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Love Is God: A Buddhist Interreligious Response to the Vatican Instruction on "Some Aspectsof Christian Meditation"Author(s): Victoria UrubshurowSource: Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 11 (1991), pp. 149-172Published by: University of Hawai'i PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1390260.

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Just as "the Catholic Churchrejects nothing of what is true and holy inthese [non-Christian]religions" [NostraAetate, 2], neither should theseways [of meditation] be rejectedout of hand simply becausethey are notChristian.On the contrary, ne can take from them what is useful so longas the Christianconceptionof prayer, ts logic and requirementsareneverobscured.6John Wijngaards nterprets he Letterto state "emphaticallythat the searchfor new forms of meditation is legitimate and that Eastern forms of prayershould not be rejectedout of hand simplybecausethey are non-Christian."Heagreesthat there is dangerin a shallowpracticeof so-calledprayer hat merelylulls the mind through a kind of self-hypnosis, and feels that the Letter"emphasizes correctly hat the search for inner 'emptiness of mind' may leadpeople astray."Wijngaards concurs that the adoption of Eastern methods"should not lead to a denial, or oversight, of what is central" to Christianbelief.7 Toolan underscores he faults of syncretizingand bowdlerizingEasterntechniques, and finds that CardinalRatzingerspeakswith authority preciselybecause he knows that Christianspiritualitycan "go off on most of these tan-

gents too"; forexample:easy-goingharmonizationsof EastandWest, suspensionsof the ethical, anobsessionwith technique, false "darknights," the self-help cul-de-sac, aspurioussuperiorgnosis, a cult of the body, gluttonizing on "highs," nar-cissisticescapismand dissolvingoneself "into the seaof the Absolute."8From the remarksaboveone can conclude that from the perspectiveof inter-religious dialogue, the Vatican Letter is fundamentally positive. In theory,

accordingto Toolan, the Letter "legitimizes all those parched Catholic soulswho in the last decades have drunkfrom Easternwellsprings."However,thereare less encouragingaspectsof the Letterthat deservecomment. Toolanthinksthat the Letter"speaksas if the Roman church had nothing to learn from theEast," and feels that it "does not breathe with the firsthandexperience, theinquiring spiritand joy of a Thomas Merton[and others]."9Priceobserves hatalthough the Lettersanctionstaking from non-Christianmeditation " 'what isuseful so long as the Christianconceptionof prayer, ts logic and requirementsare neverobscured,'given Ratzinger'sview of prayer, here is verylittle that isuseful." He feels that "[i]n the end, the letter misses an opportunity foradvancing interreligious understanding and cross-culturaldialogue."10Evenmoresubtly,the Letterseems to cast whatFr.PaulPhilibert, O.P., characterizesas a "shadowof suspicion" that may be "inspired by the same ill-informed,right-wing activists" who are responsible for a "mean-spiritedarticle in themagazine ThirtyDayswhichunfairlycaricaturedhe influenceof Eastern ormsof meditationupon Americanreligious"-an article that appearedonly shortlybefore the VaticanLetter.

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Although the Lettercalls for a "thoroughgoing examination" of the "con-tents and methods" of Eastern echniques,12non-Christianmethods aretreatedonly brieflyandwith little care.Yse Masquelier aults it for a troublesome gno-rance 6(fcheuse ignorance) that overgeneralizeswith noxious approximations(des approximationsnuisibles)the "Easternmethods," lumping togetherthoseinspiredby Hinduism and Buddhism, such asZen, transcendentalmeditation,or yoga.13Masquelierchargesthat the Letterunfairly comparesthe worst ormost vague aspectsof one spiritualworld (the Asian) with the best of another(the Christian).As one also sensitive to the richness and particularityof Asian religions, Fr.Bede Griffiths, O. Cam. O.S.B., remarks,"I find it extremely disappointing[that] [t]hereis no hint of the tremendousdepth of [Hindu and Buddhist]spir-ituality or of its profound wisdom" in the Letter.He observes that "Easternmeditation is treated as though it were a matter of superficialtechniques, of'bits and pieces' " that a Christiancan use, once awareof possibledangersandabuses.14 In this piecemeal approachSamydetects an "inadequate theology ofreligions," stating:

The Letter seems to envision the use of a few particularEasternpractices,such as breathing and posture: 'bits and pieces should be taken up andexpressedanew' (16). Master-disciple elationshipis acceptedand recom-mended, but it is not situated in the whole context of the way-it is sim-ply uprootedand adaptedto the model of a 'spiritualFather.'5In contrast o the method of applying "bits and pieces" from another traditionout of context, Samycontends that "trueinculturationand integration"occurs"only when Christianscan submit themselves to the discipline, in entirety,ofan authentic Easternwayand walk with the master to the end." This view pre-sumes that (according to Roger Haight) "God's mystery is wider than thatrevealedinJesus; but God cannot be less than that revealedinJesus."'6 Samy,however, nsists that

[t]he Christian s not askedto become a Hindu or a Buddhist, but only toplunge into the mystery embodied in that non-Christianway. Such a"passingover" is necessary or an authentic flowering and renewal. TheLetterseems to be suspiciousof such a venture and tries to tell the Chris-tian to hold on to his doctrinesand practices.But sadly,no death, no res-urrection Mk4:26-28).17Some criticsof the VaticanLetterimply that it does the Churcha disserviceby offering inadequate support for interreligiousdialogue, which they feel iscrucial to the vitality of a religious tradition with respectto both institutionaland individual spiritualhealth. Griffiths recalls that in the fourth centurytheChurch was challenged by the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus and Porphyry,anddid not cautiously(as now) "retreat nto the past." Thus, the Churchwas vita-



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VICTORIAURUBSHUROWlized throughSt. Gregoryof Nyssa, who "steepedhimself in the philosophyofPlotinus and by subtle changes adapted it to orthodox Christiandoctrine."18He believes that Christianmeditation should lead one (in the wordsof Fr.JohnMain, O.S.B.) to "share n that stream of love which flows betweenJesus andthe Father, and is the Holy Spirit," and claims that "many Christianshavefound that the Hindu and the Buddhist and Sufi mystics can lead us...toward this depth of unitive prayer."'9Wijngaardsrecallsthat historically heChurch'sexposureto Greek, Germanic, Slavic, and Arabicreligious thoughtled to an enrichment of theology and prayer.He notes further that "[t]he gen-uine development of the ancient Easternspiritualities n new Christianexpres-sions of personal prayerand common worshipis of the highest importancetothe Church in Asia." Realizing that "the success or failure of Christianinculturationof Easternreligious thought andpracticewill affect the Church nthe West too," Wijngaards emarks:

It fills me with concern that the Congregation for the Doctrine of theFaith, while rapping the knuckles of a few Western syncretists,shouldtotally overlookthe infinitely wider dimensions of the issue. Could it bean example of "straining at a gnat while swallowing a camel" (Mt.19:24)?20

II. IMPLICATIONSFOR INTERRELIGIOUSDIALOGUECardinalJoseph Ratzinger,whose Letteris addressed"in the first place to thebishops,"is well-motivatedby a wish "that the entire people of God-priests,religious and laity-may again be called to pray,with renewed vigor, to theFatherthrough the Spirit of Christour Lord."He is sensitive to the spiritualneeds of "manyChristians oday [who] have a keen desire to learn how to expe-rience a deeper and authentic prayerlife," and takes special note of those"caught up in the movement towardopenness and exchangesbetween variousreligions and cultures, [who] are of the opinion that their prayerhas much togain from [non-Christian]methods."21Emphasizing the importanceof love,CardinalRatzingermakesa constructiveeffort to safeguarda genuine Christianexperienceof prayer n the midst of openness to what may be true and holy inother faiths. He callsfor the study of Eastern echniques, and expresses ntelli-gent caution against indiscriminatefusion of Christianmeditation with non-Christianelements.Most religious practitioners(not least those engaged in interreligiousdia-logue) probablywould support the VaticanLetter'sconviction that authenticspiritual practicegrowsfrom an integratedreligious system grounded in love.But the Letter tends towardan extreme caution againstoutside influence thatdeservesreconsideration.Maturepractitioners ngaged in responsible nterreli-gious dialogue need not labor under a heavy threat of spirituallydestructivefusion with extratraditional lements. Their dynamic engagement with other



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BUDDHIST RESPONSEfaiths should not be confused with what Thomas Merton called a "facile syn-cretism,a mishmashof semireligiousverbiageand pieties, a devotionalismthatadmitseverythingand therefore akesnothing with full seriousness."22Raimundo Panikkarsees openness to other religions as a manifestation ofGod's love. What he insightfully calls "intrareligious"dialogue involves realtheological work that prompts genuine religious pondering within one's ownfaith stance. It does not resistdeep encounter.

[T]he dialogue of which I speak emergesnot as a mere academicdevice oran intellectualamusement, but a spiritualmatter of the first rank, a reli-gious act that itself engages faith, hope and love. Dialogue is not baremethodology but an essentialpart of the religious act parexcellence: lov-ing God above all things and one's neighboras oneself. If we believe thatour neighbor lies entangled in falsehood and superstitionwe can hardlylove him asourselves,without a hypocritical,pitying love that movesus totry plucking the mote out of his eye. Love for our neighbor also makesintellectual demands."23Despite the theoreticalemphasis on Christian love in the VaticanLetter,a

disturbing note of triumphalismtends to undermine the "love of neighbor"and openness so important to interreligious dialogue. Cardinal Ratzingermakes a declarationof thewonderfuldiscovery hat all the aspirationswhich the prayerof other reli-gions expressesare fulfilled in the realityof Christianitybeyond all mea-sure, without the personalself or the nature of a creaturebeing dissolvedordisappearing nto the sea of the Absolute. 'God is love' (1Jn. 4:8). Thisprofoundly Christian affirmation can reconcile perfect union with theotherness existing between lover and loved, with eternal exchange andeternaldialogue.24

From the perspectiveof interreligiousdialogue it seems counterproductive oclaim such a "wonderfuldiscovery hat all the aspirationswhich the prayerofother religions expressesare fulfilled in the reality of Christianitybeyond allmeasure."One should considerherean importantdistinctionbetween "discov-ery" and "invention," and ponder the following suggestion: Columbusinvented America. Columbus did not discoverAmerica, because to discoverimplies being able to imagine the object of discoveryas a possibility.It was notwithin the mental framework f Columbus to conceiveof a New World. He waslooking for India and he found "Indians."25Likewise,no Christian,Buddhist,Hindu, or anyone else can truly discover that all the aspirationsexpressedthroughthe prayerof otherreligionsarefulfilled in the realityof his or her ownbeyond all measure. One cannot make such a discoverybecause one has nottraversed he breadthsand penetrated the depths of all those other religions.Without being able to imagine the numerousmetaphysical,doctrinal, ritual,



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VICTORIAURUBSHUROWand existentialpossibilitiesof all the otherreligions, one cannever discover heabsolutesuperiorityof one's own. One can only invent that superiority. n thislight, a few wordsattributedto BuddhaSakyamuniareapt:

It is not properfor a wise man who maintains(lit. protects)truth to cometo the conclusion: "This alone is Truth,and everythingelse is false"....A man has a faith. If he says, "This is my faith", so farhe maintains truth.But by that he cannot proceed to the absolute conclusion: "This alone isTruth,and everythingelse is false".... To be attached to one thing (to acertainview) and to look down upon other things (views)as inferior-thisthe wisemen call a fetter.26In sum, it is fair to saythat the VaticanLettercraftedby CardinalRatzingercontributesconstructively o interreligiousdialogue, through both its sanctionof Easternmethods of meditation and its effortsto outline criteria or their use

by Christians.The instructionon aspectsof Christianmeditation should be asource of hope and encouragementas it opens the wayfor seriousexaminationof non-Christianmethods of prayer,and dynamic dialogue. Shadowsof suspi-cion, blatant overgeneralizations,and notes of triumphalism, in fact, are thehallmark of the beginning stages of interreligiousdialogue. They are indica-tions that the "other" has been encountered. They are indications that the"other" is beginning to be conceived as a possibility.As such, they representapreludeto truediscovery.III. A BUDDHIST RESPONSETopromotethe VaticanLetter's ontribution to interreligiousdiscovery,a closerlook at its understandingof Buddhismis in order.Direct reference o the Bud-dhist tradition is found under the heading "ErroneousWays of Practicing,"which opens with a discussionof two earlydeviationsfrom Churchteachings:(1) Pseudognosticism,whose source of errorhinged on a denial of the religiousvalue of God's creationtogetherwith the supplantingof gracewith knowledge(gnosis), and (2) Messalianism,whose claim to charismaticunion with the HolySpiritwasjudged by the Churchto be mere psychologicalexperiencegarneredoutside of an authentic sacramentalcontext. The Vatican Letter notes that"[b]oth of these forms of errorcontinue to be a temptation for man the sin-ner," and contends that a contemporarychallenge along similar lines is pre-sented byEasternmethods of meditation-to whichthe discussion s turned.27CardinalRatzingerobservesthat "we find ourselvesfaced with a pointedrenewalof an attempt, which is not free from dangersand errors, o fuse Chris-tian meditation with that which is non-Christian."28 he Letterthen lists threeways that such encounters("radical to a greateror lesserextent") have beenmanifest in Christian ives. First,it states that the Church s facedwith the useof "Easternmethods solely as a psychologicalpreparation or a truly Christian



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contemplation." Second, it points to a more radicalattempt to "generatespir-itual experiencessimilarto those describedin the writingsof certainCatholicmystics [such as the Cloud of Unknowing]."Third (in what seems to be a listgraduatedin terms of danger, error,and radicality),the Letterspeaksof theChristianencounterwith "Buddhisttheory."29 he portion of the VaticanLet-ter (together with notes) that most pointedly invites a Buddhist responseis asfollows:

Still others do not hesitate to place that absolute without images or con-cepts, which is properto Buddhist theory*, on the same level as the maj-estyof God revealed n Christ,which towersabovefinite reality.

*In Buddhist religioustexts, the concept of "nirvana" s understoodasa stateof quiet consistingin the extinctionof everytangible reality nso-far asit is transient,and as suchdelusive andsorrowful.To this end, they [that is, Christiansyncretists]make use of a "negativetheology" which transcends veryaffirmationseekingto expresswhat Godis and denies that the things of this worldcan offer tracesof the infinity ofGod. Thus they propose abandoning not only meditation on the salvificworksaccomplishedin history by the God of the old and new covenant,but also the veryidea of the one and triune God, who is love, in favorofan immersion"in the indeterminateabyssof the divinity."**

**MeisterEckhart peaksof an immersion "in the indeterminateabyssof the divinity,"which is a "darkness n which the light of the Trinitynevershines.30

Three questions embedded in the passages of the Vatican Letter quotedabove reflect an attempt to interpretthe meaning of the Buddhist goal of nir-vanaand its impacton Buddhistpractice:(1) Isan absolutewithout imagesorconcepts properto Buddhisttheory?(2) Do Buddhist religioustexts understandnirva.na s a state of quiet consist-ing in the extinction of everytangible realityinsofar as it is transientand,assuch, delusive and sorrowful?(3) Does Buddhism constitute a "negative theology" which transcendsevery

affirmationseeking to expresswhat God is, and thus deny that the thingsof this world can offer tracesof the infinity of God?Two furtherquestions embedded in those passagesbearon Christianapplica-tions ormisapplicationsof Buddhistteachings:(4) Bywhat logic might some Christiansplace nirvanaon the same level as themajestyof God revealed n Christ,which towersabove finite reality?

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(5) By what logic might some Christians,on the basis of their contact withBuddhism, propose abandoningnot only meditation on the salvific worksaccomplished n historyby the God of the old and new covenant, but alsothe very dea of the one and triuneGod, who is love, in favorof an immer-sion "in the indeterminate abyssof the divinity,"which is a darkness nwhichthe light of the Trinitynevershines.The firstset of questions suggestsa response n the context of Buddhist theory,and will be treatedin detail under the headings: (a) The Question of BuddhistImpersonalism,and (b) The Question of Buddhist Nihilism. The second set ofquestions, which falls more properly n the domain of interreligiousdialogue,will be treated summarilyunder the heading: (c) The Question of ReligiousLanguage.TheQuestionof BuddhistImpersonalismA chargeof impersonalism s waged against Buddhism in the VaticanLetter,which speaksof "that absolute without images or conceptswhich is propertoBuddhisttheory,"and decries ts associationwith "the majestyof God revealedin Christ, which towers above finite reality."31As CardinalRatzinger placeseven apophaticforms of traditionalChristianprayerunderscrutiny n the Let-ter,his warinessof a presumedBuddhistimpersonalism s not surprising.How-ever,one should not forget that the veryfoundationsof Buddhisttheorydevel-oped as a critiqueof apophaticmeditativeexperience.A critical nsight that setBuddha Sakyamuniapartfrom the sramanas32r mendicantyogis of his daywas a conviction that even the most subtle concentrativeabsorptionsculminat-ing in the abodes of nothingness and neither-perception-nor-non-perceptionwere insufficientforliberationornirvana. 3Tradition teaches that after Buddha experiencedthe most subtle apophaticstates available through abstractiveconcentration, he remained skeptical oftheir ultimate salvific value. Buddha left his teachersand forged a distinctivemeditative path to liberation that involved not only such states of tranquilabiding, but also special insight into the interdependentrelationshipbetweenpersonand world. Buddha, thus, promoteda dual means of mental cultivationor bhavana (Sanskrit and Pali): (a) samatha or concentrative meditation,through which the subtle states of formlessabsorptionare realized;34 nd (b)vipasyanaor vipassana Pali) insight meditation, through which the natureofthe world as characterizedby impermanence(anitya),lack of inherent existenceof the self (anatman),and suffering (dubkha)is realized.35Along with the twomethods of mental cultivation, Buddha taught a practicalmeans of living inthe worldaccording o principlesof nonviolenceand compassion.This essentialthreefold structureof morality,concentration,and wisdom is preservedacrossthe Buddhistspectrum,both in the eightfold path (promotedby Theravadins)



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and in the path of the perfections (promoted by Mahayanists).Together, incomplementaryrelationship,they constitute the guidelines for Buddhistreligi-osity.36Buddha Sakyamuni aught samatha meditation as a means of mental purifi-cation, but warnedagainst confusing the fruits of samathawith nirvana,whichis beyond-but not in continuity with-the hierarchyof abstractstates. Nir-vana is fundamentally uncaused: yet it is accessedthrough vipassandmedita-tion, not throughsamathameditation.

What the absorptionsof samathameditation, however,cannot produceisthatpermanent transcendenceof the ingrainedpatternsof the human psy-che which is the only condition that can properlybe called enlightenment(bodhz)-the achievement of the freedom of nibbana [Pali]. This was thecrucial insight in the Buddha's teaching and has often been blurred inlatertimes in spite of the precisionwith whichhe formulated t.37BuddhaSakyamuni aught not only that samathapractice s insufficient for lib-eration, but also that the formlessabsorptions ssuingfrom abstractivemedita-tion "mayentail theirown kind of risk."

[P]reciselybecauseof the achievement of temporarybut highly rewardingaltered states of consciousness the meditator may come to consider theabsorptionsas ends in themselves, in which case they will hinder ratherthanhelp the progressof insight.38Both samathaand vipassandormsof meditation begin with basicconcentra-tion of mind, known as accessconcentration(upacdra amddhi)or momentary

concentration (khanikasamddhi). Once this basic concentration is achieved,however, vipassanapracticeturns to examination of sensoryand mental pro-cesses insteadof proceedingto everhigher degreesof concentrationas in sama-tha practice.[In vipassandpractice] the meditator proceeds to examine with steady,careful attention and in the utmost possible detail preciselyall those sen-soryand mental processeswhich are discardedin abstractivemeditation,including those that normallyoccurat subconsciousor unconscious evels.The purposehere is to achievecomplete, directand immediate awarenessof all phenomena, which reveals their basic impermanence (anicca)[Pali]and impersonality(anattd)[Pali], that is to say,the absenceof any lastingessenceorself-entityin them. It is a matterof achievingfull and clearper-ception of the radical mpermanenceof all existingphenomena.39The practiceof samathagenerates feelings of bliss, happiness, and ineffableintuition that are distinct from and incompatible with ordinarystates of con-



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sciousness,namely,waking, sleeping, and dreaming. When experiencingoneof the absorptionsone is operatingin a distinct mode. By contrast,the practiceof vipassana s based in an alert and receptivestate of mind that involves the"full, continuous, and fully consciousexerciseof all mental faculties."40One isnot operatingoutside of the ordinarystatesof consciousness,and their normalfunctions remainfully available,along with an additional sense of mental bal-ance, and so on. Although samathaand vipassanaare both attention-trainingmethods, the former s like bringinga beam of light down to its sharpestpossi-ble focus on a single point, while the latter is like beaminga finely focused, butbroader ight field onto whateveris happening at a given moment. Samathaproducesan altered state of consciousness,while vipassandproducesa higherstate of consciousness-"a true transmutationwhich producesnew, indelibletraitsof consciousness . . [that] in its highest degree [is] nibbana."41Thus, when the VaticanLetterdecries the placement of "that absolute with-out image orconcepts,which is properto Buddhist theory,on the same level asthe majestyof God revealed n Christ,which towersabovefinite reality,"t doesnot reflect with sufficient clarityon the structureof the Buddhist meditativepath leading to nirvana. One can consider the Letter'suse of the word "abso-lute" to refer to the nirvanabeyond the four formlessabsorptions;but nirvaznashould not be confused with those other states. Accordingto Buddhist teach-ings, liberation s not derivedfundamentallyfromapophaticcontemplation.Buddhist theory provides a useful critique of "erroneousways of praying"(rightlyor wronglyillustratedin the Letterby the example of the fourth-cen-turycharismaticMessalians) hat attributegreatspiritualvalue to merepsycho-logical experience. Rather than pose a threat, Buddhist theory might inspirefruitfulChristianresponses o the problemsof apophatic mpersonalism.In sum: a Buddhist effectively may nuance the Vatican Letter'sassumptionthat an absolute without images or concepts is proper to Buddhist theory inlight of: (a) the disjunctionbetween nirvanaand the apophaticabodesof noth-ingness and neither-perception-nor-nonperception,and (b) the distinctionbetween tranquilabiding (samatha)and special insight (vipassana)meditativetechniques.TheQuestionof BuddhistNihilismIn the Vatican Letter a chargeof nihilism is waged againstBuddhism in con-junctionwith that of impersonalism.The chargeof impersonalism tems from amisconstrualof the structureand limits of apophaticcontemplationin the Bud-dhist context. The charge of nihilism stems from a confusion between theextinguished sufferingof nirvanaand radicalannihilation.The topic of nirvanaresistssuperficialanalysis,and one should not concludehastily, along with the VaticanLetter, that Buddhist soteriology representsa"negative theology."The Letter'sunderstandingof nirvana,which undergirds



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its chargeof nihilism, appearsto derivefrom a perfunctorydefinition that hassome value as a generalstatement, but is too scantto be useful.42[N]irvanais understood as a state of quiet consisting in the extinction ofevery tangible reality insofar as it is transient and, as such, delusive andsorrowful.43

Indeed, nirvanacan be viewedas a state of quiet whereinall that is delusive andsorrowful(that is, pertaining to transientsamsara) s somehow extinguished.Yet this understandingdoes not necessarily mply a nihilistic stance: not everytangible reality is extinguished-just tangible reality insofar as it pertains tosamsara,or the condition of suffering.Nirvanadoes not involvea radicalaban-donment of the world; and this point can be arguedacross he Buddhist spec-trum.When CardinalRatzingersuggests that Buddhism proffersa "negative the-ology,"he makes a ratherhonest, but serious mistake. Particularlyn the earlydays of Western Buddhological research,many scholarsfell into a judgmentakin to that of the VaticanLetter.In fact, within the Buddhist tradition itselfthere is evidence of consistentvigilance againstnihilistic tendencies-for Bud-dhist theoryconsidersnihilism to be a majorpitfall of spiritual practice(alongwith eternalism).GuyRichardWelbon, in his studyof Westernscholarly nterpretationsof nir-vana(especiallyof the nineteenth and earlytwentieth centuries),notes that thequestion of the nature of nirvana is "one of the oldest in the historyof ideas[that] in its variousmodes has been debated furiouslyby Buddhistsand non-Buddhistsalike."44Woventhroughthe historyof Western nterpretationof nir-vana is discussion of its oft-presumed "nihilism." But such presumptions,accordingto Welbon, have been more influenced by culturalbias (and in theearly days by lack of accessto Buddhist texts) than by carefulinterpretationofBuddhist doctrine.He concludes:

Clearly,no claim that nirvanraversignified merelyannihilationor bliss-in our [Western]tradition'sacceptanceof such terms-could be substanti-ated. . . . [W]e maynot assume that it is annihilation, except insofaras itis indubitably the destruction of all that properlyfrightensus. . . . [T]heBuddhist nirvana s a religiousvalue only. It is accessibleto the veryfew,and it is totally misunderstoodwhen seen to be merely that sort of cessa-tion which deathsupposedlyassuredeveryone.45After some three hundred pages of intellectual history, Welbon declines tooffer any "brief or convenient gloss" of the meaning of nirvana, declaring,"[B]ynow it should be obvious that to essaythe latter would be to saya greatdeal more about oneself than about the Buddhist's ultimate concern."46Heprovidesno "apodicticallycertain definition of nirvana. . . due to the nature



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VICTORIAURUBSHUROWof the idea itself," noting that "[t]hereis no wayto isolate a simple, primordialmeaning of nirvana n the Buddhistusage."47While Western debate over the meaning of Buddhist nirvanatook shapemostly over the last one and one-half centuries, intra-Buddhistdebate on thetopic has persisted over the past two and one-half millennia. That historyreflectsa ferventcritiqueof nirvana, ncludinga significantmeasureof thoughtover the threat of nihilism. Most notably, around the beginning of the Chris-tian era, a distinctive branchof IndianBuddhism(the Mahayana) merged, inpart as a reaction against the prevailing Abhidharma interpretationof nir-v.na.48 Yet, the Abhidharmainterpretationof nirvana,which representsthebasisforpresent-dayTheravadaBuddhistthought, exercised ts own critiqueofnirvanaornibbdna(Pali).Theravadins traditionally classify nibbana into two aspects: (a) nibbanaattainable in the present life, realized in the body (technically,nibbana withthe basis still remaining, sopadisesanibbana dhatu (Pali)), and (b) nibbanaoccurringafter dissolution of the body,without anyremainderof physicalexis-tence (technically,nibbana without the basisremaining, anupadisesanibbanadhatu (Pali)). The arhator Theravada iberatedsaint, who realizesnibbana inthe present body,is

one who has destroyedthe defilements, who has lived the life, done whatwas to be done, laid aside the burden, who has attained his goal, who hasdestroyed the fetters of existence, who, rightly understanding, is deliv-ered. His five sense-organs till remain, and ashe is not devoid of them heundergoes the pleasant and the unpleasant experiences.That destructionof his attachment,hatredand delusion is called "the element of Nibbanawith the basisstill remaining."49Such an arhat has abandoned not the world but the fetters of attachment,hatred, and delusion. Such a one is happy in the midst of the world; nibbanadoes not existsomewhereelse for this saint. Moreover, t is realizedon the basisof virtue and careful attention exercisedthrough acts of the "fathom-long"human body.The Milindapanha tates:

There is no spot looking East, South, West, or North, above, below, orbeyond, where Nibbana is situated, and yet Nibbana is; and he whoordershis life aright, grounded in virtueand with rationalattention, mayrealize it whetherhe livesin Greece, China, Alexandria,or in Kosala.Just as fire is not storedup in any particularplace but ariseswhen thenecessaryconditions exist, so Nibbana is said not to exist in a particularplace, but is attained whenthe necessary onditions arefulfilled.50The Venerable Mathera Narada (d. 1983) articulates a contemporaryTheravada stance on the question of nibbana and nihilism. He rejects thechargeof nihilism.

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BUDDHIST RESPONSETo saythat Nibbana is nothingness simply becauseone cannot perceiveitwith the five senses, is as illogical as to conclude that light does not existsimplybecausethe blind do not see it.51

Narada illustratesthe positive characterof nibbana with a popular Buddhistparableof the fish and the turtle: Because the fish had lived all its life in waterand knew nothing of land, all its queries about land met with negativeresponsesfrom the turtle, who inhabited both land and water. "No, it is notwet. No, it is not soft and yielding," and so on. The fish mistakenlyconcludedthat land is nothingness, as one who never experienced nibbana might mis-takenlyconcludethat nibbana is nothingness.Naradaexplains that if nibbana is nothingness, then it must coincide withspace, as both in Buddhisttheoryare consideredto be eternal and unchanging.Yet, space is eternal because it is nothing in itself. Nibbana, by contrast, isspacelessand timeless. Spaceis not; nibbana is. Moreover,nibbana is realizedas a mental object (vatthudhammu),which "decidedly provesthat it is not astate of nothingness." He argues that if nibbana were a mere state of noth-ingness, the Buddha would not have used terms such as "infinite" (anan-ta), "security" (khema), "happiness" (siva), "absolute purity" (visuddho),"emancipation"(mutti), and "peace" (santi)with reference o it.52

The Nibbana of the Buddhistsis, therefore,neither a state of nothingnessnor a mere cessation. What it is not, one candefinitely say.What preciselyit is, one cannot adequately express n conventional termsas it is unique.It is forself-realization.53In spite of a common rejectionof nihilism, Theravadaand MahayanaBud-dhists maintain persistentdifferenceswith respect to their conception of the

final goal of spiritualpractice.Thomas P.Kasulisnotes:The Mahayanistswere generally more interested in the truth to whichenlightenment was an awakening than the pain from which it was arelease. This emphasison the positive aspectof enlightenment alsocausedto be diminishedthe importanceof nirvanaasthe release rom rebirth.54

Consistent with their special interest in samsara,MahayanaBuddhists tend topursue the ideal of becoming a bodhisattvaratherthan an arhat, which is themost commonly expressedaspirationof Theravadapractitioners.The bodhi-sattva aspirantstressesthe religious value of continuing to reincarnate n themidst of samsarafor the sake of helping all sentient beings achieve freedomfromsuffering.

Both Abhidharmaand MahayanaBuddhism aim for the enlightenment ofeveryone,but whereas n the Abhidharmaview enlightenment is achievedby one personat a time and the groupas a whole pushesupward n a pyra-



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VICTORIAURUBSHUROWmid effect, supportingmost the spiritualprogressof those at the top, inMahayanaBuddhism the bodhisattvas at the top turn back to pull upthose behind them until everyone s readyto achieveenlightement simul-taneously.MahayanaBuddhism "place[d]new emphasison the socialemotions,"as thefour Brahmaviharasknown to early Indian Buddhism (and later Theravada)wereamplified:Friendlinessand compassionbecame "cardinalvirtuesof primeimportance."Sympathetic oy was "enrichedwith a new altruisticcomponent,which is technicallyknown as the 'dedicationof merit'." And impartialitywas"clearlyand unmistakablydefined as including friendliness and compassion. . . and ensure[d] that the Buddha is equally compassionateto all."56Santi-deva's(eighth century C.E.)descriptionof the altruisticaspirationsof a bodhi-sattva llustrates his social orientation:

Thus, by the virtue collectedThroughall that I havedone,May he pain of every ivingcreatureBe completelyclearedaway.MayI be the doctorand the medicineAnd mayI be the nurseForall sickbeingsin the worldUntil everyone s healed.Maya rainof food and drinkdescendTo clearawaythe pain of thirstandhungerAnd duringthe aeon of famineMayI myselfchangeinto food and drink.MayI become an inexhaustibletreasureForthose who are destitute.MayI turninto all things they could needAnd maythese be placedclose beside them.Without anysenseof lossI shallgive up my bodyand enjoymentsAs well asall my virtuesof the threetimesFor the sake of benefitting all.57

In sum, the VaticanLetter's hargethat Buddhismpromotesa radicalannihi-lation that unequivocallynegates the worldreasonablycan be disputed on thebasis of: (a) a deeper appreciationof the meaning and historyof the term nir-v?za58and (b) considerationof the scopeof Buddhistethics,whichinvolves(forall Buddhists)acts of virtuein the world as the basisfor spiritual development,and (for the Mahayanists) commitment to reincarnating n the worldfor the

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sake of suffering beings. However, the Letter's full expressionof this chargeagainstBuddhismcannot be answeredon the basis of Buddhist theoryalone, asthe text involves the use of "God" language. To treat adequately the Letter'sclaim that Buddhism "transcendsevery affirmation seeking to expresswhatGod is, and thus denies that the things of this world can offer tracesof theinfinity of God"59calls for the methods of interreligiousdialogue.The QuestionofReligious LanguageThe pervasiveuse of Christiantheological language in the Vatican Letterren-ders the text somewhatinert in a dialogicalcontext. Forexample, the veryterm"negative theology" is inappropriatewith respect to Buddhism, as the tradi-tion never treats theos as such. Other instances of tradition-bound languagethat surface n the Letterpresent problemsfor both Christiansand Buddhistsattempting to make adequate comparativeassessments. While a full-fledgeddiscussionof methodologicalproblemsrelative to religious language is beyondthe scopeof this essay,a few observationson the Asian traditions are offered tohelp mitigate obstacles to dialogue engendered through the VaticanLetter'sparticular onceptualorientation.The VaticanLettersuggeststwo questionsthat deal with Christianappropria-tion of Buddhist elements: (1) By what logic might some Christiansplace nir-vana on the same level as the majestyof God revealedin Christ,which towersabovefinite reality?and (2) Bywhat logic might some Christiansproposeaban-doning: (a) meditation on the salvific works accomplished in history by theGod of the old and new covenant, and (b) the veryidea of the one and triuneGod, who is love, in favor of an immersion "in the indeterminateabyssof thedivinity,"which is a darkness n which the light of the Trinitynever shines?

In the firstquestion, the problem of religious language surfaces n the anal-ogy between the majestyof God revealedin Christand the transcendenceofnirvana.CardinalRatzinger udges the comparison o be inapt, and a Buddhistmight agree. Yet, to affirm this judgment, one must, at the very least, (a)determine specificallywhich Buddhist "nirva.na" Theravada,Tibetan Bud-dhist, Pure Land, Zen, and so forth) is being used as the basis for Christianinterpretation,and (b) distinguish between the transcendentalmajestyof Godand Christ ncarnate.The problemof comparingnirvana o God or Christmustbe subject to the Letter'sown call for a "thoroughgoing examinationso as toavoid the dangerof falling into syncretism."60The second question concernsthe conversion of Christians o an alien per-spectivethat does not involve the Abrahamicconception of God and revealedscripture.It also repudiatesthe adoption of an erroneousway of praying (pre-sumablyBuddhist) that leads to an undifferentiateddarkness n which there isno presence (or cognizance) of God the Father,Christ the Son, and the HolySpirit.As the VaticanLettersuggests,Buddhism does not address tself to med-itation on the God of the old and new covenant, and the triune God. This is



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quite natural:Buddha Sakyamuni ived about six centuriesbefore Christin apartof the world(northIndia)that wasnot cross-fertilizedby Hebrew culture.But, in considerationof the VaticanLetter's mplied repudiationof Buddhismfor these omissions, one must ask: Does this lack of trinitary heological doc-trine necessarilyproduce a "darkness n which the light of the Trinitynevershines?"61CardinalRatzinger (adopting a conception of errorfrom MeisterEckhart)considersnirvanato be a darkness hat mercilesslyengulfs Buddhists into "theindeterminateabyssof the divinity."What is more, Christiancontemplativeswho adopt Buddhistmethods presumablyaresubjectto similarspiritualdevas-tation. However,one should not jump to the conclusion that the Buddhist lackof a triuneconceptof God (ormoremodestlythe lackof monotheisticdoctrine)promotes the existential and soteriologicalhazard of such a dark abyss. Oneresponsiblycan contest the VaticanLetter's udgment that Buddhist spiritualpractice eads to immersion into some indeterminateanything-or nothing-in light of the foregoing discussion on impersonalismand nihilism: (1) Bud-dhist theorydoes not placeultimate spiritualvalue on formlessapophaticexpe-riencesderivedfrom tranquilabiding (samatha)contemplation; (2) Buddhism

emphasizes both virtue (s-la)and special insight into the profoundly interde-pendent processesof this world;(3) nirvana s not nothingness, and in the con-text of the bodhisattvacareer t is experiencedrepeatedlyin the midst of thesufferings of cyclic existence; and (4) historically,the Buddhist tradition hasbeen its own most severe critic of nihilistic tendencies, rejectingnihilism andeternalismastwogravepitfalls to spiritualdevelopment.Although BuddhaSakyamunidid not speakof the Trinity, t would be diffi-cult to statecategorically hat the light of whatevermysterya Christiancalls the"Trinity"never shines on a Buddhist. The VaticanLetteroffers three basiccri-

teria for judging the spiritualvalue of Christianprayer.If these are applied toan authenticallypracticingBuddhist, there is indication that the Buddhist, too,is not devoidof light. The Letterstates:ContemplativeChristianprayeralways eads to love of neighbor, to actionand to the acceptanceof trials, and preciselybecauseof this it drawsonemorecloselyto God.62

In spite of differences n religious language(and all that implies relativeto doc-trine and practice),one finds evidence that Buddhist spiritualityalso leads tolove of neighbor, action, and acceptanceof trials. It is difficult to see how onecould deny that Buddhists (or other non-Christians)who meet these criteriacome closer to "God" through contemplation. Again, it is a matterfor interre-ligious dialogue to make sense out of the Christianconception of "God" rela-tive to non-Abrahamicreligioustraditions.Moreover,one would not automati-cally accepta conflation of the mysteryof Christincarnatewith the Mahayanabodhisattva,or the Hindu avatara, or example. Yet, one cannotpresumethat

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because elements of variousreligious doctrinesdiffer, similarfruits cannot beachieved by a different logic. Each religious tradition has its own logic andintegrity,and where love, for example, may be promoted one way in traditionWest, it maybe promoted throughdifferentmeansin traditionEast.The VaticanLettersuggeststhat the "profoundlyChristianaffirmation"that"God is love" is "fulfilled in the realityof Christianitybeyond all measure"becausethe personalself and other creaturesneither dissolve nordisappear ntothe sea of the Absolute.63Yet, granted that Christian love has a distinctivequalityanddepth that derive fromparticular ultural,doctrinal,and sacramen-tal contexts, it would be difficult to claim that God's love can only (or best) bediscoveredby a Christian.It is not unreasonable o insist that though it may bea profoundlyChristianaffirmation,the Love that is God is greater han anyonereligioustradition.A look at the religionsof India (whichunderlie the VaticanLetter'sconceptof "Easternreligions") suggests that great love is garnered through them aswell. Bearing n mind that the Indiantraditionsare not monolithic and shouldnot be overgeneralized,one can claim that they commonly aspireto liberation(moksa/nirvana)from the suffering of the cycle of worldly existence (sazm-sara).64In spite of the fact that liberation in some contexts involveswhat mightbe characterizedas an impersonalgoal, one must neverthelessask: Does thatideal of liberation necessarilyresult in a devaluation of the world and anabsenceof the love that is a profoundlyChristianaffirmation?Beforejudgingthat aJain, Buddhist, or Hindu contemplativeis plunged into "the indetermi-nate abyssof the divinity,"which is a darkness n which the light of the Trinitynevershines, one must deeply consider:How is it that the Indian religioustra-ditions (arguably)have made the most extensiveand profoundcontributionstothe theory and practiceof ahimsa or nonviolence in the religious history ofhumankind?If these traditionsreally"[deny] that the things of this world canoffer tracesof the infinity of God"65 by whatevername) in this world in favorof dissolution into a sea of the Absolute, how have they become so sensitive tothe preciousnessof life? How is it that theJainstraditionallymaintain free hos-pitals that admit even homeless ailing animals?How is it that religious Bud-dhists vow not to take the life of anysentient being-ideally, not even that of amosquito or an ant? How is it that Hinduism produced a MahatmaGandhi,who gave his life to an experiment in nonviolence?Gandhi the Hindu discov-ered, too, that God is love:

I would saywith those who say 'God is Love,'God is Love.But deep downin me I used to saythat though God may be Love, God is Truthabove all.If it is possible for the human tongue to give the fullest description ofGod, I have come to the conclusion that God is Truth. Two yearsago Iwent a step furtherand said that Truth is God. You will see the fine dis-tinction between the two statements, "God is Truth" and "Truth s God."I came to that conclusion after a continuous and relentless search after



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VICTORIAURUBSHUROWtruth which began fifty yearsago. I then found that the nearestapproachto truth was through love. . . . For these and many other reasons,I havecome to the conclusion that the definition-Truth is God-gives me thegreatestsatisfaction. And when you want to find Truth as God, the onlyinevitablemeans is love, that is nonviolence, and since I believe that ulti-mately the means and ends are convertibleterms, I should not hesitate tosaythat God is Love.66In spite of aggravatingproblemsof religiouslanguage, might not Gandhi'sinversionof "God is Truth"to "Truth s God" be extended to the Biblicaldic-

tum "God is love" (1 John 4:8)? As a point of departurefor bringing Chris-tians and Buddhists nearer to interreligiousdiscovery might we not proposethat "Loveis God." If we can accept the fundamental premise that LOVE sfoundational, then a Buddhistmayalso haveaccess o God.

IV. CONCLUSIONThere is no doubt about it: importantdifferences,even blatantcontradictions,exist between Christianityand Buddhism. Often the discrepanciesstem notmerely from problems of religious language, but from deep structuralvaria-tions. In the contextof suchobstaclesto dialogueThomasMertonpointed out:

[T]heremust be scrupulousrespectfor important differences,and whereone no longer understands or agrees, this must be kept clear-withoutuselessdebate. There are differencesthat are not debatable, and it is a use-less, silly temptation to tryto arguethem out. Let them be left intact untila moment of greaterunderstanding.67Thus, without uselessdebate, vexing issues that emerge in a Buddhist readingof the VaticanLettermight be left intact until a moment of greaterunderstand-ing: Where in the Buddhist tradition might God be found? Where in theChristiantradition might nirvana be found? Does the light of a triune Godshine anywhereoutside of Christianity? s the wisdom of a Buddha availabletoa non-Buddhist?Muchinterreligiouswork is left to do, and courageouseffortsarecalled for.The VaticanLetter reflectsa courageouseffort, and one can feel optimistic incallingforfurtherVaticanconsiderationof the structureand dynamicsof medi-tation. Through such efforts Christiansand non-Christianscan benefit; andthose who take an interest in the interreligiouswork can benefit most fromtheir own and others' experience f they exerciserespectgrounded in the pro-found love of which they arecapable. One might considerhere the wordsof theIndianKingAsoka:

The faithsof others all deserveto be honoredfor one reasonor another.Byhonoring them, one exaltsone's own faith and at the same time performs

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BUDDHIST RESPONSEa serviceto the faith of others. By acting otherwise,one injuresone's ownfaith and also does disservice o that of others. For if a man extols his ownfaith and disparagesanother becauseof devotion to his own and becausehe wantsto glorifyit, he seriously njureshis own faith.Therefore concord alone is commendable, for through concord menmay learn and respect the conception of Dharma [religious teaching]acceptedby others.King Priyadarsi Asoka] desiresmen of all faiths to know each other'sdoctrinesand to acquiresound doctrines.68

These ancientwords of King Asokaencouragethe practiceof interreligiousdia-logue with an attitude of openness and intelligence. They also allow us toappreciatethe efforts of CardinalRatzinger:by advancing guidelines to pro-mote authentic Christiancontemplation, the VaticanLetter does a service toCatholicism.Further,by sanctioningdialogue with Buddhism and other East-ern traditions,the Letternot only contributesto greaterunderstanding amongpersonsof differentfaiths, but also to the enrichment of those faiths.

NOTES1. CardinalJoseph Ratzinger,prefectof the Vatican'sCongregationfor the Doctrineof the Faith, "Letter o the Bishopsof the CatholicChurchon SomeAspectsof ChristianMeditation."Hereafter, his document will be cited as "Letter."2. CatherineOdell, "Vatican'sMeditation Document DrawsSupport:The Church'sCautions about MeditationTechniquesDistorted by Media, Contemplatives Say,"OurSunday Visitor,1 April 1990, p. 4.3. David S. Toolan, "Drinking from EasternSources,"America, 3 February1990,p. 76.4. Ama Samy,"Maya ChristianPracticeZen or Yoga?"Inculturation(Spring 1990):

29.5. JamesRobertsonPrice, "VaticanConcernedabout EasternMeditation,"CommonBoundary,March/April1990, p. 10.6. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 16.7. John Wijngaards, "Learningfrom the East," The Tablet, 16 December 1989,p. 1461.8. Toolan, "Drinkingfrom EasternSources,"p. 76.9. Ibid., pp. 76-77.10. Price,"VaticanConcerned,"p. 11.11. Fr.PaulPhilibert, O.P., "An Open Letter o AmericanReligious ConcerningCar-dinal Ratzinger's nstructionon Aspectsof ChristianMeditation,"Bulletin of the NorthAmericanBoardforEast-WestDialogue, May1990, p. 7.12. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 12.13. Yse Masquelier,"Reponseau cardinalRatzinger,"Le Monde, 26 January1990,sec. "Religionsorientales."An example of overgeneralization not specificallycited byMasquelier) s the following: "[The reflections of some Easternand WesternChristianspiritual writers]while presenting points in common with Easternnon-Christianmeth-ods of meditation, avoid the exaggerationsand partialityof the latter .. ." (Ratzinger,Letter,par.26). Nowheredoes CardinalRatzingerexplainwhat might constitute "exag-geration"and "partiality."

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14. Fr.Bede Griffiths, O. Cam. O.S.B., "Monk'sResponseto Document of ChristianPrayerromthe CongregationDoctrineof Faith,"Bulletin of the NorthAmericanBoardforEast-WestDialogue, May1990, p. 11.15. Samy, "Maya Christian,"p. 31.16. Ibid.17. Ibid.18. Griffiths, "Monk'sResponse,"p. 11.19. Ibid.20. Wijngaards,"Learningrom the East,"p. 1462.21. Ratzinger,Letter,pars. 1 and 2.22. Thomas Merton, The AsianJournal of Thomas Merton(New York: New Direc-tions, 1975), p. 316.23. RaimundoPanikkar,TheIntrareligiousDialogue (New York:PaulistPress,1978),p. 10.24. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 15.25. This insight has been articulatedby Sam D. Gill in his Native AmericanReli-gions: An Introduction(Belmont, California:WadsworthPublishingCo., 1982).26. Suttanipata, cited by Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (New York:GrovePress,1974), p. 10.27. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 10.28. Ibid., par. 12.29. This is the only place in the body of the VaticanLetterthat an Asian, non-Chris-tian religion is mentioned by name. Aside from specific naming of Asian traditions nthe introductoryabstractand in an occasionalnote, the general terms "Eastern"and"non-Christian"are used. "Easternmethods" are defined in note 1 as "methods whichare inspired by Hinduism and Buddhism, such as Zen, transcendentalmeditation oryoga. Thus it indicates methodsof meditationof the non-ChristianFarEastwhichtodayare not infrequentlyadopted bysome Christiansalsoin theirmeditation."The note fur-ther states that the document is also intended to "serveas a referencepoint not just forthis problem but also, in a moregeneral way,for the differentforms of prayerpracticednowadays in ecclesial organizations, particularly in associations, movements andgroups."30. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 12, notes 14and 15.31. Ibid., note 14.32. Technical erms usedwith reference o Asiantopicsarerendered n Sanskritunlessotherwise ndicated.33. The supramundaneabsorptionsknown asdhyanaorjhana (Pali)transcend ormalexperience involving the five senses and are typically named as four. They appear inorder of increasingsubtlety to the meditatorwho abides successively n the realms ofinfinite space, infinite consciousness,nothingness, and neither-perception-nor-nonper-ception. Although these formless abodesare counted as the highest fruits of samathaorconcentrativemeditation, they do not result in liberation from the suffering of cyclicexistence.

34. Amadeo Sole-Leris,a contemporary nterpreterof traditionalTheravadamedita-tion, describes the samatha branchof bhdvand as "abstractivemeditation because itworksthroughthe progressivediscardingof sensoryand mental stimuli-[which is] verycomparable o the meditative techniquesused in other traditions."He defines samathaas follows:Samathameditation, or tranquillitymeditation, aims to achievestatesofconsciousnesscharacterizedby increasinglyhigher levels of mental tran-quillity and stillness. It comprises wo elements-the achievementof the

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highest possible degree of mental concentrationand, along with it, theprogressivecalming of all mental processes.This is achievedthrough anincreasinglyconcentrated ocusing of attention, in which the mind with-drawsmore and morefrom all physicalandmental stimuli.This is fromAmadeo Sole-Leris,Tranquillity nd Insight:An Introductionto the OldestFormof Buddhist Meditation(Boston:Shambhala,1986), pp. 22, 21.35. The lackof inherent existenceof the self (anatman), realizedthrough the vipa-syandbranchof bhavana,is not to be confused with a radically mpersonal ack of self. Itdoes not deny the conventionalexistence of person, but insistson the dependently aris-ing characterof the person in light of Buddha Sakyamuni'srealizationof the interde-pendence of all phenomena (pratityasamutpada). n MahayanaBuddhism the conceptof no self (anatman)is supplanted mainly by that of emptiness (sunyatd),which indi-cates the lack of inherent existence both of personsand phenomena. Sunyatd,like andt-man, bears ntimatelyon the realizationof dependent arising.36. TheEightfoldPath is typicallyoutlined in Pali, as follows:

(1) Right Understanding (samma ditthi). Understanding the Four Noble Truths:Truth of Suffering,Truth of the Causeof Suffering,Truth of the Cessationof Suffering,and Truthof the PathLeading o the Cessationof Suffering.(2) RightThought (sammasatkappa). Thinking thoughts of love and nonviolencetoall beings. Lackof selfishthoughtssuch asill-will, hatred, andjealousy.(3) Right Speech (samma vacd). Telling no lies, slander, gossip, using no abusivespeech.(4) Right Action (sammakammanta). Promoting honorable, peaceful conduct. Nodestructionof life. No dishonestdealings. No sexualmisconduct.(5) Right Livelihood(sammdajiva). Selling no weapons, poisons, etc. No work thatinvolveskilling. No cheating.(6) Right Effort (sammdvaydma).Preventingunwholesome mental states from aris-ing. Eliminatingunwholesome mental states that alreadyexist. Producingwholesomemental states.Developing existingwholesome mental states.(7) Right Mindfulness (sammasati). Being diligently aware/careful of: activities ofthe body,activitiesof the mind, sensationsorfeelings, ideas, thoughts, concepts.(8) Right Concentration(sammdsamddhi). Disciplining of the mind that leads toeight states of dhyana, hdna (the subtle formal and aformalabsorptionsdiscussedaboveculminatingin the state of neither-perception-nor-nonperception).This outline is derivedfromChapterV in WalpolaRahula, Whatthe Buddha Taught,pp. 45-50. The SixPerfectionsaretypicallyoutlined asfollows:(1) Giving (ddna). This has three aspects: giving of things (necessities)without hopeof return or reward;giving of protection, rescuing living beings from harm; givingDharma, teaching Dharmaaccording o the ability of the disciple, not looking for gainorrespect.(2) MoralPractice sila).Thishas three aspects:moralpracticeof vows;moralpracticeof gatheringvirtuousactions;and moralpracticeof workingfor the benefit of other liv-ing beings.(3) Patience(ksdnti).This has three aspects:patienceof not reactingnegativelywhenharmed;patience of purposely taking the miseryof otherson oneself; and the patienceof havingconfidencein the Dharma.(4) Effort(virya).This has three aspects:effort of workingwith pleasureand withoutregret n orderto achieve the qualitiesof the Buddha, and stayingin the worldaslong as



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necessary o help a single living being; effort of gatheringvirtue, accomplishingthe sixperfections,etc; and effort of working or the benefit of living beings.(5) Meditation(dhyana).This can be seen from threestandpoints:standpointof loca-tion, namely, meditation within or beyond samsara;standpoint of direction, namelyabiding tranquillity, ntense insight, and the unificationof these two; and standpointofactivity, namely meditation of happiness of mind and body, or creating the basis ofexcellence,and of working or the benefit of all living beings.(6) Wisdom (prajin). This has three aspects:wisdom that realizesthe ultimate truthof emptiness (paramarthasatya); isdom that realizes the relative truth (sarmvrtisatya);andwisdom that understandsperfectlythe wayto achievethe purposesof living beings.These definitions are reproducedalmost verbatimfrom the glossaryof Geshe Wan-gyal, trans., The Door of Liberation:EssentialTeachingsof the TibetanBuddhist Tradi-tion (New York:Lotsawa,1978), pp. 214, 218, 220, 210, 217-18, 228.37. Sole-Leris,Tranquillity ndInsight, p. 22. The presentdiscussionof insightmed-itation is based on the classicalTheravadanterpretationof Buddha Sakyamuni's each-ing of the four foundations of mindfulness (contained in the SatipatthanaSutra): (a)observationof body activities,such as breathingand postures;(b) observationof pleas-ant, unpleasant,or neutralsensationsarisingwithin the body; (c) observationof the var-ious states of mind that arise and dissolve; and (d) observation of particularmentalobjects,such as the FourNoble Truths,and other Buddhistteachings.The Sanskrit ermvipasyana s renderedhere in its Pali form, vipassana,as this latter termhas gained par-ticular status in both classicalTheravada and contemporarydiscussionsof Buddhistmeditation. Although MahayanaBuddhism generally preserves he crucial distinctionbetweenconcentrationandinsight, its methodsof applyingthe foundationsof mindful-ness vary,and often are not identified specificallyin terms of vipasyand.Due to thediversityof meditativepractices hat evolvedin MahayanaBuddhismin concertwith itsculturaldiversity, he presentdiscussion s basedon a conservative Theravada)nterpre-tation of foundationalteachings,for the sake of clarity.38. Ibid., p. 24.39. Ibid., p. 23.40. Ibid., p. 25.41. Ibid., p. 26.42. The complexnatureandhistoryof the term nirvanabecameevident to ThomasP.Kasulis, who, in his surveyof majorBuddhist schools, was impelled to explain why, inmanycases,the term even ceasedto be relevant.

Of course,Buddhismcomprehendsa diverseset of religious phenomena,a traditionwith sacredtexts in four principalcanonicallanguages (Pali,Sanskrit,Tibetan, and Chinese), and a spiritual ollowingthroughouttheworld. Not surprisingly, hen, when referringto the ultimate spiritualideal many Buddhist groups prefer to emphasize their own distinctiveterms nsteadof nirvazna.This is from Thomas P. Kasulis, "Nirvana," n Buddhism andAsian History:Religion,History,and Culture:SelectionsfromTheEncyclopediaofReligion, ed.Joseph M. Kita-gawaand MarkD. Cummings(New York:MacmillanPublishingCo., 1989), p. 395.43. Ratzinger,Letter,note 14.44. Guy RichardWelbon, The Buddhist Nirvanaand Its Western nterpreters Chi-cago: Universityof ChicagoPress,1968), p. viii.45. Ibid., p. 299, 304.46. Ibid., p. 298.

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47. Ibid., pp. x, 299.48. The division of Buddhism into two major branches was based on a schismbetween the Sthavirasand Mahasanghikas precurserso the Theravadaand Mahayana,respectively) hat dates from what is traditionallyknown as the SecondBuddhist Coun-cil, held at Vai'ali, about 383 B.C.E.Indian MahayanaBuddhists minimized the opposition between nirva.naand samsdra,renouncingthe suggestionthat nirvanawas an escapefromthe world of suffering[samsdra]. nstead, they thought of enlightenmentas a wise and compassionateway of living in that world. (Kasulis, "Nir-vana," p. 397)

49. MahatheraNarada, The Buddha and His Teachings,2d ed. (SriLanka:BuddhistPublicationSociety, 1974), p. 291.50. Milindapanha,cited by Narada, The Buddha and His Teachings,pp. 297. TheMilindapanhais an authoritative,but non-canonical, Pali workprobably dating fromthe beginning of the common era.51. Narada, TheBuddhaandHis Teachings,p. 288.52. Ibid., p. 290.53. Ibid., p. 291.54. Kasulis, "Nirvana,"p. 399.55. Ibid.56. EdwardConze, Buddhist Thoughtin India: ThreePhasesof BuddhistPhilosophy(George Allen & Unwin, 1962; reprint, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,1973), pp. 217-218.57. Shantideva,A Guide to the Bodhisattva'sWay of Life, trans. and ed. StephenBatchelor Dharamsala:Library f Tibetan Worksand Archives,1979), pp. 30-31.58. Recall that Guy Richard.Welbonoffers no apodicticallycertaindefinition of nir-vana, and MahatheraNarada leaves its precisedefinition for self-realization. Thomas P.Kasulis, in an effort to summarize Buddhistconceptionsof nirvana,lists and explainsaset of six sharedqualities;and EdwardConze strives or precisionby integratingnumer-ous epithets from Buddhist scripture nto his explanationof the term. Conze contrastsnirvana with the three marks of all conditioned things, calling it deathless, peaceful,and secure. With respectto these qualities he lists over thirty epithets from Buddhistscriptures hat express he sameideas, and classifies he remainingattributesor names ofnirvanaunder three other headings that include overfortymore epithets. Furthermore,Conze opens a whole new explanationof nirvanawith his discussion of doctrinescom-mon to the Mahayana.Cf. Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvana, pp. x, 299; Narada, TheBuddha and His Teachings, p. 291; Kasulis, "Nirvana," p. 404; Conze, BuddhistThoughtin India, pp. 69-79, 226-230.59. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 12.60. Ibid.61. MeisterEckhart,Sermo "AveGratiaPlena," cited by Ratzinger,Letter,note 15.62. Ratzinger,Letter,par. 13.63. Ibid., par. 15.64. The VaticanLetternevermentionsJainism;but it must be counted as a significantmemberof the Indianfamily along with Hinduism and Buddhism. One can generalizeabout these three Indian traditionsonly provisionally, n the awareness hat the tech-niques of liberation, the concept of the structureof the world, and so on vary(some-times considerably)within and among them. Although Buddhism is the one traditiondirectly charged with fostering a "negative theology," the Letter suggests a broadercharge against Easternreligions in general, because they aspireto liberation from the



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worldof cyclic xistence.Thepointhere s thatmoksaorliberation oesnotnecessarilyimplydevaluationf theworldn theradicalense uggestedntheVatican etter.65. Ratzinger, etter, ar.16.66. MahatmaGandhi,All Men are Brothers:AutobiographicaleflectionsNewYork:Continuum, 980),p. 64.67. Merton,Asian ournal, . 316.68. Asoka,TheEdictsof Asoka,ed. and trans.N. A. NikamandRichardMcKeon(Chicago:Universityf ChicagoPress,1959;PhoenixBooks,1966), pp. 51-52. (Thequotations fromRockEdictXII.)

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