84 J PROD INNOV MANAG ABSTRACTS 1993;10:75-86

11. Contracts

12. Intellectual property rights

13. Trade secrets

Lastly, respondents were asked to assess the value of different employee functional types of know-how. Some 43% replied that knowledge of operations was the most important, followed by 29% saying sales and marketing, 17% saying technical, and 11% some other function.

All of this would indicate that new products managers have a rather long list of valuable intangible resources, almost any one of which might serve as the power behind a new product program.

Creating a Sense of Mission, Andrew Campbell and Sally Young, Long Range Planning (August 199 l), pp. lo-20

The senior author of this paper, a founding director of London’s Ashridge Strategic Management Center, had long been aware that company mission statements were an unchartered area of management. A research grant permitted this Center to spend 2 years looking at what companies actually put into their mission statements, and talk with their managers about why they are written as they are.

The researchers quickly discovered two schools of thought on mission. The strategy school “views

mission primarily as a strategic tool, an intellectual discipline which defines the business’ commercial rationale and target market.” It is a first step, a precursor to strategy. It closely follows the Levitt idea of “what is our business.” Example: British Telecom has the mission of providing world class telecommuni- cations and information products and services, at home and overseas.

The culture school of thought argues that “mission is the cultural ‘glue’ which enables an organization to function as a collective unity.” It contains strong norms and values that influence how people behave. It captures some of the emotional dimensions. IBM’s basic philosophy includes three aspects-respect for the individual, dedication to service and a quest for superiority in all things.

These two views come together into a four-phased concept of mission. The strategic view gives the

left-brain portion--purpose and strategy, whereas the culture view gives the right-brain portion-values and behavior. The article yields many examples of com- pany ideas on mission, and the authors were impressed with how strong and committed employees (managers

and nonmanagers) were with their firms’ ideals. Examples: people at Marks and Spencer spoke of its commitment to high quality and value for money, as well as its good human relations and visible manage- ment. British Airways staff talked about their service culture. Executives at Egon and Zehnder, an executive search firm, told of not having profit centers, not measuring productivity, and not accepting assign- ments that were not felt to be in the best interests of the client.

Interestingly, many respondents saw clearly the relationship between the four dimensions. Values lead to behavior that permits implementation of that strategy that best fulfills the purpose of the organiza- tion. And it can go the other way: a clear purpose demands strategy that will achieve it, which, in turn, dictates the behavior needed for its implementation, which, in turn, shows the values that must be in place. A strong mission “exists when the four elements of mission link tightly together, resonating and reinforc- ing each other.”

Purpose defines why the company exists. Here they found three views. Some managements put purpose in terms of stockholder benefit (wealth). Others want to meet the claims of all stakeholders, such as customers and employees. The third group goes even further, seeking to achieve a level of success that satisfies an obligation to the nation, or the international commu- nity, or world well-being-just to “succeed.”

Strategy provides “the commercial logic for the

company.” If the purpose is to be the best, then how will that purpose be achieved: what business, what level of accomplishment in that business, with what competencies or advantages?

Values are the “beliefs and moral principles that lie behind the company’s culture.” Examples are many: Egon and Zehnder wants people to be naturally cooperative. British Airways believes that life would be better for all if people took more care with each other. Hewlett-Packard believes that management by walking around is good, that it “should” be used.

Behavior is closely intertwined with values, and one can lead to the other. Thus behavior can lead to values, or can be the result of values. Examples: British Airways expects friendly and professional managers, with helpfulness at all times. The Body Shop wants cosmetics that are environmentally friendly, and wants to produce and sell them in a similar manner. (Every desk has two wastebaskets!)

The authors were surprised how often they found full-scale implementation of missions-thoughts and

ABSTRACTS

actions throughout the firm and in all areas of activity. There was also a “sense of mission”-an emotional bond between the firm and its people. Whether the employees came to a firm because they fit with its mission, or acquired that fit after starting work was not clear, but the synergy came about.

In sum, it seems that a new products program or project not only can, but must, take from the company’s mission statement the same four dimen- sions of purpose, strategy, values and behavior, whatever they are, if they are spelled out and lived by consistently.

The Point of Creative Frustration and the Creative Process: A New Look at an Old Model, D. David Sapp, Journal of Creative Behavior (First Quarter, 1992), pp. 21-28 A long-time model of the creative process (or the problem-solving process) is the one originally attrib- uted to Graham Wallas, in 1926. It contains four primary stages: preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification. Many persons have modified this model (e.g., new products managers know of de Bono’s work with lateral thinking during the prepara- tion stage). But there have remained aspects this author has attempted to deal with.

His model, picking up help from the work of others as well, is as follows. Note that he has two “points” in time, and three “stages” or periods of time.

l Point: Initial Idea Inception

l Stage: Problem-Solving Attempts

l Stage: Incubation

l Point: Creative Frustration, followed by

1. Denial-process resumes at start. 2. Rationalization-acceptance of previously

rejected solution. 3. Acceptance of stagnation/frustration-incu-

bation continues. 4. New growth-resumption of problem-solv-

ing attempts.

0 Point: Illumination

0 Stage: Verification

The behavior of the creative individual at the various times in the model is partly a function of the activity going on, that is, whether it is creating a painting, solving a mathematical problem, coming up with a new mechanical design feature, or whatever.

J PROD INNOV MANAG 85 1993;10:75-86

But, the amendments introduced here can be described as follows. (There are no substantial changes in problem-solving, incubation, illumination or verifi- cation.)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Znitial idea inception is usually viewed as that time when some degree of insight occurs-a tentative sketch maybe. (For new products it would be when someone senses the possible solution to come from a given technology. It may be strategic or tactical.) But the author feels the step is more than just a notion; it is closer to the well-known point of illumination. Presumably, it could be a start for one person directed by another person’s inspiration. Other terms are encounter, engagement, conscious- ness, or state of awareness. But, importantly, it is a point, not a stage of activity; this is not a “stages of creativity” model.

Creative frustration is also viewed as a point, not a stage. It comes when the person realizes a sense of stagnation or frustration. There is a “limits of knowledge,” or an “expressive boundary.” Tools and ideas are all used up, but the work is still incomplete. It is a very conscious point, not an extended stage of unconscious processing. It clearly calls for a decision on what to do next.

Denial is the decision that the avenue being followed has run dry and should be discontinued. It is denied, seen as unproductive, and should not have been taken up in the first place. One starts over, the danger being that the activity may end up cycling through rejected avenues.

Rationalization is the act of accepting some solution considered inadequate, by falsely rational- izing away its criticism.

Acceptance of stagnation is where the individual does not want to start over, cannot accept what has been done so far, does not have any other options, and just waits. Apathy and boredom have set in. Hopefully, something will happen to regenerate interest and action.

New growth is the active resumption of creative problem-solving attempts. The individual moves ahead by deliberate conscious action. Experienced ideators know of the point of frustration, and also know that if one buckles down and goes ahead solutions usually appear. Managers of ideation departments are probably well aware of stagnation and new growth as opposite reactions to frustration.

The model diagram demonstrates iterations during the time between the point of initial idea inception and the