LOTC Spring 2014 (1)

Features New Frontiers in Psychology

Letter from the Editor …….page 2 Magazine Credits…………. page 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SPRING 2014 VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2

LYING ON THE COUCH BROOKLYN COLLEGE PSYCHOLOGY MAGAZINE

The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical Preference By: Brian Ghezelaiagh ……..page 4

U.S. Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities By: George Abadeer ……….page 8

Introducing the New Statistics By: Deborah Borlam ……....page 10

A Review of the Human Conectome Pro-ject: Is Mapping the Human Brain Feasible? By: Batya Weinstein ………. page 12

The New Trend of Mental Health Counsel-ing – E-Therapy: Is Skyping your Therapist a Good Thing? By: Irena Pergjika ………....page 16 DSM V: Controversy? By: Sara Babad …………….page 18

Psychological Differences between the Mind/Politics of JFK and LBJ By: Rodshel Ustayev …….page 29 A Parent’s Perspective: My Autistic Son An Interview by: Ariella Nagel…page 31 Generalization and Cultural Bias: An Opinion Piece By: Angela Rodriguez-Heller…page 33 Ahead of the Curve: An Analysis of Bat-man’s Greatest Nemesis, the Joker By: Hind El Guizouli ……page 35

Unexpected Findings

Healthy Living

Adolescent Depression: Causes and Ef-fects By: Amanda Lanter …....page 20 Depression: Nutritional Underpinnings By: Tiffany Collings and Hadasa Levilev ……..page 24 Stress and How to Cope By: Irena Pergjika ….….page 26

LETTER FROM EDITOR

PAGE 2 LYING ON THE COUCH

Dear Reader, In classes such as statistics and experimental research we are taught the rules of the re-search game. We memorize equations in order to analyze data in the former; and we learn the sci-entific method with regards to setting up experimental designs in the latter. We admire the preci-sion, the exactness, the logic-and we rest safely in the knowledge that there is some law and order in the scientific endeavor. But on closer examination of research articles or psychology lectures that are taught to us, we realize that things are not so simple—and that there are countless variables, perspectives, and lenses through which we can look at the data. We realize that often the truth does not stand after the equal sign in the statistical equation. In this semester’s magazine, we explore issues that the research process might face. From an article that reevaluates our current statistical methods to a critical examination of widely ac-cepted research on the Mozart Effect to an article that covers the biases that might be involved in generalizing our research results—we step back, reappraise, and critically examine what we are taught. We realize that the research process or science is not as clear cut as we previously thought. An article examining the debate surrounding the Human Connectome Project and an article covering the recent controversy regarding the new DSM further emphasizes that science is often open to interpretation As we take more advanced psychology classes we encounter what scientists have been doing for centuries. Disproving, debunking, and discarding previous research while creating more elabo-rate experimental designs to account for the previous holes. The scientific method, we learn, isn't just a series of steps to be checked off so we can prepare for publication. The pro-cess is not linear, it’s cyclical; it’s not wholly logical, it’s partly creative--where intuition mixes with ingenuity and persistence on our path to discovering the truth. By being critical of research papers, curious, and open to thinking in different ways we come closer to understanding the many fascinating psychological and neurological phenomena that lurk all around us.. May we come up with publications on cures that reach a perfect statistical significance of p=.000... (With CI's and Effect sizes to boot ;-)).

Happy Reading,

Batya Weinstein

MAGAZINE CREDITS

PAGE 3 VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2

Editorial Board: Editor in Chief: Batya Weinstein

Managing Editor: Sara Babad

Assistant Editors: Deborah Borlam, Ronit Deutsch, Joey Bukai

Layout and Design: Sarah Babad, Ariella Nagel, Lauren Fink, Geena Bell

Marketing: Albert Abraham Mitta

Contributing Writers:

Brian Ghezelaiagh, Deborah Borlam, Amanda Lanter. Tiffany Collings. Hadasa Levilev, Irena Pergjika, Rodshel Ustayev, Sara Babad, Ariella Nagel, Angela Rodriguez-Heller, Hind El Guizou-

li, Batya Weinstein

Cover: Rivkah Rosenberger

Faculty Advisor: Aaron Kozbelt

Club Liaison: Michelle Vargas

Executive Board: President: Batya Weinstein

Vice President: Sarah Babad

Secretary: Deborah Borlam

Treasurer: Yaacov Y Weinstein

Contact us: [email protected]

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By: Brian Ghezelaiagh

Abstract

The Mozart Effect is the cognitive improvement in special temporal reasoning that is observed after one has listened to the music of the prolific Austrian classical composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In this factorial 2x2 experiment, we tested the effects of the auditory stimuli of an excerpt of Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 12 in A Major and white noise, and the musical preference of our sixty participants on their non-verbal, spatial tem-poral reasoning abilities, as measured by the nonverbal reasoning test developed by Kent University. The partic-ipants’ particular auditory stimulus was shown to have a statistically significant main effect on nonverbal perfor-mance. There was also a statistically significant interac-tion between stimulus group and musical preference.

The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical Preference

The Mozart Effect is a cognitive phenomenon first introduced to the literature as partial evidence of a structural neuronal model of the cortex that is affected by auditory stimuli (Rauscher et al., 1995). It was shown in an experimental design utilizing undergradu-ate psychology students that there is an effect of certain auditory stimuli on cognitive processes. Specifically, it was shown that “repetitive” music has no effect on spa-tial-temporal reasoning, a taped short story does not enhance spatial-temporal reasoning, and short-term memory is not enhanced by auditory stimuli (Rauscher et al., 1995). It was shown, however, that listening to

ten minutes of Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pi-anos in D Major prior to testing, participants performed an average of 9 points higher on the spatial IQ subtest of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Researchers in this study proposed various mechanisms which might explain this enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning ability as a result of Mozart’s mu-sic. First, it was suggested that listening to music facilitates the organization of neuronal firing patterns in the cortex, thereby pre-venting useful neuronal activity from “washing out.” This is especially true for the right hemisphere spatial-temporal processing faculties. In addition, specific types of music are thought to “exercise” the processes of neural excitation as well as the priming the natural cortical firing patterns that comprise higher brain functions. Finally, cortical sym-metry operations are enhanced by music (Rauscher et al., 1995). This study aimed to set a framework for future study of the ef-fects of auditory stimuli on higher mental processes, and suggested further examina-tion of the neurophysiological basis of spatial-temporal enhancement through the use of electroencephalography (EEG).

The Mozart Effect: Dependency on Musical Preference


A question that comes to mind when consider-ing the validity of the Mozart Effect is universality; spe-cifically, does Mozart’s music have the same effect on spatial-temporal reasoning notwithstanding internal factors such as musical preference? A follow-up study to the original Mozart Effect paper examined the possi-bility of the effect being an artifact of – or contingent on - musical preference (Nantais, 1999). Her experi-ment consisted of two parts. In the first stage, participants lis-tened to ten minutes of either Mozart or Schubert before per-forming the spatial IQ subtest of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, as in the original experi-ment (Rauscher et al., 1995). In the second phase, half of the par-ticipants listened to a short story in lieu of silence. Interestingly, an interaction between group and musical preference emerged in the second phase of the experi-ment, wherein participants’ per-formance on the spatial-temporal reasoning test was contingent on their preference of either classical music or short story (Nantais, 1999). This finding both confirms the main effect of Mozart’s music as a temporary spatial-temporal enhancer, and also suggests that the effect is very much dependent on preference. It also calls into question the assertion in the original ex-periment that a taped short story had no effect on spa-tial-temporal reasoning.

The purpose of out experiment was to per-form a study analogous to that of Nantais et al., with the goal of testing the reliability of the Mozart Effect, as well as whether or not it is contingent on prefer-ence. In order to do this, we conducted a 2x2 factorial design with the auditory stimuli as the first independ-ent variable and classical musical preference as the sub-ject variable. Participants were seated at a computer and filled out a demographics questionnaire including musical preference assays. They then listened to either

an excerpt of Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 12 in A Major or an excerpt of a white noise track, and then completed a 20 question online non-verbal reasoning test developed by Kent University to test spatial-temporal reasoning ability. There was a significant main effect of auditory stimulus group, as well as an interaction between auditory stimulus group and mu-sical preference.

Methods

We conducted the experiment with a partici-pant population of 60 individuals spanning the ages of 11 to 68. Participants included undergraduate stu-dents at Brooklyn College as well as relatives of the experimenters, many of whom participated during Thanksgiving family gatherings. The computer used to administer the 20 question nonverbal test varied from participant to participant but, in all cases, head-phones were used to play the auditory stimuli, and a quiet ambient environment was generally provided for. Participants were seated at the computer and asked to first fill out a 13 question demographics questionnaire, which asked about age, ethnicity, gen-der, education, sexual orientation, immigrant status


if applicable, marital status, perceived artistic ability, and details about participants’ experience with classical music. Specifically, participants were asked if they listen to classical music. If they answered yes, they are asked to about the frequency, with answer choices of “rarely” or “often.” They were then given the prompt, “I enjoy classical music,” to which they had to respond on a scale from strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree, which was coded as 1,2,3, and 4, respectively.

At this point, thirty individuals – half of the participant pool – were given headphones and listened to an excerpt of Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 12 in A Major performed by Vladimir Ashkenazy and the Arme-nian National Philharmonic. The other thirty individuals listened to continuous white noise for the same duration of time as the Mozart excerpt. At this point, all partici-pants completed the online non-verbal reasoning test developed by Kent University to measure spatial-temporal reasoning ability. The exam has a time limit of 12 minutes, which is automatically tracked.

The experiment was a factorial 2x2, between-subjects design, with half of the participants exposed to the first level of the independent variable – the Mozart stimulus, and the other half exposed to the second level of the independent variable – the white noise stimulus. The dependent variable was spatial-temporal ability as measured via the online non-verbal reasoning test de-veloped by Kent University.

Results

The data, including the scores of all partici-pants on the non-verbal reasoning test as well as classi-cal music preference, which was simplified to a yes or no answer, was analyzed via SPSS in a two-way ANO-VA in order to assess the effect of Mozart’s music and preference for classical music in general on spatial rea-soning. There was a statistically significant main effect of group F(1,61) = 5.231, p<.05, as well as a main effect for classical music preference, which was not statistically significant, F(2,61) = 0.448, p>.05. In

Fig. 1: Interaction between auditory stimulus group and musical preference


addition, there was a statistically significant interaction between group and classical music preference, F(1,61) = 7.644, p<.05 as shown in Figure 1.

Discussion

We hypothesized that there would be an ob-servable enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning following exposure to Mozart’s music. It was also hy-pothesized, as per the study done by Nantasi et al., that there would be an interaction between the type of audi-tory stimulus to which participants were exposed and their musical preference. The expected outcome was that participants who reported liking classical music would benefit more from listening to Mozart prior to completing the nonverbal reasoning test than if they had listened to white noise. The statistically significant in-teraction between group and musical preference con-firms this hypothesis. As can be seen in Figure 1, partici-pants who reported listening to classical music scored significantly better after listening to Mozart than after listening to white noise. Participants who reported not listening to classical music showed a very small differ-ence in performance between the Mozart and white noise groups, with participants who listened to Mozart doing slightly worse than those who listened to white noise.

These findings are not terribly surprising be-cause they suggest the expected: that those who like classical music enjoy a positive psychological enhance-ment from listening to it, while those who either dislike it or are apathetic and do not listen to it do not. With respect to possible mechanisms, it was suggested by Jones et al, (2006) that arousal may also play a role in the spatial-reasoning enhancements exhibited by those who enjoy classical music. By virtue of its playful, trans-parent, and childlike nature, Mozart’s music quite pos-sibly elicits arousal and positive mood trajectory for those who listen to it, especially if the person is fond of classical music. This is one possible explanation for our results. Jones et al. also noted that musical preference had no main effect, which corroborates our finding. Another suggested mechanism, and one that is echoed in Rauscher et al. (1995), is that Mozart’s music primes the cortical association tracts responsible for spatial-temporal reasoning, most likely because of its anticipa-tory nature, thus improving performance in the particu-lar region of interest. This experiment is a case in which the interaction between auditory stimulus group and musical preference was more interesting than the main effect of group. Though a Mozart lover would not hesi-tate to jump to the conclusion that Mozart’s music has some mystical properties that universally enhance the spatial-temporal reasoning of all those fortunate enough to listen, a more rational theory is that the effects of the music is very much contingent on preference.

Work Cited

Jones, M. H., West, S. D., & Estell, D. B. (2006). The Mo-zart effect: Arousal, preference, and spatial perfor-mance. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, (1), 26.

Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1995). Listening to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: towards a neurophysiological basis. Neuroscience letters, 185(1), 44-47.

Nantais, K. M., & Schellenberg, E. G. (1999). The Mozart effect: An artifact of preference. Psychological Science, 10(4), 370-373.

"Retrato póstumo." Mythic World Tours. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Apr. 2014. <http://mythicworldtours.com/mozart-week/>.


U.S. Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities By: George Abadeer

According to the article on the APA website, U.S. Regions Exhibit Distinct Personalities, research reveals that Americans choose to live in a specific state based on their temperaments. In other words, people like to be with others around them who share the same personality traits. The author, Peter J. Rentfrow, PhD, of the Uni-versity of Cambridge, writes “This analysis chal-lenges the s t a n d a r d methods of dividing up the country on the basis of economic factors, vot-ing patterns, cultural ste-reotypes or g e o g r a p h y that appear to have be-come in-grained in the way peo-ple think about the United States." By considering 'personality traits' as one of the criterion in dividing up the country reveals its importance. As people with similar ideas, traits and personalities may have a huge impact on the voting processes and their outcome. This is because people usual-ly tend to aggregate and live with others whom they share the same personality traits with. This, according to the article, has a huge effect on the voting process. The author writes that some regions may just vote for one party over another because people tend to like those who share the same traits with them. The author continues by saying that people vote for one party based on whether or not its members exhibit the same personality traits.

To conduct such a research, researches relied mainly on the big five personality traits: openness, con-scientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroti-cism and analyzed the traits of more than 1.5 million people through answering questions about their psycho-logical traits and demographics, including their state of

residence. These ques-t ionnai re s were ad-ministered via various online fo-r u m s /media like F a c e b o o k and survey panels. The results were fascinating in that they found that there are three main n a t i o n a l personality clusters in the US. The

findings were as follows: According to the Journal of Per-sonality and Social Psychology, people in the north-central Great Plains and the South tend to be conventional and friendly and those in the Western and Eastern seaboards lean toward being mostly relaxed and creative. In con-trast, New Englanders and Mid-Atlantic residents are prone to being more temperamental and uninhibited.

Researchers think that migration plays an im-portant role in this large and diverse group of personality traits. People who move from one state to another or come from a different country like to live with others who are like them and who have the same views. In addi-tion, according to the article, the research shows that

Photo Credits; Google Images


http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp/index.aspx

http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp/index.aspx

VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2

agreeableness is a trait often found in people who stay in their hometowns, and the analysis indicated that a large proportion of residents in the friendly and conventional region lived in the same state the year before. The relaxed and creative region may have been influenced by a frontier mentality that endures with lots of young people, profes-sionals, and immigrants moving to the region for educa-tional and employment opportunities. In the tempera-mental and uninhibited region, a significant number of people have moved away. Research has shown that people who move to another part of the country are typically high in openness and conscientiousness, and low in neu-roticism.

This research study raises a paradox. Most people think that the voting processes are influenced by the way each party represents its members. Indeed, people are greatly influenced by the external characteristics, facial

expressions and also the self-portrayal of those whom they will elect. Nevertheless, they also look for leaders whom they feel that they are closely related and at-tached to. It is very hard to tell whether or not one strategy outweighs the effects of the other and contrib-utes mostly to the voting processes. Personally, I think that they both contribute to the final decision that com-mon people take before voting. However, there might

be some variations in the magnitude of reliance on either one of those two strategies, but the end result will al-ways be the same.

Work Cited:

(2013) Peter, Rentfrow J. U.S. Re-gions Exhibit Distinct Personalities, Research Reveals. APA

Researchers think that mi-gration plays an important

role in this large and diverse group of personality traits.

PAGE 9

By: Deborah Borlam

Imagine hearing the following statement while watching your local news channel: “The new bill was approved by a 74% majority, with an error margin of 2%.” Now imagine if, instead, the reporter announced, “Approval for the new bill was over 70% and statistically significant, p<.01.” Which of these is more readily un-derstood?

This question is of particular interest to re-searchers of statistical cognition, the study of how people understand (or sometimes misunderstand) statistical con-cepts and presentations of data. What is the difference between the two statements above? The first conveys that support for the bill was 74±2%, or ranging between 72-76%. The 2% represents the largest possible error in measurement. This is the same as reporting a 74% ma-jority with a 95% confidence interval of [72, 76]. A confi-dence interval is a range of plausible values for a given statistic and the probability that the true value falls with-in that range. For the example above, there is a 95% probability that support for the bill ranged between 72-76%. Confidence intervals indicate the precision of measurement; the shorter the confidence interval, and the smaller the range of plausible values, and the more precise the estimate. The range of values is an interval estimate, while a point estimate is a specific value; in our example, 74%.

Common practice in psychology research is to employ null hypothesis testing in designing studies, and to report findings with associated p values that indicate whether or not results are "statistically significant." The p values mark the borders of the "rejection region" on the normal curve, such that a resulting p value below the pre-determined value of alpha (conventionally 0.01 or 0.05) allows rejection of the null hypothesis, and a p val-ue higher than alpha fails to reject the null hypothesis. Cumming (2014, p. 7)) expresses several criticisms of

what he terms "null hypothesis significance testing (NHST)" and advocates replacing NHST with estimation techniques that utilize confidence intervals, effect sizes, and replication. Cumming argues, firstly, that NHST en-courages black-and-white thinking, where obtained results are either statistically "significant" or not, with no room for further interpretation. Confidence intervals, by con-trast, allows us to see the shades of gray, as they are inter-val estimates, and are also more useful in that they convey the precision of measurement and how confident we can be that our obtained CI includes the true value of the sta-tistic. Another problem with reliance on p values is that the p value of a given experiment varies greatly with repli-

cation, as can be seen in Figure 1. Cumming (2014) refers to this as the "dance of the p values (p. 13)." Obtaining a p value from an experiment is of little use, because it is one value from an infinite se-quence. In NHST, a repli-cation of a study is consid-

ered successful if the resulting decision-to reject or not to reject the null hypothesis-matches that of the original. In other words, we are again relying on p values- either both p's <.05 or >.05. According to Figure 1, however, this is a poor standard of measurement, as only 9 of the 24 repli-cations (38%) match the replication below in significance status. Confidence intervals, on the other hand, are in-formative for replication in that the length of the CI indi-cates extent of variability across multiple replications, or the precision of measurement.

To test his theories on estimation and NHST, Cumming, along with Coulson, Haley, and Fidler (2010, as cited in Cumming, 2012, pp. 13-14) investigated the effect of presentation of results on how researchers inter-pret findings. They presented leading researchers in psy-chology, behavioral neuroscience, and medicine with a description of two studies, half in NHST format with p values, and half in estimation terms with confidence inter-

A confidence interval is a range of plausible values for a given statistic

and the probability that the true value falls within that range.


BROOKLYN COLLEGE PSYCHOLOGY MAGAZINE INTRODUCING THE NEW STATISTICS


vals. Findings of both studies were similar, though not identical. The researchers were asked to state the main conclusion of the studies and to rate the ‘similarity’ be-tween the two studies on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Findings re-vealed that, while most of those who used NHST incor-rectly judged the results to be “different,” most of those who did not use NHST correctly determined the results to be similar.

If NHST is ineffective, one may ask, why is it so prevalent? Cumming attributes our attachment to NHST to humans’ gravitation towards clear-cut, unambiguous answers. However, Cumming cautions, ambiguity is necessary to ensure accuracy, as a CI of plausible values is more accurate than an either-or decision to reject or retain the null hypothesis.

Accuracy of estimation improves with replica-tion, according to Cumming (2014, p. 10), and for this reason, all studies should be published in a way that they can be incorporated into meta-analyses. A meta-analysis is a statistical technique for combining results from two or more studies while taking into account the standard deviation, sample size, and effect size of each in order to generate a weighted estimate. Meta-analyses can be used to assess a “net effect” of a given treatment when findings across studies are divergent. Instead of viewing a given study as its own entity, Cumming advocates viewing it as a part of a larger meta-analysis, because no generaliza-tions should be made solely from one individual study.

Another issue Cumming addresses is that of re-search integrity, or the ethical practice of researchers in reporting findings. Cumming argues that, because ob-

taining statistically “significant” results is key to publica-tion and research funding, the analysis and reporting of data is biased, and research that is published is a biased selection that is not representative of all research. To en-sure research integrity, Cumming suggests that research studies, including procedures and statistical techniques used to analyze data, should be planned out completely in advance, similar to the way the level of alpha is set before running an experiment. Cumming further maintains that the procedures and results of all studies should be record-ed, using online repositories or the like as needed to pre-serve space in journals, regardless of whether or not the results were desirable. This way, all studies can be in-cluded in future meta-analyses, as a meta-analysis missing select studies is biased.

Will Cumming’s theories shape the new frontier

of statistical analysis in psychology research? While that is difficult to predict, there are fields, including medicine, that regularly report CIs when publishing findings, even if they do not interpret them (Cumming, 2014, p. 26). In my opinion, this is a step in the right direction for im-proved accuracy in research findings.

Work Cited

Cumming, G. (2014). The New Statistics: Why and How. Psychological Science (Sage Publications Inc.), 25(1), 7-29. doi:10.1177/0956797613504966

Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the New Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analyses. New York, NY: Routledge

Cumming argues that, because obtaining statistically “significant” re-sults is the key to publication and research funding, the analysis and reporting of data is biased, and research that is published is a biased

selection that is not representative of all research.

In August of 2010, Sebastian Seung (Computational Neuroscientist at MIT) and Tony Movshon (Professor of Neuroscience and Physiology at NYU) clashed at Columbia University to discuss the Human Connectome Project (HCP). HCP is dedicated to mapping the wiring of the human brain, as Francis Crick and James Watson have done for DNA, and is consid-ered by many to be the next step in broadening our un-derstanding of human behavior. Throughout the debate, Sebastian Seung, a longtime advocate for the HCP, defended the projects worth and potential as Tony Movshon, slightly more skeptical than Seung, sought to por-tray the many chal-lenges it faces.

The debate,

entertaining and thought provoking as it was, raised many questions regarding the feasibility of HCP. How will HCP account for the countless nuances inherent in the brain, from the micro to macro level? Will HCP have the necessary technology to analyze and combine these properties? Finally, will the huge budget and lengthy time-lapse necessary to complete the project be justified by its end? These, and other questions, must be answered before such a project is launched.

Back in February of 2010, when the New York

Times announced the unveiling of HCP, the project seemed exciting and full of science-fiction-like over-tones, demonstrating a clear disconnect between what is reported by the media and what is taking place in the

By: Batya Weinstein

A REVIEW OF THE HUMAN CONNECTOME PROJECT : IS MAPPING THE

HUMAN BRAIN FEASIBLE?

labs. This idea, exciting as it may be, is by no means clear-cut. As evidenced by the Seung/Movshon debate, there is a large discourse and discord in the scientific community as to whether HCP is feasible or even neces-sary. Are we required to map the human brain in order to further our understanding of the neural correlates of

memory, cognition, con-sciousness, neurological and psychiatric disor-ders? In order to map the human brain one must first understand the various levels it contains. There is the macro-level that describes the brains larger systems, and a mi-cro-level which refers to the brain at its neuronal level. One axiom that the connectome follows when mapping the macro-level is known as func-tional specialization (Sporns, 2012). That is, the specific construction

of a brain region tells us about what that brain region does. The 2nd axiom of macro-connectomics is function-al integration which posits that various brain regions communicate with each other to produce a full picture of experience and behavior (Sporns, 2012). When talk-ing about microconnectomics, we are talking about tracking the connections at the synaptic level and deci-phering the many pathways by which the neurons pro-ject throughout the entire brain (Sporns, 2012).

The technology that the researchers use in the

project is called diffusion tractography, which is a tool to measure anatomical connections and pathways in the brain. Researchers also use the fMRI, which tracks oxy-genation levels that correspond with individual brain


Photo Credits: Google Images

region involved in specific tasks. These two levels of the brain—the macro and the micro— work in harmo-ny; in order to understand the full spectrum of human behavior we must analyze them in concert with each other (Sporns, 2012).

A blatant challenge HCP faces, is that the brain

varies tremendously between one individual and anoth-er (DeFelope, 2010). Additionally, the neural connec-tions made as a child are wired differently as an adult due to learning and/or natural degeneration (Sporns, 2013). Therefore, when mapping the human brain, we must consider the malleable functions and develop a system that can encompass vast changes over time.

Opponents argue that the wiring of the brain at

the neuronal level is not predictive of behavior or dis-

ease. Noam Chomsky, renowned linguist at MIT, cites the C. Elegans as a perfect example of why HCP’s goals will prove futile. The C. Elegans is a small worm that has 302 neurons compared to other animals (J.G. White, 1986). Despite being fully mapped we still

can’t predict its behavior. In answering the question as to whether we

have the technology capable of analyzing the different levels of the brain, Stephen Volz, doctoral candidate at Brooklyn College referenced a satirical fMRI study that aimed to prove the unpredictability of fMRI statistical analysis. The fMRI study in question was performed on dead salmon fish that were shown pictures of humans. The fish were tasked with reading the emotion of the human in the picture that they were presented. The fMRI statistical analysis revealed activation. The fMRI was a false positive. Stephen Volz then asks—“Despite the many challenges a project of this scope faces, how can we attempt to map the human brain when our tech-nology and methodology is still very much in its infan-cy?”

Richard Passingham, experimental psychologist at the University of Oxford opines that the wiring of the brain might not be predictive of disease and points to neuronal computations as playing a role. He writes, “There is…no guarantee that Schizophrenia or Autism will turn out to be caused by disordered wiring... There is a possibility that the wiring is normal but the receptors are not”. Yet, he cites the benefit of the con-nectome study (as is the benefit in all testable theories). He writes, “…it is clearly worth examining the gross wiring in patients with neurological or psychiatric dis-ease, if only to rule out explanations in terms of wir-ing”.

A 2010 editorial in nature neuroscience echoes

the many limitations of the HCP and warns against mis-representing the science of connectomics to the public. They write, “Such grand claims are dangerous because, although a better understanding of brain connectivity is a vital tool for understanding brain function, the imme-diate gains for therapy from such projects are far from clear. To avoid misrepresentation of connectomics and a potential backlash against the field, it is critical for neuroscientists describing their work as connectomics, their institutions and funding agencies to accurately


A blatant challenge HCP faces is that the brain varies tremendously be-tween one individual and another.


communicate the scale and scope of their work.” As evidenced by the Seung vs Movshon de-

bate, there is much discussion regarding the connecto-me in the scientific community. On the one hand, you have proponents that argue that the brain should be studied in terms of its connection—it is the complex neuronal wiring throughout the brain that will give us

insight; yet, we have opponents to that idea who in-stead argue that mapping the wiring of the brain is

costly and not wholly relevant in terms of understanding what exactly is going on in the brain.

By being able to locate and pinpoint the trajectory

of various neurological disorders we would finally be able to find cures for the devastating but fascinating neurologi-cal and psychological disorders. Perhaps, in the distant fu-ture, we will have a neural code, a blueprint of the brain

that maps every neuron, circuit, and system. Yet, to obtain this kind of knowledge, there must be an intellectually

By being able to locate and pinpoint the trajectory of various neurological disorders we would finally be able to find cures for

the devastating but fascinating neurological and psychological dis-orders.



honest discussion between the scientific community and the NIH with regard to putting funding towards projects that are feasible that comprehensively address the multi-plicity of the human brain.

Work Cited

"A Critical Look at Connectomics." Editorial. n.d.: n. pag. Print.

Defelipe, J. (2010)"From the Connectome to the Synaptome: An

Epic Love Story." Science 330.6008 1198-201. Print.

Katz, Yarden (2012, Nov) Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial

Intelligence Went Wrong. The Atlantic

Madrigel, Alexis. “Scanning Dead Salmon in fMRI Machine High-

lights Risks of Red Herrings, WIRED

Markoff, John. "Obama Seeking to Boost Study of Human Brain."

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New technologies are introduced eve-ry day which transforms many aspects of our lives with healthcare being no exception. Telepsychiatry (which is psychotherapy over the phone), introduced decades ago, has been an increasingly accepted method to reach cli-ents in hospitals, prisons and other healthcare facilities where patients are unable to meet with their therapist in person. However, it does not stop there. Clients, who happen to be out of town or in a need of an emergency session, are able to use this method to connect with their therapist anywhere, anytime, at any place. That being said, it should come as no surprise why many are switching from the old- fashioned therapy sessions, where one has to worry about running late, finding parking or missing an appointment because of a blizzard, to the latest method of online communication: Skype— where one can sit in the comfort of their own home, in PJ’s, sipping tea. Who wouldn’t want that? Nevertheless, as intriguing as this might sound, it is important for clients to weigh the pros and the cons of e-therapy, and ultimately decide if this is something benefi-cial for them.

The advantages of online therapy are numerous, with the most obvious being the convenience and remote access offered to clients. Unfortunately, some clients have limited mobility and are unable to travel or even leave their homes. Others have very demanding schedules and still others are simply hesitant or uncomfortable seek-ing help in person due to the initial “shame” or the stigma

attached to visiting “a shrink.” By eliminating the need for the client to attend a specific location between a 9am – 5pm workday, e-therapy makes it possible for those in need of therapy to actually receive it.

Just recently, the Z-100 Elvis Duran Morning Show raised the topic of e-therapy and asked their lis-teners to share their experiences on the topic. Before the listeners called in, their very own co-host Bethany Watson briefly shared her experience with e-therapy, relating, “I really needed to speak to my therapist one of the days she was out of town on a business trip. I called

...an important issue to keep in mind is that therapy is not only about what is said, but also subconscious cues such as tone of voice, body language, and facial expression.


BROOKLYN COLLEGE PSYCHOLOGY MAGAZINE THE NEW TREND OF MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELING – E-

THERAPY : IS SKYPING YOUR THERAPIST A GOOD THING? By Irena Pergjika

her office and thankfully her secretary was able to reach her and arrange for a session over Skype. I didn’t even know she offered such service but was greatly pleased to find that out! I didn’t even have to leave my house or make an effort to dress up – I love having that option available!” Even though many seem to love e-therapy and its many benefits, many professionals in the field have expressed their concern with e-therapy. The New York Times recently ran an article on online therapy, interviewing professionals in the field. Dr. Lynn Bufka expressed her concern with online ther-apy and the inability to make eye contact with the cli-ent, “So patients can think you’re not looking them in the eye. You need to acknowledge that upfront to the patient, or the provider has to be trained to look at the camera instead of the screen.” Internet connection can be an obstacle as well, because sometimes calls and in-ternet speed drop without prior warning. “You have to prepare vulnerable people for the possibility that just when they are saying something that’s difficult, the screen can go blank. So I always say, ‘I will never dis-

connect from you online on purpose.’ You make ar-rangements ahead of time to call each other if that hap-pens,” said Dr. DeeAnna Merz Negel, a psychologist licensed in both New York and New Jersey. Lastly, an important issue to keep in mind is that therapy is not only about what is said, but also subconscious cues such as tone of voice, body language and facial expression. Unfortunately, through vide-oconferencing, the therapist is sometimes unable to pick up on these cues, which can play a very important role in therapy. Psychologists who consider using such service must take into consideration the confidentiality and privacy, HIPPA compliance, dropped calls and other possible communication interruptions during the therapy session as well as licensure board rules based on the state in which they are practicing. Guidance comes from a statement of the American Psychological Association on “Services by Telephone, Teleconfer-ence, and Internet," suggesting that “Psychologists considering such services must review the characteris-tics of the services, the service delivery method, and the provisions for confidentiality. Psychologists must then consider the relevant ethical standards and other requirements, such as licensure board rules." Further advice can be found at The California Board of Psy-chology and APA Division of Psychotherapy. Work Cited Hoffman, J. (n.d.). When your therapist is only a click away. Rtrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/fashion therapists-are-seeingpatientsonline.htmlpagewanted=all&_r=0 Anderson , S. K. (n.d.). To Skype or Not to Skype…That is theQu tion. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog theethicaltherapist/201005/skype-or-not-skype-is-the-question Woman talking to therapist via a computer. The Tech Addiction Blog.N.p., n.d.Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http:techaddictionblog.wordpress.com/tag/etherapy/>. "Therapists Are ‘Seeing’ Patients Online." Psych Central. N.p., n.d.Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http://psychcentral.com/blog archives/2011/09/24/skype-away-online-therapy-is-still exciting>.


DSM V: CONTROVERSY? By: Sara Babad

Prior to the launch of the new DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), the director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Thomas Insel, MD, released a statement on his blog that, at face value, appeared to discredit the forthcoming DSM-V; and in some ways, it does (Insel, April 2013). Howev-er, with a closer look, it is evident that his new classifica-tion system, Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), is meant to augment the diagnostic manual and not replace it. Insel’s new system is meant to be used as a research frame-work, at least initially, while the DSM still function as a very valuable clinical tool. While the two systems may eventually meet, and perhaps super-sede one another, NIMH assures eve-ryone that that reality is a long way away – or is it?

The American Psychological Association (APA) spent ten years re-vising the DSM-IV-TR with the goal of expanding “the scientific basis for psy-chiatric diagnosis and classifica-t i on ” (www.DSM5.org/DSM -5Overview). The Diagnostic Manual is a tool used by therapists in America to diagnose patients, but it was woefully outdated. The World Health Organization (WHO) had recently published their new diagnostic manual, used in Europe, the International Statistical Classification of Dis-

eases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), and is cur-rently working on an 11th edition, due in 2017 (www.who.int). Almost a decade since its last update, the APA spearheaded an effort to revamp its own manual to incorporate more research from the past decade.

Shortly before its May 2013 release, Insel released a statement on his blog decrying the new DSM as a

“modest improvement” over previous editions and introduced a new system of classification, RDoC, which will be based on the underlying biology and cognition of pathology, instead of just symptoms. In truth, the new DSM does include only minor changes –including the exclusion of Asberger’s, the addition of Mood Dysregulation Disorder, and the reorganization

and clarification of some of the diag-nostic criterion for schizophrenia. Insel further denounced the DSM as “at best, a dictionary, creating a set of labels and defining each” (Insel, April 2013).

Having questioned the validity of the new, and past, DSM, Insel’s post caused a stir in the psychology com-munity. While his argument was based on the fallacy of clustering clinical symptoms as a means of de-fining disease, others soon followed with even more critiques (Insel, April 2013). In a June 2013 article, CBS News reported on the NIMH’s response to the DSM and some oth-er dissenters who feel that the new DSM over diagnoses people without making any scientific or nosology

improvements (Jaslow& Castillo, June 2013). Indeed, Craddock and Owen (2010), who were part of the DSM-V work group on psychotic disorders, wrote an

article about the direction in which mental health re-search needs to be moving in regards to psychosis, stressing a dimensional model. Classical categorical models group psychotic symptoms into distinct “groups” or illnesses, whereas dimensional models explain psychosis as existing on a continuum.

Insel’s new system of classification, RDoC,

Credits: Googe Images

The strange thing about the assault Insel launched is that the NIMH helped fund the research, development, and writing of the DSM-V.


VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2

was intended to reform the doctors diagnose by incorpo-rating imaging, cognitive research, and genetics, among other disciplines so that underlying biology, and not just external symptomatology, are considered in classifica-tion. Moreover, RDoC proposes a dimensional model and an increased emphasis on neuroscience research. The new system, by Insel’s own admission, is not yet ready to be used as a clinical tool and will, for now, remain as a research tool. Even this narrow focus, however, harms the DSM’s credibility. Insel further stated that NIMH funded research will move away from DSM categories as criteria for admission and move towards studies based on “biomarkers for depression” and other biological markers (Insel, April 2013).

The strange thing about the as-sault Insel launched is that the NIMH helped fund the research, development, and writing of the DSM-V. The DSM-V website clearly states that the APA and the NIMH believed it was important to work together to update the DSM and that a joint sponsorship between the two jump-started the revision process with a conference back in 1999. And since that point, the NIMH had worked closely with the DSM-V committee to develop the new manual (www.DSM5.org/DSM-5Overview). With this information in hand, it becomes difficult to understand Insel’s position, a conundrum he solved a month later by posting a new statement on his blog together with the President of the APA, Jeffrey A. Lieberman, M.D.

On May 13, 2013, 5 days before the release of the DSM-V, Insel and Lieberman jointly reassured the world that, while Insel would not recant his previous statements, both the APA and the NIMH agree that the DSM-V represents “the best information currently availa-ble for clinical diagnosis of mental disorders” (Insel, May 2013). RDoC is intended as a framework for research-ers, though it is intended to lead to a rethinking of tradi-tional diagnostic categories. Nothing additional was stat-ed, but Insel did clarify that the DSM-V, like previous versions, has retained its reliability and utility, and that patients will not in any way be affected by the gradual

PAGE 19

introduction of RDoC into the research world.

This statement implies that RDoC is here to stay, but that it will not affect clinical practice for quite some time. However, in February 2014, Insel released yet an-other statement on his blog announcing that RDoC will now be used to “refocus clinical research,” (Insel, February 2014) in the form of new funding rules. Now, in order to receive funding, even experimental medicine trials must make some hypothesis and generate some answers as to the underlying biology of the disorder being studied. This be-

came effective immediately in order to rectify the fact that “treatment development has stalled” (Insel, February, 2014). This new statement indicates that RDoC may be making an appear-ance often. Considering that Insel never recanted his aspersions on the DSM-V, it seems likely that he will continue to push for RDoC in every possible sector of psychology, be it research or clin-ical. However, it remains to be seen how successful this new tax-onomy will be and whether it will in fact be an improvement over the clinically useful DSM-V.

Work Cited: Insel, Thomas, April 29, 2013, www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml Insel, Thomas, May 13, 2013, www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/dsm-5-and-rdoc-shared-interests.shtml Insel, Thomas, February 27, 2014, www.nimh.gov/about/director/2014/a-new-approach-to-clinical-trials.shtml Craddock, N. & Owen, M. J. (2010). The Kraepelinian dichotomy – going, going…but still not gone. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 92-95. Doi: 10.1192/bjp.109.073429 http://www.cbsnews.com/news/controversial-update-to-psychiatry-manual-dsm-5-arrives/ Jaslow, Ryan, & Castillo, Michelle. June 3, 2012. Controversial up-date to psychiatry manual, DSM-V, arrives. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/controversial-update-to-psychiatry-manual-dsm-5-arrives/ World Health Organization Website. http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/revision/en/ DSM-V website. http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/DSMVOverview.aspx

Credits: Google Images

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/dsm-5-and-rdoc-shared-interests.shtml

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/science-news/2013/dsm-5-and-rdoc-shared-interests.shtml

http://www.nimh.gov/about/director/2014/a-new-approach-to-clinical-trials.shtml

http://www.nimh.gov/about/director/2014/a-new-approach-to-clinical-trials.shtml

http://www.cbsnews.com/news/controversial-update-to-psychiatry-manual-dsm-5-arrives/



http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/revision/en/

http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/revision/en/

http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/DSMVOverview.aspx

http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/DSMVOverview.aspx

By: Amanda Lanter

Abstract:

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM, categorizes depression as a mood disor-der. Although there are different forms of depression, some common features include low mood and a sudden loss of interest in friends and food. Depression is charac-terized by a sad mood that is severe enough to impact a person’s level of functioning. One must meet five out of nine of the diagnostic criteria to be diagnosed with de-pression. Depression can be caused by genetic, biologi-cal, environmental, and psychological factors. Family support, therapy, and medication are various methods of treatment proven to be effective in helping adolescents who suffer from depression. However, depression can lead to adverse effects even while under treatment, in-cluding drinking, suicide, and substance abuse. De-pressed adolescents should receive medical and psycho-logical help in order to avoid negative behavior that can harm both themselves and those around them.

Introduction:

Research shows that a large number of teenagers suffer from depression; about four out of one hundred teens become seriously depressed (Sobhi, 2007). This is because adolescents by nature tend to be more judgmen-tal and self-critical than adults. Additionally, females have a higher incidence of developing depression than males. At first glance one may not notice the signs of a depressed teenager. In fact, most teenagers do not re-ceive proper treatment for this disorder. The causes and symptoms of depression can be determined by its defin-ing factors and can be treated in various ways.

Causes of Depression:

It is difficult to pinpoint exactly what initiates’ depression. Depression can be caused by a number of factors, including genetics, environment, and psychologi-cal factors. Endogenous depression is defined as being caused by something internal. Although a person may have a genetic predisposition for depression, he or she may not suffer from it. Depression may also be caused

by a chemical imbalance in the brain. To be more specif-ic, depression may result if there is an imbalance of neu-rotransmitters such as serotonin, epinephrine, and nore-pinephrine in the brain (Sobhi, 2007). Food allergies and nutrimental deficiencies such as the lack of vitamin B12 and folic acid can be a cause of depression as well (Sobhi, 2007). The seemingly harmless processes of maturation can even cause depression, since there is an increase in sex hormones. Additionally, when teenagers begin to mature, they become overly concerned with their self-image and their attempts to fit in. This makes them more likely to suffer from low self-esteem which leads to a negative outlook on life which ultimately causes de-pression. Such adolescents tend to be highly self-critical and feel like their lives are out of control (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010).

Depression can be caused by an adolescent’s life event, whether their involvement is by choice or forced upon them. Some of these events can be emotionally challenging to adolescents and may trigger depression. These events can take the form of the death of a family member or close friend, or the divorce of one’s parents. Teenagers who are embarrassed by their environment, e.g. homeless children or those living in poor and/or violent homes, are more likely to become depressed. Children who live in both verbally and physically abusive homes are more prone to depression, as well as those who have learning disabilities or eating disorders. This type of depression is known as exogenous depression,


Adolescent Depression: Causes and Effects


VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2 PAGE 21

depression caused by something on the outside (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010). There are several other factors that affect the chances of becoming depressed such as gender and a lack of familial social support.

Body image is another cause of major depression. Girls relate to the media and admire the models seen on advertisements and TV. In most western societies, the models are very thin and childlike. Therefore, develop-ing girls become increasingly upset with their body image as they go through puberty. This puts them at a high risk for eating disorders. These societal pressures make body image a known trigger of depression (Kerr 2010).

There are several models explaining the etiology of depression. The psychodynamic model was based on Freud’s Psychoanalysis Theory which proposes that eve-rything originates from the subconscious. If a person becomes depressed after he or she experiences a loss, the biological model states that it is physiologically caused. Specifically, depression occurs due to an imbalance in the levels of serotonin. In addition, the biological model claims that if depression runs in a family then a family member is three times more likely to develop depres-sion. The next model is known as the attachment model. The attachment model states that if there is a break in the mother-infant bond as a child, then there is a higher chance that the child will develop depression.

The cognitive model states that maladaptive neg-ative thoughts cause a person to develop depression. According to this, depressed people are pessimistic thereby believing that they will not get better. Finally, the learned helplessness model claims that when a person does not have control over the negative things in his life, then he will become depressed. After trying several times to get out of the bad situation, they don’t even bother when given an opening (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010).

What is Depression?

Depression can impact someone’s functioning by causing persistent low moods, loss of appetite, change in sleeping patterns and anhedonia. Anhedonia is defined as

a lack of interest in things usually found enjoyable. The symptoms can be even more severe with feelings of worthlessness, slowed body movement, and agitated physiological symptoms. However, the severity of de-pression varies from person to person. To be diagnosed into any level of depression you must meet certain crite-ria. The main criterion is that the depression lasts at least two weeks. People with moderate depression may be diagnosed with Dysthymia, which is chronic and cannot be diagnosed for two years. These individuals are pessi-mistic, have a hard time making decisions and have a neg-ative outlook on life. Most people with Dysthymia do not even realize that they have a disorder (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010).

There are several subsections of depression, such as Depression with Seasonal Pattern and Post-Partum De-pression. Depression with seasonal onset sets in during the winter months and usually disappears around spring-time. This form of depression is associated with a per-son’s exposure to the sun. Post Partum depression oc-curs in a small percentage of women after they give birth. Several factors play a role in the chances of developing post partum depression, such as family history. Another type of depression is bipolar disorders, which are periods of depression interrupted by periods of mania (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010).

Symptoms of Depression:

It is difficult to diagnose depression in adolescents since it is normal for adolescents to have mood shifts from happy to sad. However, there are things to look for such as a severe change in behavior, pessimism, and a loss of interest in activities that once gave them pleasure. On the inside, they feel guilty and hopeless. These adolescents are always looking at the negative and are unable to solve problems in a positive light. They become irritable, rest-less and agitated. Some even begin to commit criminal acts, use alcohol, or take illegal drugs. Others cannot

Girls relate to the media and ad-mire the models seen on advertise-

ments and TV.

PAGE 22

even get out of bed (Reutter 2009). In more severe cas-es, a depressed adolescent may have suicidal thoughts.

Treatment for Depression:

As soon as symptoms of a depressed teenager appear, medical attention should be sought. Initially, doctors may provide a blood test to rule our any diseases, like hypoglycemia, which can mimic symptoms similar to those of depression (Sobhi 2007). Each patient should undergo a psychiatric evaluation. If one is diagnosed with

depression there are various types of treatment, from medication to psychological therapy. Talk therapy is the treatment used by the psychodynamic model since it be-lieves that it is effective to talk about the person’s pain or loss. The attachment model is similar in that they use talk therapy to create a bond between therapist and pa-tient. If the therapy is successful, then these people will be able to go on and create or maintain trusting relation-ships. Cognitive therapy is used to help change a person’s maladaptive thoughts. They learn what triggers their depression and how to solve problems that present them-selves. Sometimes therapists incorporate books and arti-cles into the healing process so that the patient can ac-quire knowledge about his or her condition. On the oth-er hand, when the brain’s serotonin levels are too low, S.S.R.I’s, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, are used as antidepressants. Prozac, Zoloft and many others are well known S.S.R.I’s. All of the antidepressants cor-rect for the decreased amount of neurotransmitters in the brain. The medicine can take about four weeks to start working, making them less addictive then antianxiety medication. Over the counter remedies may be used for less severe cases of depression. Exercise is also helpful in treating depression (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010). It is important that parents take an active role and ensure that their child receives the help that they need (Sobhi 2007).

The International Journal of Psychological Studies

LYING ON THE COUCH

produced the results of a study that was conducted to de-termine if solution-focused group counseling can decrease depression among teenage girls. Twenty girls in Sahne, who did not take medication, were chosen at random af-ter they were examined by the Beck Depression question-naire. They were assigned to either the control or experi-mental group. The independent variable in the experi-mental group was a solution-focused therapy with eight hours of counseling while the control group was taught something else. The solution-focused group counseling was proven to be effective in treating depression (Javamir, Kimiaee, and Abadi 2013).

Negative Outcomes of Depression:

Although depression can be treated successfully, it is not always the case. One of the most horrific out-comes of depression is suicide, which is the third leading cause of adolescent deaths. Those treated with antide-pressants are found to have more emotional distress lead-ing to suicide (Sobhi 2007). Suicide can be divided into three sections: the thought process, the attempt, and the success. Even thought males are more likely to actually commit suicide, females are more likely to attempt sui-cide. Suicide is one of the effects of depression that not only hurts the victims but also their friends and families (Beidel, Bulik, & Stanley 2010). Several researchers have studied the correlation between having been bullied and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Some have found that bullying is not the direct cause of suicide; rather it aggra-vates the already existing problem such as depres-sion. Doctor Klomek, in her article “Bullying and Sui-cide”, discusses various aspects of suicide including its prevalence in a specific gender. The doctor writes, “Among girls, victimization at any frequency increased the risk of depression, suicidal ideation, and suicide at-tempts. On the other hand, only frequent victimization increased the risk of depression and suicidal ideation in boys” (Klomek 2011).

There are things to look for such as a severe change in behavior, pessimism, and a loss of interest in activities that once gave them

pleasure.

VOLUME 2, ISSUE 2 PAGE 23

According to the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3.5-11% of adolescent students have attempt-ed suicide. It is very important to understand the etiolo-gy of suicide, since it is important for its prevention. Studies show that major depression and depression relat-ed cognitive processes as factors that lead to suicide. The Oregon Adolescent Depression Project studied the cor-relation between lifetime prevalence rates and incidences of suicide. They found that the prevalence rates were higher for females. They also found that past suicide at-tempts were associated with past psychiatric disorders.

There are also some negative effects that are less severe yet equally important. Depression can cause in-creased substance and alcohol abuse. For example, a study was conducted on the risk factors associated with smoking, and one of these factors was depression. The study looked at smokers across the entire smoking con-tinuum, from experimenting low-level smokers to fre-quent smokers. The experimenters believed that smoking is a way of self-medicating. The study found that even though there was a predicted relationship between de-pression and smoking, one does not really exist. For fe-males there were no relation between depression and smoking as for males, it only affected those on the “extreme ends of the smoking continuum” (Weinstein 2013).

Conclusion:

Adolescent depression is a severe problem that should be taken seriously. Teenage depression can be triggered by many different factors which include genet-ic, biological, environmental and psychological influ-ences. Regardless of the nature of the trigger, attention and help should be sought immediately. By being aware

of the signs and symptoms of depression, adolescents can receive the help they need before it’s too late. Long-term depression, suicide, alcohol and substance abuse, can then be successfully prevented.

Work Cited:

Beidel, D. C., Bulik, C.M., & Stanley, M.A. (2010) Abnormal Psy-chology New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Javanmiri, L., Kimiaee, S., & Hashem Abadi, B. (2013). The Study of Solution-Focused Group Counseling in Decreasing Depression among Teenage Girls. International Journal Of Psychological Studies, 5(1), 105-111. doi:10.5539/ijps.v5n1p105

KERR, K. L. (2010). Sociocultural Influences on Body Image and Depression in Adolescent Girls. Priscilla Papers, 24(2), 21-22.

Klomek, A., Sourander, A., & Gould, M. S. (2011). Bullying and Suicide. Psychiatric Times, 28(2), 27-31.

Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1994). Psychosocial risk factors for future adolescent suicide attempts. Journal Of Con-sulting And Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 297-305. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.2.297

Reutter, V. (2009). Teen Depression: Signs, Symptoms and Getting Help. School Library Journal, 55(2), 51.

Sodhi, V. (2007). Teenage Depression. Hinduism Today, 29(3), 62.

Weinstein, S. M., & Mermelstein, R. J. (2013). Influences of Mood Variability, Negative Moods, and Depression on Adolescent Ciga-rette Smoking. Psychology Of Addictive Behaviors, doi:10.1037/a0031488

One of the most horrific outcomes of depression is suicide, which is the third leading cause of adoles-

cent deaths.


According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 350 million people worldwide suffer from some form of depres-sion. While the causes of depression and severity of symptoms can vary widely across individuals, most peo-ple will experience some form of depression within their lifetime. Although nu-trition may not come to mind when contemplating depression, new research is showing that diet may play a larger role in the develop-ment of depression than pre-viously understood.

Serotonin, the neurotransmitter commonly known to affect mood, requires the dietary essential ami-no acids tryptophan and phenylalanine for its production. Other neurotransmitters that are important for proper brain functioning require the vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid, as well as the minerals zinc, copper, iron and mag-nesium. The Mediterranean

By: Tiffany Collings and Hadasa Levilev

Diet has been linked with lower rates of depres-sion, possibly due to the large amounts of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and nuts con-sumed, which supply great quantities of the above-mentioned nutrients. In con-trast, the typical “Western” diet has been associated with higher rates of depression, as it is often lacking in the mi-cronutrients and B-vitamins. A recent research study found that those who consumed fast food on a regular basis were more likely to exhibit symp-

toms of depression when compared to those who ate whole, unprocessed

foods. Other studies have shown that those diets high in plant foods and fish and low in processed foods and red meats are associated with lower rates of depression. The “catch 22” in all of this is that one who has already devel-oped depression may be more likely to eat “unhealthy” foods, which worsens and triggers their symptoms to begin with. Encouraging those who suffer from depression to consider diet and lifestyle changes may be a way to help them towards recovery.

Becoming more knowledgeable about the link between diet and depression can help the psychiatric com-munity better understand and treat the underlying causes of depression while empowering patients with a holistic dietary approach to treatment. Food can be a powerful drug, and the future of psychiatric treatment may very well lie on one’s dinner plate.

Article by Tiffany Collings and Hadasa Levilev, nutrition students and founders of My Favorite Granola Bar. My Favorite Granola Bar is made with all natural ingredients


“The typical ‘Western’ diet has been associated with

higher rates of depression, as it is often lacking in the

micronutrients and B-vitamins.”

Depression: Nutritional Underpinnings



and no refined sugars. Check them out in the Brooklyn College cafeteria and like them on Facebook at Facebook.com/myfavoritegranolabar

For inquiries contact: [email protected] www.myfavoritegranolabar.com

Work Cited

Felice N. Jacka, PhD, Arnstein Mykletun, PhD, Michael Berk, PhD, Ingvar Bjelland, MD, PhD and Grethe S. Tell, PhD. "The Association Between Habitual Diet Quality and the Common Mental Disorders in Community-Dwelling Adults: The Hordaland Health Study." Psychosomatic Medi-cine (2011): 483-490.

Francesco Sofi, Francesca Cesari, Rosanna Abbate, Gian Franco Gensini, Alessandro Casini. "Adherence to Mediterrane-an diet and health status: meta-analysis." BMJ (2008): 337.

Ladea, TA Popa and M. "Nutrition and depression at the forefront of progress." Journal of Medicine and Life (2012): 414-419.

Mooreville M, Shomaker LB, Reina SA, Hannallah LM, Adelyn Cohen L, Courville AB, Kozlosky M, Brady SM, Condarco T, Yanovski SZ, Tanofsky-Kraff M, Yanovski JA. "Depressive symptoms and observed eating in youth." Appetite (2014): 141-9.

Sánchez-Villegas A1, Toledo E, de Irala J, Ruiz-Canela M, Pla-Vidal J, Martínez-González MA. "Fast-food and commercial baked goods consumption and the risk of depression." Public Health Nutrition (2012): 424-32.

T. S. Sathyanarayana Rao, M. R. Asha, B. N. Ramesh, and K. S. Jagannatha Rao. "Understanding nutrition, depression and mental illnesses." Indian Journal of Psychiatry (2008): 77-82.

Photo Credit: Google Images

Food can be a powerful drug, and the future of psychiatric

treatment may very well lie on one’s dinner plate.

We are all under pressure in our everyday lives, whether from our boss at work, paying the mortgage and bills, or daily duties. In one way or an-other, we find ourselves running in circles. We glide through our lives without taking note of our stress lev-els and delude ourselves into believing that stress is normal. The mere belief that life is meant to be stressful allows stress to creep in and harm our bodies. Prolonged increases in blood pressure resulting from stress may cause permanent damage to blood vessels and the heart. Aside from physical harm, stress can also wreak psycho-logical damage and impair social interactions. Let's try to better understand stress and learn to detect and counteract what it does to the body.

What causes stress?

Stress has various triggers. Deciding what to wear, catching the train or bus, handing in a report, meeting a deadline, resolving problems, or financial concerns, among other scenarios, can trigger stress in our daily lives.

How does the body handle stress?

Humans have formed a defense mechanism to cope with stress known as the fight-or-flight response. In fight-or-flight, the body triggers a set of physical and physiological mechanisms to ameliorate the stressful situation; for example, a lion charging towards you, or, in the modern-day equivalent, a car speeding to-wards you. In the first instance, one may choose to fight the lion, in which case the adrenal glands will promptly release adrenaline to boost blood pressure and heart rate, the pupils will dilate to take in more

information, and the digestive system will partly shut down, diverting most of the body’s blood to the mus-cles. All of this happens in order to prepare the body for the task at hand - fighting the lion. In the case of a speeding car approaching, the same physiological re-

sponse will be triggered.

Humans’ socially escalated stress response does not shut off in a timely manner; it lingers for a pro-longed period of time. This is one reason those who are stressed get stomach ulcers. Contrary to popular belief, however, stress is not the primary cause of an ulcer; rather, it is the conduit by which an ulcer arises. Among the physiological responses of the fight or flight mechanism is depression of the immune system, which allows naturally occurring

bacteria of the digestive tract to propagate on the pro-tective lining of the stomach. If left unchecked for a period of time, the bacteria begin to break down the lining of the stomach, leading to the formation of an ulcer. One who develops an ulcer, in turn, becomes more stressed, demonstrating how tough it can be to break away from this positive feedback loop process.

Do causes of stress differ between wom-en and men?

This will likely come as a surprise to a number of readers. We are all aware of our differences, but who would expect stress to be included among them? Men play a role in society that is forced on them from birth. They are expected to support their families as breadwinners and hide their true emotions from the rest of the world. A man’s inability to communicate his

By: Irena Pergjika

Photo Credits: Google Im-

Stress and How to Cope


feelings can become a major stressor in his life. This much pressure and stress can lead to anxiety and ulti-mately depression (discussed further below). Having to struggle silently through his ordeal is a lot for one indi-

vidual to handle, and it is for this reason that psycholo-gists and support groups play an important role in men’s mental health today.

On the other side of the social spectrum, wom-en have to play many roles, among them student, em-ployee, spouse, mother, and housewife. A woman is slated to work at a job, maintain a household, and feed her family members, and look out for the health of all those under her wing. This balancing act can be over-whelming and bring a great deal of stress to a woman's life. Women have very little time to address their own issues, which leads to internalization of woes. Without a positive outlet for negative emotions and stress, the situ-ation mirrors that of the plight of men. The inability to relieve stress overrides the gender roles, and ultimately leads to similar manifestations of stress.

Personality and Stress

There are three personality types: type A, B, and C. Type A individuals are competitive,, impatient, controlling and aggressive. Type A individuals would do anything to get what they want and will not accept any-thing less. They have difficulty coping with stress and become aggressive over trivial matters. Our lovely poli-ticians, UFC fighters, and Donald Trump fit very well in the Type A category. Type B individuals are a bit more relaxed, less competitive, and do not become as frus-trated as Type A’s. They are also more tolerant of oth-ers. Type B individuals are most likely to occupy profes-sions in psychology, teaching, social work, or the like. Most individuals fit into the Type B category. Type C individuals are prone to panic, no matter how trivial a trigger may seem to others. They tend to have difficulty

expressing their feelings and emotions, exaggerate eve-rything, feel hopeless, and tend to suppress their anger. Type C individuals are more likely to suffer from de-pression, anxiety and lack of social life.

Stress and Psychology

Since stress prohibits one from functioning without having to worry every minute of the day, anxi-ety sets in, which inevitably results in depression. Some opt to stay at home and check out of their social life, afraid to confront the reality awaiting them outside. This can very easily take a turn for the worse, which, left untreated, can lead to a deep depression. At that point, medication is the only route back to reality. Stress also clouds judgment and impairs concentration, making it to difficult to think clearly. Many patients who suffer from PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) deal with copious amounts of stress on a daily basis. This condition is characterized by panic attacks brought upon by flashbacks of traumatic events.

“Humans have formed a defense mechanism to cope with stress known as the fight-or-flight response.”



How to deal with stress?

Eliminating stress may be difficult, since we are so used to its presence. However, here are some point-ers that have helped me improve my life and reduced my stress level:

1. Accept it - Accept that stress is an issue. Denial doesn't help. The sooner you accept your stress, the sooner you open the door to healing.

2. Exercise - Exercise draws your attention away from stressful topics while helping maintain your body's health. Whether it is a run in the park, a spar inside a boxing ring or even a ride down a biking

trail, your mind will wonder far away from stress and will react positively to the new surroundings.

3. STOP being so negative – Life isn’t perfect, but in the words of the famous Salvador Dali, "Have no fear of perfection... you will never reach it." In-stead, focus on the positive in your life, and explore further than you ever have. Do not allow the nega-tive thoughts to trample on your happiness and for-ever bury who you are.

4. Get organized - Life is busy. There are a hundred and one things that ought to be done, RIGHT NOW! Being disorganized creates a space for stress to invade your life. Create a schedule that focuses on the important aspects of your life, such as school or work. Plan out an effective timetable to help you study for a test in advance, instead of just the night before. Mark down important deadlines on your calendar so that you have plenty of time to design a thoughtful and innovative presentation for a work conference. This is vital to easing your stress, so get a pen and paper and start organizing!

5. Some things can't be changed – Accept it. It is not in your power to change everything, so accept it and move on.

6. Communication. By communicating more effec-tively with those around us, we can learn to avoid stressful situations. By practicing the art of negoti-ating we can gain much more ground, while making both ourselves and others happy.

7. Sleep: Yes, you heard me, sleep. On average, most adults need 7 to 8 hours of sleep per night. If you go to bed early, your body and mind will work nat-urally to wipe out the stresses of the day so that you'll feel fully rejuvenated when you wake up. This might improve your mood, health and well-being. With this easy step, your life could very well be, yes, you guessed it, stress free.

8. Manage your time - This goes back to being or-ganized. Don't leave anything for the last minute! Divide your time accordingly, and watch your ef-fort levels drop.

A recap of the many things stress ushers into our life: Depression Anxiety Sexual dysfunction Lost or change in appetite Loss of sleep Fatigue Overcoming



The 1960’s was a time of hope, beauty, and the evolution of a new generation. President John F. Kennedy exemplified all the qualities necessary to lead this country to greatness during this vital and danger-ous time of our history. He was young, charismatic, diplomatic, and intelligent. He was a president who showed that he could not be bullied by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, the CIA, or American military generals/admirals. He was a leader for the people in that everything which was done was purely for the good of the people.

Many historians agree that he saved humanity from 'World War III' a number of times. The world was on the brink of destruction. JFK literally had the whole world on his shoulders. However, while JFK was fighting for the continuation of mankind, an evil monster was brewing; and that monster was Vice President Lyndon Banes Johnson. LBJ was a rascal, a jackal -someone who wanted desperately to become the president of the United States. On many occasions he described JFK to be his obstacle into becoming president. It is very well known that LBJ threatened JFK into becoming the Vice President, which gave LBJ half the chance to become the president of this coun-try.

Roger Stone, who was an aide to Richard Nix-on, was writing a book in which he was pinning the death of JFK on LBJ. He quotes former president Richard Nixon saying, “Both Johnson and I wanted to be president, but the only difference was I wouldn’t kill for it.” Even former attorney general, the brother of JFK, Robert Kennedy, was quoted as saying LBJ was, "mean, bitter, vicious, animal in many ways...I think his reactions on a lot of things are correct... but I think he's got this other side of him and his relation-ship with human beings which makes it difficult unless you want to 'kiss his behind' all the time."

Many historians and researchers ask the question: what if JFK was never killed on November 22,1963? Well, if JFK was alive, then I can say for sure, the Vietnam war would not have continued till 1975, as it did. During the time of his death JFK wanted to pull 1,000 military mem-bers and completely leave Vietnam by the time of 1965. LBJ actually reversed Kennedy's disengagement policy from Vietnam (NSAM 273) with his own (NSAM 263) to expand the war. Top government officials wanted the war to happen and wanted us to be involved for a very long time.

Furthermore, if JFK had not been assassinat-ed, then him and his brother, Robert Kennedy, would have completely cracked down on organized crime and would have taken the CIA under their control. During this time, there was a power struggle. Sadly, JFK did not get out alive. LBJ was truly an egotistical maniac who only wanted power and was no better than Joseph Stalin. Even though legislation such as civil rights and the great society were passed, he was still no good for the people of Ameri-ca. LBJ was only good for the top powers of the govern-ment.

By: Rodshel Ustayev

PSYCHOLOGICAL D IFFERENCES BETWEEN THE M INDS/

POLITICS OF JFK AND LBJ


PAGE 30

Johnson described himself to a friend by saying, “I'm just like a fox. I can see the jugular in any man and go for it, but I always keep myself in rein. I keep myself on a leash, just like you would an animal.” It is all laid out in perfect language. Even LBJ himself says he was an animal. This disease was responsible for his political suc-cess and personal demise. He was an obsessed man in that he wanted more power, money, glory, women and most importantly to become president of America. He was known to verbally assault his staff. It has always been said that he was crude, vulgar, obnoxious, conceited, a n d a r r o g a n t .

LBJ is an amazing psychological study. He suf-fered from narcissism, paranoia, and bi-polar disorder. These mentally psychological handicaps led him to the presidency. But by the end of his life, he was broken and full of guilt. I believe he understood what he did before his death and probably suffered from nightmares about Kennedy's assassination. Death was too kind for this monster.

In regards to JFK and why he operated the way he did, we can see why this tragedy happened. Kennedy, was a very smart man who was also a womanizer, which was his ultimate down fall. He genuinely cared for the people of the United States. However, he was sick with a hormonal disorder called, Addison’s disease. With this disease he was hooked on meth-amphetamines by Dr. Feelgood. The steroids changed his personality. Kennedy became very cocky and fearless. Steroids have that im-pact on humans. Therefore, in his condition JFK was 'sucker-punched' to Texas where he was fatally shot. He lost his ability to think rationally and acted on impulse.

It is incredible how time flies by so quickly

LYING ON THE COUCH

through our lives. JFK once said, “Whatever we are able to do in this country, whatever success we are able to make of ourselves, whatever leadership we are able to give, whatever demonstration we can make that a free society can function and move ahead and provide a bet-ter life for its people--all those things that we do here have their effect all around the globe.” My only hope is

that we as humans can come together in peace and un-derstand that what we do bares consequences upon other people and nations. However, loneliness, will always be our human fundamental psychological nuance. Loneli-ness, is why we memorialize our dead. It is in the brief-est of moments when our loved ones fight for their lives and then they are gone, forever. Leaving us with noth-ing. So, fighting for peace and making war is a constant reminder that in the end we are left, infinitely and utter-ly alone.

Work Cited:

LBJ: The Mastermind of JFK's Assassination Power Beyond Reason: The Mental Collapse of Lyndon Johnson http://www.mcmanweb.com/lbj.htmlS "President JFK and VP Lyndon Johnson." App 1. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2014. <http://app1.kuhf.org/_images/jfk_moon JFK_speech_w_vp_flag.jpg>.

Newman, Arnold. "Photo portrait of President Lyndon B. Johnson in the Oval Office, leaning on a chair." Wikipedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Mar. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:37_Lyndon_Johnson_3x4.jpg>.

President Lyndon B. Johnson

“I’m just like a fox. I can see the jugular in any man and go for it, but I always keep myself in rein. I keep myself on a leash, just like

you would an animal.”


Parents of children who are born with disorders that cause them to act or behave differently then what is socially acceptable often face a unique set of challenges. One of the challenges is dealing with an uninformed public who don’t understand the unusual behavior ex-hibited by these children. To understand how a parent feels when their child with special needs is out there in the world, I interviewed Mrs. Cee (Name changed), a mother of a boy with autism spectrum disorder. Mrs. Cee kindly agreed to share her view of what it’s like to raise a child with a pervasive developmental disorder Ariella Nagel: How did you discover that your son has autism? Mrs. Cee: I found out when my son was approximately 18 months old. He 'lost' any words he had previously learned and he would not eat solid foods. He was not able to tolerate pieces of food in his mouth. This was a sensory issue. He actually lived on the drink Pediasure and pureed foods for a few years. He was evaluated at an early intervention center. At the time, the diagnosis was sensory integration disorder (sensory signals are not organized into appropriate responses). Later on, my son’s pediatrician gave the diagnosis of pervasive devel-opmental disorder (a milder form of autism). He did not tell it to me, rather I saw it put down on my son’s medical form. Today, the terminology used for this condition is autism spectrum disorder. AN: What actions did you take when you found out that your son has this disorder? MC: Actually, I was not clear as to what exactly the diagnosis involved. All I could think of was a TV show I had seen in which a child was said to be autistic. That child would sit in a chair all day and rock while making unintelligible noises. She couldn't speak. I knew my son was not that severe. At that point, I researched sensory integration disorder. Every site that came up on the in-ternet connected it with autism. My husband and I real-ized that we must search and do the most for our son in order to help him. There was not as much available then as there is today. I read many books on the topic and

started getting my son help through therapy and by reaching out to others in similar situations. AN: What is the situation like when you take your son out in public? What are your feelings about it? MC: Over the years, there have been many heart-wrenching situations to cope with. My son had many unusual behaviors and some are pervasive There are

certain things he does to help steady himself because it is difficult for him to handle some everyday situa-tions. His language is limited and it is hard to reason with him. He does not have an understanding of the world and has difficulty in social situations. He has diffi-culty dealing with certain loud noises; I am never really sure which ones will upset him. He will bend over and put his fingers into his ears to help block out the noise. He cannot walk without continuously keeping his fingers in his ears. People look and stare. I have had some disturbing comments made. I remember a time when my son was a little boy (about 5 or 6 years old). We were shopping in a store which we regularly went to. One day when we were there, my son pointed at a food item that he want-ed but cannot have. As much as I tried to explain it to him and try to get his mind off of it, nothing worked. He had a tantrum. He stood in one place and started

An Interview by Ariella Nagel A Parent’s Perspective: My Autistic Son

screaming. I was about to leave the store when one of the owners -who knows me since I am a regular custom-er -approached me and asked me why I cannot “control” my son. The look on his face was very unpleasant. I fi-nally got out of the store, but I was not able to shop there for at least 6 months after that incident. I was very hurt and as always, I feel very sad for my son. I have had situations where people have laughed at him and most times, I think, people cannot imagine what the situation is.

There are times when I get nervous thinking what could happen. However, I have always been deter-mined and pushed myself to go and take him out with me whenever possible. Most times it helps me to imag-ine myself alone with just my son. I tune out everyone else and I don’t look at who is around me when I have a problem. With a disability like autism, the person does not “look” like he/she has a disability and people can’t understand how it could be. An example of this hap-pened recently when I was on the train with my son. A man walked over to him to ask for directions. My son did not understand what he wanted and had a faraway look about him. Although the man did not get upset with my son, he was very confused. It is hard to know if I should explain my son’s behavior or just answer for him. Usually I just answer for him because I am not so comfortable with giving explanations especially when my son when he is right there next to me. AN: Were there any difficult incidents in public? How did you handle them? MC: There have been some overwhelming times. I have gotten panicky in several situations. There were times that I had to take my son out of the environment we

were in. However, mostly I try to do as I mentioned – to block out the world and do whatever I have to do so that I can manage. The situation which I mentioned in the fruit store was one such difficult time. There was one other instance in which my son became terribly upset. It was at a bus stop. There were two differently numbered buses which stopped at that location. I was able to take either bus to where I was going. Some-how, only one of the buses stopped there every time I was with my son. However, not surprisingly, we final-ly reached a time when the second numbered bus stopped there. Even though my son had practically no speech at that time, he was very visually aware of his surroundings. He refused to go on the bus because the number was different. He cried uncontrollably and had a tantrum. A gentlemen came over to us to berate me for not controlling my child and then he turned to my son to tell him that he is not listening to his mother and should behave. I had to pick up my son and walk away. AN: Were there situations where he was treated won-derfully by others? How did you react when this was the case? MC: I always appreciate it when people treat my son as they would any other individual. A neighbor and friend of mine, whenever we meet him, is very cordial and friendly to my son. He asks him how he is, in a pleasant way, while speaking very kindly. He does not differen-tiate between my son and others. I always hope that people will not talk down to my son or speak to him in a childish way. That has happened at times, and so I am very grateful when he is treated just like anyone else. My son now attends a day habilitation program that is run by a wonderful organization that has helped me so much throughout the years. The people who work there are very caring and kind. The program focuses on job skills, social skills, community integration and out-ings, and learning how to take care of oneself. I am very grateful that such programs exist. Recently, I have no-ticed that there are many more opportunities available for people with developmental disabilities. I feel com-forted by the fact that many young people are interested in careers relating to this field.

“I always appreciate it when people treat my son as they

any other individual.”



By: Angela Rodriguez-Heller

who still sleeps in his parents’ bed. The psychologist would consider this particular behavior “abnormal” since most children sleep in their own beds. But what if the child is not from the United States? What if children sleeping with their parents is prevalent in their country? Would the psychologist still consider this behavior abnor-

mal? Among Western psycholo-gists, the answer is possibly yes. I say possibly because there are psychologists out there who are aware of their own biases, among them cultural bias. Ac-cording to Yingst (2014) “…cultural bias involves a prej-udice or highlighted distinction in viewpoint that suggests a preference of one culture over another…can be described as discriminative. There is a lack of group integration of social val-ues, beliefs, and rules of con-duct…introduces one group's accepted behavior as valued and

distinguishable from another lesser valued societal group… has been found to be a factor in determining where particular persons live, and what they have availa-ble as educational and health care opportunities” (p. ).

In other words, one with cultural bias believes that what one observes or believes in one’s own culture must be true in other cultures. To illustrate, I am going to provide a scenario of two imaginary towns called “Pleasantville” and “Depresstown.” In Pleasantville, every-one believes that evil does no good and that all individuals can achieve happiness. All the citizens grew up in Pleas-antville with this doctrine. Someone from Depresstown moves into Pleasantville and meets their new neighbor.

Imagine becoming a psychologist and conduct-ing experiments to test your theories. Any research arti-cle—whether on psycholinguistics, psychopathology, or attachments styles and relationships—must include an abstract, introduction, methods section, description of results, and discussion. As a researcher, you will have to choose a population on which to base your analysis and then generalize your findings.

In the discussion section of

their paper, researchers reflect on the topic of their study as well as the methods they used, and interpret their findings. If their results are sig-nificant, that is, p is less than alpha (in psychological research, typically set at 0.05), they would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the alternative hypothesis is true; if the results are not significant, the alter-native hypothesis is rejected and the null hypothesis is retained. Once the researchers have determined the status of their results, they have to determine if their results truly reflect typi-cal participants’ responses in order for them to general-ize. A generalization, or inference, is made using data obtained from the sample to the population on which

the sample is based. One of the goals in conducting ex-periments is to make a generalization to the population of interest to the researchers. When researchers gen-eralize their findings to a specific population, readers may come to the conclusion that all individuals in that population will have the same or similar responses. I find this especially so for research conducted in a coun-try which is not the reader’s home country. For exam-ple, a clinical psychologist is interested in studying chil-dren with particular disorders may come across a child

http://blog.internations.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/cultural_awareness.jpg

“...One with cultural bias believes that what one observes or believes in one’s own culture must be true in other cultures.”

Generalization and Cultural Bias: An Opinion Piece

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2079228.html?s=179932&t=values%2C+beliefs%2C+and

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/link/2079228.html?s=179932&t=values%2C+beliefs%2C+and

LYING ON THE COUCH

BROOKLYN COLLEGE PSYCHOLOGY MAGAZINE not have a reference to any particular religion. In order to yield true findings in research and

assessments, psychologists would have to take note that other cultures have different beliefs. They would have to be careful with generalizing findings from their own cul-ture to others as well as not labeling a behavior as abnor-mal if that behavior is typical in that particular culture, unless that behavior is causing distress, in which it can mean that there is a clash of cultures. As more and more people from various backgrounds enter the United States, I believe more psychologists and therapists are becoming aware of the x amount of cultures there are around the globe. Hopefully this trend will continue. I would love to see replications of experiments that are conducted here in other countries to know if the results hold true in that culture.

Work Cited:

Yingst, T. E. III. Cultural Bias. Encyclopedia of Child Be-

havior and Development. Retrieved February 19, 2014

from http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/

chapterdbid/179932.html

PAGE 34

Their neighbor notices that something is off with this newcomer: they are not smiling. This person was taught through learning based on research that everyone experi-ences happiness and smiles. “How come my neighbor does not smile? According to research, everyone smiles. Those results were significant,” this citizen wonders.

Here is a good place to end the scenario. But I

want to point something out: the results from the exper-iments conducted in Pleasantville were generalized to everyone, including individuals from Depresstown. People who read that study believed that everyone was happy and smiled. They did not realize that not everyone was happy and smiled. I believe this is a common occurrence in research literature, mainly when specific groups of participants are used in experiments. When critiquing research papers for my classes, I always mention that more experiments can be conducted to include popula-tions to see if the findings from previous studies are con-sistent with the results of current studies. For instance, since specific brain areas are activated when children begin to read, are those areas still active for children who do not read, especially in cultures that honor oral tradi-tions? If fMRI studies were conducted to answer this question, would researchers still experience cultural bias if they discover that those areas are not active in children who grew up in oral cultures? In my opinion, they would because the researchers would like to generalize their findings in some way, intentional or not.

As I am writing this, it has dawned on me that

generalizing can be a philosophical issue in the psycho-logical world. It can become problematic when it comes to others accepting what psychologists have written as true. To remedy this issue, psychologists can conduct and compare experiments in different cultures. Another suggestion is to use different methods that are culturally appropriate. For example, instead of using an American assessment on Jewish children that has a story on Santa Claus, substitute that story with a neutral one that does

“...Psychologists would have to take note that other cul-tures have different beliefs.”

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-sr7iACRNlcQ/UWfo4RibQrI/AAAAAAAAB0U/bib0Rq64tVE/s320/holding.hands.around.the.world.1.png

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/navigation.do?m=Encyclopedia+of+Child+Behavior+and+Development+(Behavioral+Science)-book113

http://www.springerreference.com/docs/navigation.do?m=Encyclopedia+of+Child+Behavior+and+Development+(Behavioral+Science)-book113


Whether we are casual movie viewers or avid comic book readers, most of us who know Bruce Wayne, Gotham’s billionaire socialite-philanthropist, are also familiar with his tragic upbringing. He is known for the traumatic experience he faced as an in-nocent child and his eventual evolution into his alter ego, Batman - the Caped Crusader of Gotham. Additionally, those who have knowledge of his adventures are aware of Batman’s enemies and eventually learn of their backstories as well. However, one of Bat-man’s nemeses continues to dwell in the shadows relative to his true iden-tity. The villain being referred to is what some analysts and fans have identified as being the living antithesis of Batman. This character is none oth-er than the maniacal clown himself, the Joker. Since his debut in the first pages of the Batman comic book published in the spring of 1940, up until the summer blockbuster film The Dark Knight released on July 18th, 2008, the Joker continues to evoke feelings of fear, curiosity, - and even appreciation - in nearly eve-ry one of his incarnations. The true origin of the Joker, including simple details such as his name, continues to be a mystery. This has prompted many writers and cartoonists to throw in their two cents as to how the mad clown came to be. Arguably, the most accepted story of the Joker’s birth is in the graphic novel entitled Batman: The Killing Joke, published in the March of 1988 by the famous writer, Alan Moore. The story’s climax involves the then anonymous Joker falling into a vat of chemicals to evade capture by the Gotham police, una-ware of the potential consequences. After some time,

the man slowly emerges to a horrible sight: his skin had been bleached white, his hair was tinted green, and his lips were now colored bright red and permanently fixed into an eerie grimace. No matter which incarnation of the Joker is

used as a case study, the Joker is philosophized about and even psychoanalyzed by mental health professionals and fans alike. The best personification of the Joker to be used would be the one from Christopher Nolan’s film, The Dark Knight. The role of the Joker was played by the late Heath Ledger, who posthu-mously won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Ac-tor. At first glance, the viewer can clearly see the shattered psyche of the Joker in his physi-cal appearance. The smeared

clown makeup and unkempt hair both showcase the slippery mental slope that the Joker stands on. Throughout various scenes in the film, the Jok-er claims that he isn’t insane, but is instead “just ahead of the curve.” This expressed mindset can offer us a

perspective of his philosophy as being one that is akin to moral nihilism, the belief that morality does not innate-ly exist in mankind, and that any established moral val-ues are - more or less - abstractly conceived. Instead of branding himself as insane, the Joker claims that he is as an agent of anarchy and chaos. According to the DSM-

By: Hind El Guizouli

“See, I'm not a monster. I'm just ahead of the

curve.”

Ahead of the Curve: an analysis of Batman’s

Greatest Nemesis, the Joker


V, an assessment of the Joker’s psychological profile would result in him being diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder. This is because the Joker exhibits the hallmarks of the disorder as described in the Diag-nostic and Statistical Manual, such as the “Failure to con-form to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors that are grounds for arrest” as well as “Irritability and aggressiveness, often indicated by repeated physical fighting or assaults.

The Dark Knight also displays additional traits attributed to the Joker that assist in aligning his behavior with the disorder’s symptoms. For example, his charac-teristic deceitfulness is highlighted in scenes where the Joker utters his catchphrase, “You wanna know how I got these scars?” In one instance, his answer to the ques-tion reveals a tragic story of his mother’s abuse at the hands of his drunk and violent father, whom the Joker claims is the one who gave him the trademark smile by the blade of a knife. However, later on in the film, the Joker tells a completely different story. This time, it features a gambling wife whose face was disfigured by sharks. Not being able to afford surgery, the Joker scars his face as well, so that his wife would not feel ashamed of herself. This backfires, and his wife, horrified at what he has done, leaves him for good. These stories create conflict within the viewers as they become unsure of which story is true, or whether both stories are com-plete works of fiction. This has the effect of increasing the Joker’s untrustworthiness to a point where anything that the Joker says is put into doubt. In addition, the Joker displays moments of both behavioral and mental impulsivity, as he is willing to take out anyone who stands in his way by any means necessary. The Joker also exhibits a disregard for self-preservation. In one scene, the Joker allows a loaded gun to be pressed against his forehead, with the ultimate

decision of him living or dying literally resting on the outcome of a coin flip. In another, the Joker urges the Dark Knight to hit him with his motorcycle head on, in order to break Batman’s fundamental rule to never take a human life. Last, but not least, the Joker’s lack of guilt or empathy is shown by his calculated maneuvers as he attempts to overthrow the laws of Gotham City. His indifference to the consequences of his actions, in addition to his twisted rationalization for killing and stealing from others, makes him good candidate for the diagnosis. Interestingly enough, many people argue that

both Batman and the Joker are essentially two sides of the same coin - that they are mirror images of one an-other. Both Batman and the Joker operate on the ex-treme fringes of the law, one for ending corruption and guarding Gotham City, while the other consistently challenges the foundations of law, justice, and morality. Surely, the Joker’s characterizations, history, and sym-bolism, will continue to live on for many generations to come – regardless of who the audience may be. Work Cited: Diagnostic criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder: http://behavenet.com/node/21650 The Killing Joke: http://www.comicvine.com/the-killing-joke/4045-40503/

“You see, madness, as you know, is like gravity. All it takes is a little push!”


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LOTC Spring 2014 (1)