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Love:
Positivityresonanceasafresh,evidence-basedperspectiveonanage-oldtopic
BarbaraL.Fredrickson
UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill
RUNNINGHEAD:Love
ChaptertoappearinL.F.Barrett,M.Lewis,andJ.M.Haviland-Jones(Eds.)
HandbookofEmotions,4thEd.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Love:
Positivityresonanceasafresh,evidence-basedperspectiveonanage-oldtopic
Whatislove?Humanshaveponderedthemeaningofthissplendored
phenomenonformillennia.Anythingthatsoreliablystirsthehumanheart,
preoccupiesthemind,andignitespassionateactioncertainlymeritsthislong-
standingandcontinuedinquiry.Artisticexpressionsofwhatloveisandhowit
worksabound–inpoetry,books,songs,andmovies.Scientificperspectivesareless
prevalent.Althoughscientificpsychologybeganinthelate1800s,morethansix
decadesintothiscollectiveendeavor,HarryHarlow,thenpresidentoftheAmerican
PsychologicalAssociation,decriedthatpsychologistshad“failed”toadvancebeyond
poetsandnovelistsinunderstandingthe“wondrousstate”oflove,“deep,tender,
andrewarding”(Harlow,1958,p.673).Inthenearlysixdecadessincereceiving
thisfailinggrade,twostrandsofpsychologicalsciencehavetakenthelovequestion
seriously:Developmentalsciencehasinvestigatedhowloveemergesbetween
infantsandtheircaregivers(e.g.Ainsworth,1985;Stern,2008),andrelationship
sciencehasexploredromanticlove,includinghowearlychildhoodattachment
shapesadulthoodloverelationships(Hazan&Shaver,1987;Bartholomew&
Horowitz,1991;Mikulincer,Shaver,Sapir-Lavid,&Avihou-Kanza,2009).1
Neighboringemotionsciencelagsbehind.Althoughafewemotionscientists
havedevotedattentiontothelovequestionovertheyears(e.g.,Fehr&Russell,
1991;Gonzaga,Keltner,Londahl,&Smith,2001;Shaver,Morgan,&Wu,1996),
theseeffortshavenotgerminatedathrivingstudyoflovewithinaffectivescience.
Aslong-timelovescholar,ElaineBersheidrecentlynoted,“emotiontheoristshave
theirownproblems[indefiningemotions]andarenotyetinapositiontohelplove
scholars”(2010,p.8).Foremotionscientists,whobydefinitionfavorthestudyof
momentaryphenomena,lovemaywellseemtoolarge,tooall-encompassing,ifnot
toopop-culture.
Thelargenessofloveisevidentbythediversesetofpsychological
phenomenathatfitundertheumbrellatermlove:thepreoccupyingandstrong
desireforfurtherconnection,thepowerfulbondspeopleholdwithaselectfewand
theintimacythatgrowsbetweenthem,thecommitmentstoloyaltyandfaithfulness.
Indeed,whenonepersonsays,“Iloveyou”toanother,itcanpointtoanyorallofthe
above.Thatis,thisubiquitousutterancemayreflectastrongcravingforphysical
contactorproximity,orserveasameanstoinviteorsecuretheotherpersoninto
one’sinnermostcircleofsocialties,oritmaysignaladeepandabidingtrust,ora
commitmenttobeloyal.Yet,inadditiontodesire,bonds,intimacy,and
commitment,loveisanemotion–aphenomenonthatarisestoinfusebothmindand
bodyforamoment,andthendissipates.
Thischapterputsforthanewperspectiveonlove,onethatemanatesfrom
emotionscience.Thegoalistoprovideaconceptualframeworktosupportafresh
waveofempiricalresearchonthisreveredemotionalstate.Thisnewperspective
holdsthat,atitscore,loveisapleasantandmomentaryexperienceofconnection
withanotherperson(orpersons).Inthisframework,otherconstructsthatare
commonlytakenassynonymsof“love”–suchasdesire,bonds,intimacy,and
commitments–arecastasproductsoftheaccumulationoffleetingemotionalstates
oflove.Assuch,therangeofotherphenomenathatgobythename“love”–inboth
scientificandcommonlanguage–maybestbeseenaspartofalargeranddynamic
“lovesystem.”
Thehubconceptthatdrivesthisdynamicsystemisapotentandpleasant
emotionalstate.Likeallpositiveemotions,theemotionalstateofloveobeysthe
ancestrallogicofthebroaden-and-buildtheory(cf.Fredrickson,1998,2013a).
Love-the-emotionbroadensmindsetsbyexpandingpeople’sawareness,particularly
ofself-otheroverlap(Aron,Aron,&Smollen,1992;Waugh&Fredrickson,2006),
creatingperceptionsoftogetherness,connection,unity,oroneness.Love-the-
emotionbuildsresourcesforsurvivalbyforgingandstrengtheningpeople’ssocial
desire,bonds,intimacy,andcommitments.Eachoftheseotherconceptswithinthe
broaderlovesystemgrowsstrongerasmomentsoflove-the-emotionaccumulate.
Yetthecausalarrowsalsorunintheotherdirection.Eachoftheseotherconcepts
withinthemoreencompassinglovesystem–thedesire,thebonds,theintimacy,the
commitments–alsofacilitatesubsequentmomentsoflove-the-emotion,creating
thedynamicsofanupwardspiral.Putsimply,it’sfareasierfortwoormorepeople
toconnectwhentheirdesire,bonds,intimacy,orcommitmentsarepresentand
strong.
Perhapsit’snowonderthatlovehaspuzzledsomanyforsolong.Partofthe
confusionisthattheword“love”hasbeenaffixedtodifferentpartsofthislarger,
dynamiclovesystem.Aprimarymissionofscience,however,istopeerintocomplex
systemstodiscovertheordertherein.Wearenowequippedtousethelensesof
emotionsciencetosharpenourappreciationoflove.Theselensesaddtothe
understandingsoflovethatneighboringrelationshipscienceanddevelopmental
sciencehaveofferedbydrawingparticularattentiontothemomentarynatureof
love,itsbiologicalbases,andbyofferingtheframeworkandlogicofthebroaden-
and-buildtheoryofpositiveemotions.
Thesharperappreciationforlovetobedevelopedherealsoilluminatesthe
valueofmildorlow-intensityformsofthisconsequentialstate.Mildformsoflove-
the-emotionaretooofteneclipsedbytheoverwhelmingintensityofselectlove
experiences,theonesthatforgelife’sstrongestbonds,suchasthosebetweenan
infantandhercaregivers,orbetweentwonewromanticpartnersjustnow“falling
inlove.”Thestudyofpositiveemotions,however,cautionsresearchersnottobe
blindedbyintensity:Ampleempiricalevidencerevealsthatthefrequencyof
pleasantaffectivestatesisfarmoreconsequentialthantheintensityofthosestates
(Diener,Sandvik,Pavot,1991;Folkman,1997;Isen,1993),andthatthe
consequencesofmildpleasantaffectivestatesforhealthandwell-beingare
considerable(Cohn,Fredrickson,Brown,Mikels,&Conway,2009;Moskowitz,2003;
Fredrickson,Cohn,Coffey,Pek&Finkel,2008).Love-the-emotionlikelyfollowsthis
samepattern.Mildyetconsequentialformsoflovecaninfuseeverydaypositive
connectionsbetweenandamongfamily,friends,acquaintances–evenstrangers–to
forgeandfortifybonds,alliances,meaning,andpurpose,aswellascommunityand
collectivehealthandwell-being.
TowardaFormalDefinitionofLove-the-Emotion
ViewsfromEmotionScience
Emotionscientistsdistinguishbetweenloveexperiencesandlove
relationships(Lazarus,1991),anddirecttheirfocustotheformer,thetransient
feelingstatesoflove,ratherthanthelatter,thelong-standingsocialtiesthatare
infusedwith,andsupportedbylove-the-emotion.Evenso,itbearsunderscoring
thattransientexperiencesoflovearefelttowardandwithspecificindividuals(e.g.,
one’smother,friend,lover,orchild),andarethereforecontextualizedbythese
interpersonalconnections.Manytheoristshavepointedoutthatloveisnotactually
asingleemotionalstate,butrathercomesinmultipleforms,somemoretenderand
low-key,andothersmorejoyfulandhigh-energy.AsRempelandBurris(2005)put
it,“loveseemstobereflectedinmultipleemotionsratherthanonedistinctemotion”
(p.298).Supportingthisview,inexamining14pleasantemotions,Ellsworthand
Smith(1988)foundthatlovewasamongtheleastdifferentiated.
WhereasRempelandBurris(2005)uselove’slackofspecificitytoarguethat
loveisnot,infact,anemotion,othertheorists,likeIzard(1977)andFredrickson
(1998)usethissameobservationtosupportadifferent,contextualizedviewoflove.
Thisalternateviewholdsthatexperiencesoflovecanbeseenastheexperienceof
anyotherpositiveemotionwhenthatemotionisfeltinthecontextofasafe,often
closerelationship.ForIzard(1977),whoatthetimeidentifiedonlyinterestandjoy
asamongtheotherpositiveemotionsheconsidered,lovewastakentobethejoy
andinterestthatpeoplefeelinconnectionwithothers.Inhiswords,“acquaintances
orfriendsrenewyourinterestbyrevealingnewaspectsofthemselvesandthe
resultingincreaseinfamiliarity(deeperknowledgeoftheperson)bringsjoy.In
lastingfriendshipsorloverelationshipsthiscycleisrepeatedendlessly”(1977,p.
243).
Morerecently,Fredrickson(2009)expandedonIzard’s(1977)illustrationto
includeeightadditionalpositiveemotionsalongsidetheappraisalpatterns
associatedwitheach,arguingthateachofthesemomentsmightbeequally
describedaslove:
Intheearlystagesofarelationship,tiedupwithyourinitialattraction,you’re
deeplyinterestedinanythingandeverythingthisnewpersonsaysanddoes.
Youshareamusementsandlaughtogether,oftenasaresultofthe
awkwardnessofcomingtogetherforthefirsttime.Asyourrelationship
buildsandperhapssurpassesyourexpectations,itbringsgreatjoy.Youbegin
toshareyourhopesanddreamsforyourfuturetogether.Astherelationship
becomesmoresolid,yousinkbackintothecozyserenity[contentment]that
comeswiththesecurityofmutuallove.You’regratefulforthejoysyour
belovedbringsintoyourlife,asproudoftheirachievementsasyouareof
yourown,inspiredbytheirgoodqualities,andperhapsinaweoftheforcesof
theuniversethatbroughtyoutwotogether.(Fredrickson,2009,p.47).
FollowingIzard’sfootsteps,myearliestscholarlydescriptionoflove-the-
emotiontookan“alloftheabove”approach,definingitasanypositiveemotionfelt
inthecontextofasafe,oftencloserelationship(Fredrickson,1998).AlthoughIstill
holdthatacknowledgingthemanydifferentflavorsoflove-the-emotionisavital
step,fortworeasons,Inowseethatthisstepisn’tnearlybigenough.Firstand
foremost,thisearlierconceptualizationremainsaone-personpsychology,
positioningtheotherpersonasmerelythe“context”forthefocalperson’s
experienceoflove.Aricherunderstandingoflove-the-emotionemergeswhenwe
widenthelenstoalsoincludewhattheotherpersonis,atthatsamemoment,
feeling.Steppinguptothistwo-personpsychology,2Inowmorespecificallyposition
love-the-emotionasemerginganytimeapositiveemotionismomentarilysharedby
two(ormore)individuals.Second,Ifindtheemphasisonestablishedclose
relationshipstobelimitingandunjustifiable.Initialorone-timeconnectionswith
novelinteractionpartnerscanalsosupporttheemergenceofsharedpositive
emotions.Thedifferencesbetweentheseconnectionsandthosethatemergewithin
closerelationshipsmaybelargelyamatterofdegree,ratherthankind.
So,toexpandthescopeofpastconceptualizationsoflovewithinemotion
science,Ipositherethatonecoreelementoflove-the-emotionissharedpositive
emotions.Tolaythefoundationfortwoadditionalcoreelements,Ioutlineviews
offeredbyrelationshipscienceanddevelopmentalscienceinturn.
ViewsfromRelationshipScience
Adominantapproachwithinrelationshipscienceistodemarkdifferenttypes
ofloverelationships.Berscheid(2010),forinstance,identifiescompanionate,
romantic,compassionate,aswellasattachmentloverelationships(seealsoHatfield
&Rapson,1993;Sternberg,1986;Fehr,Sprecher,&Underwood2008;Fisher,Aron,
Mashek,Li,&Brown,2002).Recentadvancesinunderstandinglove,forinstance,
haveexploredtheuniqueneuralcorrelatesofromanticversuscompanionatelove
(Acevedo,Aron,Fisher&Brown,2012).
Whereasthesevariousformsoflovecertainlydifferfromoneanother,they
alsosharecertainfamilyresemblances.Incontrasttothedominantapproachof
definingloveasaprototype(Fehr1988;Shaver,Schwartz,Kirson&O’Connor,
1987),recentworkbyHegiandBergner(2010)attemptstoarticulateaformal
definitionoflove,onethatidentifiesnecessaryandsufficientconditionsforusing
thewordlovecorrectlyacrossarangeofloverelationships.Buildingonworkby
Clarkandcolleaguesoncommunalrelationships(Clark&Mills,1979;Clark&
Monin,2006),aswellasworkbySinger(1984)andRempelandBurris(2005),Hegi
andBergner(2010)hypothesizethatessentialtoarangeofloverelationships–
companionate,romantic,compassionate,andattachment–is“investmentinthe
well-beingoftheother,forhisorherownsake”(Hegi&Bergner,2010,p.621).
Theydrawsupportfortheirhypothesisfromsurveysthatcapturerespondents’
schemasforwhatcountsaslove.Specifically,respondentsconsiderhypothetical
examplesofdifferenttypesofrelationshipsinwhichacertainrelationship
characteristicismissingonthepartofoneindividualintherelationship,and
indicatethedegreetowhichtheywouldfinditcontradictorytosaythatthisperson
lovestheotherunderthosecircumstances.Inexaminingrelationshipcharacteristics
rangingfromsimilarityandtrusttoexclusivityandenjoyment,theyfoundthatonly
theabsenceof“investmentinthewell-beingoftheotherforhisorherownsake”
wasdeemed“verycontradictory”tothepresenceofaloverelationshipbythevast
majorityofrespondents(Hegi&Bergner,2010).Theauthorsusethesedatato
arguethatsuchinvestmentisanecessaryandessentialfeatureofhumanloveof
variouskinds.Assuch,love,bydefinition,conveysacaringorientationtoward
others.
Theinterpersonalcounterparttolove’scaringorientationtowardtheother
appearstobetheconceptof“perceivedpartnerresponsivenesstotheself,”which
reflectstheextenttowhichtheotherpersonregistersthatheorsheisbeing
attentivelycaredfor(e.g.,Reis,Clark,&Holmes,2004).Thatis,totheextentthat
PersonAinvestsinthewell-beingofPersonB,forB’sownsake,PersonBmaycome
tobelievethatPersonAunderstandsandvalueshimorher,andresponds
supportively.Perceivedpartnerresponsivenessispositionedas“acardinalprocess
inclosenessandintimacy”(Reisetal,2004,p.220;seealsoLaurenceau,Barrett,&
Pietromonaco,1998),particularlywithincommunalrelationships.Assessmentsof
thedegreetowhichanotherpersonunderstands,caresfor,andvalidatesyouinform
youroverarchingbeliefthatthisotherpersontruly“getsyou,”anduseshisorher
privilegedknowledgethoughtfully,foryourbenefit.Responsiveparentingisalsoa
cornerstoneconceptwithinattachmenttheory(Bowlby,1969/1982),withstudies
showingthatparentalresponsivenesstoachild’sneedsistherootofsecure
attachmentandthedevelopmentofstableandpositiveinternalmodelsofselfin
relationtoothers(Bowlby,1969/1982;Ainsworth,Blehar,Waters,&Wall,1978),
whichinturnshapethoughts,emotions,andbehaviorthroughoutchildhoodand
intoadulthood(Mikulinceretal.,2009).
Researchonperceivedresponsivenessunderscoresthatloveisnota
unidirectionalphenomenon,concerningoneperson’sfeelingstowardanother,butis
insteadabidirectionaltransaction,inwhicheachperson’sperceptionsoftheother’s
feelingstowardtheselfarealsovitaltotheemergenceofintimacy.Responsiveness
isknowntobeconsequentialacrossarangeofemotionalexchanges.Forinstance,
whenonememberofaromanticcouplethankstheother(Algoe,Fredrickson,&
Gable,2013),orreactsastheothersharessomepersonalgoodfortune(Gable,
Gonzaga,&Strachman,2006),theextenttowhichtheotherpersonperceivesthat
thanksorthatreactiontoberesponsiveforecastsfuturerelationalwell-being,and
eventhelongevityoftherelationship.Responsivenessmayalsobeconsequentialto
physicalhealth.AnationalU.S.surveyofindividualsofmarriedorcohabitatingwith
aromanticpartnerfoundthathighreceivedemotionalsupportfromthepartneris
associatedwithincreasedmortalityriskforthosewhoratetheirpartnersaslacking
responsiveness,whereasthisriskisabsentamongthosewhoratetheirpartnersas
highinresponsiveness(Selcuk&Ong,2013).
Althoughmoststudiedwithincommunalrelationships,responsiveness–and
theperceptionofit–canalsocharacterizeexchangerelationships,evenone-time
encounterswithstrangers.Asatravelertoanunfamiliarcity,forinstance,youmay
cometoappreciatethatthebaristawhomakesyourmorningbrewisespecially
attunedtoyourwishesandmood,eagertopleaseandconnect.Asyoumakeyour
economictransaction,thetwoofyousmileandchatwitheaseandopenness.
Walkingawayfromthisexchange,youmightfeelmoreupliftedandenergizedthan
you’dfeltjustmomentsago.Duttonandcolleaguesdescribesuchencountersas
high-qualityconnections,orHQCs(Stephens,Heaphy,&Dutton,2012;seealso
Heaphy&Dutton,2008).HQCsareshort-term,positiveinteractionsthatare
experiencedasenlivening,characterizedbymutualperceivedresponsiveness.
Althoughthesepositiveencountersmaybepartofongoingrelationships,theyneed
notbe.Theycanalsoreadilyemergewithinone-timeencounterswithshopkeepers
orcustomers,healthcareprovidersorpatients,oranytimetwoormorepeople
interact.
Rapportisalsocommonlyusedtodescribethesortsofpositiveconnections
thatemergebetweenandamongpeoplewhoaresaidto“click”orhave“chemistry.”
Conceptually,rapportisanemergent,interpersonalphenomenonmarkedbymutual
attentiveness,positivity,andcoordination(Tickle-Degnen&Rosenthal,1990),all
thehallmarksofresponsiveness.Nonverbally,rapportisembodiedthroughmutual
directbodyorientationandgaze,accompaniedbysmiles,nods,forwardleans
(Tickle-Degnen&Rosenthal,1990)aswellasbehavioralsynchrony
(Vacharkulksemsuk&Fredrickson,2012).Whereastheconcept“love,”inits
traditionalusage,tendstoimplylong-standingintimaterelationships,theconceptof
“rapport”allbutimpliesalackofintimacyandhistory.Bycontrast,Iholdthatthe
conceptsof“love”and“rapport”maydifferprimarilyindegree,ratherinkind,and
thatitmaybemoregenerativetoconsiderthemasexamplesofthesameunderlying
biopsychosocialphenomenon.
Forthepresentpurposes,Idenotethereciprocalcombinationof“investment
inthewell-beingoftheother,forhisorherownsake”and“perceivedpartner
responsivenesstotheself”bytheshorthandphrasemutualcare.Althoughmutual
careisperhapsmostobviouswithinpeople’slong-standingloverelationships–
with,forinstance,romanticpartnersandotherfamilymembers–itisnotan
exclusivepropertyofthesecommunalrelationships.Inmilder,perhapsless
obviousforms,mutualcarecanalsoinfusemorecasualencounterswithfriends,co-
workers,acquaintances,evenstrangers.Indeed,anytimeembodiedrapportor
high-qualityconnectionsemerge,mutualcareis,bydefinition,present.Importantly,
thiscareisneitherheavy-handednorrole-bound,asinbeingacaregiver.Ratherit
isaslight,nonconscious,andmomentaryastheunbiddenconcernyou’dfeelifthe
personwithwhomyouwereconnectingsuddenlyhadaheavyobjectfallonheror
hisfoot:you’dwincetoo,thenquicklyassessyourcompanion’swell-being.Mutual
caredescribesastateinwhicheachpersonwouldshowthisminimallevelof
engagementwith,concernfor,andinvestmentinthewell-beingoftheother.Iposit
thatmutualcareisasecondcoreelementoflove-the-emotion.
ViewsfromDevelopmentalScience
Ifmutualcare–withitshallmarkmutualconcernfortheother’swell-being
andmutualperceivedresponsiveness–istakenasanadditionalcoreelementof
love-the-emotion,itmightseemthatencountersorrelationshipsthatinvolve
dependenceorasymmetry–aswithaninfant,orchild(oranotherwiseneedy
individual)withaparentorcaregiver–areruledoutofsuchmutuality.While
dotingparentsclearlylovetheirnewborns,cantheirnewbornstrulylovethem
back?Withtheirlimitedcapacities,howcannewbornsmusteruptheselflessother-
focusthatdefineslove?
Thewayoutofthisseemingconundrumistorecognizethatwarmth-infused
other-focusrequiresnomusteringatall.Rather,itunfoldsautomaticallyand
effortlessly,completelywithouthighersymbolicoreffortfulmentalprocesses.
Indeed,developmentalpsychologistshavearguedthat,frombirth,infantsare
biologicallypreparedtoperceivecross-modalcorrespondencesbetweenwhatthey
seeontheirinteractionpartners’facesandwhattheysense,proprioceptively,on
theirownfaces(Meltzoff&Moore,1989;Trevarthen,1998).Thisabilityiswhat
enablesinfantstosynchronizetheirmovements–inform,tempo,andintensity–
withthoseofothers,totheextentthattheirmotorcontrolallows(Meltzoff&Moore,
1989).
Notably,behavioralsynchronygoesbeyondmimicrybecausematchingoften
occursacrossmodalities,suchaswhentherhythmofaninfant’smovementssync
upwiththerhythmofhermother’svocalizations.Suchcross-modalanalogiespoint
toaresonancebetweeninfantsandtheirinteractionpartnersatthelevelof
subjectivemindstatesandemotions,andnotmerelyatthelevelofobservable
behaviors.Behavioralsynchronycanthusbetakentorevealanintersubjectivity
(Beebe,Sorter,Rustin,&Knoblauch,2003),oraffectiveattunement(Stern,1985),
describedasaninnateformofintimacy,awaytofindandshowdelightin
communing,connecting,orbeingwithanother.Throughsuchaffectivesharing,an
infant“experiencesbeingexperienced”(Beebeetal.,2003,p.786)or“feel[s]felt”by
theother(Siegel,2001,p.78),amomentaryexperienceakintowhatrelationship
scientists,asdescribedabove,havetermed“perceivedpartnerresponsivenessto
theself.”Importantly,“feelingfelt”isitselfapositiveemotionalexperience(Beebe
etal.,2003).
Developmentalsciencehasalsoshownthattheattentivedanceofbehavioral
synchronythatemergesbetweeninfantsandtheirresponsivecaregivers–adance
lacedwithsmiles,coosandothergesturesofpositivity–isabsolutelyvitaltonormal
humandevelopment,asvitalagoodnutrition(Stern,1985;Siegel,2001).Theclassic
“still-faceparadigm,”forinstance,revealshowavidlyinfantsseekitout.
Researcherswhousethisparadigminviteparent-infantdyadstothelaboratoryto
videotapethemduringtypicalface-to-faceplay,afterafewminutesofwhichthe
researcherssignaltheparenttoadoptastill,neutralface,whilemaintainingeye
contactwithherorhisinfant.Theparent’sstillfacesendsamixedmessagetothe
infant:theparent’sgazesignalsreadinesstoengage,yetherorhispassiveface
conveysunavailability.Behavioralcodingofinfantresponsestothestill-face
paradigmrevealsthat,inthefirsthalf-minuteorso,infantstypicallycontinueto
gazeandsmileattheirparent,making“positivebids”forreengagement.These
hopefulbidsaredestinedtofail,however,becauseparentsareinstructedto
maintainapassivefacefortwominutes.Facedwiththisfailure,theinfants’
positivitytypicallywanesandgiveswaytonegativity,markedbyloweredbrows
andopen-mouthcries(Ekas,Haltigan,&Messinger,2013).
Moresoberingevidenceforthedevelopmentalnecessityofthepositive
intersubjectivitysignaledbybehavioralsynchronycomesfromcaregiverswho
strugglewithdepression,whoarefarlesslikelytoshowthe“dance”ofbehavioral
synchronywiththeinfantsintheircare.Studiesshowthatdepression,whichaffects
10-12percentofpostpartummothers,slowsbothspeechandbodymovements,and
disruptsparent-infantsynchrony(Feldman,2007).Widelyviewedasadisorderof
thepositiveemotionsystem(Davidson,2000),depressionstiflestheemergenceof
intersubjectivityandsharedpositivity.Ampleresearchconfirmsthatmaternal
depressionininfancyforecastsachild’simpairmentsincognitiveandsocio-
emotionalskillsevendecadeslater(forareview,seeFeldman,2007).
Morerecentevidencesuggeststhatpositivebehavioralsynchrony—the
degreetowhichaninfantandaparent(througheyecontactandaffectionatetouch)
laugh,smile,andcootogether—correspondswithoxytocinsynchrony.Researchers
havemeasuredoxytocinlevelsinthesalivaofdads,moms,andinfantsbothbefore
andafteravideotaped,face-to-faceparent-infantinteraction.Forinfant-parent
pairswhoshowmutualpositiveengagement,oxytocinlevelsalsocomeintosync.
Withoutsuchengagement,however,nooxytocinsynchronyemerged(Feldman,
Gordon,&Zagoory-Sharon,2010).
Basedontheaforementionedevidencefromdevelopmentalscience,Iposit
thatbiobehavioralsynchronyisathirdcoreelementoflove-the-emotion.
PushingEmotionScienceFurther:ANewHybridView
Distinct,albeitoverlapping,viewsoflovehaveemergedwithinthe
neighboringdisciplinesofemotionscience,relationshipscience,anddevelopmental
science.Furtherintegratingtheseviews,Iproposeanewhybridviewthatpositions
loveasamomentaryemotionalphenomenonthatisco-experiencedbyanytwoor
moreinteractingpeople.Distillingtoaformaldefinition,Idefinelove-the-emotion
asamicro-momentofpositivityresonance,duringwhichthreecoreelements–(1)
sharedpositiveemotion,(2)mutualcare,and(3)biobehavioralsynchrony–emerge
withtemporalcoherencebetweenandamongpeople.
Departingfromrelationshipscience,love,asconceptualizedhere,isnotan
enduringorintimaterelationship.Inkeeping,however,withtheadaptationistlogic
ofthebroaden-and-buildtheoryofpositiveemotions(Fredrickson,1998,2013b),
micro-momentsofpositivityresonancefertilizethegrowthofconsequential
personalandsocialresources,includingenduringcloseandintimaterelationships
aswellasmentalandphysicalhealth.
Takingacuefromrelationshipscience,Ialsoelevatemicro-momentsof
positivityresonanceabovetheexperiencesofotherpositiveemotions.Thatis,I
hypothesizethatpositivitythatresonatesbetweenandamongpeopleisparticularly
efficientforbuildingconsequentialresources,relativetopositiveemotionsthatare
experiencedinisolationorabsenttheelementsofmutualcareandbiobehavioral
synchrony.Accordingly,Ihavecalledoutloveas“oursupremeemotion”
(Fredrickson,2013a).Thisapproachdepartssharplyfromanunspokentradition
withinemotionscience,whichimplicitlytakespecific,discernableemotions–fear,
anger,joy,andpride–asroughlyequal-statuscategories,eachholdingvaluefor
humansurvivalinitsownway.Underthistraditionallogic,noemotion,love
included,issetapartasonadifferentplane,orscaleofimportance.Bycontrast,
relationshipscienceunabashedlypositionsloverelationshipsasdistinctfromother
relationshipsandmoreconsequentialtohumanwelfare.Likewise,foritsabilityto
weaveindividualsintothesocialfabricofcommunity,love-the-emotionmaywellbe
moreconsequentialtohumanwelfarethananyotheremotion.
MileageGainedfromtheConceptofPositivityResonance
PreconditionsforPositivityResonance
Micro-momentsofpositivityresonancebetweenandamongpeopledonot
emergeatrandom,regardlessofconditions.Inthisway,loveisnotunconditional.(I
acknowledgethatIdeploytheterm“unconditional”inadifferentmannerthanhave
humanisticpsychologists.)Love’sfirstprecondition,Iposit,isperceivedsafety.As
formostpositiveemotions,momentaryperceptionsofsafetyappeartobean
importantprerequisite.Whenpeopleappraisetheircurrentcircumstancesas
somehowthreateningordangerous,theabilitytoshareanexperienceofpositivity
resonancebecomeshighlyimprobable.Fortunately,truethreatstosafetyare
statisticallyrare:Mostmomentsarebenign(Oishi,Diener,Choi,Kim-Prieto,&Choi,
2007).Yet,unfortunately,manypeopledonotexperiencethesafetyinwhichtheir
livesareembedded.Thosewhosufferfromanxiety,depression,loneliness,orlow
self-esteem,forinstance,perceivethreatsfarmoreoftenthantheirobjective
circumstanceswarrant(e.g.,Cacioppo&Hawkley,2009).Thisover-alertstate
thwartstheemergenceofallpositiveemotions,includinglove.Moregenerally,the
inabilitytoexperiencesafetyinthecompanyofothersisapoignantobstacletolove.
Love’ssecondprecondition,Iposit,issensoryconnection.Neitherabstract
normediated,sensoryconnectionisphysicalandunfoldsinrealtime.Itrequiresthe
co-presenceofbodies,throughtouch,voice,orvisiblysynchronizedpostures,
gestures,orfacialexpressions.Arguably,however,themainmodeofsensory
connectioniseyecontact(Farroni,Csibra,Simion,&Johnson,2002).Newborns,for
instance,showanimmediatepreferenceforeyecontact,aswellasinnateskillsfor
establishingitwiththeadultswhocomeintotheirvisualrange.Eyecontactisalsoa
gatewayconstructwithinthesimulationofsmiles(SIMS)model,articulatedby
Niedenthalandcolleagues(Niedenthal,Mermillod,Maringer,&Hess,2010).Making
eyecontactwithsomeonewhosmiles,accordingtotheSIMSmodel,triggersarapid
andnonconsciousembodiedsimulationofthatsmile–throughfacialmimicryand
neuralactivation–thatimplicitlyfunctionstodisambiguatethemeaningofthat
smile.InsupportoftheSIMSmodel,controlledlaboratoryexperimentsconfirmthat
mutualeyegaze,relativetoavertedgaze,triggersfacialmimicrytodynamic
emotionalstimuli(Schrammel,Pannasch,Graupner,Mojzisch,&Velichkovsky,
2009),andthatfacialmimicryenablesmoreaccuratedecodingofthegenuineness
ofdynamicsmiles(Maringer,Krumhuber,Fischer,&Niedenthal,2011).These
processesmayaccountinfants’abilitytodetectinauthenticemotions(Walle&
Campos,2014).Totheextentthateyecontactduringemotionalepisodestriggers
embodiedsimulations,infants’prescientskillsformakingeyecontactcanbeviewed
asevolvedadaptationsthathelpinfantswordlesslyandaccuratelyconveytheir
ever-shiftingemotionalneedstoengagedcaregivers(Niedenthaletal.,2010).
Throughsensoryconnection,then,positiveemotions“jumpthegap”between
peopletobecomesharedexperiencesofpositivityresonance,markedbiobehavioral
synchronyandmutualcare.
ProductsofPositivityResonance
Eventhoughmicro-momentsofpositivityresonanceareoftenmildandby
definitionfleeting,theaccumulatedfrequencyoftheseexperiencesovertimebuilds
arangeofresourcesimportanttosubjective,relational,andphysicalwell-being.For
instance,theexperienceofpleasureor“liking”precedesandlaysthefoundationfor
desireor“wanting”(Berridge,2007).Inthecaseofpositivityresonance,the
pleasureoffeelingconnectedtoanewromanticpartneror“crush,”assessedasself-
otheroverlap(Aron,Aron,&Smollan,1992),prospectivelypredictsthefrequencyof
positiveautomaticthoughtsaboutthatperson,whichcanservetomotivate
subsequenteffortstoreconnect(Rice,Schenker,&Fredrickson,2014).Likewise
experiencingpositivityresonancewiththesamepersonrepeatedlyovertimebuilds
trustandloyalty,socialattitudesvitaltosuccessfulfriendshipsandcommunity
alliances.Therecurrenceofpositivityresonancealsoseedsthemotivationfor
secureattachments,socialbonds,andmoreformalcommitmentstoloyaltysuchas
marriage(Cohn&Fredrickson,2006;Brown&Brown,2006).Asstatedpreviously,
theseenduringresources–desire,bonds,andcommitments–arethemselves
identifiedas“love”inbothscientificandlaywritings.Increasingscientificprecision,
Iofferpositivityresonance(love-the-emotion),astherecurrentbiopsychosocial
mechanisms,or“tinyengines,”thatdrivealargerlovesystemthatalsoincludes
thesemoreenduringproductsofpositivityresonance.
EvidenceforPositivityResonance
Arangeofconvergingevidenceinspiredmetoformulatetheconceptof
positivityresonanceandarticulatekeyhypothesesaboutit.Withinmyown
laboratory,theworkofTanyaVacharkulksemsukhasbeenfoundational
(Vacharkulksemsuk&Fredrickson,2012).SheandIstudiedpairsofpreviously
unacquainteddyadsthatwehadrandomlyassignedtocompleteoneoftwo
interactiontasks,whichwevideotaped:eitheravariantofAron’sself-disclosure
inductionparadigm(Aron,Melinat,Aron,Vallone,&Bator,1997),oraneutral,
collaborativeproof-readingtask.Trainedcoderslaterviewedthemutedvideo
recordingsandratedtheextentofsimultaneousmovement,temposimilarity,and
coordinationandsmoothnessinthedyad’snonverbalbehaviors,whichwethen
summedintoanaggregateindexofbehavioralsynchrony.Welearnedthatthe
physicalanddynamicpropertyofbehavioralsynchronymediatedtheassociation
betweenself-disclosureconditionandsubsequentreportsofembodiedrapport,
evenwhencontrollingforreportsofpositiveemotion(Vacharkulksemsuk&
Fredrickson,2012).Ourevidencefortheimportanceofnaturally-occurring
behavioralsynchronycomplementsresearchthathasmanipulatedbehavioral
synchronytoshowthatitbreedsaffiliation(Hove&Risen,2009),cooperation
(Wiltermuth&Heath,2009),andcompassion(Valdesolo&DeSteno,2011).
Goingbeyondbehavioralsynchrony–andunseenwithinordinary
interactions–isthebiologicalsynchronythatemergeswhentwoormorepeople
shareapositiveemotionalstate.Aspreviouslymentioned,oxytocinsynchrony
arisesduringpositiveinteractionswithinparent-infantdyads(Feldmanetal.,
2010).Morecompellingstillisevidencefromrecentneuroimagingstudiesthat
showwidespreadneuralsynchronywithindyadsandgroupssharingapositive
emotionalexperience(Hasson,2010;Hasson,Nir,Levy,Fuhrmann,&Malach,2004;
Stephens,Silbert,Hasson,2010).Itappears,then,thatwhenpeopleshareapositive
emotionalstate,theyalsosharegestural,biochemical,andneuralpatterns.This
momentarybiobehavioralsynchronyunifiestheinteractingindividualswithina
sharedexperienceofpositiveresonance.
Twoadditionalstreamsofevidencealsocontributedtomytheorizingon
love.First,along-standingbodyofprospectivestudiesshowsthathavingdiverse
andrewardingsocialrelationshipsrobustlyforecastsbetterphysicalhealthand
greaterlongevity.Forinstance,arecentmeta-analysisof148studiesconcludesthat
theinfluenceofsocialintegrationonmortalityriskisonparwiththatofother,well-
establishedhealthriskfactors,includingsmoking,excessivealcoholintake,obesity,
andlackofphysicalexercise(Holt-Lunstad,Smith,&Layton,2010).Second,
conspicuouslysimilarprospectiveevidencelinksthefrequentexperienceofpositive
emotionstolivinglongerandhealthierlives(formeta-analyticreviews,seeChida&
Steptoe,2008,andHowell,Kern,&Lyubomirsky,2007).Unitingthesetwostreams
ofevidence,recentworkfrommylaboratoryshowsthatperceivedpositivesocial
connections–aproxymeasureofpositivityresonance–accountsforthe
relationshipbetweenpositiveemotionsandphysicalhealth(Kok,Coffey,Cohn,
Catalino,Vacharkulksemsuk,Algoe,Brantley,&Fredrickson,2013).Specifically,
people’sdailyexperiencesoffeeling“close”and“intune”withtheirsocial
interactionpartnersmediatedtheeffectofanexperimentalinterventionthattaught
studyparticipantshowtoself-generatepositiveemotions(vialoving-kindness
meditation,seealsoFredricksonetal.,2008)onimprovementsincardiacvagal
tone,aproxymeasureofphysicalhealth.Thus,itappearsthatwhenpeople’sefforts
tocultivatepositiveemotionsculminateinexperiencesofday-to-daypositivity
resonancewithothers,theyincurparticularbooststotheirphysicalhealth.Much
likeourday-to-dayhabitsofbeingphysicallyactiveandeatingnutritiousfoods,our
day-to-dayhabitsofcultivatingpositivityresonancewithothersmaywellfunction
aspositivehealthbehaviors.
ResearchAgenda
Researchontheconceptofpositivityresonanceremainsscant,tobesure.As
such,opportunitiesaboundtotestandrefinethisnewdefinitionoflove.Keytothe
successofthisworkwillbethedevelopmentofvalidandreliablemeasuresof
positivityresonancethathonoritsmomentaryandmultifacetednature.Although
self-reportmeasuresmaycapturethephenomenologicalaspectsofpositivity
resonance,nonverbalbehavioralandbiologicalmeasureswithappropriate
temporalresolutiongatheredfrominteractingdyadswillalsobeessential.In
addition,longitudinalresearchwillbeneededtotesttheclaimthatpositivity
resonancemeritselevationaboveotherpositiveemotionsinitsabilitytoaugment
well-beingandphysicalhealth.Longitudinalanddynamicstatisticalmodelingmay
beespeciallyrelevanttoolsasthisresearchareamatures.
TheoreticalImplications
Whatgoodisasmile?What’sitfor?Althougharangeofpasttheoristshave
addressedthesequestions,thenewconceptofpositivityresonanceoffersafresh
takeontheevolvedadaptivefunctionofspontaneousandgenuinesmiles–what
havebeentermedDuchennesmilesintheresearchliterature.FollowingCharles
Darwin(1872/1998),Ekmanandcolleaguescontendthatsuchsmilesevolvedasan
outwardexpressionorreadoutofaperson’sotherwiseunseeninnersubjective
state(Ekman,Davidson,&Friesen,1990).Anopposingviewshiftsthefocusonto
therecipientofasmile,andproposesthatsmilesevolvednotbecausetheyprovided
readoutsofpositiveemotionalstates,butinsteadbecausetheyevokedpositive
emotionsinthosewhomeetasmilingperson’sgaze(Owren&Bachorowski,2003;
seealsoGervais&Wilson,2005).Maintainingthefocusonthepersonwhomeets
thesmiler’sgaze,theembodiedcognitionperspectiveoftheSIMSmodelsuggests
that,throughneuralsimulation,smilestuneanobservertowardabetter
understandingthesmiler’ssubjectiveexperienceandmotives,sothattheperceiver
can,forinstance,disambiguatesincereaffiliativebidsfromdomineeringorself-
absorbedsmiles(Niedenthaletal.,2010).Eachoftheseaccountsofthefunctionof
genuinesmilesseemsviable,albeiteachremainsincompletebyremaininganchored
tooexclusivelywithinaone-personpsychology(focusedeitherontheoneperson
whosmilesortheonepersonwhowitnessesasmile).
Steppinguptoatwo-personpsychology,inwhichboththesmilingindividual
andthesmilerecipientplayequalandimportantroles,Iproposethatthefunctionof
atleastasubsetofDuchennesmilesis“alloftheabove”andthensome.Specifically,
theadaptivesignificanceofagenuine,affiliativesmilemaybetocreatea
momentarilyunifiedmindsetbetweentwopeople,orintersubjectivity,thatis
characterizedbypositivityresonance,asreflectedbythetriooflove’sfeatures:a
nowsharedpositiveemotion,biobehavioralsynchrony,andanorientationtoward
mutualcare.Researchdocumentsthatasmiledrawsoureyemorethanotherfacial
expression(Becker,Anderson,Mortensen,Neufeld,&Neel,2011).Aswe’veseen,
eyecontactnonconsciouslytriggersfacialmimicry(Schrammeletal.,2009),which
inturntriggersneuralsimulation(Niedenthaletal.,2010).Whentheoriginalsmile
emanatesfromasincereaffiliativebid,themomentaryintersubjectivitycreatedby
neuralsynchronywillincludeorientationstowardmutualcareandresponsivity.In
short,theevolvedadaptivesignificanceofgenuineaffiliativesmilesmaybetoseed
statesofpositivityresonance.Harkeningbacktothebroaden-and-buildtheory
(Fredrickson,1998,2013b),totheextentthatpositivityresonancebuilds
consequentialpersonalandsocialresources,genuineaffiliativesmilesmayhave
evolvedtospurpositivepsychosocialdevelopmentandimprovedphysicalhealthin
individuals,relationships,andindeedwholecommunities.Castingloveasamicro-
momentofpositivityresonance,then,offersadetailedevolutionaryperspectiveon
howgenuinesmilescanseedthelife-enhancingstatesofpositivityresonanceand
thusdogood,bothwithinthebodyandwithinsociety.
Conclusions
Love,definedasmicro-momentsofpositivityresonance,maythusbethe
mostgenerativeandconsequentialofallpositiveemotions.Byvirtueofbeinga
singlestate,distributedacrossandreverberatingbetweentwoormorebrainsand
bodiesatonce,love’sabilitytobroadenmindsetsandbuildresourcesmayhave
substantiallygreaterreach.Love,then,isnotsimplyanotherpositiveemotion.
Rather,it’sthemomentaryphenomenonthroughwhichwefeelandbecomepartof
somethinglargerthanourselves.Meaninginlifemaythusemergenotfromthe
grandandunrealisticutopianidealsof“happily-ever-after”love,butfromwhatart
historianNicholasBourriaud(1998)callsthe“day-to-daymicro-utopias”ofshared
positivity.
Seeingloveaspositivityresonancealsoblurstheboundariesthatsurround
theconceptofemotion.Many,ifnotmost,scientificdescriptionsofemotionslocate
theseaffectivephenomenawithinindividuals,confinedwithinoneperson’smind
andskin.Bycontrast,theconceptofpositivityresonancealignswithperspectives
offeredwithinculturalpsychologythatpositionemotionsasunfoldingbetweenand
amongpeopleastheyinteract(e.g.,Mesquita,2001).Seeingemotionsasproperties
ofindividualsmayindeedbeamyopicby-productoftheWesterntendencyto
perceptuallyextractfocalobjectsfromtheircontextualsurround(e.g.,Masuda&
Nisbett,2001).Bycontrast,positioningloveasadynamicprocessthatunfurls
acrossandunifiestwoormoreinteractingindividualsoffersparsimonytoaccounts
ofthesocialandsocietalfunctionsofpositiveemotions.
Seeingloveaspositivityresonancealsoholdspracticalimplicationsforhow
peoplemightstrengthentheirrelationships,familiesandcommunities.Strivingto
improvethesedirectlycanbeliketellingacompletestranger“trustme”inthe
absenceofanytrustworthyactions.Bycontrast,knowingthatrelationships,
families,andcommunitiesgrowstrongertotheextentthatpositivityresonates
betweenandamongpeoplerevealsthevalueofplanningforandprioritizing
positivity.Creatingactivitiesandsafecontextsthatallowreal-timesensory
connectionandsupporttheemergenceofsharedpositiveemotionsbecomesthe
pathwaytobuildsocialbondsandcommunity.Thisguidancemaybeespecially
valuablewithincontemporaryurbanculturesthatpropelpeopletowardmulti-
taskingandtechnology-mediatedsocialconnections.AsnovelistUrsulaLeGuin
(1971)putit:“Lovedoesn’tjustsitthere,likeastone;ithastobemade,likebread;
remadeallthetime,madenew.”
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1Evenso,scientificinvestigationsoflovehavebeenstifledbycontroversy.Ittookcourageandcreativity,forinstance,forsocialpsychologistsEllenBerscheidandElaineHatfieldtosustaintheirpioneeringeffortstostudyromanticloveinthefaceofwhat’scometobecalled“l’affaireProxmire”(Reis,2012)Thisreferstothe1974debacleinwhichWisconsinSenatorWilliamProxmiresingledoutBerscheidandHatfield’sNSF-sponsoredresearchonloveforhisfirstofmanyGoldenFleeceAwards,bestowedtohighlightwhathedeemedtobeoutrageousandshamefullywastefulusesoffederaltaxdollars.2ForsimplicityI’vedescribelove-the-emotionasapropertyofdyads.Importantly,Iseeitasequallyabletoaccountforcommunalexperiencesofsharedpositivity,orwhatHaidtandcolleaguesrefertoasaninnatehivepsychologywhichperiodicallypropelshumanstolosethemselvesenjoyablyinamuchlargersocialorganism,likethecrowdatafootballgame,musicfestival,orreligiousrevival(Haidt,Seder,&Kesebir,2008).Throughphysicalco-presenceandbehavioralsynchrony,love-the-emotioncanthusalsospreadfromdyadstowholecrowdsorcommunities(e.g.,Fowler&Christakis,2008).