center by LMN Architects, Musson Cattell Partnership and DA Architects & Planners. The building is host to a 6 acre living roof which makes it the largest in Canada and awarded LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) Platinum, the highest award for US sustainable buildings. The construction of the roof is reverse to how a normal multi-layered roof would be designed to ensure protection from moisture although the medium that the plants grow in also provide extra insulation. Composition of the roof occurs above the metal roof deck, where a rubber membrane is applied as a hot liquid that then sets after which a protection layer and drain mat are installed. The drain mat allows water to filter into drains to be collected for use elsewhere. 10cm of rigid insulation with a U-value of 0.05 K·m2/W, is then topped with another protective layer to remove all risks of the insulation being damaged by moisture. The last layer is 15-20cm of engineered soil made up from sand dredged from the nearby Fraser River, garden waste and lava rock, this combination weighs 18kg per sf when saturated with water to ensure the roof can support that much weight normally and when covered in snow. Into this medium plant plugs, seeds and bulbs were planted to provide a vast natural habitat for birds, bees and insects from the local area and further. These 400,000 indigenous plants and grasses from the Gulf Island’s decrease the amount of unnatural irrigation due to complementing the local climate.

As well as being a home for animals that come and settle there on their own, a colony of 240,000 locally established honeybees reside in one of four hives that help pollinate the flowering plant species and produce a product that is sold in the shop and cafe. A major benefit of a green roof is the improved insulation provided by the thickness of the over system and the living organisms that top the roof. The VCC calculated that the projected reduction of heat gains in summer were up to 95% and in winter up to 26% less heat was lost. The overall systems create 6155kWh. Cooling the building is also aided by using the constant low temperature of the adjacent sea water and through evaporative cooling. This design of roof also collects the majority of gray water used in the building providing about 80% of water needed to flush all the toilets in the building and thus reducing portable water use by 72%. Water collected is also used to irrigate the roof in the few instances during the height of the summer. To maintain the roof, a few specialist workers mow the roof in the autumn to allow for the next year’s growth. The roofs design also helps with stormwater management, heat-island effect where the urban area is significantly warmer that the rural areas surrounding the location is common with standard design of local roofs.

Image 4.1

Image 4.2

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Case Study 2: Matzdorf House, London

Matzdorf House is a small house that due to planning restrictions had to be one storey at the west end and two storey at the east end. To solve this problem a curved roof was installed and gardening enthusiast owner has used the curved roof to experiment with a 100mm soil depth intensive green roof. The challenges with the environment created was the different climates of the roof as areas get more sun and others more rain. The shallow soil reduced what could be grown but Matzdorf, the building’s owner, has experimented with different plants and adjusted the height of them and climates they are native to. An issue he encountered was superseded by weeds. He is still trying to get the optimum collection of plants so that they thrive in the UK climate but he hasn’t experience an extreme winter yet so has been unable to determine how they survive then.

How Climate Affects Green Walls and Roofs

Green roofs have different advantages depending on the climate of their location. In areas of varied climate such as Canada, where the summers are hot and the winters are very cold, intensive green roofs are good at controlling the internal temperature of the building as well as having environmental advantages by increasing biodiversity and purifying the air. In more stable climates such as the UK where temperature only differs by about 25°C, the extra thickness and protection an intensive green roof provides is not worth the added cost and structure. With this said, the environmental and aesthetic benefits are something strived for at the moment when sustainability is at the forefront of design and the looks of a building under more scrutiny than ever. In the UK, lightweight sedum roofs are more popular that the intensive designs. On small structures such as sheds and cabins, an increased structure is used for the roof with simple grass on top to reduce the risk of weathering and making the structure look more natural.

Green walls also need to be properly adapted to the environment in which they are constructed. The most successful green walls contain plants which are native to the country of construction. Attention must also be paid to the site’s surroundings and planting options must be adjusted accordingly, i.e. sedums for coastal areas, pollutant hardy for urban areas, snow hardy for mountainous areas etc. The construction of green walls may also differ depending on the climate and purpose. This can be seen in the Ushuaia Beach Hotel where the wall is freestanding and acts as a natural air cooling unit by allowing the sea breeze to pass through it. In comparison, the green wall at London’s Edgware Road Tube Station is attached to an existing wall meaning air cannot travel through. However given it had an entirely different purpose of reducing air pollutants, which the Ushuaia green wall was not designed for, this is entirely expected.

Image 5.1 (L), 5.2 (R)

Image 5.3

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Walls and Roofs

Advantages Disadvantages

Aesthetics High cost

Easily maintained Additional structure often needed

Reduces heat island effect Can damage existing structure if poorly fitted

Removes pollutants from air Harder to resolve any issues

Sound barrier Requires additional drainage systems

Increases biodiversity Requires specialist contractors to fit it

Reduces storm water runoff If plants are not adapted to climate, plants may die

Increases fire resistance

Lessens UV ray damage to roof membrane

Helps control internal temperature of buildings

Conclusions

From looking at our case studies, we have come to the conclusion that green walls and roofs are very beneficial for both environmental and aesthetic reasons. The primary reason that more new buildings do not include them is due to the significant cost involved in constructing them; the average green roof costs 10 times that of a standard roof. At this moment in time, either a client either needs to have a lot of extra money to fund the project or be able to take advantage of government initiatives and grants, an example of which is the UK government’s Green Deal scheme. For uptake to increase, building costs would need to be reduced or subsidies increased.

Image Bibliography

1.1 http://www.eauc.org.uk/shop/mms_single_event.php?event_id=2790

1.2 http://www2.epa.gov/region8/green-roof-images

1.3 http://www.solarchoice.uk.com/green-roofs.php

21. http://www.greenbuildnews.co.uk/features-details/Cleaning-Londons-air/469

2.2 http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/footprint/footprint-blog/green-sky-thinking-tfls-green-wall-in-central-london/8636486.article

3.1 http://blog.lightopiaonline.com/lighting-articles/hotel-ushuaias-noise-reducing-eco-vertical-garden/

3.2 http://blog.lightopiaonline.com/lighting-articles/hotel-ushuaias-noise-reducing-eco-vertical-garden/

3.3 Own Work

4.1 http://inhabitat.com/leed-platinum-vancouver-convention-center-has-north-americas-largest-green-roof/vcc13/?extend=1

4.2 Own work

5.1 https://www.flickr.com/photos/otrops/sets/72157605494325824/

5.2 http://livingroofs.org/mexican-hillside-green-roof-london

5.3 http://www.green-roofing.co.uk/extensive-sedum-roofs?id=10

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1. Introduction History of ceramic tiles

2. Properties

4. Advantages & Disadvantages Manufacturing Process

6. Construction

8. Examples of use: - Faïence - Roof Tiles - Cladding

12. Case Study: - Sydney Opera House

14. Section Drawings

15. Roof Design of Sydney Opera House

17. Ceramic Roof Tiles

21. Roof Section

22. Axonometric

24. Bibliography

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Ceramics are one of the oldest set of materials to be used in the world. Ceramics can be defined as inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically produced using clays and other minerals from the earth or chemically processed powders. Examples include Tiles, bricks, plates, glass and toilets. These are all around us and are essential to our daily lifestyle. Ceramics are generally made by the combination of clay, earthen elements, powders and water. After shaping the clay into desired form it is then placed in a Kiln and becomes permanently hardened. Generally ceramics display excellent strength however they are often brittle in nature. Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.

The word Ceramic itself, is derived from a Greek word ‘Keramos’ meaning ‘potter’ or ‘pottery’. Ceramic tiles has been made by man for about 4000 years.

The Egyptians used tiles for decorating their houses with blue tile bricks. The glazed bricks were also very common in Mesopotamia, a fine example of its application is the ‘Ishtar gate of Babylon’ (figure 1).Islamic Empires discovered the use of ceram-ic tile as a wall covering in order to create drawings from stone on walls. An example is taken from the Palace of Persepolis, Iran (518 BC), this shows glazed bricks relief tile wall (figure 3).Another example of this is the ‘Shad-I Mulk Aga Mausoleum’ in Iran- Pierced Glazed Tile, Seljuk Inspired (figure 2) This deeply carved surface was seen all over Europe and was later employed by many ceramists of the modern world.Ceramics were mainly used in Europe for decorative purposes.Figure 4 shows Portuguese hand painted fine ceramic tiles azulejos BLUE BAROQUE STYLE.In south America they used tiles because they were easy to wash and reflected in the sun - providing good thermal environment when used on the façades.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

1.

INTRODUCTION

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Ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with some examples:- Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles- Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles- White wares, including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware- Technical, is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nucle-ar fuel uranium oxide pellets, biomedical implants, coatings of jet engine turbine blades, ceramic disk brake, missile nose cones, bearing (mechanical),etc. Frequently, the raw materials do not include clays.

Chemical:Industrial ceramics are primarily oxides (compounds of oxygen), but some are carbides (com-pounds of carbon and heavy metals), nitrides (compounds of nitrogen), borides (compounds of boron), and silicides (compounds of silicon). Primary components, such as the oxides, can also be chemically combined to form complex com-pounds that are the main ingredient of a ceramic.Ceramics are more resistant to corrosion than plastics and metals are. Ceramics generally do not react with most liquids, gases, alkalies, and acids. Most ceramics have very high melting points, and certain ceramics can be used up to temperatures approaching their melting points. Ceramics also remain stable over long time properties

Electrical:Certain ceramics conduct electricity. Chromium dioxide, for example, conducts electricity as well as most metals do. Other ceramics, such as silicon carbide, do not conduct electricity as well, but may still act as semiconductors. (A sem-iconductor is a material with greater electrical conductivity than an insulator has but with less than that of a good conductor.) Other types of ceramics, such as aluminium oxide, do not conduct electricity at all. These ceramics are used as insulators–devices used to separate elements in an electrical circuit to keep the current on the desired pathway. Certain ceramics, such as porcelain, act as insulators at lower temperatures but conduct electricity at higher temperatures.

2.

PROPERTIES

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Physical

Most industrial ceramics are compounds of oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen with lighter metals or semimetals. Thus, ceramics are less dense than most metals. As a result, a light ceramic part may be just as strong as a heavier metal part. Ceramics are also extremely hard, resist-ing wear and abrasion. The hardest known substance is diamond, followed by boron nitride in cubic-crystal form. Aluminium oxide and silicon carbide are also extremely hard materi-als and are often used to cut, grind, sand, and polish metals and other hard materials.

Thermal

Most ceramics have high melting points, meaning that even at high temperatures, these materials resist deformation and retain strength under pressure. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride, for example, withstand temperature changes better than most metals do. Large and sudden changes in temperature, however, can weaken ceramics. Materials that undergo less expansion or contraction per degree of temperature change can withstand sudden changes in temperature better than materials that undergo greater deformation. Silicon carbide and silicon nitride expand and contract less during temperature changes than most other ceramics do. These materials are therefore often used to make parts, such as turbine rotors used in jet engines, that can withstand extreme variations in temperature.

Magnetic

Ceramics containing iron oxide (Fe2O3) can have magnetic properties similar to those of iron, nickel, and cobalt magnets (see Magnetism). These iron oxide-based ceramics are called ferrites. Other magnetic ceramics include oxides of nickel, manganese, and barium. Ceramic magnets, used in electric motors and electronic circuits, can be manufactured with high resistance to demagnetization. When electrons become highly aligned, as they do in ceramic magnets, they create a powerful magnetic field which is more difficult to disrupt (demagnetize) by breaking the alignment of the electrons.

Mechanical

Ceramics are extremely strong, showing considerable stiffness under compression and bending. Bend strength, the amount of pressure required to bend a material, is often used to determine the strength of a ceramic. One of the strongest ceramics, zirconium diox-ide, has a bend strength similar to that of steel. Zirconias (ZrO2) retain their strength up to temperatures of 900° C, while silicon carbides and silicon nitrides retain their strength up to temperatures of 1400° C . silicon materials are used in high-temperature applications, such as to make parts for gas-turbine engines. Although ceramics are strong, temperature-resist-ant, and resilient, these materials are brittle and may break when dropped or when quickly heated and cooled.

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Advantages DisadvantagesEasily Available Can crack when hit (only by

heavy items)Inexpensive Poor ahock resistanceExtreme Hardness Weak in tension Low density Dimensional tolerances difficult

to control during processingGlazed ceramic doesn’t stainHarder than conventional struc-ture metalsExtreamly high melting pointLow coefficient of friction

Ceramic Tiles

Industrial ceramics are produced from powders that have been tightly squeezed and then heated to high temperatures. Traditional ceramics, such as porcelain, tiles, and pottery, are formed from powders made from minerals such as clay, talc, silica, and feldspar. Most industrial ceramics, however, are formed from highly pure powders of specialty chemicals such as silicon carbide, alumina, and barium titanate.The solution is then mixed together by the process of wedging, this is done in order to ensure there are no air bubbles. Batching:In creating tiles, the body composition is determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the col-our of the tile body, which can be red or white in colour, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Batch calculations are done, and must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.Mixing and Grinding: After weighing, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer.A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows.If necessary, water is added to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a ball mill.

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Spray Drying: If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually re-moved via spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suita-ble for forming.

Forming:Most tiles are formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powder—containing organic binder or a low per-centage of moisture—flows from a hopper into the form-ing die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plung-ers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with pres-sures as high as 2,500 tons.

Drying:Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a wet method is used.Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracksContinuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil, infra-red lamps, or microwave energyThiner tiles are better dried using an infrared drier, whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the trans-verse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.

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Glazing:To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch for-mulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled.Many methods: Centrifugal glazing or discing - the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile.The bell/waterfall method- a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on.For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tile that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squee-gee or other device.

Firing: After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity.After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent crack-ing and shrinkage.For some wall tiles, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrink-age. The body and glaze are then fired togeth-er in a process called glost firing.

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wall stud

Moisture resistant drywall

Tile

Thin set mortar

Grout

This is called ‘spacers’ and is used during construction.

CONSTRUCTION

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Some believe ceramic facades went out of fashion in the early 20th-century because purist modernist architects were besotted with glass, concrete and steel. However, several mid-century architects who favoured an organic, sculptural aesthetic rediscovered ceramic façades.

Today’s architects who create ceramic façades are aware of these traditions. But their ver-sions differ from Art Nouveau buildings in that they marry the potentially decorative quality of ceramic tiles with a con-temporary, relatively minimalist aesthetic and boldly sculptural, abstract forms.

This is an example of Gaudi work. Park Guell, Barcelona,1914, the public square is at the center of the park. Brightly color-ed broken tiles and faience create mosa-ic designs--a technique called trencadis. Sources differ on its attribution. Some say that some patterns are by Gaudí as well as the workmen who created the park. Others say that Josep Maria Jujol, a spe-cialist in ceramic art, signed and claimed the bench as his own, although it has always been attributed to Gaudí until recently. Technically the bench mosaics could also be described as collage (pre-dating the “invention” of collage by the Cubists) since cups, bottles, plates, etc. are incorporated into the design.

EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - FAIENCE

Antoni Gaudi’s reflects and individualized and distinctive style, he introduced a new way to use materials- such as tren-cadis which used waste ceramic pieces.

This is another example of Gaudi’s remarkable faïence work. Casa Batlló, Barcelona. redesigned by Gaudi in 1904 and has been refurbished several times after that. Gaudi decorated the entire building with colorful mosaic tiles in shades of orange, green and blue so that it appears al-most as if the entire building is underwater. The Casa Batlló is topped by numerous whimsical chimneys that add to its almost surreal look.

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EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - ROOF TILES

Mentioned previously, Ceramic is a hard-wear-ing material and for this reason, it is used for most roof tiles.

Here are some examples of roof tiles:

Acme Single Camber- this is a quality cost effective clay tile with a lower pitch

Creasing tiles- these are single cambered, nibless clay plain tiles and can be used for cappings or copings to walls and sills. Their wheatherproof properties make them ideal for external walls.

Melodie Clay Single Interlocking Pantile- this is a low pitch sungle pantile with a flexable guage

Maxima Double Roman Clay Tile-similar to the Melodie clay this is a low pitch double Roman clay tile with an open gauge.

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EXAMPLES OF ITS USES - CLADDING

Lisbon Extension Aquarium, Lisbon Portugal, Campos Costa Arquitectos, 2011A range of Seven subtle shades of white ce-ramic tiles were used for the façade of this building, utilizing over five thousand ceramic tiles which resembles fish scales or the rip-pling surface of water touched by sunlight. The opened and closed elements allowed passive ventilation as well as solar shading.

Barcelona’s Santa Caterina Market, EMBT, 1997-2005Ceramic manufacturer - Toni CumellaThe wave-like roof is covered with 325,00 colourful hexagonal ceramic tiles lifted on writhin, and intertwining, steel columns. Many describe the roof as a magic carpet floating of the activity. EMBT picked up on the very Spanish tradition of ceramics but did so on a much bigger scale and with a pattern that doesn’t repeat.

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Herzog De Meuron, New roof to Basel museumThis museum was originally de-signed in 1849 by Melchior Berri, with an extension added by archi-tects Vischer & Söhne in 1917. The museum required more space, Her-zog & de Meuron, crowned it with a new, double-height gallery floor. The cantilevered roof is cladded in a striking, virtually windowless carapace of hexagonal, ceramic tiles in a stormy grey shade reminis-cent of the inside of mussel shells. Its convex, concave and flat tiles – supplied by German architecturalceramics specialist Agrob Buchtal – create a 3D surface.

Mestura Arquitectes, martinet primary school, Barcelona, SpainThe images show hollow and colorful shell informingboth the interior and exterior spaces. Set at right angles, the organic tiles slightly protrude and recess, generating a sense of movement and divergence on the static surface. On the sides that receive the most exposure the stoneware ceramic tiles have been glazed in a gradient of colors – ‘spring’ colors onthe east side and ‘autumn’ colors on the west – that unveil and adapt depending on the viewers location.The exterior skin is covered with more than 5,000 ceramic pieces distinguished by slight variations in color.

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SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE

Architect: Jorn Utzon

Location: Sydney, Australia

Date Designed: 1957-1973

Purpose: Designed for community, serves as opera house, Multi-venue performing arts centre and other facilities.

Consists Of:

The Concert Hall, with 2,679 seatsThe Joan Sutherland Theatre, The Drama Theatre, The Playhouse, The Studio, The Utzon RoomThe ForecourtOther areas (for example the northern and western foyers) are also usedfor performances on an occasional basis. Venues are also used for conferences, ceremonies and social functions.

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Location:The opera house is on the south or city side. Running down Bennelong ridge to the point roughly at right angles, the civic and poilitical axis of government, Macquarie street finishes at the front of the Opera House. Through the design of the Sydney Opera house, sea charts were used as study from these it was used to measure distances to access the height and the surroundings to develop a feel for the landscape.

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Longitudinal section through Concert Hall.

Longitudinal section through Theatre Hall

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DESIGNING THE ROOF:

Sydney Opera house composition is based on a simple opposition of three groups of interlocking shell vaults and a heavy terrace platform. Plainly put, the Sydney Opera House is a massive and imposing base with graceful shells placed on top, separated by glass walls. Each main vault was constructed by gluing together large pre-cast rig segments with two part epoxy, the ribs radiate from the podium and become wider up the vault. The cross section of each rib varies from a T at the pedestal to a solid and then an open Y at its uppermost.

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The roof geometry is composition of spherical planes from the same common sphere. so they appear to be free sculptural shapes but they are part of a large sphere. The major hall roof surface comes from the sphere of 75m radius. The shapes are pushed up and out to create the form for the opera house.

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The Sydney Opera house has a vertical pattern made a chevron shaped tile which is laid on top of the precast concrete roof. The tiles themselves have a pattern shaped like a diamond. These tiles were designed by the Swedish tile makers, Höganäs. The tiles are 120mm square and made of clay, (similar to the process mentioned previous-ly) but before they’re fired they’re covered with a fine mesh and brushed over with more of the clay, this time containing a small amount of crushed stone, giving them a granular texture and stops excessive glare in the harsh Australian sunlight. Over one million tiles were cast into precast con-crete lids on the ground, and then bonded onto the ribbed superstructure of the shells

DEVELOPMENT OF ROOF WITH TILES:

Cream and white tiles

Laid in a chevron pattern

Create the ceramic tile pattern

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Jorn Utzon built 26 chevron shaped 'tile beds' under the monumental steps to hold the 4228 chevron tiles. These were essentially beds made to the exact measurements of various ribs the finished shells. The tiles were laid face down in these beds, in the right pattern of cream and white. Grooves were provided (to drain condensate) and the joints partially filled with heated animal glue to prevent grout penetration to the surface of the tiles. Their backs were then covered with galvanised steel mesh and mortar. They were steam cured for several hours. Finally, they were cleaned before being stored. Special moulds were made to cater for warpedsurface requirements on the side shells.

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1. Inter- rib boundary2. stiffening ribs3. phosor bronze rag bolt4. bronze sleeve

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In placing the tiles, they swung up into place by tower cranes and assembled in the air.Each tile lid was screwed on to the appropriate concrete rib using a spigot and socket system. This provided a vacuum between the tiles and the concrete structure, thereby overcoming the problem of attaching tiles onto concrete.

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Laying the tiles in tile bed Applying mortar over mesh Cleaning tiles after curing

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1. Tile surface forming 246ft 8 1/2 in radius spherical surface2. Mesh reinforced sand cement backing to tiles3. Polyurethane foam insulation4. Reinforced concrete rib to tile lid5. Acrylic resin joint sealant6. Cable ducts for temporary stressing7. Cable ducts for temporary stressing8. Precast concrete cross bracing9. Precast concrete rib segment10. Mild steel reinforcing bars to rib segment

1:500 scale

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Bibliography:

Website links:

http://autocww.colorado.edu/~toldy3/E64ContentFiles/Construction/Ceram-

ics.html

http://web.utk.edu/~prack/mse201/Chapter%2013%20Structures%20and%20

Properties%20of%20 Ceramics.pdf

http://www.xaar.com/en/media-centre/world-leading-ceramic-tile-printer-

manufacturers-deliv-er-big-impact-at-tecnargilla-with-the-xaar-gs40-printhead

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Ceramic-Tile.html

https://apetcher.wordpress.com/2013/08/17/catalonia-barcelona-and-anto-

ni-gaudi/

http://www.designboom.com/history/tiles_history.html

http://www.euromkii.com/content/2154-portuguese-hand-painted- ine-ce-

ramic-tiles-azule-jos-blue-baroque-style-xvii-xviii

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casa_Batll%C3%B3

http://www.barcelona.ie/historic-sites/casa-batllo/#more-1348

http://cargocollective.com/klink/Lisbon-Aquariumhttp://investigator.records.

nsw.gov.au/Entity.aspx?Path=%5CImage%5C10918&format=print http://faca-

descon idential.blogspot.co.uk/2012/05/sydney-opera-house-decoding-glass-

walls.html

http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2F-

commons.wikimedia. org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASydney_Opera_House_Night.

jpg&h=0&w=0&tbnid=UX6sYQ4sCMf- 69M&zoom=1&tbnh=183&tbnw=276&-

docid=eT7esm2vIvDp0M&tbm=isch&ei=DPBkVMisF5X-masGYgbgK&ved=-

0CAQQsCUoAA

http://wall.alphacoders.com/by_sub_category.php?id=177407

https://amanderings.wordpress.com/2012/09/:

http://www.davidmoorephotography.com.au/soh1to10.html

http://www.yukiba.com/upl/server/uploads/1265384710-Sydney-Austral

ia-Oceania-Sydney. JPG

http://www.sydneycloseup.com/sydney-opera-house-facts.html

Books:

Phillip Drew (1995). Sydney Opera House. London: Phaidon Press Ltd.

Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds. Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and Operat-ing Practices in the Heavy Clay Industries. Bauverlag GmbH, 1982.

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Technology ReportArch 3036 Tech 1 projectSteel Framing Construction

Liam Coyles & Tom Cox

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At high temperatures, iron begins to absorb carbon. The carbon within the iron causes the melting point to decrease, the resulting iron is 2.5% to 4.5% Carbon and is known as cast iron. The development of blast furnaces, first used by the chinese in the 6th century BC. It was more widely known by Europeans in the Middle Ages.Molten iron ran out of the blast furnace and cooled in a primary channel with adjoining smaller moulds. Because of the look of the cooling channels this process became known as pig iron referring to a little of piglets suckling from a sow. The cast iron is strong, but suffers from brittleness due to its carbon content this makes it difficult to work and shape once cast. As metallurgists became more aware that the high carbon content in iron was central to the problem of brittleness. At very high temperatures, iron begins to absorb carbon, which lowers the melting point of the metal, resulting in cast iron (2.5 to 4.5% carbon). By the late 18th century, ironmakers learned how to transform cast pig iron into a low-carbon content wrought iron using puddling furnaces (developed by Henry Cort in 1784). The furnaces heated molten iron, which had to be stirred by puddlers using a long oar-shaped tools, allowing oxygen to combine with and slowly remove carbon.As the carbon content decreases, iron’s melting point increases, so masses of iron would agglomerate in the furnace. These masses would be removed and worked with a forge hammer by the puddler before being rolled into sheets or rails. By 1860, there were over 3000 puddling furnaces in Britain, but the process remained hindered by its labor and fuel intensiveness.

The Era of Iron

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The Bessemer process

The use of steel within the construction of buildings was initially quite slow however the introduction of the Bessemer process in 1855 made steel production far more efficient. It was named after its inventor Henry Bessemer who patented the process in 1855. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Related decarburizing with air process had been in use outside of Europe for hundreds of years just not on an industrial scale. The main Principle of the Bessemer process is the removal of impurities via oxidisation. This happens by Hot air being blown through tuyeres into the molten iron thus removing the carbon, at the same time the oxidisation raises the temperature and aids in keeping the iron in its molten state. The problem with with this process is that is failed to remove phosphorus from its end product, which is a deleterious impurity that causes steels brittleness. This limited the possible ores that could be used to Sweden and wales as they were phosphorus – free. A solution wasn’t derived until in 1876 when Sidney Gilchrist Thomas came up with the idea of adding a chemically basic flux – limestone. The limestone drew phosphorus from the pig iron into the slag, allowing the removal of the troubling element.

1) Molten pig iron2) Hot air piped in3) Hot air enters furnace through tuyeres4) Fire clay brick5) Steel lining6) Slag7) Carbon monoxide

This innovation meant that, iron ore from around the world could be sourced to make steel. Not surprisingly, steel production costs began decreasing rapidly. Prices for steel rail dropped around 80% between 1867 and 1884, as a result of the new steel producing techniques the growth of the world steel industry began (2)

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Why use steel

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1 Speed of construction increases2 Steel is lightweight construction which

will minimise the load on the foundation 3 Steel is strong and light so, using the

this framing construction will cut the cost of substructure cost

4 Modular construction easy to use as it has set out dimensions

5 Efficiency of the build- lot of steel framing manufacturing is off site

6 Completely load bearing, its allows the facade to be any style

7 It can be used in any context (brown field sites, sub urban, urban, rural)

8 Environmental benefits are steel is 100% recyclable

9 Complies with the sustainable home code

1 Multi storey residential2 Mixed uses buildings i.e basement car parks3 Residential housing in urban and

suburban context4 Student residents5 Hotels6 Retail, car parks 7 Residential extensions

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Typical spans and sizes and how it’s constructed

1 Typical Dimensions for residential housing span from 3.5 to 5.5m2 Urban housing

- Often used for multi storey housing on a small footprint3 In terrace housing steel construction is very similar to timber construction, in the plan of the houses

-The stair openings are the only alteration to a simple post and beam system. Trimmers are used to support where the opening start the stairs meet the first floor.

4 Detached and semi detached housing The floor spanning depends on the plan form of the design, but usually between 3.5 to 5.5m

5 Steel framing uses post and beam similar to the timber framing, but normally has an infill of lattice steel framing

6 Middlesbrough housing by Metek Building systemsHousing built over the top of a car parkSlab of concrete, supporting steel posts holding a composite floor for theresidential use.

7 Residential building in urban areas- for flat blocks. Normal spans between 5 and 7mTypically floor depth are from 600mm down to 400mm, depending on what the materials are. Slimdek provide a great acoustic insulation and fire resistance with depth of 400mm.

1) `U’ Track

2) `C’ Stud

3) `U’ Track and `C’ Stud Window frame

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Flooring systems

Section of the FloorPrimary steel beam

Concrete flooring slabs layered over secondary steel

Services holes

Axonometric of the steel framing structureColumn

Slabs spanning between secondary beam

Primary beam

Secondary beam

Foundations

Plan of the Steel and concrete flooring

the dimensions between the columns here for example are 12meters width and 9 meters lengthprimary and secondary beams are support-ing the pre cast composit slabs

Sizes vary depends on how the beams are ste up. Pre cast slabs vary between 6- 8me-ters span length and width varies between 2.5- 3 meters

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Overview of timber frame housesTimber framing is the predominant method of framing a new home in the United States. The walls, floor, and ceiling are constructed of wood, with sheets of plywood or a similar material affixed to act as platforms. The timbers are held together with wood or nails. The corners are made of several beams fixed together, with joists bearing the weight of the roof and upper floors.

Advantages of timber frame houses•Timber frames adjust to shifts in temperature far better than steel.•Timber framed houses are strong and can withstand extreme temperatures and weather in a widevariety of climates.•A great deal of timber comes from environmentally- conscious sources, so it is often a greenermaterial than steel.

Overview of steel frame housesSteel framing is frequently used in apartment buildings and prefabricated homes, as it is quicker to assemble and transport than timber. In steel frame construction, beams are spaced 40cm / 16 inches apart and affixed to spans in the floor and ceiling. Drywall and steel electrical boxes are affixed to this frame with nuts and bolts. However Steel framing is still less common in new home construction than timber framing.

Advantages and disadvantages of steel frame houses• The main two advantages of steel are its strength and simplicity of use.•Wiring and piping can be laid in without the need for pathes and holes to be laid.•Steel is resistant to burning and termites, however steel will melt and extremely hot temperatures.•Steel-framed buildings are used in areas prone to earthquakes, as steel holds up better againstseismic activity.

•Steels main disadvantage is that it does not have the thermal properties of wood, this the buildingsare more prone to temperature shifts.

Steel vs Traditional materials

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Problems

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1 Corrosion- in history a common problem.2 Steel melts in fire, although fire proof

materails for flooring and walls, which can hold off the fire for a period of time.

3 Electricity is a problem as it a conducted by the steel frame making the frame live-

shorting.4 Condensation is a problem in the more

insulated building Condensation turns to water this is when corrosion occurs ventilation need improving.

The corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidised to produce rust, which occupies approximately six times the volume of the original material. The rate at which the corrosion process progresses depends on a number of factors, but principally the ‘micro-climate’ immediately surrounding the structure.

Avoid entrapped dust and water

Encourage air movement

Breaks prevent the retention of dirt and water

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Cladding

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Steel framed brick facade

Insulation with 50mm gap then the brick facadeBrick ties channel to house brick ties

Steel framed insulated screed facade

Insulation with bedding mortar. Decorative ren-der to finish

Steel framed paneling facade

Insulation.Vertical carry rail to hold the rainscreen support. rainscreen cladding to finish

Steel framed timber cladding

Insulation. Timber post and beams to support the timber cladding

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Wokingham Medical CentreThe existing office block was substantially ex-tended to create a 1,600m2 medical centre that houses 16 doctors, five nurses, a pharmacy and a dental suite.As well as extending the steel-frame building to the front the interior was remodelled and a new third floor added to the building. The main entrance has been moved and a large canopy reflecting the existing curved stair tower added. Opening out onto a terrace, the third storey hous-es a pavilion for meeting and conference space and is set back from the north-east elevation.

Remodelling and extension to a 1950s suburban detached house

A single storey extension has been added to the rear and side of the existing house along with the rebuilding of the second floor changing the roof-scape from double hip to gable in order to obtain more useable floor area. Planning restrictions dic-tated the size, form and materials of the dormer. The rear extension, built off a beam and block floor, opens onto a new large patio which is flush with the ground floor of the house with steps that lead down to the large garden. A band of glazing running up the wall and across the roof delineates the extension from the existing main house and allows light into the centre of the ground floor.

Soudai‘Soudai’ was constructed using a house frame made from TRUECORE® steel due to its durability, protection against termites and, importantly, its great spanning capabilities. With a high strength to weight ratio, steel house frames allow builders and designers great design flexibility, especially when creating the large, open plan living spaces popular amongst homeowners today.

Steel Framing Precedents

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Costing for steel framed buildings

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Office building Case study-

This is an eight-storey city-centre office with a GIFA of about 16,500m2.The clear floor-to-ceiling height is 3m, with a structural grid of 7.5m x 15m.

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Conclusion

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To conclude from the research we have collected, there any many reasons why steel will be the favoured building frame material for the near future. Below are some of the many possitives for the choice or steel framing over its rivals.

Flexibility of Space - doesnt require supporting coloms.

Fire Resistant - When a steel roof is added to the frame, you have a greater possibility of avoiding the total loss of the building to fire.

Energy Efficient - Another aspect of using steel in construction is that it is much easier to insulate such a building than it is to insulate a wood frame structure.

Faster to Build - Skeletal frames come in kit form, easily errected on site.

Less Costly - Steel buildings cost up to 7 percent less than concrete buildings and have cost less for the last 30 years. The cost of a steel building rose about 68 percent since 1980 while the cost of a concrete building went up 114 percent since 1980.

Easy to Design - Current engineers love to design with steel and the sophisti-cation of the new technology for designing with steel reflects that.

In the past 20 years, the consumption of stainless steel has grown by a growth rate of <5%. This can be in part put due to the fast construction growth rates in China. Approximetly four million tons went into construction applications in 2006.

Steel and steel framing is clearly gaining favor in new applications and will continue to do so in to the near future. As more people recognize its incred-ible hygienic properties and durability, they will continue to use the popular material to swerve around problems its alternative materials would create.

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Bibliography

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Steel framed vs tradition-http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8600798_steel-vs-timber-frame-houses.html

Construction-http://www.steelconstruction.info/Residential_and_mixed-use_buildings#Acoustic_perfor-mance

Steel Framing-http://www.metsec.com/steel-framing/systems/

Flooring-http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching-resources/architectural-teach-ing-resource/design/choice-of-structural-systems/floor-systems

Problems-http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8600798_steel-vs-timber-frame-houses.html

Steel construction and cladding- http://www.kingspanprofiles.com

Steel framed precedents- http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects

Costing-http://www.bdonline.co.uk/putting-steel-frames-on-a-firm-footing/5058496.article

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ZAHA HADID NORDPARK RAILWAY ALEXANDER WAITHE - CONNOR SMITH

Zaha Hadid’sNordPark Railway Station

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Steel is one of the main materials that are used adjacent with the cladding of thermo formed glass. Although it can be seen that the steel is majority used for the frame; in which case cannot be seen and is not totally for aesthetics. The skin is wrapped around parallel steel rips which are individually spaces at 1.25 metres intermissions. As the glass could not be riveted to the steel ribs to produce the double curved shape they had to make up a series of ‘rigid panels’ that at the same spacing dimen-sion of 1.25 metres. However now the glass panels had to be moulded correctly and precisely to fit the steel ribs.

The moulds were made out of steel rods which were made precisely to the double curved shape of each glass panel. Zaha Hadid had designed to what was known as a ‘secret fixing system’ which can only be described as a bonded adhesive much like a resin or a poly resin that held each panel so that they would project slightly from the edges.

The polyethylene that had been made by the CNC milling machine, and the exterior projecting steel cleats were screwed into polymer buffer.

Then the gaps in between the panels which are 25mm they were filled with black silicone and this then disguised the steel cleats (the frame that cannot be noticed) and the screw heads as well to that matter.

Construction ProcessOnce the steel columns and horizontal l-beams have been delivered to site; the steel frame is con-structed and erected. Pneumatically-driven fasteners, powder-actuated fasteners, crimping and rivet-ing, even air guns that penetrate the steel with nail; are all types of connections that are widely used to construct the steel columns and beams.One main advantage to the construction process of steel frames is; that it has a practically quick erect time from delivery to construct, it can be quickly constructed up to two week’s time.

Delivery of MaterialThe sheets and bars of steel get delivered by large good vehicle that are strapped down by material cable tires. In which they are delivered to site and ready to construct together.

Cost Using a steel frame can lower construction costs by a significant amount. For a low rise or short span building the cost of a steel frame can be from £75-£90m2. There are long term saving costs using a steel frame because; steel is resistant to rot and infestation unlike timber.However even if a reinforced concrete building it still includes steel, as it will have 40kg to 50kg of steel per square metre, as a steel framed building is around 60kg. As the steel is used to strengthen the durability of the concrete.

Steel has many environmental benefits such as; • It is 100% recyclable• dust-free construction process• Minimal site wastage• ‘Cradle to grave’

STEEL STRUCTURE ‘Steel Ribs’

LöwenhausStation

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Material - Concrete Plinths “ Lightweight organic roof structures float on concrete plinths”

Zaha Hadid had designed Nord Park railway in such a magnificent technique, only her materials had to much the spectacular design the team had come up with. For this; glass and concrete were at the hierarchy. The glass forms can be seen ‘floating’ on top of the concrete plinths. Zaha has decided to use concrete in the plinths to support the thermoformed glass above. The plinths are used on all four stations she has designed, as well as the stations concrete is also used on the bridge and the pylons; which supporting steel cables are hung. They are all assembled in their situ reinforced con-crete. The concrete is exposed to show the texturing of the ‘timber shuttering boards’, as the plinths have flat surfaces with curved corners.

Construction Process

Concrete plinths can be easily made by mixing building concrete into a pre made mould at any size. Once the concrete is mixed and poured, then left to dry the mould can be broken and the casted concrete is revealed. They are made for small residential garden decoration to larger scale design, much like Zaha Hadid has made in Nord Park Railway.

Delivery of Material

The large prefab concrete plinths will be cast in a warehouse and delivered on large goods vehicle where it will be assembled on site. Some types of concrete can be made up on site and be delivered at ready mixed concret. However this depends on the size of the concrete, and or it can be pumped up hundreds of metres high if the floor of a skyscraper needs to be concrete.

Cost

Concrete is in constant competition with steel for construction at the moment in time. Especially with steel being used so frequently can lead to a shortage. Thus the prices of concrete are at a peak of £375 per tonne on average, and as the price of reinforced steel is predicted to get to £450 per tonne.

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Design Process Tecnical Process

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Zaha Hadid has premeditated another whimsical architectural embellishment within Austria,The NordPark Railway never seizes to beguile its audience with its twists and turns; double skinned glass façade and its eccen-tric colour; miming the glaciers colour of the river water beside the Löwenhaus station.Zaha purposefully looked at the topography and the adjacent urban context, which then was brought forward to design the iconic sculptural forms. The stations Zaha Hadid has created are for a purpose to connect the city centre to Hungerburg, which is a village up high in the mountains.

Zaha Hadid has created four unique individual stations and a bridge which is shaped like the curving topog-raphy of the urban context engineered by ILF Beratende Ingenieure ZT. the first station which is the congress station is the beginning of the journey which is underground and has a very eccentric feeling this may be be-cause minimal daylight is drawn into the underground station, the second station is called LowenHaus which is located just before the bridge, as you approach the bridge you find yourself admiring the landscape and the suspension construction technique used on the bridge, the next station is

Alpenzoo station which is located half way up the mountain, Ongoing you reach your final destination which is Hungerburg station, where the views will leave its audience astonished as one gets a view of the entire city.

The construction process of the NordPark Railway Station is a fascinating yet new process, when designing a building in such climates. There are factors that have to be taken into account such as the snow, Zaha has used a double skinned glass which the back of the glass is painted in opaque white epoxy, the front of the glass is slightly tinted green, VIETZKE (Architect on the design team at Zaha Hadid) compares it to an iPod ‘Its similar to the colour of some buildings in Innsbruck’ he says and points to the similarity in colour to ‘glacier milk’- mineral - rich water that flows from melting glaciers and runs through the fast-flowing river in’’. The recess guttering of Nord Park Railway is hidden between each slab to keep the viewers hoodwinked and also to keep the streamlined form. The glass panels almost seem as if they are floating along the concrete structure, how the double glass skinned panels are joined to the frame FIG 4, 5 and 6 is a technique called CNC – milled Carbon fibre profiles which are screwed to steel fixings glued to the back of each individual panels as Zaha describes it as a secret fixing system. CNC – Milling is a new technique to the design indus-try, fig 2 is showing how a programme called Rhino is incorporated to the design.

The Architect has used this programme to gain knowledge of the curvature of the steel carbon fibre rods as you can tell from fig 2, how each curve and rod is designed to fit the double skinned glass panels. Looking at fig 1 and 3 is also as design process which was produced in Rhino, if you look carefully you can see how each panel is twisting and turning to fit the steel rods, each panel on each of the 4 stations are carefully designed using Rhino. The peculiar aspect of Zaha’s design is how not one panel is matched the same shape or dimensions as the next panel running throughout the design, this was down to being able to separate the panels on Rhino fig1 and 2. When designing within Rhino you gain a sense of the dimensions and the curvature of each indi-vidual panel, after finishing the design in Rhino the Architect can then send a DWG or DXF file to a CNC machine in order to create a mould, a mould is necessary for each panel so one can begin to imagine how many moulds where needed for this construction costing just over £33 million, after all the moulds are CNC MILLED, they were then sent off to a thermoforming factory where the glass is carefully placed over each individual mould and formed within a thermoforming machine to create a perfect shaped panel which is then carefully placed in its correct position on steel structure of the design.

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CongressStation

PROJECT START DATE: Dec 2004START ON SITE DATE: Dec 2005DATE OF COMPLETION: Dec 2007FORM OF CONTRACT: Public Private PartnershipTOTAL COST: UndisclosedTOTAL ROOF SURFACE AREA (ALL STATIONS): 2,500M2CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: BASE – Reinforced Concrete; STRUCTURE – Steel; CLADDING – Thermoformed GlassCLIENT: INKB (Innsbrucker Nordkettenbahnen GmbH) Public Private Partnership

What is Thermoforming? Thermoforming is a process which makes standard 2D flat thermoplastic sheets into three dimensional shapes through the process. It can be concerted by; vacuum forming, pressure forming, or twin sheet processing.

Sizing of thermoformed glass can be formed in near any shape, and if extra large too big for large ther-moform ovens they can be put ogether in puzzle pieces.

Pricing for thermoglass can cost anything from round £200-£400 per square metre. Shapes can be created by heat sculpting and numerous shapes and forms.

The designers explored the way in which Nordpark being a heavy form to look ‘light’. The idea behind this was to introduce cantilevered wings with narrowing legs that sits upon the ‘concrete plinths’. Which relates back to the idea of the ‘floating roof structure’. As Zaha described the structure similar materials from car bodies, yachts and aero plane wings. This design pushing the boundaries of design and construction with these fantastic glacial ‘moraines’ and ice movements to develop a fluid style of architecture.

The train that gets you to the top of the structure is phenomenal. You can get from the centre of Inns-bruck to the top of an alp in 25 mins. However the ervice itself isn’t very rapid at a top speed of 13mph. However you have a great view over the river, and it the angle of 55 degrees you would think you were travelling vertical. A quote from Zaha Hadid herself explains the design;“We studied natural phenomena such as glacial moraines and ice movements – as we wanted each sta-tion to use the fluid language of natural ice formations, like a frozen stream on the mountainside.”

- Zaha Hadid.

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BIBLIOGRAPHYhttp://www.evolo.us/architecture/shell-and-shadow-for-nordpark-railway-sta-tions-in-innsbruck-austria-zaha-hadid-architects/

http://www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk/projects/display/id/664

http://www.e-architect.co.uk/austria/nordpark-zaha-hadid

http://www.arcspace.com/features/zaha-hadid-architects/nordpark-cable-railway/

http://www.mimoa.eu/projects/Austria/Innsbruck/Nordpark%20Cable%20Railway

http://www.building.co.uk/innsbruck-cable-car-stations-zaha-hadid-lifts-the-spir-its/3100491.articles://thomasmayerarchive.de/categories.php?l=English

http://openbuildings.com/buildings/nordpark-railway-stations-profile-37/me-dia?group=drawing#!buildings-media/18

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Congress Station

Alpenzoo Station

Löwenhaus Station

Bridge

hungerburg

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ARCH 3035 TECH 3 2014-15Project 1: Material/systems studies

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Glass is a combination of sand and other minerals, such as soda ash and limestone, that are fused together at very high temperatures to form a ma-terial that is ideal for a wide range of uses from windows in buildings and cars to packaging and more advanced methods such as construction to fibre optics. Glass is generally a hard brittle substance, which is typically transpar-ent or translucent, and as it can be made translucent it is a very useful mate-rial, especially in buildings. Glass is an amorphous solid material that exhibits a “glass transition” property, which means that its state is reversible, from a molten state to its solid state and from its solid state to back its molten state. At higher temperatures glass gradually becomes softer and more like a liq-uid. It is this latter property, which allows glass to be poured, blown, pressed and moulded into such a variety of shapes.

Glass making is an ancient art which has taken place for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests that the first true piece of glass was produced in north Syria as glass making was traced back to 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. The first uses of glass were vessels, beads and was used in jewellery. Volcanic glass, Obsidian, is a naturally occurring glass. During the stone age glass was con-sidered a rarity and was traded vastly throughout the world as it was lucrative material, it was mainly used in the making of sharp tools. Extensive glass production was taking place by the 15 centu-ry, Western Asia as well as Crete and Egypt, the techniques and raw materials for the production of glass were a closely guarded secret reserved for powerful states making it a luxury material in these times as glass workers in other regions depended on imports.

George Ravens croft was an English business man who specialised in the glass making trade, he became famous in the mid 1600’s as he was the creator of clear lead crystal glass. He did this by adding lead oxide to molten glass which improved its appearance making it clearer and easier to melt and form, this was a huge step in the technological advance in glass making which ultimately made Eng-land have the leading glass industry. Glass making has evolved ex-tensively and with new modern methods being adopted, glass-mak-ing process and can make many different types of glass in infinitely varied colours formed into a wide range of products.

Material Glass Composition Reason for AddingSand 72.6 -Soda Ash 13.0 Easier meltingLimestone 8.4 DurabilityDolomite 4.0 Working & weathering propertiesAlumina 1.0 -Others 1.0 -

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Pilkington Group Limited is one of the leading glass manu-facturing companies in the world. It was founded in 1826, it has been a leading glass manufacturer since 1957 when the company invented a revolutionary method of glass produc-tion, the float glass process. This new method produces very high quality smooth flat glass much quicker and cheaper than previous methods. 4

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Annealing is a process of slowly cooling glass to relieve internal stresses after it was formed and ensure it maintains a strong structural integraty. The process may be carried out in a temperature controlled kiln. Glass which has not been annealed is more likely to crack or shatter when subject-ed to a relatively high temperature change or shock. Annealing glass is critical to its durability, if glass is not annealed it will retain many of the thermal stresses caused by quenching and signifi-cantly decrease the overall strength of the glass. This process is definitive and is always used in the production of glass. Annealed glass is commonly found in household windows and is the beginning stages of alternative methods to treat glass.

Also known as tempered glass it is a type of safety glass which is considerably stronger than reg-ular glass. Its properties allow it to have many applications. Unlike regular glass when broken the glass crumbles into granular chunks unlike sharp glass shards, this is a key feature which makes it safer compared to regular glass. Toughened glass is commonly used in car windows, frameless glass doors and large high rise windows. Toughened glass is made by heating the glass at high temperatures and then rapidly cooling it, this puts the outer surfaces into compression and the inner surfaces into tension increasing its strength. It also can be combined with other methods to improve its durability.

Glass is coated to modify its appearance and properties. Solar control is another application which has increased due to its significance advantages.

With the increased use of glass in architecture today makes it imperative to consider the comfort of occu-pants and Solar controlling glass is an example of this. It is an attractive feature of a building whilst at the same time minimising, or even eliminating the need for an air conditioning system, reducing running costs of the building and saving energy. In hot climates, solar control glass can be used to minimise solar heat gain and help control glare, this is crucial in hot climates were buildings mostly compromise of glass. Con-trolling heat and light will allow building to control the temperature inside, keeping the building warm in winter to ensure comfort. It is manufactured through coating several layers of metal oxides on to the glass by the means of vacuum magnetism control and cathodic sputtering this technological process of coating assures the firmness and wear resistance of films.

Types of glass and its applicationsGlass is a very versatile and commonly used material, there are many different types of glass which results in it having many different functions and specific uses.

Annealed Glass

Toughened Glass

Coated Glass

Vacuum magnetism control and cathodic sputtering Thermal control

Laminated glass is a common combination alongside toughened glass which increases its strength further and allows it to crack however not crumble away and leave glass pieces. Laminated glass is made of two or more layers of glass with one or more “interlayer’s” of polymeric material bonded between the glass layers.

Laminated Glass

FrittingFitting is a type of coating which is applied onto glass, to help control heat gain and diffuse light, the fritting applied is usually ceramic but other materials can also be used. Mirrored fritting can be used to make the glass seem one way from a distance increasing the privacy behind the glass.

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The double glazed window was invented in the 1930's, Double glazing or insulating glass is the most common type of glass used in buildings as windows as they are efficient and long lasting. The unit is made by having two panes of glass separated by a 'spacer' which is most efficient using a space of 16-19mm and it is usually made from structural foam as it doesn't conduct heat making the unit more efficient. These double glazing units are constructed by applying an adhesive sealant such as polyisobutylene (PIB) to each side of the spacer then the glass panels are pressed against this spacer, the unit is then sealed on the edge side with a silicone sealant. The air is ei-ther removed from the space between the panes and replaced with Argon, this is to eliminate the build up of condensation between the two panes and to increase the thermal performance of the unit as it has 67% of the thermal conductivity of air. Double glazing has good heat insulating properties and the effective-ness of the windows are measured by the heat loss of the unit can be shown as a U-value, the lower the more efficient, a standard double glazing unit can have a U-value of up to 3.1 m2•K/W compared to single glazing which has 4.8 m2•K/W. This can be improved by using different gas and by coating the individual panes which can improve the U-value to 1.7 m2•K/W. Double glazing also has acoustic insulating properties the larger the space between the panes the more efficient the unit is at providing noise insulation.

Triple glazing is very similar to double glazing except it has another pane of glass in the unit which improves on the qualities of double glazing. It is more thermally efficient as well as having better acoustic insulation, the U-value of triple glazing can be as low as 0.65 m2•K/W, however it is very expensive and heavy which is why it is less commonly used.

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THE GHERKINThe Gherkin uses a framed construction method for the glass panels to be slotted within the frame. This is a common method used in construction as it is quick to assemble with little risk. Glass panes are fitted into the framework and then sealed into place with a sealant, this allows it to be weather tight and secure the glass pane.

Address: 30 St Mary Axe, London, EC3A 8EPConstruction started: 2001Architecture firm: Foster and PartnersHeight: 180 m CTBUHArchitects: Norman Foster, Ken ShuttleworthOwners: Evans Randall Ltd., IVG ImmobilienArchitectural styles: Sustainable architecture, High-tech architecture, Structural Expressionism

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Galeo BouyguesImmobilier Headquarter

The Spider connection is a modern solution for exterior bolted glass assemblies, which secures the glazing to a support struc-ture by means of point-fixingsThe high-grade stainless steel fixings are designed to absorb all static and dynamic loads (i.e. the dead weight of the glass, wind loading, snow loads and differential expansion due to temperature difference) and distribute them to the support structure.

Design principles:

-The size of the supporting structure must be adequate to take the weight of the glass and the wind load conditions so it does not put any strain on the glass itself.

-The glass needs to withstand the wind loads and imposed dead loads.

-There must be a gap between the two panes of glass to avoid transmitting stresses and to allow space for the mas-tic weather seal.

-Various types of support structures are possible.

Location:Galeo, Dueo Trieo 3, boulevard Gallieni 92130 Issy-les-MoulineauxArchitect:Christian de Portzamparc

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Project name: Optical Glass House

Main purpose: HousingDesign: Hiroshi Nakamura & NAP Co.,Ltd.Structure design: Yasushi MoribeContractor: Imai CorporationLocation: Naka-ku, Hiroshima-shi, Hitroshima, JapanSite area: 243.73m2Total Floor area: 363.51m2Completion year: October,2012Structure: R.C.structure

This house sits among tall build-ings in downtown Hiroshima overlooking a busy street and to obtain tranquillity and privacy a garden was placed overlooking the street with an optical glass facade. As the garden can be seen from all rooms the tranquillity passes through the house.

This Optical Glass House, in Japan, was built by a busy road but despite this the architect wanted to create a private oasis where the residents were still connected to the movements of people and traffic. This private oasis can be seen from every room and provides the house with its own garden that feels public as it connects to its surroundings, but still remains private as it is set one story up so passersby can’t see straight in.

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This results in a transparent facade appearing to flow down-wards like a waterfall, sunlight from the east refracts through the glass scattering the light creating beautiful patterns. The house makes good use of light as it filters through the garden trees flickering on the living room floor. Although this house is located in a city it allows the residents to experience and enjoy the changing light and city moods as the day passes.

Optical Glass Façade

The optical glass facade is made up of 6,000 pure-glass blocks measuring at 50mm x 235mm x 50mm creating a two story high wall 8.6m x 8.6 m weighing 13 tons. These glass bricks effective-ly insulate the garden from sound and creates a peaceful garden that connects to its surroundings. To produce this special facade glass of extremely high transparency was made from borosili-cate, which is the raw material for optical glass. The process of casting these bricks was very difficult as it required high dimen-sional accuracy and slow cooling to reduce residual stress from within the glass. However even then the bricks still had some surface imperfections but the affect this caused was welcomed as unexpected optical illusions where produced in the interior space. The glass facade couldn’t stand independently as the rows of glass blocks were just 50mm deep, a concrete frame would have to be of massive size to support the facade there-fore each block was punctured with holes and strung on 75 steel bolts suspended from the beam above the facade which concrete was cast around to minimize the frames size. However as this structure would be prone to lateral stress so stainless steel flat bars (40mm x 4mm) were placed at 10cm intervals along the blocks, the bars are between the blocks and they ap-pear invisible as a 6mm sealing joint was used thus hiding these lateral bars.

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References

1-http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-g72hkZQH9pw/UEdw7cHoDVI/AAAAAAAACBQ/xWV0SRviLpo/s1600/Blacka-ndWhiteGlassArchitecture-long+goodbye.png

2-http://s3.amazonaws.com/estock/fspid9/10/61/15/6/obsidian-igneous-volcanic-1061156-o.jpg

3-http://www.christchurchraleigh.org/editor/images/users_images/gwfreeman.jpg

4-http://goodlogo.com/images/logos/pilkington_logo_3629.gif

5-http://blog.specifinder.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Pilkington-float-glass-production-today.jpg

6-http://www.pilkington.com/pilkington2004/both/images/productdirectory/pl-pl/products/glasssystems1.jpg

7-http://media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/54/b7/c8/54b7c8fd850ea94db567139cdc1069bf.jpg

8-http://no.wallpaperpics.net/wallpapers/2013/06/Byen-Skyskrapere-vindu-glass-1920x2560.jpg

9-http://yazdanistudioresearch.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/adaptive-frit1.jpg

10-http://archicg.name/projects/Gherkin/Gherkin_1200.jpg

11-http://www.arch.ttu.edu/courses/2013/fall/5334/Students/Zuefeldt/Presentation02/Default02.htm

12-http://cdn.lightgalleries.net/4ce15e0cbb307/images/Corp26-1.jpg

13-http://we-aggregate.org/media/files/86862bbe67ae8d2a1182093ae993dad7.jpg

14-http://www.constructionphotography.com/ImageThumbs/A012-00599/3/A012-00599_The_Gherkin_Swiss_Re_Headquarters_under_construction_The_building_is_a_new_landmark_in_the_London_Sk.jpg

15-http://www.bouygues-immobilier.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_informer_view_full_intro_im-age/public/content/article_reference/galeo_a.jpg

16-http://www.sadev.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/siege-bouygues-immobilier/zoom_fixation_sadev_bouygues.jpg

17-http://www.sadev.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/1/files/siege-bouygues-immobilier/bouygues_immo_zoom_ecailles_facade.jpg

18-http://www.dezeen.com/2013/01/27/optical-glass-house-by-hiroshi-nakamura-nap/

19-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass

20-http://www.glassforeurope.com/en/products/main-types-of-glass.php

21-http://www.pilkington.com/

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Material and System Study

By Alison Sangolana and Tais Sujuki231

IAC Building Construction Team

Base Building Design Architect: Gehry Partners, LLCInterior Architect: STUDIOS ArchitectureExecutive Architect, Base Building: Adamson AssociatesGraphic Design and Building ID: Bruce Mau DesignAudio Visual Integrator: Mccann Systems LLCArchitectural Lighting Designers: Brandston Partnership Inc.IT and Security Consultants: TM Technology Partners Inc.Construction Management: Turner ConstructionStructural Engineer: DeSimone Consulting EngineersMechanical Electrical and Plumbing Engineers: Cosentini AssociatesGeotechnical Engineer: Langan Engineering and Environmental ServicesCurtainwall Glass Consultant: Israel Berger & Associates, Inc.Curtainwall Manufacturer: Permasteelisa Group

Contents Material/System Study

Northwest view Southwest viewNorth view

1. IAC building, Frank Gehry: Material: glass curtain wall2.Video Projection mapping -Shading system-Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wall3.Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wall4.Glass curtain wall system 5.Glass meeting ground6.Assembling on site7. The structure-Roof stystem-Wind anaylsis8.Wind anaylsis diagrams9. Rhino drawings10.Technical drawings11.Technical drawings12.Construction process:conrete-Construction process: Glass curtain wall13. Cost comparison with University of Aberdeen Library

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IAC building, Frank GehryArchitect: Gehry Partners, LLPClient: InterActiveCorpLocation: New York, 11th AvenueTotal area: 130,000 ft2Cost: $62 million (£40 million)

The IAC Building, which was built in 2007 and design by Frank Gehry. The building attracts attention against the heavy, industrial structures surrounding it in the Manhattan neighborhood. This ten-storey milky-white skin and faceted curved building is an Internet company founded by Hollywood mogul Barry Diller. Both the client and the architect intended to suggest the sails of a ship, as well as they would have like to build the IAC right on the water, thought it was impossible because of the zoning. However, the building is adjacent Hud-son River. It’s shiny white glass; it looks like more an iceberg during the day time. The $62 million building occupies 202,000 sq. ft. with the floor area.

Material: glass curtain wall In design process of the IAC building Frank Gehry used physical models in conjunction with computer generated models. Digital project developed from CATIA, a 3D computer modeling soft-ware, by Gehry Technology,inc was used to rationalize the fabrication and construction process. One of his earli-er models for this building included an envelope of mirror-reflective glass that would mollify the solar the solar heat gain issue. The client Barry Diller re-jected this idea as he saw it as cheap and a generic design for office build-ings. Other cladding material options that were explored included stone, stainless steel and titanium panels (im-ages.2-6). However Barry Diller insist-ed on an all-glass building reportedly for reasons based more on innovation as Gehry had never done this before. As Frank Gehry had decide to go with a skin that was transparent in appear-ance the type of glass that was being used was crucial due to the New York City’s restriction on energy code. Due to the poor performance of glass in terms of thermal insulation and solar heat gain, a skin that was completely transparent was not an option even though this was the effect that Frank Gehry wanted to create.

Image 2. This is a more “traditional” Gehry design with the use of the crumpled facade that he as used in buildings such as the Walt Disney Concert hall.

Image 3. This is similar to the final design but has the reflective glass cladding that the client disaproved because “It had connotation of a cheap building”.

Image 4. This model is far from the final model design by Gehry and the designer but hair a glass exterior.

Image 5. This model is similar to the final design but has flat metal sheets that were separated by metal mullions.

Image 6. The final design beening white in colour came alsmost by accident, “the earliest mod-els just happen to be white and Barry decided he liked it and that was that”, says Gehry.

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Eventually a double-glazed insulating glass with a low emittance coating that would improve the thermal perfor-mance, which is a major issue in using glass, was chosen by the designers. An Additional white coloured sun-shading coat was added (image.7). This was baked on ceramic dot- pattern, which reflect light, reduce glare and gives the building its white gradient look. The fritted glass enhances the buildings en-vironmental by acting as an integrated sunscreen and stills allows for views into and out of the building. The sub-tlety of the fading pattern on the fritted glass is more apparent from the interi-or, where one can experience up close the parallactic effects of the gradient.

At night, the glass curtain wall becomes transparent as the Interior lights are turn on; alcove lighting wraps around the perimeter of each floor which al-lows the concrete skeleton of the build-ing to appear (images 8--9). Alcove lighting wraps around the perimeter of each floor which allows this affect to be displayed. Frank Gehry says he is working on a way to fine-tune the light-ing so that the building looks as soft and alluring at night as it does by day.

The outcome is a building envelope with a visually indeterminate exterior character that seems to shift with en-vironmental conditions: opaque under intense sun, translucent under overcast skies, nearly transparent at night when illuminated from within.

The open floor plan allows hundred percent of the work spaces to be ex-posed to natural light. Also the contig-

uous ceilings that is applied through the building enhances the open office aesthetic and helps draw daylight into the building.

Video Projection mapping The glass curtain wall was the perfect canvas for the video projection map-ping that happened in 2007.As part of the Vimeo Festival + Awards, it was transformed into a multi-storey canvas with real-time 3D content projected and aligned to the curvy facade (im-age 10-11).

Shading systemThere is also a collection of 1,400 sun-blocking MechoShades, which was specially designed for the 1,150 different curvature wall. The Whisper-shade® is a motorized shading system that has several benefits to the building and the users, as it improves comfort and reduces energy cost. Its design to maximize natural daylight using a ra-diometer that helps increase energy ef-ficiency as it collects real-time sky data which allows the SolarTrac® and Sun-Dialer® to seamlessly work together to create the auto mated-shade system, that has five pre-set user-defined solar penetration levels (image 12).

Construction and Manufacturing of glass curtain wallPermasteelisa who were the build-ing envelope engineer/manufactur-er of the building collaborated using a centralized 3D computer model to the design and fabrication of its pan-el shapes to the positioning of its an-choring system. As the building had slight curve it meant that skinning it re-quired a variety of glass panel shapes of these shapes 1,150 were unique in shape and degree of twist and a total of 1,450 glasses wee used.

The glass that was used for this build-ing was custom engineered by Per-masteelisa and fabricated in Italy. The facade incorporates double glazed, 12’x5’ glass panels. The designers de-termined the shape of each panel base on the 3D model and then the data was fed directly into an automated fab-rication process that cut the aluminium and glass (image13-15).

Each of the two panes of glass is 10 millimetres thick, with one laminated and one monolithic, separated by air space of 12 millimetres. The ceramic frit is a ceramic-based paint that would be silkscreened onto the glass and then baked to fuse the paint with the pattern surface on to the glass. In the case of the IAC building it had a gradi-ent effect pattern that transitioned from full-coverage at the floor and ceiling of each level to a zone roughly at eye lev-el for a person standing on the inside, where it gradually reduce in dense-ness reaching a band of transparency. The gradient effect of the dots is only legible within one or two meters from the glass as each dot is 1.5millimeters in diameter. From a distance greater than this a smooth blend is seen with different degrees of translucency. This effect has been done In other buildings such as the B3 office by Norman Foster where in this case a solid coating of white frit is used to conceal the floor plates and a more successful unified façade is achieved, at the IAC the transparent zone is too wide and fade too fast, resulting in a high-contrast ex-pression of stripes.

Image 7. close-up exterior veiw of ceramic frit pattern on th curtain wall glass.

Image 9. IAC Building during the day the facade has a milky white colour

Image 8. IAC Building at night time a transparent effect is created

Image 10-11. Video-projection

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As the fabrication of curved glass is an extremely expensive process, it meant that this process was not a suitable option as nearly every piece of glass would have to be bent to a unique radius to achieve the overall building form. Instead, the curtain wall units were prefabricated in the factory as flat units, incorporating the alumini-um edge-frames and the glass sheets, bent into the required warped shapes during their installation on site. This process helps minimise the number of unique panel types as well as reduce the number of pre-curved panels. This building was actually the world’s first glass curtain wall to be cold-wrapped.

According to president and CEO of cladding supplier Permasteelisa, the cold-warping idea came from his work on Gehry’s Walt Disney Concert Hall, which has cold-warped stainless-steel panels, and from observing glass han-dled in the shop and in curtain-wall mock-ups. The collaboration between Archi-tects, engineers and fabricator meant that the calculation of each panel was

accurate which was key.

The dimensions of each curtain-wall unit are about 1.5 meters by the height of one story, ranging from about 4 to 4.6 meters (image.16). Permasteelisa, working with Gehry’s office and the façade consultant Israel Berger and Associates worked together to verify an adequate range calculated the de-gree of bending for each glass unit. The calculated limit of about 10 centimeter of warpage per panel because when glass in bent shrinkage happen but be-cause of the 10-centimeter shrinkage is uniform and it just simply becomes smaller. The warpage was determined not by the breaking point of the glass, which surprisingly in sheet form are relatively flexible but rather the tensile strength of the silicone adhesive an-choring the fourth corner of each sheet of glass to the curtain-wall frame that determined a maximum torque, which was important for this particular type of building as curves were a key part of it (image 17).

The use of digital model was essential to determine the correlating “unbent” di-mensions for each flat panel that would translate to the correct shape after cold-wrapping on site. The data were exported straight to the automated fab-rication equipment that cut each piece of glass and aluminum to the needed size. Each individual curtain-wall unit is framed on all sides by mullions of extruded aluminum, in this case about 75 millimeters wide by 200 deep to which glass panels glazed with sili-cone sealant. The mullions are shaped in cross-section to interlock with the frames of adjacent units, providing ad-ditional structural stability and sealing joint against water and air infiltration.

Before construction began, as the curtain wall was a new and innova-tion design it was laboratory tested to ensure its environmental and struc-tural durability also to determine if there was going to be any leakage. A turbo prop engine blowing hurri-cane force winds against the glass wall was done to test this (image 18).

Image 12. Shading system

Image 13 -14. 3D computer model Image 15. Manufacturing of glass

Automation• Seamless integration with SolarTrac® and SunDialer® automat-ed-shade systems.• Maximize natural day-light, SolarTrac increases energy efficiency while providing with a com-fortable environment for occupants and views tothe outside.

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Glass curtain wall system

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Assembling on siteThe angled columns posed a chaleng-ing engineering task. However the contractors usedLaser guided survey-ing equipment to help get the exact po-sitioning of the structuctral componets

Permasteelisa designed a special an-choring system that could absorb tol-erances between frame and curtain wall. To find the connection point, Permasteelisaas survey team used the 3D model in conjunction with a GPS system and lasers to triangulate the exact location. Composed of horizon-tal and vertical aluminum brackets, the anchors bolt to the slab edge and can slide three dimensionally until the connection point is reached. To find the connection point, Permasteelisaas survey team used the 3D model in conjunction with a GPS system and la-sers to triangulate the exact location. Each unit is individually anchored to the buildings concrete floor slab with adjustable aluminum brackets that can accommodate the allowance toleranc-es of the site-cast concrete frame.

The panels were manufactured flat, but once on site, bent them into place. To achieve cold bending, worker partially installed each unit, connected three cor

ners of each unit first; anchoring it at the bottom corner and one upper then phys-ically pulled the fourth corner into place, connecting it to the sab to hold it in thefinal position, literally contorting the glass and metal and giving IAC its whimsical design.

De Gobbi, the president of Permasteel-isa, decided not to use the typical set of male/female joints. Each unit of glass is double-glazed, so it was difficult to bend each unit on site; the perimeter seal, which is made of silicon, is put under stress.

The anchoring system designed would accommodate construction tolerances and conduct a rigorous survey of the structure to perfectly place each brack-et, absorbing tolerances between frame and curtain wall. This is possible because the anchors bolt to the slab edge and can slide three dimensional-ly until the connection point is reached (image 19-22)

Image 18. Turbo prop engine

Image 19. Fitting scheme of anchoring system

Images 20-21.The typical Male and Female joint

Images 22. Anchoring system6

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The structureThe engineer chose a 12 Inch flat-plate concrete system because of its simplic-ity, the highly articulated slab edges and the high steel prices of the time. A 5,000 psi cast-in-place concrete was used throughout the structure. Gehry’s 3D model was used to conceptualize the structure but not document the project, because the local contracting community would not want to use a 3D solid model for dimensional control.

About the perimeter columns, most of them tilted at different angles up to 20°, within a floor and floor to floor. Only three column lines are continu-ous. The perimeter columns are in the same location relative to each floor, but floors were different relative to one another. Connecting the dots resulted in leaning columns were a more pure solution than transferring out columns at every floor. But the problem is that all the columns slope in a counterclock-wise direction that introduced a hori-zontal twisting force that exceeded the wind and seismic forces (images 23-25).

Roof SystemThe material that composed the roof is a 5000-psi concrete with 14” thick. There are columns with twenty-inch diameter that support the roof along the perimeter, and intermittently posi-tioned, there are 14x14 inch posts that help to support the mechanical equip-ment existing on the roof.

The mechanical equipment includes a large window-washing unit to service the entire building façade and other materials not specified (image 26).

In order to provide additional rein-forcement for the roof level, there are HSS 10x10x1/2” square tubes along the perimeter of the building, locat-ed on the eleventh floor, which is a mechanical mezzanine level. On this floor, there are also a CMU masonry wall and steel W-shapes that helps to support the mechanical equipment too.

Wind AnalysisFor the structure design, the IAC Head-quarters building was based on the NYC Building Code. Because of this the wind pressure designed for the IAC

was the same that the others buildings in the city, independent of the surround-ing conditions like the location and the existing buildings. It means only 20 psf for the first 100 feet and 25 psf for 100 to 300 feet.

However, the NYC Building Code was changed in July 2008, in order to adopt more of the concepts from Inter-national Building Code (IBC), included the ASCE 7 (American Society for Civil Engineers), which will be used in this analysis.The following comparison is about the wind pressures and story forces, con-sidering both the NYC Building Code and the ASCE 7, after the change, which is much more detailed than the earlier used.

Analysing the diagrams on the next page (images 27-29), it is possible to realize the variation of the values for the wind pressures on the two ver-sions. At the top of the building, the wind pressure is about 20% less using the ASCE 7 instead the NYC Building Code.

Image 23. Concrete structure Image 24. The structure and the glass Image 25. Concrete structure details

Image 26. Roof-top, showing mechanical and windw-washing equipment

7239

Image 27. Wind Diagram using NYC Building Code

Image 28.Wind Diagram using ASCE7 - In North/South wind direction

Image 29.Wind Diagram using ASCE7 - In East/West wind direction

Wind anaylsis diagrams

8240

Rhino tests of the form

Top View Front view (north)

Northwest View Notheast View

North View Separated Volums

9241

Site plan Roof plan

1. Lobby2. Media wall3. Terrace4. Kitchennete5. Open offices6. Private office7. Conference8. C.E.O. suite9. Boardroom

First floor Second floor

Sixth floor Seventh floor

Floor plans

As we can see on the plans, each floor of the IAC building is differ-ent, which result in a challenge for interior designs who needs to harbour up to 500 employees.

Technical drawings

Images from Architectural Record and Architecture Design Journals10

242

Longitudinal section

Detail of west facadeImages from Architectural Record and Architecture Design Journals

11243

Concrete structure

Glass curtain wall

Construction process

12244

The library is an eight storey building with a clean cut exterior profile. The building is also designed to meet the highest sustainable standards, minimis-ing long term. Consisting of an irreg-ular pattern of insulated panels and high performance glazing, the façade not only allows plenty of daylight to penetrate into the building.

Compared to the IAC building in terms of material both use glass however they are used in completely different ways, in term of their form. One will assume that the IAC building would be more expensive as it has a more intricate and complex shape, however this is not the case as the University of Aberdeen New Library is more expen-sive.

The precise precision of the IAC build-ing from the design process to con-struction meant that exceeding the budget was kept to a minimal. Addi-tional the new method developed by Permasteelisa meant that a significant amount was saved from not using the traditional way of bending the glass which requires heat.

To conclude freeform building can be successfully made and reasonable price if accuracy from the very begin-ning is takes place to minimise wast-age and new methods of technology is adopted in terms of construction. In addition 3D software has allowed for freedom to experiment and test a wide range of designs.

Cost comparison with University of Aberdeen Library

Begun: Sep 2009Completed: Sep 2011Floor area: 137,000m2Sectors: Education, CivicTotal cost: £57M

Cost: $62 million (£40 million)Total area: 130,000 ft2

13

Images from www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk

245

References

Websiteswww.mechoshade.com/WhisperShadeIQ/whispershadeiq.pdfwww.vanityfair.comwww.engr.psu.edu/ae/thesis/portfolios/2009/rac281/tech1-pdf.pdfwww.bluffton.edu/sullivanm/newyork/newyorkcity/gehry/iac.htmlwww.iachq.com/interactive/content.htmlwww.siny.org/media/projects/iacnhny.pdfwww.enr.construction.com/features/buildings/archives/070108.aspwww.archpaper.com/news/articles.asp?id=185www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk

BooksMurray,Scott.New york:Translucent Building Skins-Material Innovations in Modern and Contemporary Architecture, Rout-ledge. 2013

JournalsFrank Gehry’s first building in New York City, the IAC headquarters, pioneers a new neighbourhood, eliciting positive and negative reactions Architectural record vol. 195, no. 10, 2007 Oct., p. 112-119.Interior eye. Foster & Partners’ Hearst Tower and Gehry Partners’ IAC Building Architectural design vol. 77, no. 5, 2007 Sept./Oct., p. 112-117.

Illustrations by Alison and TaisImage 16Image 17Image 19Image 20Image 21Image 22Image 24Image 27Image 28Image 29

246

1 | I n S i t u C o n c r e t e

IN SITU CONCRETE

TECH Project 1: Material/Systems Study

LSA THIRD YEAR TECHONOLOGY 2014.2015

BA HONS ARCHITECTURE

Isabel Bezerra e Paula Alvarenga

247


Contents Description of in situ concrete................................................................................................ 3

History of material ................................................................................................................... 5

Manufacture ............................................................................................................................. 6

Description of uses .................................................................................................................... 8

Examples of material in use ................................................................................................... 9

CASE STUDY .............................................................................................................................. 13

Sesc Pompéia ......................................................................................................................... 13

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 22

248


Description of in situ concrete

Concrete is a material made up of three

basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand or

gravel) and cement. REINFORCEMENT It may also

contain chemical additives in order to improve or

modify their basic properties. Cement, usually in

powder form, act as a binding agent when mixed with

water and aggregates. This combination, or concrete

mix, will be poured and harden into the durable

material.

There are two methods of fabricating

reinforced concrete. The first is pre-fabricated

components made of concrete, called precast

concrete. The other one is to pour the paste into forms

at the building site, and that is called in situ concrete.

In situ concrete is the traditional form in

which concrete was first used in construction, it is

deposited and cured in place, it hardens as part of

the structure. In situ concrete can be seen in the work

of Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, Tadao Ando and others.

249


250


History of material

Reinforced concrete is a new material. Until

the late nineteenth century, the constructive

systems was made of wood and masonry,

but, because of wood’s problems like less

durability and tendency to combustion,

rock´s masonry or by bricks was the structural

system employed in the most important

works.

Since the first experiences with rock´s

masonry, the earlier civilizations sought some

material that unite cohesively stones. Initially,

they used the mud mortar - The Assyrians and

Babylonians used clay as a binder material –

and after that, some mud mortar more

durable and firm. In that, moment starts the

history of quicklime, cement and concrete.

The ancient Romans was a pragmatic people,

with an open and receptive mind. Because of

this mentality has resulted in the emergence

of a powerful construction industry, with a

specific law to regularize some aspects of

construction and norms facing labor´s

services. They established too specifics rules

to control quality of materials, because of

that, they achieved the construction

techniques in whole empire.

Years later, an English engineer, John

Smeaton, researching materials for a

construction of a lighthouse near to

Plymouth, conclude that de hydraulic cement

obtained from a mixture of limestone and

clay was far

superior to

pure limestone.

The big step to

develop the

cement stars in

1756 with

Smeaton, who

achieved to

obtain a high

resistant product made by soft limestone and

clay. In 1818, Vicat obtained results very

similar with Smeaton, mixing clayey and

calcareous components. He is regarded as

the inventor of artificial cement. In 1824, the

English constructor Joseph Aspdin burned

jointly limestone and clay stones, turning

them into a fine powder. He realized that,

after dry, the mix turned out as rigid as stones

used in civil construction. The mixture did not

dissolve in water and was patented by the

manufacturer in the same year, under the

name of Portland cement.

251


In modern times, researchers have

experimented with the addition of other

materials to create concrete with improved

properties, such as higher strength, electrical

conductivity, or resistance to damages

through spillage.

Manufacture

The first step in making concrete is to prepare

the cement. One type of cement, Portland

cement, is considered superior to natural

cement because it is stronger, more durable,

and of a more consistent quality.

To make it, the raw materials are crushed

and ground into a fine powder and

mixed together. Next, the material

undergoes two heating steps—calcining

and burning. In calcining, the materials

are heated to a high temperature but do

not fuse together. In burning, however,

the materials partially fuse together,

forming a substance known as "clinker."

The clinker is then ground in a ball mill—

a rotating steel drum filled with steel balls

that pulverize the material.

After the Portland cement is prepared, it

is mixed with aggregates such as sand or

gravel, admixtures, fibers, and water.

Next, it is transfered to the work site and

placed. During placing, segregation of

the various ingredients must be avoided

so that full compaction—elimination of

air bubbles—can be achieved.

Pumping transports large quantities of

concrete over large distances through

pipelines using a system consisting of a

hopper, a pump, and the pipes. Pumps

come in several types – the horizontal

piston pump with semi- rotary valves and

small portable pumps called squeeze

252


pumps. A vacuum provides a continuous

flow of concrete, with two rotating rollers

squeezing a flexible pipe to move the

concrete into the delivery pipe.

Once at the site, the concrete must be

placed and compacted. These two

operations are performed almost

simultaneously. Placing must be done so

that segregation of the various

ingredients is avoided and full

compaction—with all air bubbles

eliminated—can be achieved.

Whether chutes or buggies are used,

position is important in achieving these

goals. The rates of placing and of

compaction should be equal; the latter is

usually accomplished using internal or

external vibrators. An internal vibrator

uses a poker housing a motor-driven

shaft. When the poker is inserted into the

concrete, controlled vibration occurs to

compact the concrete. External vibrators

are used for precast or thin in situ

sections having a shape or thickness

unsuitable for internal vibrators. These

type of vibrators are rigidly clamped to

the formwork, which rests on an elastic

support. Both the form and the concrete

are vibrated. Vibrating tables are also

used, where a table produces vertical

vibration by using two shafts rotating in

opposite directions.

Once it is placed and compacted, the

concrete must cured before it is finished

to make sure that it doesn't dry too

quickly. Concrete's strength is influenced

by its moisture level during the hardening

process: as the cement solidifies, the

concrete shrinks. If site constraints

prevent the concrete from contracting,

tensile stresses will develop, weakening

the concrete. To minimize this problem,

concrete must be kept damp during the

several days it requires to set and harden.

Concrete is widely used for making

architectural structures, foundations,

brick/block walls, pavements,

bridges/overpasses, highways, runways,

parking structures, dams,

pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for

253

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_%28engineering%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_masonry_unit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidewalk

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overpass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parking

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_%28engineering%29


gates, fences and poles and even boats.

Concrete is used in large quantities

almost everywhere humankind has a

need for infrastructure. Concrete is also

the basis of a large commercial industry.

Globally, the ready-mix concrete

industry, the largest segment of the

concrete market, is projected to exceed

$100 billion in revenue by 2015.

Description of uses

The cement, usually in powder form¹, act as a

binding agent when mixed with water and

aggregates and creates the concrete paste that

hardens into the stone like form of the

concrete.

² Aggregates can be fine (like sand) or coarse (like gravel).

Although most drinking water is suitable for mixing concrete, aggregates are chosen

carefully. Aggregates² comprise 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete. The type

and size of aggregate used depends on the thickness and purpose of the final concrete

product. The additions (fly ash, pozzolan, silica fume etc.) and chemical may be added in

order to improve or modify its basic properties additives.

To obtain a tough, durable, economical and good concrete aspect, one should study the

properties of each material used and the factors that can alter them. The correct

proportioning and careful execution of the mixture, also its transportation and release in

the molds, are fundamental to the proper hardening of the paste. After poured into place,

254

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_pole

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat


the concrete must remain hydrated for the

correct amount of time, that’s called the cure

of the concrete.

One of the major disadvantages of in situ is

the space requirement for storing and working

with the formwork and reinforcement. The

concrete is a material with high resistance to compressive forces, but with a low traction

strength. Therefore, it is imperative to join the concrete with a material with high traction

strength - the reinforcement. The reinforcement is made of steel, and it is placed before

the pouring of the concrete.

Examples of material in use

The reasons for the widespread use of such concrete are: the ease with which concrete

structural elements may be performed in a variety of shapes and sizes; cheaper and more

readily available at the construction site. There are innumerous structural elements in

which concrete can be found, like slabs, beams, pillars, in the foundation and even in

more detailed and artistic structures.

The slabs exist in various types, such as solid, ribbed, smooth, etc., as described the following.

255


Beams and pillars casted in place.

Some trends in architecture also spread the

use of concrete, like the modernism and

brutalism. The brutalist architecture is

characterized by the use of reinforced

concrete left apparent, highlighting the

design printed by molds natural wood.

Gottfried Böhm's Mariendom, in Neviges,

Germany

Ronchamp Church, in France, Le Courbusier

A lot of architects are known for using

concrete in their designs and using the

material to create forms and structures that

wouldn’t be possible without reinforced

concrete. Tadao Ando is a Japanese

architect, and is highly regarded for his

unparalleled work with concrete.

Tadao Ando’s Church on the Water

Because of its extensive use in various forms,

the in situ concrete is utilized by many great

names in architecture, suh as Louis Kahn,

Zaha Hadid and Oscar Niemeyer

256


257


http://vejasp.abril.com.br/blogs/morar-em-sp/2013/06/fotos-de-arquitetura-no-tomie-

ohtake/

258

http://vejasp.abril.com.br/blogs/morar-em-sp/2013/06/fotos-de-arquitetura-no-tomie-ohtake/

http://vejasp.abril.com.br/blogs/morar-em-sp/2013/06/fotos-de-arquitetura-no-tomie-ohtake/


CASE STUDY

Sesc Pompéia

Building project by Brazilian architect, Lina Bo Bardi, in 1977 in São Paulo, Brazil. This building is

part of a requalification project of a sheds well of factory, turning this into a complex of leisure,

sports and cultural activities.

Three prismatic volumes of exposed concrete compose the project, implanted next to the old

factory sheds:

The biggest prism is composed by five floors with 8,60 meters in height between floors. Presents

just bearing perimeter walls, which sizes 35 centimeters in thickness and none additional internal

structure. The walls was framed with horizontal wood planks. The prestressed ribbed slab measure

one-meter total height.

Rectangular

prism with

14x16 meter in

its base and 52

meters in

height

Rectangular

prism with

30x40 meters

in its base and

45 meters in

height.

Cylinder with 8

meters in

diameter and

70 meters us

height

259


The windows was located in smaller, east and

west faces. Each floor presents a similar

arrangement with four windows per floor.

They configure irregular openings, made by

polystyrene shapes embedded during

concreting. The polystyrene’s marks are as

noticeable as the wood marks. Interment was

used rectangular shapes of plastic, which are

noticeable as well.

The smallest prism is composed by 12 floors,

which matches with every two floors of the

biggest one, and thus, have 4, 30 meters in

height between floors. The last two floors

have 3, 60 meters in height. The external

faces was shaped by horizontal wooden

surface as well. The windows are rectangular

and smaller than the pool shaped from the

other prism, however, they are not aligned

austerely, and they

are placed in many

coordinates.

There are four

levels of bridges

join the prims

together. These

bridges were made of reinforced concrete.

Which bridge has a different design;

however, they follow the same rule: depart

from the same opening in the lower prism

and branch leading to two symmetrical

openings in higher prism. The first catwalk,

from below, a perfect V shape. The second

also form a perfect V and takes a bit more

centralized than the openings of the 1st

catwalk, setting up a V tighter than the lower.

The third prism is a cylinder made of

systematic concrete rings seventy-one meters

high each. The last prism is closely akin with

the prims through the metal bridge.

The shape, which made the rings of the third

prism, had truncated cones format, in other

words, have the external faces inclined to

inside. This allows that forms cash inflow in

the lower ring to concreting of the next higher

ring. This concreting condition had, as a

consequence, that the inferior limit of which

ring being imperfect, making an irregular

line with thickness above the rings.

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http://www.linguee.com.br/ingles-portugues/traducao/polystyrene.html


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SEC

TIO

N 1

:50

0

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http://www.revistabrasileiros.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/blahculturalcidadela2.jpg

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http://www.archdaily.com.br/br/01-90002/arte-e-arquitetura-croquis

267


REFERENCES

http://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/In-Situ-Concrete.aspx

http://www.guiadaobra.net/

http://ewbucin.blogspot.co.uk/2012/08/second-burere-implementation-trip.html

http://www.yatzer.com/living-laboratory-richard-pare-le-corbusier-konstantin-melnikov

https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottnorsworthy/4854485471/in/photostream/

http://arcoweb.com.br/projetodesign-assinantes/memoria/sesc-pompeia-20-anos-

projeto-tornou-se-31-07-2002

http://linabobarditogether.com/pt/

SANTOS. Paulo - FUNDAMENTOS DO CONCRETO ARMADO. . UNESP. SP

268

http://www.ccanz.org.nz/page/In-Situ-Concrete.aspx

http://www.guiadaobra.net/

http://ewbucin.blogspot.co.uk/2012/08/second-burere-implementation-trip.html

http://www.yatzer.com/living-laboratory-richard-pare-le-corbusier-konstantin-melnikov

https://www.flickr.com/photos/scottnorsworthy/4854485471/in/photostream/

http://arcoweb.com.br/projetodesign-assinantes/memoria/sesc-pompeia-20-anos-projeto-tornou-se-31-07-2002

http://arcoweb.com.br/projetodesign-assinantes/memoria/sesc-pompeia-20-anos-projeto-tornou-se-31-07-2002

269

SUMARY

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MAIN BODY

2.1.Definition and History

2.2.Components, Production and Application

2.3.U value

2.4.Scope

2.5.Creative Design

2.6.Exposed Concrete Face

2.7.Basements and Pools

2.8.Examples

2.9.Benefits

3. CONCLUSION

4. REFERENCES

270

INTRODUCTION

This work is related to discipline Arch 3036 TECH 1 and aims to present and analyze a

material/structure called Insulated Concrete Formwork or ICF. The ICF is one of the most

innovative and modern methods of construction currently. Common in United States and now

in Europe. Is a block construction system of isocret are molds in EPS for reinforced concrete

structures, a form of practical application and rapid influence on the speed of the project by

reducing its costs. With this benefits anyone who designs (builds and anyone who buys) since

the system does not require skilled labor and the procedures are the same as conventional

construction.

271

Definition and History

Insulating Concrete Formwork (ICF) is an energy building

method which creates insulated structural walls for residential

and/or commercial buildings. These type of structures are

made by forms used to hold fresh concrete that remain in place

permanently to provide insulation for the structure they enclose. Insulating Concrete

Formwork Association (ICFA) was established in 1992 to promote the use of ICF in the UK.

In 1967, Werner Gregori patented the first ICF in North America. Working as a general

contractor, building apartments (in Southern Ontario), he thought about those foam plastic

coolers to keep the drink cold and saw kids on the beach playing with the sand, realizing that

if concrete blocks could be formed using that foam plastic, many construction costs and hours

of labor could be eliminated (ICF BUILDER, 2010).

Within a year, he had converted his foam cooler epiphany into the first ICF. Called "Foam

Form," each block measured 16 inches high by 48 inches long with a tongue-and-groove

interlock, metal ties, and a waffle-grid core. The biggest challenge faced trying to get Foam

Form to market was just getting the product accepted as a legitimate alternative. First of all, It

was really difficult to change the way that the contractor was used to building and also some

problems to get the product accepted by the fire codes and insurance companies. What won

all these difficulties over was the ease of installation.

The design remained unchanged for the next 15 years. The patent was officially submitted in

Canada on March 22, 1966, and the U.S. patent application granted October 24, 1968.

Europeans were developing similar products around the same time.

In the 1980s and 1990s, some American companies got involved in the technology,

manufacturing blocks and panels or planks.

272

The first ICF structure built in North America was a

home on Lakeshore Drive (Oakville, Ontario). The home

attracted extensive publicity, from all the types of

professional media and interested onlookers.

The new companies developed variations and

innovations to discerne one system from another.

During the years, some ICF manufacturers

consolidated, leading to a smaller number of larger

companies. The first target market was high end home

construction, because of the system’s performance and

the costs of the construct. As word of ICFs grew and

innovations reduced manufacturing and installation

costs, builders began using the forms for mid-price-

range homes. Some production builders now create

entire large developments using insulating concrete

forms.

Components - Production - Application

Insulating concrete forms systems can vary in their

design. It can be find the “Flat” systems, the wall

produced by “grid” systems and the “Post and Beam”

systems. The first one provides a continuous thickness

of concrete, like a conventionally poured wall. The

“Grid” systems has a waffle pattern where the concrete

is thicker at some points than others, while the "Post

and beam" systems just have the discrete horizontal

and vertical columns of concrete that are completely

273

encapsulated in foam insulation. Whatever their differences, all major ICF systems are

engineer-designed, code-accepted, and field-proven.

FLAT GRID POST AND BEAM

The two insulating faces are separated by some type of connector or web. Large preassembled

blocks stack quickly on site. Panels or planks ship more compactly, but must be assembled into

formwork on the job. According to the company America’s Cement Manufacturers (2010),

foam is most used with expanded polystyrene (EPS). It can be extruded polystyrene (XPS),

which is stronger, but also more costly.

Top plan view

274

Elevational view/web structure

The ties that interconnect the two layers of insulated forming material can be plastic, metal,

or additional projections of the insulation. Each type of material has your own advantage, but

one current trend adopts hinges into the ties that offer preassembled forms to fold flat for

easy, less costly shipping.

Building Process

1 – Because of the lightness of the material, they come flat-

packed, without the necessity of a mechanical handling

equipment. The walls are normally placed on a monolithic

slab with embedded rebar dowels connecting the walls to the

foundation.

2 – Put the first blocks at fixed points and insert the webs into

the pre-formed channels.

3 - Stacking forms and creating openings.

275

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_slab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_slab

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowel#In_stonemasonry

4 - The concrete is poured. When the concrete wall is set the

system became a high strength frame of concrete and the

formwork remains in place as thermal insulation.

5 - Concrete flooring is poured.

U Value

A major consideration when choosing a walling system will be its thermal performance or

energy efficiency. This factor is very important to determinate the running costs of a

residential/commercial structure, so it is interesting to maximise thermal performance and to

improve on the minimum standards required. The current maximum elemental U-value for

external walls in England and Wales is 0.30W/m2K. By 2016, when new homes will have to

achieve ‘Zero Carbon’ standard it is expected to be 0.10W/m2K.

For 383mm (Classic polystyrene block system - ICF):

Consists of: 20mm brick slips (which give the appearance

of brickwork) (1); 350mm EPS expanded polystyrene

insulation formwork (210mm of EPS insulation) (2) filled

with steel-reinforced concrete (3); 12.5mm dry-lining (4)

Finished Wall U-value: 0.15W/m2K

276

Scope

Indicated to home construction in the beginning, today the ICF market is much broader, and

this system can be used to build residential, commercial, industrial and institutional buildings

to any shape and size. We can see homes, apartments, hotels, commercial units, basements,

pools, among others. This material became common by uniting the speed of construction with

the ease and freedom of design and form.

140,000-square-foot Armed Forces Reserve Center in Tampa, Florida.

Construction of Waterside condominiums in Ft. Myers, Florida

IFC-built home on lot deemed “unbuildable” by builder, John Vogstrum in Minnesota

Best Western hotel in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.

42,632 square-foot Hampton Inn hotel in Horseheads, New York.

277

Creative Design

The Insulation Concrete Form is a modular structure

with a small number of components and is a system

that gives to the architect freedom to design an

innovative shape as expressive curves at any scale, from

small domestic to large buildings and multi-storey as

schools, hospitals and hotels without having to worry

about the construction problems it would cause with

common construction systems like the limitation of

timber or conventional brick and block construction. Is

easy to create design beautiful, artistic, structures with

curves and arches and big varying angles. Furthermore,

this type of construction system can receive a wide

variety of external finishes like stone, brick, colors and

textures or even exposed concrete face. It is a modern

and innovative building system fast and sustainable

construction, which has been a very important topic

nowadays.

The ICF system make it possible:

Design flexibility

Quicker build times

Cost effectiveness

The variety of finishes available

Higher building performance terms of sustainability and energy efficiency.

278

The ICF system provides to the building:

Comfort (buildings constructed with ICF walls

have a more even temperature throughout the

day and night)

Solidity

Durability

Resistance to natural disasters and fire

Quietness (due the sound insulation)

The versatility of this system can be seen here at this concrete curve stair outside of the

building. AJ when York used the ICF cause he wanted to eliminate the weight and pressure that

this stairs, built with conventional systems, could make on the building.

279

http://benchmarkfoam.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Benchmark_Foam_Insulated_Concrete_Forms_ICF_Curved_Stairs_640WM.jpg

http://benchmarkfoam.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Installing_Benchmark_Foam_geofoam_curved_stairs_risers_WM640.jpg

After determining the exact form and the angle of the curve, the ICFs have been installed and

the concrete was dumped at the forms, and insulated by them hardened slower than exposed

concrete would, achieving a harder, more durable concrete quality.

Exposed Concrete Face

Wood strips are fitted between webs and inside the plastic strips, formwork is then ready for

concrete. After sufficient curing time the plywood and plastic strips are stuck off leaving the

“Exposed Concrete Face”.

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http://benchmarkfoam.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Pouring_Concrete_over_geofoam_curved_exterior_stairs_WM640.jpg

http://benchmarkfoam.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Curved_geofoam_concrete_exterior_stairs_steps_geofoam_insulating_concrete_forms_ICF_wall_WM640.jpg

Basements and Pools

Some ICF systems are fully insulated and waterproof, so it is very common in the construction

of basements and swimming pools. What happens is that a mix is added to the base concrete

formwork, providing a non-crystalline salt formation that seals the concrete against any ingress

of water or liquids.

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EXAMPLES

Example 1:

This house was built by Brady Contracting and Developing with Insulation Concrete Form

system near Boulder, Colorado in the Valleys. In September 2010, the area where it was built

suffered forest fires and on that account have been devastated neighborhoods and that many

buildings were destroyed, the house remained full, the owner has positioned with garden

hoses and techniques used to mitigate fire protect your home. Conceived with the principles

of sustainability, the house also has features like photovoltaic panels.

Photos of building with ICF system:

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http://www.rewardwalls.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/octpete-003.jpg

http://www.rewardwalls.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/peters-spring-2007-002.jpg

Finished photos:

Example 2:

This architect Simon Corbett design this ICF house in 2011 in School Lane a village of

Rowberrow, near to Bristol. The existing building at the site was demolish giving to the architect

the freedom to build a home as your client wish, with big open spaces between inside and

outside of the building. The height was one restriction at the time, and the solution for build a

big program as a five bedrooms house was create a basement for the sleeping area.

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http://www.rewardwalls.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/IMG_0591.JPG

http://www.rewardwalls.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/080619-010.jpg

Benefits

The ICF having an equivalent or lower cost than current construction systems, provides a

number of benefits over conventional systems such as:

Structure and Concurrent Sealing: As a modular monolithic structural system and the

implementation of the structure and sealing is simultaneous not requiring pillars and

beams even on multiple floors.

Construction Time Reduction: Being an extremely fast system and does not require

skilled labor, production times are reduced on average by half, resulting in a drastic

reduction of hand labor.

Increased Energy Efficiency: The inner and outer lining of the walls in EPS means less

dependence on cooling systems (in summer) and heating (in winter ), causing a

significant reduction in electricity bills.

Sustainable Product: Despite being a derivative of oil is sustainable because the amount

of surplus in the work is minimal and this surplus is likely to recycling.

Constructive Quality: free of moisture, dust mites, fungi and bacteria. Fire resistant.

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CONCLUSION

The knowledge of the techniques, processes and materials to be used for a more sustainable

construction with its time of work reduction and energy efficiency are becoming increasingly

essential to society. The Insulating Concrete Formwork has the potential to accord all these

requirements and is occupying your space at the same time that the market is gaining more

confidence.

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REFERENCES

TAHA, Nabil. Insulated Concrete Forming Systems: Disponível em:

<http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/icf.htm>. Acesso em: 05 nov. 2014.

Energy Efficiency Software Article. Green Builder Magazine. 2013. Disponível em:

<http://www.rogershaw.com/products/dietrichs/energy-efficiency-software-article/>. Acesso

em: 07 nov. 2014.

American`s Cement Manufactures. ICF (Insulating Concrete Forms): Insulating Concrete Forms

(ICFs). Disponível em: <http://www.cement.org/think-harder-concrete-/homes/building-

systems/insulated-concrete-forms>. Acesso em: 07 nov. 2014.

Icf Builder Magazine. History of ICF. Disponível em:

<http://www.icfmag.com/articles/features/history_of_icfs.html>. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2014.

Concrete Thinking. ICF (Insulating Concrete Forms): Flexible, integrated wall construction.

Disponível em: <http://www.concretethinker.com/applications/ICF-Insulating-Concrete-

Forms.aspx>. Acesso em: 10 nov. 2014.

Home Building. Build Systems Explained. Disponível em:

<http://www.homebuilding.co.uk/advice/key-choices/structural/build-systems-explained>.

Acesso em: 07 nov. 2014.

286

http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/icf.htm

http://www.rogershaw.com/products/dietrichs/energy-efficiency-software-article/

http://www.cement.org/think-harder-concrete-/homes/building-systems/insulated-concrete-forms

http://www.cement.org/think-harder-concrete-/homes/building-systems/insulated-concrete-forms

http://www.icfmag.com/articles/features/history_of_icfs.html

http://www.concretethinker.com/applications/ICF-Insulating-Concrete-Forms.aspx

http://www.concretethinker.com/applications/ICF-Insulating-Concrete-Forms.aspx

http://www.homebuilding.co.uk/advice/key-choices/structural/build-systems-explained

1

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2

“Kit Houses”

Fernanda Fontana De Gasperin. Pnumber: 13006329

Lina Hafizi. Pnumber: 10505339

Architecture

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3

Techonlogy 3

Professor: Christopher Jones

Date:

CONTENTS

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5

System History ................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Definition ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Advantages and disadvantages......................................................................................................................... 9

Huf Haus ......................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Facit homes ..................................................................................................................................................................10

Development and Manufacture ...........................................................................................................................13

PROJECT AND Manufacturing..........................................................................................................................13

Building PROCESS .................................................................................................................................................14

Foundation and basis ..........................................................................................................................................15

Application ......................................................................................................................................................................16

Performance ...................................................................................................................................................................17

Huf haus ........................................................................................................................................................................17

Facit homes ..................................................................................................................................................................18

Specification ...................................................................................................................................................................19

Huf Haus ...................................................................................................................................................................19

FACIT HOMES .............................................................................................................................................................20

Comparasion between usual system and Kit houses ................................................................................21

Future .................................................................................................................................................................................22

Reference List .................................................................................................................................................................23

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4

ABSTRACT

This research is going to cover the kind of building called kit houses or kit homes. The History

and origin, until the most famous companies nowadays and a comparison between them.

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INTRODUCTION

Kit Houses or Kit Homes can be simply defined as a kind of pre-fabricates house. This, in specific

was created to become faster the production of refugees. Nowadays this characteristic still is

searched, in most of cases: the faster production in comparison of the normal building process,

usually with bricks. More than this characteristic the cleanness of the site when building the

house and high quality of a pre-fabricated house are other strong advantages of building this

way. In the world, as in United Kingdom, different companies becomes part of this market of

pre-fabricated houses, which gives for the customer many options when choosing their kit

house.

Even with many advantages and different options of kit houses, this building process still are not

the most popular way to build a house. This study are going to present firstly the history and

definition of a kit house, secondly two examples of kit homes are their process of project,

building and some specification and finally a comparison between the two companies and the

normal process, where is going to discuss why kit houses still are not a popular construction

system.

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SYSTEM HISTORY

The idea of Kit Houses or Demountable Houses began with

the French architect Jean Prouvé. His idea was also project

affordable houses. He has designed a series of Demountable

Houses back in the 40s that could be mass-produced to

shelter refugees after a war. One of these dwellings, Maison

8x8 (1948) is currently on display for the first time in Miami.

The architect Jean

Prouvé .

The model of demountable house and a

section sketched.

Jean Prouvé’s

Demountable Houses were

designed according to the

principles

of prefabrication, flexibility

and mobility, as well as

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functionality and rational fabrication. His main achievement was transferring manufacturing

technology from industry to architecture without compromising aesthetics. Prouvé, together

with Le Corbusier, was part of The French Union of Modern Artists and a he was a master of

metalworking – a craft he used in his demountable shelters.

The building process of Jean Prouvé model

One of Prouvé’s Demountable Houses, Maison

8×8, is an 8 square meter dwelling made from

durable metal frames with a wooden roof and

floor beams. 64 square meters provides an

acceptable amount of living space while allowing

the project to be quickly and easily constructed.

Prouvé used one of these shelters as his own

office — now a monument — and if you are in

Miami you can check out Maison 8×8 at Galerie

Patrick Seguin during Design Miami 2013.

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DEFINITION

Kit house are a kind of building process, which

all structure and framing are produced on the

factory and are delivered to the site where it is

assembled. They are also known as: Mill-cut houses, pre-cut houses, Ready-cut houses, Mail

order homes, or even catalog homes.

Back in the days kit house were the type of housing that was popular in United States and

Canada in the first half of the 20th century. The manufacture Kit house sold so many houses in

many different plans and styles, from a simple bungalows to magnificent Colonials. This was a

fixed price for all the materials that was needed for the construction of a particular house, but

normally this is excluded the brick, concrete, or masonry (which would be needed for laying a

foundation, which the customer would have to arrange to have done locally).

Over 100,000 kit homes were built in the United States between 1908 and 1940.

The largest kit home seller is in Canada in the Canadian headquarters which were located in

the Canadian Pacific building, in Toronto. They functioned across the whole of Canada, from

1905 to 1952.

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At United Kingdom are different factories that produce this kind of house and also some are

imported from other countries, such as Germany and Sweden. Some examples are: Huf houses,

Ikea, Blok lok, Facit homes, Scotframe and Scandinavian.

This research are going to discuss and explain two different brands of kit homes that has

different manufacturing and building process.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The Advantages of Kit House:

• Reduced manufacture times.

• Improved quality.

• Labour reductions.

• Fast on site construction.

• Reduced production costs.

• Reduction in weather delays.

Disadvantages of Kit Houses:

• Less design flexibility (although this is not always the case).

• Last minute changes are difficult.

HUF HAUS

Huf Haus is a German company based in Hartenfels in the Westerwald region that

manufactures prefabricated houses. In 1912,

Johann Huf founded a carpentry workshop in

the small village of Krümmel in the

Westerwald. A year later, the enterprise

moved to Hartenfels. In 1948 his son Franz

Huf took over management of the enterprise,

and enlarged it to a supra-regional provider

of carpenter's works, e. g. churches in

the Rhineland, the large post administration

office in Bonn. The so-called "Huf

Fachwerkhaus 2000" was designed in 1972

together with the architect Manfred Adams.The principles of this construction are still the

standard in all Huf houses.

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A model of Huf Haus on 1960’s

Huf Haus is the world's leading company in selling houses and the design is based on a classic

architecture, what makes the design more familiar and acceptable for the customers. The

construction allows individual floor plans, including for office buildings.

A model of a Huf Haus

Basically is a personalized timber and glass house, with windows on all sides, this is to

maximising the outside environment. The post and beam design means that there are no load-

bearing on the walls, so the interior is truly open plan. This is achieved through their signature

timber post and beam structure which removes the need for load bearing walls allowing

tremendous design flexibility and the infilling of external walls with generous amounts of

glazing.

Considered to be a design classic. They are built to

a very high standard and are extremely energy

efficient,

incorporating sustainably sourced materials, high-end

insulation techniques, toxin-free paints, and utilising solar

energy and rainwater recycling.

FACIT HOMES

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Facit Homes probably is the first company in the world to digitally fabricate a bespoke home

on-site. The company has developed a process (D-Process) whereby it delivers a compact

mobile production facility (MPF) to the construction site, equipped with all the materials and

machinery required to transform a 3D digital design into a physical building. They bring their

compact high-tech machine to site and make it there and then.

A scale model showing how the machine work in the site

The process begins with designing the house using a 3D computer model, which contains every

aspect from its orientation, material quantities, even down to the position of individual plug

sockets. The patented “D-Process” then transforms the 3D digital designs into the home’s exact

physical building components, using a computer controlled cutter. These components are

usually made from engineered spruce ply and are light and easy enough to then be assembled

together on site. Since the components are produced on demand, costs are kept to a minimum

and lead times are

eradicated.

The panels and the house being builded

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The company Facit home, is leaded by one designer and one architect, and others that

coordinate the production, management and 3D architectural.

Different interior shapes

The basic ideia of the company is how to make better buildings where the construction costs

can be predicted and turn the process quicker and easier for the customer. The answer founded

is to design all details on computer, cute all parts of the building with a CNC machine and also

use lightweight blocks where less people can do the entire job.

A Facit Home model finished

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DEVELOPMENT AND MANUFACTURE

The two kinds of pre-fabricated houses uses different ways to build and have different needs. In

this section, we will talk about the differences between the manufacturing process and the

building process needs.

PROJECT AND MANUFACTURING

The project conception of each company has some differences, in the same time that Facit

Homes allows the customer to start the project from scratch, Huf Haus has some pre-defined

projects, which can be adapted but has more limitations than the Facit. Because of this reason,

the time spent on Facit’s projects are bigger than the Huf Haus. The both don’t say anything

about limits of floors or area, but supposes that the building can have any areas since it respect

the modules pre-defined by the brands.

The production of Facit home,

the machine cutting panels

the site and blocks being

build.

The biggest difference between Facit Homes and Huf Haus is where and when the parts of the

building are produced. The frames production of Huf Haus happens on the industry and the

panels and structure are shipped to houses ready to be build. In the other hand, Facit Homes

frames and structure are printed in the site, using rapid prototyping technology or 3D printing,

called D-

process by the

company. This

technology

was patented

by the

company.

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The production of Huf Haus at the factory..

BUILDING PROCESS

The difference between the materials of the both system is a consequence of how each one is

erected.

Facit homes are made of small wood panels, which don’t make necessary heavy machinery or

large labour force. In the other hand, Huf Haus need some machines to help the erecting of the

house. The reason is that the pieces come almost done and are made of materials such as metal

in some structures and also glazing panels.

Above, the Facit home building process and behing the Huf Haus building process.

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FOUNDATION AND BASIS

The basis of the systems also has some differences. The Huf Haus system need a concrete

foundation, that is done by the company but the groundwork should be done the costumer.

Different from Facit homes, that don’t need any concrete slab or walls, because the building is

builded in metal screwpile foundations that also reduce the needs of excavations because it

adapts to the site.

The pictures above, illustrate the

foundation process of Facit homes,

when the metal foundations are

being sited and then the timber

structure is placed above.

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The basement needed of Huf Haus is more complex. It needs a concrete base that demands more land changes.

APPLICATION

Usually for individual homes, duplex homes, flat buildings and also commercial constructions.

Following examples of each building of the three brands:

Huf Haus

House

Facit Homes

Two stories house

Apartment building Circular house

Commercial construction One story house

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PERFORMANCE

HUF HAUS

Despite the substantial use of glass within the design of Huf Haus houses it requires only a

heating rate of 34 W/m2 (at Hartenfels, Germany). The main reasons are:

• All of constructional wood elements are fitted with a heat-insulation layer put together

at the factory - this reduces thermal bridges.

• The already well-insulated walls have been redesigned. The walls are thicker now and

their depth can be varied depending on the climatic region. The material used is tailored

to the location, so that an adequate heat insulation is achieved.

• The glass walls have 51 mm triple glazing with a heat transfer amount (U-value) of 0.6

W/m2K.

• Home technology is based on a heat pump , electronically regulated heating systems,

under floor heating pipes laid very closely together, a highly efficient ventilation system

and independent domestic hot water pumps, so that the independent heating system

can be switched off during the summer months.

• A large photovoltaic system across nearly the whole roof.

HUF HAUS have constantly developed the energy efficiency in many homes. One of the

milestones of this development is the green[r]evolution design which it promptly become

prepareD for innovative along with energy-efficient in timbered building.

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It is proven that each and every one of the HUF house construction achieves the efficiency

grading of ‘House 55’ KFW-classification. The diagram shows the improvement throughout from

1980 to 2013, how much the efficiency has changed over time.

FACIT HOMES

Facit Homes use the same ‘design for assembly’ technique as the manufacturing industry. This

means each home is designed in a way that will make it easier to assemble later on, saving time

and keeping costs down.

Facit homes has a High-performance. The Facit design comes with energy efficiency built in

together. You will get a long-term security against rising energy prices, while you doing your bit

to combat global warming. It is found that Facit Homes are the best-performing homes that

manufacture in the UK. They offer the lowest possible bills with the

Highest levels of comfort. Each home meets the same high international level of performance as

the German. The efficiency is built in the Facit designs which follow the fabric-first approach to

energy efficiency: super-thick insulation, absolute air-tightness and south-facing windows that

help capture a free and almost everlasting energy source: the sun. The result is Simple: and you

use less energy and save more money.

The Facit Chassis allows for the neat separation of electrics, insulation and plumbing into

different cavities. This creates flexibility for our construction team, and helps avoid any delays.

Facit Homes follow some steps to energy

efficiency: thick insulation, air-tightness and

south-facing windows that help capture a free

and almost everlasting energy source: the sun.

They have Mechanical Heat Recovery Ventilation.

This system brings in fresh air whilst recovering the waste heat that would normally be lost.

In short, the features of Facit Homes sustainable design are:

1. Insulated to twice current Part L of the building regulations.

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2. Improved air-tightness through design and control of all service penetrations.

3. All materials speci ed to minimize environmental impact, e.g. Warmcell insulation,FSC

certi ed plywood.

4. Minimal wastage through the design of all cutting patterns.

5. Reduced transportation with local fabrication.

6. Grey water recycling system integrated into the environmental design.

7. Heat recovery heating system, minimizes heating requirement.

8. Solar water heating utilizes renewable energy resources.

9. All the building services are integrated into the design allowing for future eligibility.

SPECIFICATION

HUF HAUS

The first step in the design process is to becoming familiar with the client. Generally, the first

meeting is always held in the business office, where the client has the opportunity to meet the

architect, as well as to review examples of the projects that we have designed. The meeting

usually takes about an hour and there is no charge for the initial meeting.

The first thing that we do is to answer the question: “Where is this client in the design

process?” The Professionals at Space Design Architecture are here to listen and understand

what the client’s vision and potential are for the new dwelling, and to record the possible needs

that our firm can best serve. This is depending on the difficulty of the project and where the

prospective client may be, however this step may take up to 1 month to come to a conclusion.

2. Initial Design

The second step is to analyze what we have discussed from the first few session that they had

with the client. The professionals will then carefully consider what the project’s needs are, and

which services are most appropriate for accomplishing the client’s objective. From this analysis,

then our designer will draft and present a proposal to the client this is to outlining the

understanding of the project’s possibility, parameters, and requirements, as well as the

professional services and fees. All of these will take another to be completed.

3. Tendering project

Step three is about to bring our clients attention to our company. Our architects will talk more

about the company’s advantages, such as the projects that we have done in the past and the

benefits that we have and the offers that we do, for instance we can recommend the client to

certain contractors to see and that we have worked with and are happy about. This process will

take 1 month for the client to accept the bid.

4. Survey

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The architect and the measured survey guy will both go to the site to measure the area and to

take photographs. Then the measured survey man will give the designer a pdf file with the plan,

section and elevation with the measurements on . Then the architecture assistance will put it on

Cad and model it 3D on the existing proposed site. The process will take almost a month to get

the measurements of the site and to model it as well as to put it together in the cad.

5. Pre app planning design

Stage five is when all the measurements of the site is put together. And then the initial design

is send to the pre app planning for acceptance. This stage will take 2 weeks for the results to

come back.

Either apply for full planning or revised design

What happens in this stage is if the initial design has been accepted the pre app planning then

the client will then need to send the design for full planning permission, and by any possibility if

the design was not successful then it will need to get revised before sending it for full planning.

However this roughly takes about 6-8 months.

7. Finalize details

Stage seven is when the full planning has been accepted. In this stage we also finalize the

building regs. This is to check every interior detail of the design to see everything is done well

and is in the interest of the client. This takes another couple of weeks 1 month before it is send

it to the contactors.

8. Giving the design to the contractor to build

This is the final step, where the drawings is given to the contractors to start building the design.

The building process will take up to one year to be completed.

Between this one year, the architect will go to the site several times to check walk with the client

all the way through each stages of the project, making sure that if any appropriate changes and

progress will take place, the client will be informed about it.

This means that the client is constantly informed, in advance, of any challenges that will

encounter, or any other additional charges that may be needed to complete the project.

9. Completion

The hand in over the keys will take another 2 weeks. This is to inspect the whole house for the

final time before hand in the keys to the owner.

10. Hand over the keys

FACIT HOMES

Four stages for the Facit home to be build.

1) Design it all on computer (every last screw hole)

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2) Cut all the parts of the building using a computer controlled cutter.

3) Assemble into lightweight blocks in the workshop that one or twopeople at most can pick up

un aided.

4) Assemble rapidly on site like big blocks of lego

COMPARASION BETWEEN USUAL SYSTEM AND KIT

HOUSES

House Construction time Price/m2

Huf House 6 Weeks £511.84

Facit House 5 Weeks £250.00

Normal house 6 months- 1 year £460,00

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In the table “Index of UK property market costs”, we can see a comparison of time of

construction and prices per square meters, what still gives a good advantage to any kind of kit

house between the normal house

construction processes. The value that

keeps always the same is the land

cost. In the graph behind, we can see

how the prices that account on the

full building cost between the years

1983 until 2007. The difference

between land and all others is very

significantly. Being the land

something necessary to build the

house, probably will influence in any

kind of building process cost, what

maybe can answer the question “Why kit house are not popular?”. The cost of the land can turn

the any kind of building expensive, so to buy an old house or already build more available than

build it at all.

Another possibly reason of the unpopular fame of kit house, is that the client cannot chose how

the house is going to be and in the most of times cannot participate of the project process. The

feeling of housing or dwelling can be damnified because of the non-participation of the project

process. It can be faced for the customer like a home that was not especially for him but for

much more people, and he is just another user of the same model.

FUTURE

As it was created to build refugees faster than usually it was done, this kind of house cannot just

be applied as a way to build homes, but can be a solution for some problems such as national

disaster devastation or to social housing.

As already said on the earlier paragraph, the feeling of dwelling can be damaged when the

projects are unified, but when the customer or the user (in cases of natural disaster or social

housing) participates of the building process this feeling can be stronger that would be when

participating of the project process.

The unskilled workforce of the user should be considered as problem, but if the structures and

frames of the house would be projected for the easy building which allows most of people self-

build their own house, this can be a good solution for the both problems. Where the workforce

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will costs anything, the feeling of dwelling will be kept and the technical knowledge of the

workforce would not be a problem.

REFERENCE LIST

Low energy living – Facit homes. Available at: http://facit-homes.com/made-with-

intelligence/low-energy-living. Last acces: 17/11/14

QUIRK, Vanessa. Villa asserbo: a sustainable, printed house that snaps together. Available at:

http://www.archdaily.com/264572/villa-asserbo-a-sustainable-printed-house-that-snaps-

together/. Last access: 17/11/14

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Self-build guide. Huf haus. Available at: http://www.the-self-build-guide.co.uk/huf-haus.html.

Last access: 17/11/14.

Huf Haus. Available at: http://www.huf-haus.com/en/home.html. Last access: 17/11/14.

Sacrower allee huf haus. Available at:

http://sacrowerallee.blogspot.co.uk/2008_05_01_archive.html. Last access: 17/11/14.

Facit: an overview. https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/741421/Facit%20info.pdf. Last

access:17/11/14.

Design to improve life. Print your own 3D-printed home. Available at:

http://designtoimprovelife.dk/the-d-process/. Last access: 17/11/14.

FITZGERALD, Jaclyn. What is kit home?. Available at:

http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au/article/what_is_a_kit_home. Last access: 17/11/14.

LISA, Ana. Jean Prouve's Maison 8x8 Pioneered Affordable Prefab Design Way Back in

1948. Available at: http://inhabitat.com/jean-prouves-maison-8x8-pioneered-affordable-prefab-

design-way-back-in-1948/. Last access: 17/11/14.

BORGOBELLO, Bridget. Facit homes claims to build world’s first “digitally fabricated” house.

Available at: http://www.gizmag.com/digitally-fabricated-homes-facit/23844/. Last access:

17/11/14

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http://www.homeimprovementpages.com.au/articles/author/jaclyn_fitzgerald

Kunsthaus Graz:

A study of the Friendly Alien’s surface

_____

TECHNOLOGY 3 MODULE _ TERM 1 Tutor Ben Cowd

____

18 November 2014

DENNIS SOARES FLOR JAMIE VELLA

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Kunsthaus Graz: A study of the Friendly Alien’s surface

Figure 1 - Kunsthaus Graz museum inserted in the urban context

Kunsthaus Graz (Fig. 1) is an exhibition museum that specialises in contemporary art located in Graz, Austria, it is characterised by its geometrically and "blob" like shape . The building was built as a celebration of Graz's title of European Capital of Culture in 2003. The main architects of the building Colin Fournier and Peter Cook, who were then Bartlett professors, won the competition (much to their surprise) for this art museum in 1999. The latter is of the 1960s avant-grade Archigram fame, which sought architecture to embrace a more a fun, technological and machine age approach. This philosophy can clearly be seen in the Kunsthaus Graz. In fact many architects refer to the Kunsthaus as the first Archigram building that has actually been built. This radical, exploratory structure was delivered on time and on the 28 million Euro budget and opened in September 2003. At its opening Fournier labelled the building "the friendly alien" to the media. The building consists of 11100 m² of useable space, with delivery area, various depots, workshops, and an underground car park with space for 146 vehicles. As an arts venue it contains large volumes of space - space for art, space for performance, space for indeterminate activity. The building connects with an important historic building, the first cast-iron framed building in Europe, the Eisner Haus, this listed 1848 building provides the main entrance, gallery and museum administration for the Kunsthaus. On entering you traverse the old building and go through the new building.

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The concept “the architecture blob” is a reflection of the technological developments of the 1990s. The significant shaping forces in this case are the building’s functionality together with the process of digital production. The 3D curvilinear nature of the blob form is an expression of totality of these digital design processes. Digital blob modelling techniques are based on B-spline surface modelling technology, which allows complex forms to be precisely modelled. Kunsthaus Graz has began to be modelled as a sphere, which was being distorted under controlled parameters in Rhinoceros 3D program points, having its final result determined by considering execution and structural conditions. B-spline is now common in CAD software and is referred to as NURBS (non-uniform rational B-splines). The information needed for the fabrication of the curved elements was obtained by further detailing the topographical 3D model. In this ways, 3D CAD tools were essential to numerically seize and manipulate data, working as a basis for all the communication among the specialized parts during the design realisation.

Figure 2.1 - Form generated in Rhinoceros Figure 2.2 - Insertion of guidelines for structure

Figure 2.3 - Final steel frame structure Figure 2.4 - Scheme of the whole final structure

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The design of the Kunsthaus was predominantly and outside-in process. Initial project planning centered on the master geometry of the structural 3D model developed by the engineers. Once a structural form had been established in consultation with the architects, architectural planning could then proceed in more detail. 2D plan drawings were derived from 3D models by slicing through the blob form as and when required. The main load bearing structure is simply two reinforced concrete tables, one above the other. The lower table supported the blob, span the ground floor and serve as an exhibition level. The upper table was to be a second exhibition level inside the blob. The lower table was designed as a solid steel framework needing only five supports. Two bean shaped concrete cores with space for access and infrastructure were to serve as reinforcement. A 40m long, inclined travelator was selected as the means of linear access from below. A steel-grid skeleton was then perched atop this concrete structure, to give the building its basic “blob” form.

Figure 3 - Integration among the concrete structure and the skin Niels Jonkhanz, who is co-founder of Spacelab/UK and projector architect for the Kunsthaus Graz, states that the surface of the museum was designed to function as a thermal layer and yet allow natural light in and views out. Besides, it should incorporate all the supporting structure and appliances required for cooling and heating as well as support the displayed artwork. (Jonkhanz, n.d.)

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Figure 4 - Scheme of layers present in the whole structure The total thickness of the roof measures 90cm and is filled with different layers. The primary structure is consisted of polygonal and rectangular steel box girders, arranged parallel to each other. Between them, standard square were structured in a triangular formation, transforming the load-bearing (two tables) into a shell. On the inside the steel girders were covered with a fire-resistant coating, and the was closed off from the outside with steel sandwich panels and then insulated and sealed. Above this a air 70cm gap was created with sprinklers attached and finally the acrylic panels are placed and clamped together. This 70cm gap and the installation of sprinklers (Figure 5) was due to that fact that as a material acrylic is highly flammable.

Figure 5 - The projection of a sprinkler over the acrylic panels

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The insulation and sealed panels are composed of FOAMGLAS® inorganic cellular glass insulation system for the protection of the interior. This provides high resistance to uplift and loads and can be easily cut into square, triangular or trapezoidal shapes (Fig. 6.1) of different thicknesses (60 to 120 mm) by simple tools, such as sawing tool, to fit in the non-orthogonal surface. Irregularities in the insulation layer could be smoothed by the use of planning tools (Fig. 6.3). Fixed through z-profile fixing elements (Fig. 6.2), the insulation system is applied over the triangulated steel structure composed of triangles of variable sizes which are linked by a metal cladding, forming then a solid shape which necessarily had to be high compressive strong and deformation-free as prerequisites for the installation of FOAMGLAS® layer. Furthermore, in order to avoid the raises of temperature in the perspex clad, a outer envelope - a white polyolefin waterproof adhesive (Fig. 6.5) - was applied as a sealing system. According to technical recommendations, a layer of bituminous waterproofing with specific fire-safety fibre reinforcement (Fig. 6.4) was required under the white adhesive because of its non-provided fire-safety lamination. The tubes projecting from the roof were designed to fix the outer skin cladding. (FOAMGLAS®, 2004)

Figure 6.1 - Applying the material Figure 6.2 - Fixing element Figure 6.3 – Jointing

Figure 6.4 - Bituminous waterproofing over the FOAMGLAS Figure 6.5 - Polyolefin waterproof adhesive

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The acrylic material used for the panels is a thermoplastic most commonly used for skylights, light fixtures, and other glazing applications. It most valuable characteristic is its transparency allowing for as much as 92% overall light transmission with many varying levels of opaqueness and transmission below this. An acrylic sheet is eight to ten times stronger than glass of the same thickness, though acrylic can scratch more easily than glass. Acrylic is easily fabricated and machined and when heated can be formed into different shapes. It has good resistance to weather, heat, and chemicals; however it is combustible. Acrylic sheet is light weight – usually less than half the weight of a piece of glass – and has moderate resistance to shrinkage and dimensional instability. The acrylic sheets (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8) are made out of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) which is a thermoplastic polymer that can be semi rigid to rigid depending on the thickness. The material is also very lightweight and inexpensive, mildew resistant, and can be as a good gas and moisture barrier. It is naturally colorless but can be coloured - in this case dark green. Like all polymers, ultraviolet degradation and low fire resistance are two of PET’s disadvantages. Due to this hazardous disadvantage the sheets were coated with flame retarders in the form of chemical additives since the sheets are extremely close to the electrical configuration of the BIX lighting system and configuration. The ability of this plastic material with being able to take modifiers and additives is one of the massive advantages of the material, thus as modifiers and fillers are added to the base plastic allowing for one to produce optimum properties in the finished product. As is the case with the Kunsthaus Graz building.

Figure 7 - Acrylic panels composing the outer layer of the building

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Figure 8 - Imperfections in the fitting of parts not compromise the quality of the project

The acrylic panels manufacturing process consists basically of three main stages. Firstly, a large rectangular block is cut by a five axis milling cutter through computer aided sets. Secondly, a standardized 4.0 x 3.0m flat panel is heated to the point of elasticity, and then placed upon a mold and, then, gravity begin to act on it. Finally, after the panel has its final shape, it starts being cooled slowly on the mold in order to avoid tensions and deformations. In total, the skin comprises 1068 acrylic panels 20mm thick molded from two basic rectangular templates - 2.0 x 3.0m and 3.0 x 4.0m - composing the 7,200 m² surface and, owing to these standards, the form had to suffer adjustments to accommodate the panelization layout. (Lubczynski, 2010)

Figure 9 - Acrylic panels in the nozzles

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The curved blue skin is peppered with strange "nozzles" (Fig. 9); in fact these are roof lights, one which focuses on Graz's famous clock tower, half a mile away on a hill. One nozzle serves as a smoke extract, one provides a view of the landmark clock tower (Fig. 10.3 and Fig. 10.4), and the remaining 14 area arranged to give daylight to the upper exhibition level. Nozzles are inclined to the North to provide natural daylight. Microphones placed around nozzles pick up ambient urban sounds, which are then mixed and projected back into the city from speakers that sit atop of the needle, creating a low-frequency sound cloud. The nozzles frames are independent structures (Fig. 10.1 and Fig. 10.2) mounted separately and added to the set when the whole steel frame is done, only then the outer layers can be built.

Figure 10.1 - Nozzles as independent structure Figure 10.2 - Installation

Figure 10.3 - Nozzle providing natural illumination Figure 10.4 - View for the Clock Tower

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Figure 11.1 - BIX prototype Figure 11.2 - Communicative facade The BIX media façade is a unique feature of the Kunsthaus that integrates media technology with architecture. BIX lighting technology (Fig. 11.1) was developed specifically for the Kunsthaus Graz by the company Realities-United. These network consist of 930 conventional circular flourescent light tubes with adjustable brightness from 0 to 100 and a frequency of 20 frames/sec. The giant low resolution screen surface can display simple image sequences and varying text streams. Each ring of light functions as a pixel which can be centrally controlled, thus making the skin of the Kunsthaus an innovative medium for digitally presenting art and other information (Fig. 11.2), establishing a communication with the city. The BIX media façade is also a part of the structure of the building, and therefore an architectural element as much as other parts, composing 900m² of the total skin. The media façade functions as a membrane between interior exhibitions and events and the exterior public realm.

Figure 11.3 - Scheme of BIX technology in the design of Kunsthaus Graz

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The Kunsthaus Graz project explores not only dynamic responses to the surrounding environment, but also reacts with it. This is a step beyond the environmental responses of intelligent buildings in terms of lighting, heating, ventilation and shading. Architecture up to this point has been traditionally a two dimensional trade, one can argue that this one of the key buildings that broke away from the “conventional” 600 year old architecture drafting method of simple 2D drawings of plans, sections and elevations. Its need to utilise 3D software for its construction maked a new era in architectural design and construction - both for the Architect and the engineer. The two professions are intertwined into one. For now a join 3D model is created, complete with all the information needed to execute the building. Moreover, this project is an example of building in which an non-impeccable finishing does not represent an impasse for the good quality of a design neither when it is viewed as isolated nor as a whole. Kunsthaus Graz appears as an icon of contemporary architecture which connects different technical solutions into a revolutionary design, making it an important element for the city, and for the whole of the architectural world.

Figure 12 - View of the interior with nozzles in the roof

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2. Images: Figure 1 - OPEN BUILDINGS (2012). Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://openbuildings.com/buildings/kunsthaus-graz-profile-38574 [Accessed 10/11/2014] Figure 2.1 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___03sep30_nurbsflaeche_skin_pers_ohne.html [Accessed 10/11/2014] Figure 2.2 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___03sep30_nurbsflaeche_skin_top_metall.html [Accessed 02/11/2014]

Figure 2.3 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___01sep11_stahlrohre.html [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 2.4 - STANGL, G. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://gernot.xarch.at/kunsthaus_graz/___02okt11_Skin_Stahlbau_Kastentraeger_schraegoben_Perspekt.html [Accessed 10/11/2014]

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Figure 3 - SELF, R. (2014) The Architecture of Art Museums: A Decade of Design: 2000 - 2010. [Image] New York: Routledge. Figure 4 - WU-LAW, D. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.diegowulaw.com/KUNSTHAUS-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 5 - UCL (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: https://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/architecture/research/projects/kunsthaus-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.1 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.2 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.3 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.4 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 6.5 - FOAMGLAS® (2004). Project building Info. [Eletronic print] Available from: http://www.foamglas.se/__/frontend/handler/document.php?id=284&type=42 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 7 - LEE, K. (2007) Kunsthaus Graz, Austria. [Eletronic print] Available from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/kenlee2010/6667213867/in/pool-conarch%7Ckenlee2010 [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 8 - BUSINESS INSIDER. (2013) Undulating 'Blobitecture' Is The Latest Trend In Building Design. [Online image] Available from: http://www.businessinsider.com/emporis-blobitecture-buildings-trend-2013-10?op=1&IR=T [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 9 - DETAIL ONLINE (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://detail-online.com/inspiration/sites/inspiration_detail_de/uploads/imagesResized/projects/560_992-10294-downloadansichten-Kunsthaus_Graz_01.jpg [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.1 - SELF, R. (2014) The Architecture of Art Museums: A Decade of Design: 2000 - 2010. [Image] New York: Routledge.

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Figure 10.2 - WU-LAW, D. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.diegowulaw.com/KUNSTHAUS-graz [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.3 - FRANK’S TRAVELBOX. (2013) Kunsthaus Graz [Online image] Available from: http://franks-travelbox.com/images/uploads/1/d/2/1511890/Europa-Osterreich--Graz-Durch-einen-nach-Osten-gerichteten-Nozzle-Duse-fallt-der-Blick-im-Kunsthaus-direkt-auf-den-beruhmten-Grazer-Uhrturm-der-quasi-so-ebenfalls-als-Exponat-zu-sehen-ist-Osterreich-tbx_002_1388410184685996.jpg [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 10.4 - ARCSPACE (2004). Kunsthaus Graz. [Online image] Available from: http://www.arcspace.com/features/spacelab-cook-fournier/kunsthaus-graz/ [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 11.1 - ARCHDAILY. (2010) BIX Light and Media Façade at MoMA [Online image] Available from: http://www.archdaily.com/89408/bix-light-and-media-facade-at-moma/ [Accessed 02/11/2014]

Figure 11.2 - UCL. (2004) Bartlett alumni inspired. [Online image] Available from: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0411/bartlett-inspired [Accessed 02/11/2014]

Figure 11.3 - PERFORMATIVE ARCHITECTURE. (n.d.) Kunsthaus Graz Museum. [Online image] Available from: http://performativearc.wordpress.com/kunsthaus-graz-museum/ [Accessed 02/11/2014] Figure 12 - STRANGE BUILDINGS. (2011) Kunsthaus Graz, Graz, Austria. [Online image] Available from: http://www.strangebuildings.thegrumpyoldlimey.com/2011/08/kunsthaus-graz-graz-austria.html [Accessed 02/11/2014]

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DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITYFACULTY OF ART, DESIGN AND HUMANITIES

LEICESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTUREARCH 3036

TECHNOLOGY REPORT

Group Members:Alexandra Kardakou, P12203423Lia Beatriz Bezerra, P14153057

Submission Term 1, 2014

Title:

Passive Envelope, Facades and Double Skin

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Summary The report talks about passive envelope, facades and double skin. It starts explaining the origin and meaning of “passive”, then talks more about facades and double skin. Explaining how to control the daylight energy transfer to the interior of a building, it discourses a little about the process of energy transferring. Keeping the subject it clarifies how the passive heating and cooling works giving some examples of techniques. In the end of the report, we displayed four projects in order to illustrate how architects have used these kind of techniques. All of them are followed by many images for better comprehension.

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Origin of “Passive”The meaning of the passive envelope of a house is the natural, mechanic –free energy gaining, and the way to achieve that is by optimizing the construction of the building, focusing on the facades. So, when a building is described as passive, it is referred to the energy gaining that does not need extra mechanical support for being effective, therefore it is not “active”. Most passive houses are ventilated by heat recovery system, which provides fresh air anytime of the year.

Facades and Double SkinThe aim of a well- constructed envelope is to reduce heating loss, keep thermal comfort, gain as much solar light as needed, and keep the air exchange to a balance. The double skin façade is one of the famous, nowadays, ways to achieve this. By natural ventilation, controlling sunlight and thermal heating or cooling, it is possible to keep energy exchanges under control. As a start, the origin of double skin, is a façade which consists of two layers of skin, working as one. The two layers of skin have a gap of 0.20 - 2m between them, which can be ventilated naturally, mechanically, or by fans. The type that is chosen for the cavity to be ventilated, the climate, the location, the type and the hours of use of the building, affects the destination and origin of the air inside the cavity. As far as the materials are concerned, glass and metal sheets are the most common. Inside the cavity, solar shading devices can be placed for extra heating, or mechanisms which help with heat exchange, thermal controls and ventilation ducts. It was William Lescaze, who tried to understand double skin facades within his investigation at the 20th century, as well as Le Corbusier. Another experiment was the Occidental Chemical Building by Cannon Design in New York, on late 80ʼs

Figure 1: Double Skin Facades.

It is quite easy to control the daylight energy transferred to the interior of the building. By extending the daylight inside the space for lightning and ambient, while at the same time there is access to mechanisms that allow to control it, the use of artificial illumina-tion is automatically reduced. Addition-ally, the transparency and translucency of the material that the layer is made of, the window to wall ratios, the size of each window, the solar heat gain coefficient, the visible transmittance, and the use of spectrally advanced films, play a huge role of controlling the level of light transmission and energy performance. Furthermore, for keeping in balance the solar to heat energy, solar shading devices are used, like fixed or movable awnings, shades and blinds.

Process of Energy Transferring

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If the area has got a hot climate, daylight transmission needs to be increased by keeping in balance the luminance and energy levels, which could happen by cancelling any shading device in use. Additionally, the cavity can be condi-tioned in a way that helps cooling instead of heating the interior. Obviously, all the heating inputs should be turned down, so with open vents and windows, and flushing out the hot air of the interior during the night, cooling can be achieved. Also, the air flushing can be done by solar chimneys in the north facing façade, which draw air from the bottom of the cavity. Insulation needs to be proper as well for keeping the interior cool, or preventing heat loss.

Another technique for passive heating that is worth being mentioned is the trombe wall. Buildings that follow this philosophy, are construct-ed with a double skin façade on the winter sun side, with the external layer to be made of glass, and a high heat capacity internal layer. The sunlight passes through the glass unobstructed, and then it is absorbed by the interior layer, which re- radiates back the heating energy that cannot escape through the glass. So, the heat stays in the cavity and it is heating the inside of the building. This system is mostly used for absorbing the heat during sunlit in the winter, and then release it during the night. This is a technique used to greenhouses as well.

Figure 3: Trombe Wall

Passive Heating & CoolingAs a conclusion of the above, the location of a build-ing, the access to sun, water, air, vegetation, get to play an important role on heat gaining and cooling. The orientation of a home as well can prevent extreme temperatures, as long as the layout of it. During the winter, the heat from the interior living area is gone. Furthermore, the southern façade is heated inside the cavity, and this heat is used to offset the heating load for the building. During the summer, the cooled air is also gone from the interior living area. The exterior air is moving from the northern façade to the southern. So, during the summer, the way to condition the building is from the north to south façade, and during the winter, from the south to north.

However, if the climate is cooler, the use of double skin facades is quite more effective on increasing solar heat gain. This is similar to the greenhouse phenomenon, as the solar rays are transmitted inside the cavity and they are converted to heat energy. So, captured in between the two layers of glass, the amount of heat that is already available for thermal comfort is increased, as it protects the inside temperature from extreme exterior temperatures. If the air in the cavity is kept at rest, then it is working as a thermal blanket. However, if it is not in rest, this has a lot of advantages regarding energy saving. The heat can be moved at the top of the room or to ducts, for distribu-tion. This air movement enhances the storage, collection and subsequent diffusion of heat energy, and it can be reinforced by using thermal chimneys, dark coloured surfaces and metal absorbers. This form of convection is called thermosyphoning. The trapped energy within the cavity can be trans-ferred to storage devices which are connected with other areas of the building, or can be extracted by heat recovery units. Additionally, it is not necessary for the exterior layer to be glass as well. It could be changed to dark metal sheets, as dark colours attract solar energy, so the metal will be heated, and it will bring heat inside the cavity.

Figure 2: Thermosyphoning

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1. Business Promotion Centre (Duisburg) - Norman Foster

Even though the facade appears to be curved, the glass panels used are flat and faceted with a 46m radius and a degree difference between them.

The project can be summarized this way: transparent envelope + energy saving = triple-skin facade

triple-skin facade: planar glazing (outer layer) *metal blinds (200mm) double-glazed window system (further inside)

*why not external shading?As external shading tends to be affected by the wind and weather and needs to be cleaned frequently

Figure 4: Plan

Figure 5: Facade

The blinds are made of:50mm wide aluminium slats with perforations which gives a factor of 7% openness and are controlled by BMS (Building Management System).

Double-glazed window made of:6mm Pilkington K8mm Kappafloat Plus16mm Sealed Argon

Figure 6: Section1. 12mm single-pane toughned glass2. vertical aluminium mullion with location channels each side for Planar bolts3. continuous slot to receive fishtail joint in slab4. Planar bolt supporting glass5. 50mm perforated aluminium blind with electonic control6. air channel7. double glazed windows.

N

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Some key facts:-> The air is used just for fresh air supply and the water is the agent for heating and cooling.-> For safety reasons, some convector heating was installed.-> Electricity is produced through a gas-fired power station in summer, hot water and photo-voltaic collectors, located on the roof, provide an alternative sources of heat for absorption/cooling (the higher the temperature, the greater is the cooling capacity)

The project uses a silicone glazing structure not only on the facade, but on the pitched roof trusses as well. Structural silicone glazing is also used between the towers in order to provide a flush facade and take advan-tage of the magnificent views of Welsh hills.

Although it is possible to use granite with this kind of glazing, the span-drel panel material chosen was GRC considering its light weight.

To achieve a flush translucent facade, the glazed units are securely fixed by structural silicone adhesives to an aluminum grid, a ʻreceptor frameʼ of mullions and transoms, stabilizes in the back of the glass.

The GRC spandrel panels are held up by mild steel galvanized truss fixed onto the receptor grid. Both support systems are designed to endure diverse thermal expansion coefficents. Figure 8: A closeup of the Planar facade.

2. Marks and Spencer Financial Services (Chester) - Aukett Associates

Figure 7: Section2

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Figure 9: Section trough facade

1. top aluminium section with integrated air outlet2. 12mm single-pane toughened glass 3. ss angle bolted to 300x300mm steel box beam4. ss bolts for suspension of Planar aluminium mullion5. 50mm perforated aluminium blind with electronic control6. Planar bolt for glass support7. aluminium facing8. continuous vertical aluminium mullion with location channel for Planar bolt9. aluminiumsection at base of Planar, taking up changes in lenght due to thermal movement 10. air channel11. double glazed windows12. screed finish 13. air outlet 14. suspended ceiling15. 300x300mm steel box ring beam (not concrete as shown)

The double-skin cavity wall system was adopted in this project because of the aircraft noise as it provides 60dBa of sound attenuation.

A gap of 800mm separates the 19mm massive outer layer of fully-tempered glass and the internal layer, which is an insulated low E covered unit. �The cavity wall system responds the acoustic engineers' requirements with three layers of glass with a 200mm gap between two of them, at least. Furthermore, it avoids condensation problems as it uses acoustic baffles in order to ventilate the system. The cavity simplifies the maintenance and increases the buildingʼs performance in thermal aspect.

3. Dragon Air Office (Hong Kong) - Wong Tung & Partners Ltd (WTPL)

Figure 10: Dragonair facade

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Both south and north facades of the living light house operates as double-skin envelopes. They are made of a external layer of single-pane glass and an internal of 2-inch quadruple-paned insulated glazing. The internal unit has two layers inside it made of mylar film and three argon-filled cavities which has a thermal resistance value of 11.

Enclosed by the two layers of single and quadruple glass there is a solar shading device which can be set up for optimal seasonal operations.The energy recovery ventilator (ERV) combined with the operation of its air exchange are the component keys for the facadeʼs performance. The ERV captures heat energy for adequate reuse during the winter and summer. But the innovation consists in the capture of energy from both the main living space and the north and south cavities of DSF. In summer time, the cool air from the conditioned interior is recovered and during the winter the same occurs with the heat. Still during the winter, inside the cavity of the southern facade the air is preheated and this free thermal energy is used to offset the heating task for the building.

It was needed to add fire dampers to the double-skin facade, this way the DSF cannot benefit from the stack effect in part of it.

The 4.2 m by 1.5 m laminated glass panels are bolt-fixed to a system of steel outriggers which are supported in turn by the prestressed mast structures at 4.5 m centres

4. Living light - Prototype from the University of Tennessee

Figure 11: Dragonair facade transition

Figure 12: Dragonair elevation

Figure 13: Internal view

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In the other hand, during the summer, the ambient exterior air is made to go from the colder northern facade to the warmer southern facade being exhaust-ed through it. Thus, the ventilation mode for the summer is from the north façade to the south; and for the winter is from the south to the north facade.

References

BibliographyTrubiano, F. (2013) Design and Construction of High - Performance Homes. London: Routlege.Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press

Other ReferencesArchitectʼs Journal (2003) Theme: cladding and curtain walling. Weblog [Online] n. d. Available from: http://ww-w.architectsjournal.co.uk/home/theme-cladding-and-curtain-walling/654550.article [Accessed 20. 10. 2014]

Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus

Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://www.building.hk/fea-ture/11_00dragon.htm#top [Accessed 10. 11. 2014]

Mingotti, N. (2011) Natural ventilation of double-skin facades. [WWW] Available from: http://www.breathingbuild-ings.com/media/129499/2%20nicola%20mingotti.pdf [Accessed 02. 11. 2014]

Haase, M., Wong, F, Amato, A. (2007) Double–Skin Facades for Hong Kong. [WWW] Available from:http://www.hkis.org.hk/ufiles/200712-matthias.pdf [Accessed 13. 10. 2014]

Figure 1: Smart Buildings & Infrastructure (2012 -14) Double Skin Façade Mass Dampers. [WWW] Available from: http://smartbuildings.unh.edu/?page_id=78 [Accessed 10. 11. 2014]

Figure 2: Delaney, M. D. (2007) Larkinʼs Thermosyphon Solar Air Heater. [WWW] Available from: http://davidmdel-aney.com/larkin/larkin-tap-1.html [Accessed 05. 11. 2014]

Figure 3: CTBUH (n. d) Sowwah Square, Abu Dhabi. [WWW] Available from: http://www.ctbuh.org/TallBuildings/-FeaturedTallBuildings/Fea-turedTallBuildingArchive2013/SowwahSquareAbuDhabi/tabid/6065/language/en-US/Default.aspx [Accessed 06. 11. 2014]

Figure 14: 3D Section

Figure 15: Facade

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Figure 4: Architectural Journal (1993) Theme: Glazing and Curtain Walling. London: AJ Focus

Figure 5: Solar Design (n. d) Business Promotion Centre and the Euro-Gate Norman Foster in Duisburg [WWW] Available from: http://members.xoom.virgilio.it/solardesign/plans.html [Ac-cessed 11. 11. 2014]





Figure 10: Building.hk (2000) Classical Symmetry. Weblog [Online] n. d Available from: http://w-ww.building.hk/plibrary/Dragonair/dragonair.html [Accessed 10. 11. 2014]



Figure 13: Szokolay, V., S. (2004) Introduction to Architectural Science - The basis of Sustainability Design. Oxford: Architectural Press



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Low Energy Typologies Renewable Technology Report

Jonathan McCool – P12208130

Muneeb Lokasher – P12206481

De Montfort University Arch3036-2015-Y Technology 3

Tuesday 18th November 2014

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Arch3036-2015-Y Technology 3

Jonathan McCool

Muneeb Lokasher

Low Energy Typologies 1

Low Energy Typologies

Renewable Technology Report

Abstract: This report aims to discuss the most widely used renewable technologies throughout the world. We

will do this in reference to case studies to demonstrate the uses and effectiveness of the main technologies out

there today.

Key Words: Renewable, Technologies, Photovoltaics, Wind-Energy, Technical, Analysis

Introduction: Renewable technology (RT) has very quickly become an important part of our world today.

The fairly long age of fossil fuels is now coming to an end and a revival in the use of renewable energy is

starting to resurface again. Now more than ever there is a need for new ways and techniques that can help

extract renewable energy from the 3 main sources which are sun, wind and water.

Although renewable technologies have been around for some time, the first real and major worldwide push to

support the use of these systems started in the time of the first and Second World War. This was the prime

time to push this agenda forward because the different sides of the war aimed to expand their energy supply

and concoct technical solutions in order to try and gain the advantage in battle. E.g. Germany in the world

war made good use of wind turbines to generate electricity. However, at the exact same time the growth of the

oil industry was accelerating at an alarmingly fast pace too. Some countries switched from the use of coal to

oil so that the ships could be smaller, faster and travel for much longer.

Immediately after the war the prices of non-renewable resources plummeted which resulted in a disinterest for

RT, as it generally was more expensive. But around 1970 there was an oil crisis that meant that the prices of

non-renewables skyrocketed, naturally resulting in a rekindled interest in RT again. At this time, the U.S and

various countries within Europe decided to invest in research and development programs for wind turbines

and photovoltaic cell systems. Their goal was to lessen their dependence upon Middle Eastern oil suppliers

and protect their economy from turmoil oil prices. The whole world was shaken up because of the possibility

of its finite resources running out. Following this, the next biggest concern that was being brought to the

forefront was climate change that primarily started growing in and around the year 1996. This concern

primarily arose and took centre stage at the Kyoto Conference, in which most of the world’s developed

countries came together to devote their time and effort into reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

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This finally leads us to the present day where climate change is still a pressing issue and is very much the

principal motivator of interest in energy conservation and in RT as a suitable alternative to non-renewable

sources. The U.K Government has set a long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80%

by 2050. This said, the government are offering incentives to anyone willing to invest in RT as it helps towards

this objective.

The main renewable energy systems used in the UK are listed below:

Photovoltaic system

Solar thermal

Wind turbines

Heat Pumps

Hydropower

Integrated Case Study – Beaufort Court, Hertfordshire: Beaufort Court is the innovative, low-

carbon headquarters of the ‘Renewable Energy Systems’ Group. Originally this was a poultry farm from the

1930’s and converted into a 2,665m2 sustainable office solution. A ‘horseshoe’ shaped barn, a coach house

and seven hectares of land was all part of the original farm. Fundamentally all the existing buildings have been

Fig 1: A labeled diagram showing all of the renewable energies in Beaufort Court with a key that is assigned to a letter showing all the

processes and all the different equipment needed to execute the task - http://www.maxfordham.com/projects/beaufort-court

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kept in their original state, with the addition of a ground floor extension, built with a steel frame. The

development is fully self-sufficient due to the usage of sustainable building techniques, renewable technologies

that provide all of the heating, cooling and power needs for the offices. Beaufort Court is able to do this due to

its renewable energy installations that consist of Solar panels, Wind energy as well as energy crops.

Photovoltaic Cells - PV System: A PV cell collects sun light energy and converts it into electricity; this is

a process that was discovered in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel. Today PV cells are mostly made of crystalline

silicon, which is a good choice of material as it has semi conductive qualities. These can be used on building

facades as well as roofs.Beaufort Court has a total of 22 solar panels fitted, covering a total of 170m2 that

collect enough heat energy to provide hot water consistently all year round. The thermal collection transfers its

heat from the collector to the copper pipes, which therefore heats the water. The collected heat can be stored if

not used straight away, and any unused water can be returned. The heat collected has a peak thermal output of

100kW, approximately. Every year it generates approximately 69MWh.

The amount of energy generated through the solar panels would depend on every case individually, and will

also largely depend on what panels are installed and what are there ratings. To demonstrate this, a mid-range

panel has an input of around 1000 W/m2 however the amount of electricity gained would be about 20%

efficiency, maximum. A solar panel that measured one square meter in size would generate approximately

200W, in good sunlight conditions.

Fig 2: A table to show the average sun hours by months that has been calculated by the UK Met Office. All of the information is based on

averaged data within a ten-year gap, from 2000 – 2010.

Month Daily Peak Sun Hours

January 2

February 3

March 4

April 6

May 6

June 7

July 7

August 6

September 5

October 4

November 3

December 2

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Fig 3: A diagram highlighting the process of how Solar Panels and Wind Turbine works as well as showing how much electricity

both types of renewable energy have produced since 2004

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The seven panels out of the total 22 equate to 54m2 and are Hybrid PV Thermal panels. These panels have an

electrical capacity of 75W, and a peak output of 5.25kW, resulting in 4.5MWh of electricity every year if

enough solar energy is available to the system. There is no average or optimum figure of how much sunlight is

provided at a time, however one can calculate the peak sun hours, this is the hour in which the intensity of the

sunlight averages out to 1000 W/m2. This does not mean that the solar panel receives this amount of sunlight

due to the distance of the sun and the fact that other objects or radiation interferes.

Wind Energy: Wind energy is generated by the use of a wind turbine. The process into how electricity is

generated begins with the wind causing the turbine to turn. This turns the low speed shaft, followed by the

high speed shaft which spins within a static magnet inside the generator resulting in electricity. The limits of

the generator are determined by a device called an anemometer. This device measures the wind speed and

determines when the generator starts and stops.

Beaufort Court has only one turbine, standing at 36 metres high, 29 metres in diameter and originally

manufactured in 1995. The wind turbine produces twice the amount of energy required for the site, with a

power output of 225 kW, the excess electricity is wired back to the National Grid. The turbine is fitted with

variable pitch blades that can be tweaked depending upon the weather conditions; for example, when the wind

speed is low they can adjust the pitch of the variable blades to maximize the wind energy that is collected. The

blades are adjusted to pitch out of the wind when the turbine is off. The National grid’s frequency which is

50Hz limits

the speed of

the generator,

however if the

wind speed is

increased this

does not

necessarily

mean that

turbine blades

turn faster but

instead means

that more

torque is

exerted onto

the generator

shaft which ultimately

results into a much greater

electrical output. The

generator is enough to

supply electricity to 30-40 houses, with a speed of 760 1000rpm. Beaufort Court’s wind turbine will generate

electricity around 80% of the time, for as long as 25 years. .

Fig 4: A graph to show the difference between how much electricity was generated through the

wind turbine during 2004 to 2013 - http://www.beaufortcourt.com/live-energy-data/energy-

comparison-charts#

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Biomass Energy: Biomass materials have five basic categories: virgin wood, energy crops, agricultural

residues, food waste and industrial waste. These materials can be used as an extremely low carbon fuel. For

example when trees and plants grow they absorb carbon dioxide from the environment, and when the trees are

burnt the same amount of carbon dioxide is released, so in essence no additional carbon dioxide enters the

atmosphere. The benefits of this procedure is highlighted when you compare it to fossil fuels, when they are

burnt they also release carbon dioxide, that was absorbed a long time ago and release a lot more carbon

dioxide, therefore directly affecting the climate. Recently biomass boilers have been proven to be reliable and

cost-effective.

Beaufort Court has a biomass boiler too, which burns wood fuel to heat up the buildings. The boiler sends the

hot water to three plant rooms on the site that warms up the incoming air that is then circulated around the

building. Beaufort court uses pellets to fuel the Boiler although wood chips can also be used. At least one

month’s fuel, wood pellets are held within Beaufort court,

Borehole Cooling: Due to the fact that the majority of the new stores widely use traditional forms of air

conditioning which causes them to have a very high intensity refrigeration plant, and this can eat half of the

buildings energy consumption and air pollution. In Beaufort Court the principle of natural ventilation has been

used to execute the Borehole Cooling method within the design, such as encouraging air to flow through the

bottom of the building, right through to the top. A 75m deep borehole is where naturally cool water is pumped

out. The London Basin sits on a layer of chalk that has been saturated in the water. Twelve degrees is the

constant temperature of the water whilst it’s being held, this water can be extracted by using the Borehole and

a pump and then distributed around the building through underground copper pipes.

In Beaufort Court a 200mm wide Borehole was drilled to a depth of 75 metres that goes through different types

of rock. This is done with a hollow metal tube that is consistently dug into the ground, almost like drilling a

hole into a wall. With the borehole cooling, the water is pumped out at five litres per second and the water

level in the aquifer is hardly affected due to the extraction. The Air Handling Units dehumidify and cool the

incoming air and then travels via floor vents to cool the building, the water is transported at around 15ºC

through the beams around the buildings that then cools the air inside. When the water is pumped out of the

building, it makes its way to the energy crop growing into the fields nearby. The ‘run-off’ water from the car

park also makes its way to the crops. The temperature within each office is centrally controlled by an

innovative building management system, which can be manually set or automatically.

Fig 5: A diagram showing how the space heating system works in Beaufort Court, the stored water is

heated from the Solar Panels and used when required

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Conclusion:

As you can see here these are two monthly energy output graphs for Beaufort Court. This shows how much

energy is produced now in comparison to around 10 years ago. The wind turbine has always been the system

that has generated the most output all year round. The other two systems that have contributed at different

times in the year are the Biomass Boiler and the Solar thermal. The solar thermal is obviously more effective

during the summer as well as the Borehole cooling. Overall they all contribute majorly towards the U.K goal

and there are massive savings and benefits that have been achieved. Borehole Cooling and solar thermal

energy isn’t correctly highlighted in the graph as they are only used when requires, i.e. cooling summer and

heating in winter.

In conclusion, all of the technologies that were here all have their own pros and cons. The right choice of

technology for a particular site is dependent upon the resources available and various circumstances

surrounding it. To have a clean sustainable building renewable technology needs to be integrated in the very

early stages of the design. Simply adding renewable technology unto a building doesn’t necessarily make it

sustainable. There needs to be a deep consideration of cost, functionality and long-term (lifetime) benefits in

order for it to be effective in your design.

Fig 6: A comparison of graphs between 2004 & 2013 to show the difference between how much electricity was generated by all the

renewal technologies used within Beaufort Court- http://www.beaufortcourt.com/live-energy-data/combined-energy-production

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Bibliography

1. EHM. (2014). History of Renewable Energy. Available: http://www.energy-hypermarket.org/history-of-

renewable-energy/. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

2. Meagan Clark. (2014). The Changing Rationale Behind Renewable Energy Technology: A Short History.

Available: http://www.ibtimes.com/changing-rationale-behind-renewable-energy-technology-short-

history-1553726. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

3. UCSUSA. (2013). Benefits of Renewable Energy Use. Available:

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/public-benefits-of-

renewable.html#.VGqOVIfVvzJ. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

4. CAT. (2014). How much will a wind turbine earn?. Available:

http://info.cat.org.uk/questions/wind/how-much-will-wind-turbine-earn. Last accessed 18th

November 2014.

5. EST. (2014). Wind turbines. Available:

http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/content/wind-turbines. Last accessed 18th

November 2014.

6. EST. (2014). Solar Panels. Available: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/content/solar-

panels. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

7. Beaufort Court. (2000-2014). Live Energy Data. Available: http://www.beaufortcourt.com. Last

accessed 18th November 2014.

8. Michael Cockram . (2008). Rebuilding Beaufort. Available:

http://www.architectureweek.com/2008/0116/environment_1-2.html. Last accessed 18th November

2014.

9. MaxFordham. (2014). BEAUFORT COURT. Available:

http://www.maxfordham.com/projects/beaufort-court. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

10. GM Renewables. (2014). Solar panels 01189 111 412. Available: http://www.gm-

renewables.co.uk/solar.html. Last accessed 18th November 2014.

11. Electrocity. (2014). Where Our Numbers Come From. Available: https://www.ecotricity.co.uk/our-

green-energy/our-green-electricity/from-the-wind/where-our-numbers-come-from. Last accessed 18th

November 2014.

12. Zatirostami. (2011). Environmental and Technical Analysis of Photovoltaic Systems. Available:

http://www.idosi.org/mejsr/mejsr8(2)11/31.pdf. Last accessed 18th November 2014th November

2014.

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BA3 Submission 2014-15 Tuesday 18th Nov 2014

CONCRETE

Authored by :Luke Robinson p12215479 Tutor: Ashley Clayton Syed .A.R Nasir p13234258 Tutor : Chris Jones

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The History of concrete

From the earliest moments in our history, builders have tried to find materials that could cement together stones or bricks.Builders of the time were aware that this mode of construction would provide greater flexibility in construction as their methods relied on carefully setting stone blocks one above the other. The earliest cementing materials readily available was mud, this would be mixed with straw to bind the dried bricks together. However this method of construction is only suitable for dryer climates, as the unburnt bricks and clay have no resistance to water. The Great Mosque of Djenné was built in 1907, The mosque stands as the world’s largest mudbrick structure. The mudbrick is called Banco which is a mixture of mud and grain husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a plaster. This plaster must be annually reapplied.

Non- hydraulic cements

Calcareous materials were used first by the ancient Egyptians, the Egyptians used gypsum mortars in the construction of the pyramid of cheops (300bc); gypsum is formed through calcining im-pure gypsum. Water is then added which causes a chemical reaction where the calcined gypsum is recombined with the water of the chrystalisation which was driven off during the burning process. This material is preferred due to its low burning temperature (1300c) , gypsum mortars are non hydraulic which means that hardening will not take place under the water due to gypsum being soluble. This has negative effects in construction when used in countries without a very dry cli-mate. More recently, gypsum was used to rebuild much of the city of Paris, which gave the name Plaster of Paris, as a result of the natural gypsum deposits found under the district of Monmartre. Subsequently, gysum was withdrawn from the market as many of the existing historic sites inParis, that were originally built with gypsum mortar now suffer badlyfrom damp and deterioration.

When gypsum is mixed with small quantitys of water the setting of this material is due to the recombina-tion of the calcined gypsum which was driven off during the burning process.

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chemical reaction: calcining limestone

Chemical reaction: Carbonation of lime mortar

(A) (B)

(C)

(D)

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Colloseum

Montmartre

Le Pont Du Gard

Hadrian's pantheon

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Hydraulic Limes

Greeks & Romans produced hydraulic limes by calcining limestones containing argillaceous (clay-ey) impurities therefore displaying there knowledge of volcanic deposits. Upon these volcanic de-posits being mixed with lime and sand the mortars became stronger with water resistant qualities.one of the greatest examples of hydraulic mortars is the pantheon , dating from the second century A.D. The dome.141 ft 6 i. in diameter was constructed by pouring concrete into sections and letting it set. John smeaton (civil Engineer) recognised the mortars performed best with clayey materials. this was the first recognition of the factors that control the formation of hydraulic lime.

AggregatesAggregates can be obtained from many different types of materials although the use of natural material and common rocks are used mostly. The materials are separated into fine and coarse frac-tions. Cement can also be formulated in similar way as different chemicals can be mixed. Cement is a generic that can used for all binders. Therefore, the term Portland cement will often be used in conjunction to the construction industry.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Oven dry Air dry Saturated surface dry

wet

Absorption capacity

effective absorption surface moisture

Uniform sizecontinuous grading

replacement of small sizes by large sizes

gap graded aggregateno fines grading

The volume of the voids between rough-ly spherical aggregate particles is greatest when the particles are uniform size. the smaller particles can pack between the larger, thus de-creasing the void space and lowering paste requirements.

20 ft drum

structure becomes light-er towards top

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Advantages and Disadvantages of concrete as a construction material

Advantages

Ability to be cast economicaldurablefire resistantenergy efficienton- site fabricationaesthetic properties

Disadvantages

Low tensile strengthlow ductilityvolume instability low strength-to-weight ratio

Precast concrete

Concrete can be adapted to factory controlled pro-duction, precast concrete building elements are used heavily in Europe and parts of America. The precast concrete pipe is widely used in drainage, sewage, and water supply projects. precast, pre stressed concrete beams, girders and panels in various configurations are used increasingly in many structures. Precast concrete can be produced with more accuracy with much small-er tolerences compared to concrete cast on site, but requires the use of more sophisticated equipment and a more skilled workforce.

Good quality concrete is a very desirable material and can remain maintenance free for many years when it has been properly designed for its conditions. Concrete differs from structural steel as no protective coating is required except in very corrosive environments. Con-crete also happens to be fire resistant, however can be-come damaged upon exposure to extreme temperatures for prolonged periods. In this this scenario concrete would perform better than steel as damages would be irreplaceable. Precast architectural panels are also used to clad all or part of a building facade free-standing walls used for landscaping, soundproofing, and security walls, and some can be Prestressed concrete structural elements. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage pipes, and tun-nels make use of precast concrete units

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European codes and regulations for concrete.

through successful technical planning and experimentation and maturity in practical application, goals were set to reduce the unit density and improve the thermal insulation properties of concrete. normal concrete density (2350kg/m3 )can be reduced to (1600 kg/m3 )whilst maintaining strength levels.

Casting concrete in- situ

Concrete can be cast to any desired shape and configuration. Often concrete is pro-duced to create soaring arches and columns, complex hyperbolic shells, monolithic sec-tions used in dams, piers and abutments. On site construction means that local ma-terials can be included in construction thus keeping costs low. Moreover, by fabricating the concrete on site the properties can be tailored for the specific application. Con-crete can be made with unsophisticated equipment meaning that the workers can be semi skilled, thereby keeping costs down.

Falsework is a temporary structure used in construc-tion to support spanning or arched structures in order to hold the component in place until it can support itself.

Formwork is the temporary or permanent mold which concrete or similar materials are poured.

First pour

Second pour

Third pour

Roof level

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Cement, is a mixture of compounds made by burning limestone and clay together at very high temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600 degrees. The production of portland cement begins with the quarrying of limestone, CaCO3. Huge crushers break the blasted limestone into small pieces. The crushed limestone is then mixed with clay, sand, and iron ore and ground together to form a homogeneous powder.

The mixture is heated in kilns that are long rotating steel cylinders on an incline. The mixture of raw materials enters at the high end of the cylinder and slowly moves along the length of the kiln. At the low end of the kiln, a fuel is injected and burned, thus providing the heat necessary to make the materials react.

Four stages of transformation

>free water in the powder is lost by evapora-tion. >decomposition occurs from the loss of bound water and carbon dioxide (calcina-tion). >Through clinkering the calcium silicates are formed. >Cooling.

Manufacture of portland cement

Water

water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a paste that binds the aggregate together. The water causes the hardening of concrete through a process called hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration products. The water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring which may weaken the concrete. Cement ratio

Too much water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete unwork-able. Concrete needs to be workable so that it may be shaped into different forms .

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The architectural minister went against the advice of english heritage in order to grade list the Hayward gallery and the queen elizabeth hall in Londons brutal-ism south bank centre.

20th century society- “Bitterly disapointing”.

In 2012 The world monument society placed it on their watchlist for endangered brutalist buildings. The Hayward gallery also applied for immunity from future listing attempts which means that the centre can be clearer on how they intend to plan for the future as planning permission can last for months and upto years leaving the centre with vivid parameters on the work can be done.

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21 acre site displaying south bank centre site marked with a red line.

The Queen Elizabeth Hall was de-signed for a completly different use to how some of the spaces are used now. As the programme has devel-oped, the buildings have changed.Building services such as electrics, ventilation and plumbing are datedold - in some cases over 45 years old and are starting to create dam-age to the building.

The comfort cooling and air ventilation systems need to be replaced not only to meet needs of the public but to the standards of a major international arts complex. Thus also improving their perfor-mance to reduce carbon emissions and running costs.

The Hayward Gallery also doesn’t have adequate temperature or humidity controls to meet mod-ern standards.Thus the ventilation and cooling systems need to be upgraded. The gallery has had to create a false ceiling as the artwork would face possible damage as a result of leaking.

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Release Agents

>chemical release agents>solid release wax coating>neat oils with surfactants

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Design considerations

position of the insulation with-in the construction affects the use of the thermal mass of the thermal mass of concrete and its contribu-tion to night time cooling. conti-nuity of thermal insulation is im-portant to the interface of concrete with glazed openings and doors inorder to avoid thermal bridging.

Limitations of concrete

Concretes limitations should be allowed for upon designing structures as it is limited in some applications. Concrete is brittle with low tensile strength, therefore concrete shouldn’t be loaded in tension ( except for minor bending stresses in the use if unreinforced slabs) and reinforcing steel shouldn’t be used to carry tensile loads; inadvertent tensile loading causes cracking. Concrete has low ductility, which means that concrete lacks impact strength and toughness compared to metals. Upon com-pression concrete has relatively low strength to weight ratio, and a high load capacity requires comparatively large masses of concrete, although, since concrete is low in cost it is feasible.

Energy costs

Concrete requires less energy to produce than it does steel. This is due to steel being made by high temperate processes ( 300GJM3), where as in the production of concrete, the cement undergoes pyro process-ing ( 22 GJ/M3). The energy costs are in the production of cement and reinforced steel, however the energy consumption of an equivalent steel structure element can be greater. Secondly, concrete buildings can be more energy efficient to operate because of the thermal mass properties of concrete. Concrete, conducts heat slowly and is able to store considerable amounts of heat from the environment which can be expelled during cool periods. Concluding- Concrete also has many aesthetic possibilities which can be expressed through the use of colur, texture and shape, this versatility makes con-crete a very adaptable building material.

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Condensation

intergration of floor ele-ments with reinforced con-crete frames brings the risk of cold bridgingat the periphery.

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If our topic of discussion is concrete we cannot overlook the immense use of exposed concrete in ‘Brutalist architecture’. Brutalist Architecture was a movement from the 1950-1970’s, it gained pop-ularity among the government and educational buildings. The raw form of concrete was surely not comfortable and easy looking but was appreciated by the younger generation as a reaction to early 1930-40’s architecture. One of the building we want to discuss is the National Theatre London, it is one of the iconic buildings and great representation of Brutalist Architecture.

It was designed by Sir Deny Lasdun and opened in 1976. It is formed from two towers which rise above the layered horizontal terraces that wrap around the whole structure. Basically comprising of three theatres; the Proscenium arched Lyttleton Theatre, Highly adaptable Cottesloe Theatre and the Thrust staged Olivier Theatre. The building also comprises of backstage area, a couple of bars, foyer space and one restaurant Front of the house.Olivier theatre is the biggest of them it was designed with an open thrust stage having a capacity of eleven hundred and the thrust stage opens into a fan shaped auditorium.

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Section National Theatre of London

The Dorfman theatre was created out on an unplanned space in the building opened in 1977, originally it was a small oblong space and was quite open, and the crowd could be seated on either end or even around it. With having a capacity of four-hundred people it was much appreciated by the audience and the crowd. Unfortunately it was closed for reconstruction in 2013. After closing of this there was a temporary theatre called as a ‘Shed Theatre’ was opened it was supposed to be temporary but after its success its license was extended till 2017 and the name was changed to ‘The Temporary Theatre’.

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Hayward Gallery London- Built by Higgs and Hill and opened on 9 July 1968- Its massing and extensive use of exposed concrete construction are typical of Brutalist architecture--There are ve gallery spaces, two levels of indoor galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts (the massive concrete trays at the upper level) in order to house the Arts Council collection--The two levels of the gallery open to the public are linked by a pair of cast concrete staircases.--These staircases are accommodated in a concrete box in between the eastern and western parts of the indoor galleries

-The south-west corner of the building at street level is occupied by an electrical switch room. --A car park occupies most of the lower ground level. A plant room occupies the lower level, with a great concrete exhaust stack by Waterloo Bridge.--In 2011, the Hayward Gal-lery was added to the pro-tected list by the World Monuments Fund, despite being refused listed build-ing status in the UK

Hayward Gallery London- Built by Higgs and Hill and opened on 9 July 1968- Its massing and extensive use of exposed concrete construction are typical of Brutalist architecture--There are ve gallery spaces, two levels of indoor galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts (the massive concrete trays at the upper level) in order to house the Arts Council collection--The two levels of the gallery open to the public are linked by a pair of cast concrete staircases.--These staircases are accommodated in a concrete box in between the eastern and western parts of the indoor galleries

-The south-west corner of the building at street level is occupied by an electrical switch room. --A car park occupies most of the lower ground level. A plant room occupies the lower level, with a great concrete exhaust stack by Waterloo Bridge.--In 2011, the Hayward Gal-lery was added to the pro-tected list by the World Monuments Fund, despite being refused listed build-ing status in the UK

-The building originally had a very small main foyer area with cast aluminium doors similar to those of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. In 2003, the foyer of the building was remodelled with a larger glass-fronted foyer, designed by the Haworth Tompkins architectural practice. and including a new and including a new oval shaped glass pavilion designed by Dan Graham above a new cafe in the projecting former office space at the east end. -A shop had been added earlier inside the north-west end of the lower gallery.

-The two upper galleries can use heavily ltered nat-ural light from the glass pyramids on their at roofs. -Three concrete towers run vertically through the middle of the structure and contain the passenger lift, service lift and service duct. -The kinetic light sculpture, which responds to wind force, on the roof of the passenger lift tower, was re-tained from an exhibition in 1971.-The walkway above Belvedere Road with access from Waterloo Bridge widens to the west, - The angled plan shape of the concrete sculpture court in the south corner re ects the change in angle of the site between Waterloo Bridge and Festi-val Square.- In this way, despite its seemingly uncompromising form, the building responds to its site.

Noticing the South Bank Area of London its quite rich in Brutalist Architecture apart from National Theatre London it also has Queen Elizabeth Hall and Hayward Gallery. The Hayward Gallery is an art gallery near river Thames on south bank of London. The architects of this building are Higgs and Hill and was opened in 9th July 1968. The strong and bold use of concrete represents the Brutalist architecture. The building comprises of five gallery spaces, there two levels of indoor galleries and three outdoor sculpture courts which are quite huge in size in order to entertain the art exhibition.There are two levels of gallery open to public which are connected to by cast concrete staircases, one of the staircase runs down to level zero as well but only to be used in case of emergency.

-The building originally had a very small main foyer area with cast aluminium doors similar to those of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. In 2003, the foyer of the building was remodelled with a larger glass-fronted foyer, designed by the Haworth Tompkins architectural practice. and including a new and including a new oval shaped glass pavilion designed by Dan Graham above a new cafe in the projecting former office space at the east end. -A shop had been added earlier inside the north-west end of the lower gallery.

-The two upper galleries can use heavily ltered nat-ural light from the glass pyramids on their at roofs. -Three concrete towers run vertically through the middle of the structure and contain the passenger lift, service lift and service duct. -The kinetic light sculpture, which responds to wind force, on the roof of the passenger lift tower, was re-tained from an exhibition in 1971.-The walkway above Belvedere Road with access from Waterloo Bridge widens to the west, - The angled plan shape of the concrete sculpture court in the south corner re ects the change in angle of the site between Waterloo Bridge and Festi-val Square.- In this way, despite its seemingly uncompromising form, the building responds to its site.

National Theatre of London is the most divisive building and was liked and dislike by many people. Mark Giraud comment-ed on it as “Aesthetic of Broken Forms” Prince Charles once described it as a “Nuclear power station.” This building gained its grade two listing just after 18 years it was made in 1994.The construction was mainly in situ concrete as we can witness the wooden plank prints on the walls of the building and the free form rising above the horizontal plates.

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Conclusion: Concrete is one of the oldest building materials and has travelled a long way, during this it had a lot of changes to improve its durability, strength, life and composite. There were a lot of new ways introduced as well in which it can be used in a more effective way. The technological advancements also played its roll to improve the better-finished product of concrete. Its quality of being strong and fire resistant made it prior to other materials most of the time. Overall concrete going with any other building material is can easily contrast with them. This material can provide you with numerous fine finishes’ depend-ing upon what you need.

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MATERIAL POETSCONCRETE

ARCH3036Malgorzata Persa (P12213191)Yesmeen Mohammad Sanusi (P12209167)

Leicester School of Architecture18th November 2014

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEWHAT IS CONCRETE

Concrete is a building material made with use of water, aggre-gate, and cement. To achieve the desired physical properties of material, frequantly reinforcements and additivies are includ-ed in the mixture. Aftre mixing all ingredients together we re-ceive a fluid substance that is easily molded into desired form. With time, it hardens to become a very hard and solid material which lasts for very long.

Properties:

Concrete outperforms wood as a construction material, it is versatile, long-lasting, durable, and cost-effective, its a sustain-able material for both residential and commercial buildings.

* Durability: Concrete is a building material that gains strength over time. Concrete’s 100-year service life conserves resources by re-ducing the need for reconstruction, it can resist weathering, erosion and natural disasters and over time only little mainte-nance with few repairs is needed for a concrete structure.

* Economical: Operational energy requirements typically represent 85% of the total energy a building uses over its service life. Concrete provides one of the most efficient and cost-effective means of constructing energy-efficient structures.

* Versatility:Concrete is used in buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels, sewerage systems pavements, runways and even roads.

* Low maintenance:Concrete, being inert, compact and non-porous, does not at-tract mould or lose its key properties over time.

* Affordability:Compared to other comparable building materials, concrete is less costly to produce and remains extremely affordable.

* Fire-resistance:Being naturally fire-resistant concrete forms a highly effective barrier to fire spread.

* Locally produced and used:The weight of the material limits concrete sales to within 300km of a plant site. Very little cement and concrete is trad-ed and transported internationally. This saves significantly on transport emissions of CO2 that would otherwise occur.

* Albedo effect:The high “albedo” (reflective qualities) of concrete used in pavements and building walls means more. Light is reflected and less heat is absorbed, resulting in cooler temperatures. This reduces the “urban heat island” effect prevalent in cities today, and hence reduces energy use for e.g. air-conditioning.

* Low life-cycle CO2 emissions:80% of a buildings CO2 emissions are generated not by the production of the materials used in its construction, but in the electric utilities of the building over its life-cycle (e.g. lighting, heating, air-conditioning.

Pic. Mixture of concrete

Pic. TWA Terminal (workbreaktravel.com)

Pic. Colosseum (www.geo.de)

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Pic. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct

History of concrete reaches back over 3,000 years. First con-crete floors were found in the royal palace of Tiryns in Greece, which dates 1400-1200 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) used waterproof con-crete.Concrete revolution took place in Ancient Rome. For ancient Romans concrete was new and revolutionary material. Howev-er, they developed use of concrete during 700 year, commonly known as Roman concrete. It was made from quicklime, poz-zolana and an aggregate of pumice. It has been widely used in many structures, like bridges, aqueducts, arches, vaults and domes. Many of them is still visible these days, like Pantheon or Baths of Caracalla.Concrete as a building material has been forgotten for few cen-turies. It gradually came back use in 16th century. One of the example is Canal du Midi in France from 1670.In late 18th century British engineer John Smeaton used a hy-draulic lime.

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEHISTORY

Pic. Pantheon

Pic. National Congress of Brazil (www.yampu.com)

Pic. Chandigarh India (www.theguardian.com)

Use

of c

oncr

ete

TimePic. Use of concrete over years

18th and 19th centuries were fruitful period in concrete tech-nology. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin patented a method for pro-ducting Portland cement.In 1848 Jean-Louis Lambot as first one used reinforcing in concrete. He constructed several small rowboats of concrete, which he reinforced with iron bars and wire mesh. Cocrete was widely used in post war architecture. Many build-ings were destroyed during war so people had to build quickly and economically. Concrete was perfect for it. It is widely avail-able and cheap. Many architects of that times used it common-ly. Le Corbusier, Robert Vnturi and Oscar Niemeyer are one of best known.These days concrete is widely used. Technology of this mate-rial rised rapidly. It is used both in heavy structures and light, organic forms.

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEWHAT MAKES CONCRETE A SUSTAINABLE BUILDING MATERIAL

According to portland cement association and the environ-mental council of concrete organizations:

* Resource efficiency:The predominant raw material for the cement in concrete is limestone, the most abundant mineral on earth. Concrete can also be made with fly ash, slag cement, and silica fume, all waste byproducts from power plants, steel mills, and other manufacturing facilities.

* Durability:Concrete builds durable, long-lasting structures that will not rust, rot, or burn. Life spans for concrete building products can be double or triple those of other common building materials.

* Thermal mass: Homes built with concrete walls, foundations, and floors are highly energy efficient because they take advantage of con-cretes inherent thermal massor ability to absorb and retain heat. This means homeowners can significantly cut their heat-ing and cooling bills and install smaller-capacity HVAC equip-ment.

* Reflectivity: Concrete minimizes the effects that produce urban heat is-lands. Light-colored concrete pavements and roofs absorb less heat and reflect more solar radiation than dark-colored materi-als, such as asphalt, reducing air conditioning demands in the summer.

* Ability to retain stormwater: Paved surfaces tend to be impervious and can block natural water infiltration into the soil. This creates an imbalance in the natural ecosystem and leads to problems such as erosion, flash floods, water table depletion, and pollution. Pervious concrete is a special type of structural concrete with a sponge-like net-work of voids that water passes through readily. When used for driveways, sidewalks, parking lots, and other pavements, pervious concrete can help to retain stormwater runoff and re-plenish local water supplies.

* Minimal waste:Concrete can be produced in the quantities needed for each project, reducing waste. After a concrete structure has served its original purpose, the concrete can be crushed and recycled into aggregate for use in new concrete pavements or as back-fill or road base.

A sustainable concrete building can yield life cycle savings of more than 20% of total construction cost. Much of the savings come from concrete’s thermal mass, which can harvest natu-ral energy sources such as the sun, and can also capture ther-mal energy from lighting fixtures and other equipment in the building.

Sustainable: Environmentally-conscious builders look for du-rable building materials that leave the smallest environmental footprint. Produced from locally available, abundant materi-als, concrete’s long lifespan helps make it the most responsi-ble choice for a sustainable future.

In concrete’s life cycle, recycling is present from start to finish. Many wastes and industrial byproducts that would end up in landfills are used in the cement kiln or can be added to concrete mixes to provide desirable characteristics. Used concrete is recyclable and serves as aggregate in roadbeds or as granular material in new concrete.

Pic. Recycling potential of concrete (www.clemson.edu)

Pic. Infrastructure life cycle system (www.sitemaker.umich.edu)

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEADDITIVES

Concrete as a mixture of only water, cement and agregates is as durable as one with different addings.Ancient Romans were adding horse hair, straws and blood to concrete to make it sronger, durable for bending, cracking . Nowadays, there is more methods to achieve desired features of concrete. One of them is adding different additives, like fly ash, slag cement or silica fume.

* Fly ash: the most commonly used pozzolan in concrete, is a by-product of thermal power generating stations. Commer-cially available fly ash is a finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal and is carried from the combustion chamber of the furnace by exhaust gases.

* Slag Cement: formerly referred to as ground, granulated blast-furnace slag, is a glassy, granular material formed when molten, iron blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled - typically by water sprays or immersion in water - and subsequently ground to cement fineness. Slag cement is hydraulic and can be added to cement as an SCM.

* Silica fume: also called condensed silica fume or microsilica, is a finely divided residue resulting from the production of el-emental silicon or ferro-silicon alloys that is carried from the furnace by the exhaust gases. Silica fume, with or without fly ash or slag, is often used to make high-strength concrete.

Another interesting aspect of additivies in concrete is obtain-ing different colours of concrete. Good example of use co-loured concrete is a Casa Das Historias Paula Rego. It was de-signed by Eduardo Souto de Moura. It is recognised thanks to its two pyramid-shaped towers and the red-coloured concrete used in its construction.

Pic. Casa das Histórias Paula Rego (www.archdaily.com)

Pic. Casa das Histórias Paula Rego (www.dezeen.com)

Pic. Supplementary cementitious materials (www.clemson.edu)

Uses of supplementary cementitious materials:• When a portion of Portland cement is replaced in the mix-

ture, It reduces the overall carbon footprint because the materials replacing it are gotten from the production of other materials.

• It has the ability to replace up to 40% or more of cement• Improve Properties of Plastic (Fresh) and Hardened Con-

crete

Benefits/Cautions of uses of supplementary cementitious materials:• It uses up a lower amount of water• It improves the working ability of the concrete• It reduces the chances of water in the concrete mixture

from rising to the surface after being placed, this is known as bleeding

• When this materials are added to a concrete mixture, it increases the concretes setting time.

• The concrete gains more strength over a long term • The concretes ability to be permeable is reduced • It lowers the reaction between Alkali-Silica

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETESTRUCTURES THAT USE SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTING MATERIALS

Pic. Confederation Bridge www.confederationbridge.com

Pic. Winnipeg’s Manitoba Hydro Head Office

This materials are used a lot in Canada, buildings like the Winnipeg’s Manitoba Hydro Head Office drawn below and the Confederation Bridge below. This materials are often added to concrete to make concrete mixtures more economical, reduce permeability, increase strength, or influence other concrete properties.

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Very helpful solution is use of reinforcement. Use of steel rods pushed technology of concrete much forward. Reinforcements are making concrete much more durable and control cracking. Not only steel is used as a reinforcement. One of the examples is use of bamboo (look at diagram below).

Pic. Wall underconstruction with use of in-situ concrete and bamboo rein-forcement

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEREINFORCEMENTS

There are two methods of fabricating reinforced concrete. The first is in-situ concrete. In this method the liquide material is poured into forms at the building site. The other method is called precast concrete, in which building components are manufactured in a central plant and later brought to the build-ing site for assembly. The components of concrete are portland cement, coarse aggregates.

Pic. Reinforced concrete element in contact with Eart.

Pic. Reinforcements in concrete in different parts of the building

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEIN-SITU AND PRECAST CONCRETE

As mention before, reinforced precast concrete in made in fac-tory. It is still using steel rods to strenghten concrete. It is fabricated off site. In production process steel rods are placed into forms (mostly made of timber). Then liquide is pour into it. It is done layer by layer. The reason is to make sure there is no air gaps between reinforcements. When consis-tance harden, formwork is removed. Surface of the concrete is smoothen if necessery.Ready blocks of precast concrete are storeged usually outside (considering their amount and size).

IN-SITU CONCRETE PRECAST CONCRETE

In few words, in-situ concrete is made on site. Previously pre-pared concrete, on site or in factury, is pour into the formwork. That gives more freedom to the design as it allows to create large scale buildings. Only limitation is man imagination. Reinfored concrete produced with in-situ method is made the same way as precast concrete. Steel cages and mats are placed in right possition. Then they are surrended with formwork where liquid is poured partly.

Big adventage of precast concrete is the fact that it can be fab-ricated ignoring bad weather conditions. Next, we can reuse the same formwork to crete lots of the same shapes. This meth-od is very useful in p-roduction of concrete cladding.

Main adventage of in-situ method is ability to build large scale building. They can take different forms. Light, shell structers are not the exceptation. Next, there is no problem with transport-ing ready parts to the site as they are produced on the side.

There is a few disadventages of this method. Firstly, produced items have to be storaged. Secondly, big size items can not be produced as it will be difficult to transport it to the site. Thirdly, fixing concrete sheets is fabrious as they are heavy.

Same as precast method, in-situ has also few defects. Firstly, builders can not work in bad weather condition, that means this method can be used only in certain times. Secondly, fixing reinforcement in vertical plane is difficult and time-consuming.

Pic.Pouring lequid concrete into the form (www.constructionphotography.com)

Pic. Fitting concrete sheets on the site (www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org)

Pic. Concrete Home With Stunning Sea Views By 3SK (www.interiordesi gnarticle.com)

Pic. Abstract Building With Concrete Wave (www.tutorialchip.com)

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEPRODUCTION PROCESS OF REINFORCD IN-SITU CONCRETE

A. Extractation and transportation

B. Screening of punice gravel

C. Materials for concrete: gravel, cement, water

D. Mixing by hand or in a mixing machine

E. Forming reinforcement

F. Applying formwork

G. Pouring liquid into formwork

H. Removing formwork

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: PANTHEON

Pantheon is one of the best preserved builing of Ancient Rome. It was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and rebuilt by the emperor Hadrian about 126 AD. It has the biggest in the world concrete dome.

Why use concrete?There is probably a few answers to that question. The most rel-evant might be properties of concrete. Most of ancient Rome city was destroyed by fire. At that point builders and planners wanted to use material that is fireproof, durable, economical. These desires pushed use of concrete much forward.

As mentioned before, Pantheon possess the biggest concrete dome. How was it possible to achieve such a great construc-tion that is standing over 2,000 years? There is a couple of fac-tores that allowed that.Firstly, concrete is thinner at the top of the dome and thicker to its base.Secondly, concrete next to the oculus has smaller density than the one near base. It was achieved by using different aggre-gates: heavy granite stones and lightweight volcanic stones.Thirdly, counterbalance is used by building brickwork on the bottom of the dome.Then, structure of dome is lightened by adding cofferings. Finally, weight of the dome is reduced by placing an oculus on the top.

Pic.Pantheon (romeonsegway.com)

Pic.Pantheon (www.thinglink.com)

Pic. Pantheon- section through the dome377

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: PANTHEON- HOW WAS IT BUILD?

There is very little information about dome’s construction and how was it build. However, there is a few speculation. The best one is that the dome was constructed by erecting a huge wooden hemisphere with wooden negatives of the coffers placed appropri-ately around it. Successive rings of concrete were poured, interspersed with poured concrete ribs for more strength. The wooden hemisphere was supported by scaffolding, which were removed when material was molded. It is confirmed that stability of the concrete structure was achieved without use of metallic reinforcement.

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT

Location: Ronchamp, Haute-Saone, FranceArchitect: Le CorbusierMaterials: Concrete and stoneCompleted: 1954

The site influenced the use of materials, being on a slope, access to the site was limited, the stone used for reinforcing the concrete shell was from the former chapel which was destroyed by a series of bombings during world war II.The roof which is insulted and water-tight with an exterior aluminum cladding is not supported by the walls them-selves but by reinforced concrete frames inserted in the walls, it was designed to slope toward the back so to drain rainfall onto the raised, slanted concrete structure, creating a fountain. The texture of the roof is left in its natural form after the framework was taken out.

Windows with coloured glass and clear glass

Two concrete membranes set 2.26 meters apart covered with gunite

Open space between the wall and roof to let daylight in

Reinforced concrete frame em-bedded inside the wall which sup-ports the roof of the building

Pic. Notre Dame du Haut, detailed south wall

Inside

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT

Pic. This diagram shows how the roof is not resting on the wall but on the reinforced concrete frame inserted in the walls, and also shows opens on the wall. The construction of the tower above the roof was out of stone masonry and the dome of cement.

Window frame

Reinforced concrete frames which bears the weight of the roof en-closed by concrete shell and stone ruins.

Stone ruins from the 4th centu-ry chapel was used to build this wall, the chapel was on the site before it was destroyed by the World War II bombings

Concrete shell made with gunite, both inner and outer walls are then covered in white paster.

Pic. The old chapel made out of stone that stood on the site before World War II (www.en.wikipedia.org).

Pic. Notre Dame du Haut, A vertical section through the south wall showing materials

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- STRUCTURE

Pic. Buttresses are not present in the walls, so to make the rough masonry stable, curved forms have been added to the plan as seen below. Diagram showing the structure of the wall. Cocrete columns with steel reinforcement supporting roof structure

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- STRUCTURE

Pic. Section and detail of roof trusses.

Pic. Diagram showing how the roof truss rests on the wall reinforcement.

Pic. A large scale diagram showing a cut through of the con-crete wall components in plan.

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: NOTRE DAME DU HAUT- HOW WAS IT BUILD

B

C

E

F

A

C. Roof is constructed

B. The foundation is laid, concrete reinforcement frames are placed

A. Stone ruins from the old chapel already on site.

D. The mixture of concrete occurs

E. The concrete is the applied to the wall using con-crete gun

F. The framework comes off

D

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM

Professional Team

Architect: Foster + PartnersClient: Imperial War MuseumMain contractor: J Sisk and SonsQuantity surveyor: Davis LangdonTransport engineer: Rutherford ConsultantsEnvironmental engineer: Roger PrestonGroundworks Construction: O’RourkeStructural engineer: Arup

American Air Museum is one of the greatest examples of shell structure building. It is using both in-situ and precast concrete. Design of the museum was inspired by B-52 aircraft. That resulted in curve shape building.There is a few other features that shaped the building and decide on the construction de-tails. Most important one is the fact that roof has to support a variety of suspended aircraft. ‘Design solution combines structural elegance with cost-effective building’ (ref. ).

Pic. American Air Museum (www.s374444733.websitehome.co uk; www. commons.wikimedia org).Pic. . Concept sketch (www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk)

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- WHY WAS CONCRETE USE

The roof surface has a principal radius of 278m and a minor radius of 64m. The building is made with use of both precast and in-situ con-crete. While precast parts were manufactured, in-situ concrete beams were made on the site. It is also using steel reinforce-ment to make concrete structure more durable.

Why concrete?Two main reasons are that client wanted to obtain organic form, but at the same time have a strong structure that can support exposed aircrafts. Cocrete was a perfect material for this specific project. The roof shell is 1m deep and is build of two 100mm precast- concrete slabs, interconnected by 250mm deep concrete ribs at 2m centers. The roof has been built up in-situ by stitching together T-shape unites.

Pic 4. American Air Museum (photos from ‘Concrete quarterly, summer 1996’, p. 2-3).Pic. . Detail section (www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk)

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- HOW WAS IT BUILD

Shell’s crown begun the roof construction. This meant the roof could be erected before the substructure and also alowed the falsework to be balanced. That created more stable structure. Tolerance was disipable exiciently and any movement creep was taken by 25 mm joints between the units themselves. The roof seems to float above the building’s solid substructure through 34 supporting steel arms. They are set behind a con-tinuous glazed strip at the base of the roof. They are collecting all the forces from the roof, via an upper ring beam. Then trans-fer them to a further ring beam and next, to the A-frame in-situ concrete abutments. The key to success of the construction programme a contin-uous cycle of fundation construction, falsework erection and roof-unit placement. T-shape units were lifted with use of the machanisms and placed on the roof.As a client did not want to compromise the quality finish of the exposed units, the falsework was fixed to the units using the same sockets that will suspend the aircraft exhibition. Bolt shoes on timber bearing blocks were screwed into the sock-ets to support the roof. The bearing block is cut as a wedge to allow the supporting beam to be horizontal and so take the lateral load.Even though, the falsework was relatively easy to assemble, the lack of headroom means that initially it was dismanted by hand. This process was done slowly as lowering the false-work too quickly could result in the roof failing to take its own weight, and overload of the temporary supports or preventing the jacks from unwinding. Then, jacks were taken progressive-ly in 5mm steps across the roof structure. The removal of the falsework created open-plan, calm exhibition space.

Pic 4. T-shape precast concrete units

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECASE STUDY: AMERICAN AIR MUSEUM- HOW WAS IT BUILD

A. Installing shell crown and framework

B. Placing precast unites on in-situ edge strips

C. Slowly removing framework

D. Placing glazing on front elevation

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MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETECONCLUSIONS

Concrete has a long tale of history and is one of the oldest materials used in architecture. It was widely used by ancient Romans and some of those structures are still standing till date, examples of those long standing structures still amazes us today by standing for over 2,000 years now. Concrete was widely used during the modernist movement, here we start to see how it can be manipulated in to different forms creating all sorts of possibilities that are astonishing everyone. It has different properties which have been developed over time that allow it to create great complex forms, like massive load bearing structures, organic forms that could proof difficult using other material, and very thin sheets of concrete can be made. It has a lot of advantages over other materials and now a lot of effort in put in to making it a more sustainable and an even stronger and long lasting material than before.

Todays technology is able to improve and enhance the use of this material. It can make it even more sustainable and easy to use. All this brings us to a point that concrete as a building material has a great future and can revolutionize tomorrow’s architecture.

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1. Adrian Forty, ‘Concrete and culture. A material history’, Reaktion Books Ltd, London, 2012.

2. Catherine Croft, ‘Concrete architecture’, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, London, 2004.

3. ‘Concrete quarterly, summer 1996’, p. 2-3.

4. David Phillips, Megumi Yamashita, ‘Detail in contemporary concrete architecture’, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, London 2012.

5. Le Corbusier, ‘Le Corbusier: Architect of the century’, 1987.

6. Le Corbusier, ‘ Le Corbusier: Oeuvre Complete (1952 - 1957)’.

7. Le Corbusier, ‘ Le Corbusier: 1946 - 1952’.

8.L. J. Murdok, K. M. Brook, J. D. Dewer, ‘Concrete materials and practice’, London, 1991.

9. www.ajbuildingslibrary.co.uk, accessed in October- November 2014.

10. www.aleckassociates.co.uk, accessed on 17th October 2014.

11. www.archdaily.com, accessed in October- November 2014.

12. www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/greenbuildinginformation/what_makes.html, accessed on 20th October 2014.

13. www.dezeen.com, accessed in October- November 2014.

14. www.en.wikipedia.org, accessed in October- November 2014.

15. www.madehow.com, accessed on 18th October 2014.

16. www.sustainableprecast.ca/scm/precast_sustainability/canada/index.do, accessed on 29th October 2014.

MATERIAL POETS: CONCRETEREFERENCES

389

Tech Project 1 – Material/System Study

ARCH 3036

Report on

Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Systems

By

Abdullah Iqbal, P12201649

De Montfort University

November 18th, 2014

390

Table of Contents

Abstract

1. Introduction Page 1 2. Definition Page 1

Mechanical Ventilation Page 1-2 Mechanical Cooling Page 2 Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Page 3

3. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Page 3 Extract only Systems Page 3-5 Supply only Systems Page 6-7 Supply and Extract Systems Page 8-9

4. Performance and Specification Page 9 Ductwork Page 9 Filters Page 9-10 Diffusers Page 10 Fans Page 10-11

5. Selection of Ventilation Strategy Page 11-12 6. Natural or Mechanical Page 12-13 7. Low Energy Mechanical Cooling Systems Page 13

Natural Sources of Cooling Page 13 Night Ventilation Page 13-14 Delivery of Cooling to Treated Spaces Page 14 Chilled Ceilings and Beams Page 14

8. PassivHaus Page 14-15 Ventilation and Cooling for PassivHaus Page 15 PassivHaus Case Studies Page 15-17

Bibliography Page 18

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Executive Summary/Abstract

This report will focus on the various types of mechanical ventilation systems and will look at each type through case studies and existing reports/documents to thoroughly examine what they are about and the best methods to ventilate.

The Second part of the report will consider Mechanical Cooling systems – in particular low energy variants of the suggested – and will look at the various methods applied through PassivHaus case studies.

The conclusions from the report will allow the reader to understand the methods of mechanical ventilation they need to use for their specific building and will give them the necessary material to assess the various types and decide on their own accord.

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Report on Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling Systems

1. Introduction

It was during the Industrial Revolution that physicians primarily began to associate the polluted external air to be the cause of so many chronic conditions at the time. By the end of the 19th century technology had been developed to excel the use of mechanical ventilation to assist with these problems and the comprehensive text titled “The Principles of Ventilation and Heating and Their Practical Application” was written giving us the standards and specifications (Billings, 1889). Prior to this publication, the Roman architect Vitruvius – author of De architectura (The Ten Books on Architecture) – proclaimed “architecture is an imitation of nature”, suggesting the need to construct through natural mediums (Morgan, 1960). Fast forward to the present day, the material choices on offer are far more substantial and the need to “imitate” nature is now done through the use of technology and mechanical systems, incidentally ignoring the natural elements.

The Purpose of this report is to examine the various types of Mechanical Ventilation and low energy Cooling Systems with a focus on the system history, development and manufacture, application, performance and specifications.

2. Definition

The term “Ventilation” relates to “the exchange of outdoor air for the purpose of diluting contaminants and maintaining acceptable indoor air quality” (Gail et al. 2011). Ventilation can be provided through many forms however this report will focus only upon the mechanically induced methods.

Fig 1. Shows the location of Ventilation inlets for both Mechanical and Natural Ventilation.

2.1 Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical Ventilation refers to the above stated exchange of air however this is now done via some sort of mechanically powered equipment e.g. through the use of a fan.

Fig 2. A simplified example of mechanically assisted Ventilation. 1

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Fig 3. Main components of a mechanical ventilation system.

2.2 Mechanical Cooling

The method of mechanical cooling concerns removing heat from a space through the means of a chilled entity, usually through air or water which is formed by some external energy.

Fig 4. Examples of Mechanical Cooling systems – a) Ground water cooling b) Evaporative indirect cooling c) Earth-to-water heat exchanger. 2

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2.3 Mechanical Ventilation and Cooling

Both systems can be either found as one unit, combining both the ventilation and cooling however they can also exist as single units independent of each other. Rarely, buildings use mechanical ventilation without mechanical cooling due to the available reliance upon natural cooling as an alternative approach. Below the varying types of mechanical ventilation and cooling systems will be discussed alongside the advantages and disadvantages of each being highlighted and conclusions drawn regarding the most appropriate in varying situations.

3. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Systems

The 3 main categories of mechanical ventilation are:

Extract only systems, Supply only systems, Supply and Extract systems.

Depending on certain issues, each type of system is suitable for a wide range of situations with both having several benefits and limitations.

Fig 5. Diagrams showing how the 3 main types of mechanical ventilation work and an example of one with heat recovery.

3.1 Extract only systems

This type of MV can be found in environments where there is a consistent contamination of the air through the means of an external activity/process. Preferable method of ventilation over natural ventilation due to the constant and predictable ventilation rate.

Extract only system

Supply only system

Supply and Extract

system

Supply and Extract –

with Heat Recovery

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Fig 6. Extract Ventilation found in Kitchens to filter out smoke and air.

Fig 7. An example of a typical Extract Ventilation system and its components.

Fig 8. Extract Ventilation systems showing external motors fitted to the ceiling, wall and in roof space.

3.1.1 Advantages

Benefits of extract ventilation include:

The certainty that the contaminated air of the internal space is certified to be removed,

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Having a single point of extraction limits the potential of neighbouring rooms/areas of being affected by the pollutant.

3.1.2 Disadvantages

Limitations of extract ventilation include:

The air entering the space cannot be heated or filtered questioning the cleanliness of the air, Not much control of air flow/movement in the occupied space.

3.1.3 Application

Extract only systems are usually found in places which are difficult to naturally ventilate e.g. underground car parks where a mechanical source of ventilation is required to remove harmful vapours and fumes including carbon monoxide. They are also found in factories where the frequency of dust and warm air is high due to the locality of a high number of people in a concealed space.

Fig 9. Workings of Extract Ventilation within an underground car park.

Fig 10. Image showing the inner workings of a car park and the location of ducts and extractors. 5

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3.2 Supply only systems

In comparison with extract ventilation, supply ventilation is more suitable to spaces that are occupied for longer periods. This is due to the ability to be able to not only heat but also control the circulation of air provided.

Fig 11. Diagrammatic look at how Supply Ventilation functions within a building.

Fig 12. Supply Ventilation and the filtration possibilities compared with Extract Ventilation.

3.2.1 Advantages

Benefits of supply ventilation include:

Ability to filter and heat the outside air, Supplies a sufficient and adequate amount of outside air,

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Gives occupants the power to control the movement of incoming stream.

3.2.2 Disadvantages

Limitations of supply ventilation include:

Zero control over what air is extracted from the individual spaces, Inability to recover heat from the exhausted air to improve energy efficiency, Areas where the air exits the building will be sources of draughts and will attract noise pollution.

3.2.3 Application

Although limited with its applications, supply ventilation can be found in roof-mounted warm air units which are used in high volume industrial buildings with large floor to ceiling heights to provide fresh and re-circulated warm air. Another prominent example of this type of ventilation is unitary perimeter fan-coil units which draw outside air through an opening in the wall and deliver it to the space through the means of a fan.

Fig 13. Supply Ventilation through Roof- mounted warm-air units found in commercial buildings.

Fig 14. Unitary perimeter fan-coil unit with direct fresh air supply, variant of Supply Ventilation. 7

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3.3 Supply and Extract systems

The combination of supply and extract systems consist of a central air handling unit (AHU) which contains separate supply and extract fans. It also comprises of extract fans and/or a heating coil which is linked with the building boiler system to provide it with hot water whilst using a ductwork system top extract air from around the building. Some AHU’s contain a heat recovery device which takes heat from exhaust air and transfers it to the supply air unit without mixing the two.

Fig 15. Double deck air handling unit with re-circulation showing the basics of Supply and Extract Ventilation.

3.3.1 Advantages

Benefits of Supply and extract systems include:

Reliable and continuous flow of ventilation, Air exiting and entering the building can be controlled whilst also recovering the heat from the air that is

leaving will result in good energy efficiency, Automatic and manual strategies to control ventilation effectiveness, Air movement can be manipulated to ensure even distribution.

3.3.2 Disadvantages

Limitations of supply and extract systems include:

Fans within the AHU consume a substantial amount of energy and can warm air stream inconsistently, AHU and ductwork take up valuable space and will often require potentially expensive maintenance, Under this ventilation system people have less control over their own environment compared with natural

ventilation.

3.3.3 Application

There is no specific building type which use this ventilation strategy however it is most frequently found in medical institutes due to the potential to recirculate a proportion of extract air. This is specifically important in medical applications due to the necessity that contaminated air must not be reintroduced into the space.

Fig 16. Roof AHU (air handling units) containing all the parts needed for a Supply and Extract variant of Ventilation.

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Fig 17. Ductwork workings in a typical building for supply, return and extract air delivery.

4. Performance and Specification

Mechanical systems of Ventilation are made up of many unique components however they can be condensed into 4 individual categories which make up the most essential parts. These are:

Ductwork – the “transporter” of air through the building, acts as the distributor, Filters – a porous device installed to remove impurities or solid particles from the air that passes through it, Diffusers – used to deliver the clean air to desired areas either at a high or low level, Fans – a device that creates current to accelerate the flow of air either out or into the building.

Each individual element varies extensively and there are numerous options to choose from. Consideration will only focus on the most recognisable and the performance issues found with each.

4.1 Ductwork

Ductwork/Ducts refer to the parts of MV that work on the delivery and removal of air. The flows it mainly deals with are supply air, return air and extract air, as such; they are vital in achieving acceptable thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Ducts can be made from many materials but the two most common are steel and aluminium due to them being lightweight and easy to install. As it is found in many industrial buildings, ductwork has developed into a variety of forms in order to fit in architecturally with its surroundings, which results in further benefits and limitations.

Fig 18. Inner workings of steel ductwork.

4.2 Filters

The three main categories of filters (air filtration) are primary filters, secondary filters and high efficiency filters with each being developed for its own specific application and each having varying types of success. Primary filters are used for protecting ventilation, secondary filters used for trapping bacteria/dust and high efficiency filters are normally found in medical rooms due to their high rates of efficiency.

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Fig 19. Example of a type of filter used for air filtration inside the Ventilation system.

4.3 Diffusers

This element serves multiple purposes but the most important is to deliver (diffuse) the conditioning and ventilating air into the desired directions. They also help with recirculating the warm air that is leaving to improve energy efficiency of a dwelling.

Fig 20. Examples of various types of diffusers that each distribute the entering air differently.

4.4 Fans

The two most common fan types identified with MV are axial and centrifugal. Axial fans consist of a number of blades attached to an impeller that is all contained within a cylindrical casing. Similar to what is found on an aircraft, these fans are suitable for high and medium volume duties and can be fitted in series to excel what is trying to be achieved. Centrifugal fans differ as the impeller rotates within a case and air is blown at right angles to the intake via deflection or centrifugal force. Advantage to the latter over the former is the lack of noise produced, essential in working environments where they are found most.

Fig 21. Axial fan. 10

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Fig 22. Centrifugal fan.

5. Selection of Ventilation Strategy

Selecting whether mechanical ventilation is the most suitable approach for a building to use takes much consideration. Fortunately the CIBSE (Chartered Institution of Building Service Engineers) gives guidelines on how appropriate each form of ventilation is and the suggested ventilation rates required for differing environments. This is not a conclusive decision and often many approaches will apply to any number of scenarios regarding whether mechanical or natural is most applicable.

Issue Comments Location Large adjacent buildings can adversely affect wind patterns and imply greater

opening areas are required. The proximity of external sources of pollution can influence the feasibility of natural ventilation. The proximity of external sources of noise can impact on the feasibility of natural ventilation.

Pollution Local levels of air pollution may limit the opportunity for natural ventilation. It may not be possible to provide air inlets at positions suitable for natural ventilation given the inability to filter the incoming air successfully.

Orientation Buildings with their main facades facing north and south are much easier to protect from excessive solar gain in summer as the north side will be in shade and shading can easily be provided on the southside, as the sun will be high during the hottest part of the day.

Form At building depths greater than 15 m the ventilation strategy becomes more complex; the limit for daylighting and single sided natural ventilation is often taken as 6 m. (But is probably higher.) Adequate floor to ceiling heights are required for displacement ventilation and buoyancy driven natural ventilation; a minimum floor to ceiling height of 2.7 m is recommended.

Infiltration Ventilation strategies and the whole low-energy approach, whether natural or mechanically driven, depend on the building fabric being appropriately airtight.

Shading The appropriate use of external planting or other features can reduce solar gain.

These need to be external, not internal and it is important to consider making the windows smaller rather than relying on shading as this will also reduce heat losses.

Window choice Openable areas must be controllable in both summer and winter, e.g. large openings for still summer days and trickle ventilation for the winter time. Window shape can affect ventilation performance: Single sided ventilation provided by top or bottom hung windows is rarely effective except in domestic situations where gains and occupancy levels are low. In high gain situations, maximise the height difference between the top and bottom of the window, or better have a high and a low opening (if at all possible use double sided ventilation).Windows need to be easy to use— remember large triple glazed units are heavy and can be difficult to open if sited too high.

Glazing Total solar heat transmission through window glazing can vary over a six fold range, depending on the combination of glass and shading mechanisms selected. Figure 5 shows the relative effectiveness of eight glazing and shading systems.

Thermal mass Thermal mass is used to reduce peak cooling demands and stabilise internal air temperatures. In winter it can be used to store excess heat for the next day— however for this to be effective in energy terms insulation and infiltration levels need to be improved to ensure the heat is retained.

Table 1. Issue that influence the choice of Ventilation Strategy to be utilised. 11

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Building sector Recommendation (ac/hr, unless otherwise stated) Assembly halls 3-4 air changes per hour (but pay particular attention for the

potential to overheat). Music studios 6–10 (but heat gain should be assessed) Call centres 4–6 (but heat gain should be assessed) Catering (inc. commercial kitchens)

30–40

Communal residential buildings 0.5–1 Computer rooms Positively pressurised to 1 ac/hr to prevent local build-up of heat and

contamination for external air. However unless active cooling is used much higher rates are typical.

Court rooms As for typical naturally ventilated buildings Dwellings 0.5–1 Factories and warehouses highly dependent on use High-rise (non-domestic) buildings 4–6 ACH for office areas; up to 10 ACH for meeting spaces

Hospitals and health care buildings

6-10 toilets and bathrooms, 10 (minimum) isolation rooms, 15 recovery rooms, 6 (minimum) treatment rooms. There are usually filtration requirements for hospitals and hence most of these will be supplied via a mechanical systems.

Hotels 10–15 minimum for guest rooms with en-suite bathrooms Industrial ventilation Sufficient to minimise airborne contamination Laboratories 6-15, likely to be mechanical (allowance must be made for fume

cupboards) Museums, libraries and art galleries

Depends on nature of exhibits

Offices 1.8 l/s/p if seated quietly; 5.6 l/s/p if light work Schools and educational buildings teaching areas: 3 l/s/p minimum

Table 2. Summary of recommended air changes per hour in differing environments.

6. Natural or Mechanical

Defining the energy philosophy and layout of any building starts through establishing the ventilation techniques to be used. Natural and mechanical ventilation both excel in certain situations and although they are both considered independent, the combination of both often results in the best results. For example, during summer opening windows would provide ventilation, something which mechanically operated buildings cannot do. However in areas where there is a high level of noise pollution this would not be feasible suggesting the need for MV all year round. This would result in the need for larger systems to cover the excessive amount of ventilation rates needed in summer for cooling. It is worth considering the use of MVHR (mechanical ventilation with heat recovery), which is becoming more common throughout Europe and solves majority of the problems.

Shops and retail premises 5–8 l/s/p Sports centre halls 8-12 l/s/p Swimming pools 4-6 or 8-10 if extensive water features Toilets Regulations usually apply; opening windows of area 1/20th. of floor

area or mechanical ventilation at 6 litres/s per WC or 3 minimum for non-domestic buildings; opening windows of area 1/20th. of floor area (1/30th. in Scotland) or mechanical extract at 6 litres/s (3 ACH in Scotland) minimum for dwellings

Transportation buildings (inc. car parks)

6 for car parks (normal operation) 10 (fire conditions)

Natural Mechanical with heat recovery

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Easy to operate Hard to use night time

cooling Much more energy efficient in winter.

Higher maintenance cost.

Reduce size of plant room.

Ingress of external noise in some environments

Easy to use for night time cooling

Higher electrical load (because of fans)

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Table 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanical and Natural Ventilation.

7. Low Energy Mechanical Cooling Systems

Mechanical cooling systems are becoming more prominent in European commercial buildings due to the use of auxiliary equipment resulting in greenhouse emissions increasing as most of these systems are electrically powered. To reduce the CO2 emissions whilst achieving the correct amount of thermal comfort, low energy cooling techniques are being used in conjunction with mechanical cooling to satisfy both parties by making use of ambient air and ground or surface water. These methods of cooling can be divided into two separate groups; one of each will be developed below.

7.1 Natural Sources of Cooling

The first group of low energy cooling techniques include:

Night Ventilation – Uses night ventilation to lower the temperature of the buildings thermal mass, Evaporative Cooling – Sensible heat is absorbed as latent heat to evaporate water, Ground Cooling – Utilisation of groundwater (aquifer) cooling to cool the air via the ground.

7.1.1 Night Ventilation

This method passes the cooled night air through the building and as a consequence of this heat that has accumulated throughout the day is removed. The fabric of the building is cooled and more heat can be absorbed the following day, a constant working cycle that controls temperature increases. This free cooling reduces energy consumption from mechanical cooling and ventilation leading to cost savings.

Fig 23. First use of Night Cooling – showing principle Night Cooling techniques - in an office building in Prague (1998-2002).

User control Can not recover heat from ventilated air.

Predicable performance: will still work in summer if needed

Larger plant room

Low maintenance costs (unless automatic openers used)

Risk of draughts Better control of external noise

Need to leave room for ductwork

No fan energy Difficult to achieve night time cooling without the use of louvered systems and these may prove to no be airtight, or be left open in winter.

Ability to deal with highly polluted environments

Potential for noise and higher room-to-room sound transmission

A greater physical and psychological connection to the outdoor realm.

Ventilation rate is likely to be at its lowest in summer, just when it need to be at its greatest

Risk of draughts with some systems, although these should be easy to engineer out

Cannot deal with highly polluted environments

User control: normally little and adds cost

Potential for fan noise as moving elements age. Again, good engineering can reduce this

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Fig 24. Diagram showing how Night Ventilation works throughout the day and night.

7.2 Delivery of Cooling to Treated Spaces

The second group of low energy cooling techniques includes:

Slab Cooling – The mass of the slab is cooled by air or water, Chilled Ceilings and Beams – Panels or beams in the ceiling is cooled, Displacement Ventilation – conditioned air is emitted at very low levels.

7.2.1 Chilled Ceilings and Beams

These cooling units are integrated with suspended ceilings and work by circulating water at about 16oc through the units. The chilled beams rely on convective air movement to provide cooling whilst the chilled ceiling method transfers cool air through the means of radiation and convection as it is a flat panelled unit. Although favourable due to its compatibility with low energy sources of cooling, chilled beams and ceilings require adequate space for all the cooling elements which need to be considered during the design stage to make sure it will function well.

Fig 25. Diagrammatic example of the way Chilled Beams and Ceilings work as a Cooling method.

8. PassivHaus

PassivHaus refers to the standard for energy efficiency within a dwelling in order to reduce the ecological footprint. Low energy cooling (and heating) techniques therefore apply extensively to such builds as strict standards are set that must be adhered to (15kWh/m2 per year cooling energy) to achieve PassivHaus standards. The thermal mass and air tightness of the building must be exceptional in order for the energy to operate all the required purposes including heating, cooling, hot water etc. PassivHaus is officially defined as:

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“A Passivhaus is a building in which thermal comfort can be achieved solely by post-heating or post-cooling the fresh air flow required for a good indoor air quality, without the need for additional recirculation of air.” (PassivHaus official definition)

8.1 Ventilation and Cooling for PassivHaus

Essential to reach PassivHaus standards is the use of a mechanical Ventilation system with heat recovery which supplies cooling in the winter. This has recently come into consideration due to the damage being caused to the natural environment and the need to reduce the use of fossil fuels for energy efficiency. Below is a series of case studies that achieve the PassivHaus standards and the Ventilation/Cooling strategies that have been used to do this.

8.2 PassivHaus case studies

Variety of PassivHaus case studies and the strategies they implement in concern with Ventilation and Cooling:

Project Name: Carnegie Village

Building Type: New Build Location: Leeds Status: Certified Building Use: Student Residential Construction Time: 14 Months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.06 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.15 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.12 W/m2.K Air Tightness: 0.5 m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa

Heating/Cooling strategy Heating and domestic hot water within the units are provided using an A–rated condensing gas boiler, in the case of the heating system this boiler provides water to radiators within the rooms. When necessary additional heating can also be supplied to the properties via a small heat exchanger located within the supply air ductwork of the ventilation system. Results

_ Estimated Primary Heating Demand – 14 kWh/m2/yr. _ Estimated Primary Energy Demand – 63 kWh/m2/yr. _ As one of the highest scoring BREEAM buildings of 2010 with an overall development score of 76.10%, the Carnegie Village Development was also awarded the 2010 BREEAM Multi–Residential Award.

Ventilation strategy In order to provide the essential ventilation to the air–tight units, a heat recovery unit was fitted. The ducting systems are largely concealed within the walls and floors in order to maximise space within the rooms.

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Project Name: Cropthorne Autonomous House

Building Type: New Build Location: Worcestershire Status: Under construction, Intending certification Building Use: Private Residential Construction Time: 26 months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.08 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.09 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.09 W/m2.K

Ventilation Strategy An MVHR unit was fitted within the basement of the property to provide ventilation. The decision from home owners Mike Coe and Lizzie Stoodley to dispense with any space heating system within the property meant that the design had to be highly air–tight even by Passivhaus standards. This made the role of the MVHR unit even more vital than usual both in terms of ensuring a flow of fresh air within the property, and retaining as much heat as possible. Additionally the MVHR unit was also responsible for ventilating the composting toilet chamber to keep the house free from odours. Heat generated by the composting process is thus also reclaimed in the MVHR unit. Solar panels fitted on the roof provide the house with domestic hot water, and a ground–mounted photovoltaic array generates more power than the house consumes, averaged over a year.

Project Name: Lena Gardens

Building Type: Retrofit Location: London Status: Certified Building Use: Private Residential Construction Time: 10 Months U–Value Performance of Roof: 0.14 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of External Walls: 0.10 W/m2.K U–Value Performance of Ground Floor: 0.11 W/m2.K Air Tightness: 0.49 m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa

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Ventilation Strategy Good ventilation is essential in very airtight construction. Ventilation within the property was provided via a Genex Combi 185L unit, featuring a heat recovery efficiency of 76%, which was installed within the basement. A metal spiral ductwork system was then installed throughout the house to provide ventilation. Internal intrusion within the house from the ductwork system was minimised by using floor and ceiling grids and keeping the ductwork within floor voids and stud walls where possible.

Heating/Cooling Strategy Heat supply within the house is provided via the use of an air–to–air pump within the Genex Combi Unit. Further heating is provided, when necessary, via the use of a direct electric heating coil within the spring ductwork system. The ground–to–air heat exchanger fitted beneath the basement floor provides additional winter pre–heating and summer cooling, along with frost protection, to the building. Water is primarily heated by the 3–panel solar thermal array installed on the roof. When this proves insufficient, the air source pump within the Combi Unit is capable of functioning as an air–to–water heater, providing additional hot water.

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Bibliography

[1] Ching D.k. Francis (2008) Building Construction Illustrated, 4th Edition, Canada: John Willey and Sons

[2] Design and Delivery of Low Carbon Buildings: Ventilation

[3] Billings, J.S. (1889). The principles of ventilation and heating and their practical application (2nd ed.). New York: The Sanitary Engineer.

[4] Vitruvius, Pollio (transl. Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960), The Ten Books on Architecture. Courier Dover Publications

[5] http://www.ihs.com/products/design/uk-solutions/construction-information-service.aspx

[6] Lain, M. & Hensen, J.L.M. (2004), Combination of low energy and mechanical cooling technologies for buildings in Central Europe. Proceedings of the 5th International IRR Conference Compressors,

[7[ http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/getattachment/9d9ef282-25c4-442a-9668-2db738d3e90d/Passivhaus-

Buildings--Case-Studies.aspx - Passive House Case Studies, [8] http://products.ihs.com/cis/Doc.aspx?AuthCode=&DocNum=295139 – Illustrated Guide to Ventilation, [9] http://products.ihs.com/cis/Doc.aspx?AuthCode=&DocNum=294604 – Illustrated Guide to Mechanical

Cooling, [10] http://products.ihs.com/cis/Doc.aspx?AuthCode=&DocNum=14538 – Domestic Mechganical Ventilation:

Guidelines for designers and Installers, [11] http://products.ihs.com/cis/Doc.aspx?AuthCode=&DocNum=287120 – Energy Efficient Mechanical

Ventilation Systems, [12] http://www.thenbs.com/PublicationIndex/DocumentSummary.aspx?PubID=88&DocID=287117 – Ventilation

and Cooling option appraisal, [13] http://www.designbuilder.co.uk/helpv3/Content/_Unitary_single_zone.htm - Majority of images,

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http://www.ihs.com/products/design/uk-solutions/construction-information-service.aspx

http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/getattachment/9d9ef282-25c4-442a-9668-2db738d3e90d/Passivhaus-Buildings--Case-Studies.aspx

http://www.kingspaninsulation.co.uk/getattachment/9d9ef282-25c4-442a-9668-2db738d3e90d/Passivhaus-Buildings--Case-Studies.aspx

http://products.ihs.com/cis/Doc.aspx?AuthCode=&DocNum=295139




http://www.thenbs.com/PublicationIndex/DocumentSummary.aspx?PubID=88&DocID=287117

http://www.designbuilder.co.uk/helpv3/Content/_Unitary_single_zone.htm

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