Loneliness and Social Class in Tolstoy's Trilogy Childhood, Boyhood, Youth.pdf

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American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages

Loneliness and Social Class in Tolstoy's Trilogy Childhood, Boyhood, YouthAuthor(s): Anne HruskaSource: The Slavic and East European Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1 (Spring, 2000), pp. 64-78Published by: American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European LanguagesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/309628.

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2/16

LONELINESS

AND

SOCIAL

CLASS

IN

TOLSTOY'S

TRILOGY

CHILDHOOD,

BOYHOOD,

YOUTH

Anne

Hruska,

University

fCaliforniat

Berkeley

Manyyears

fter he

publication

f

Childhood,

oyhood,

Youth,

olstoy

reread he rilogyeforewritingis Reminiscences"n1903.Not urpris-

ingly,

he

ging olstoy

oundittle o admire

nhis

first

ublished

ork.He

was

particularlyispleased

with

he

atter wo

parts,

oyhood

nd

Youth,

faulting

hemwith

insincerity:

he

desire

o

present

s

good

nd

mportant

something

hat didn't t

that ime

really

elievewas

good

and

impor-

tant-that

s,

thedemocratic

endency"PSS

34:

348).

Although

heolder

Tolstoy

was

certainly

prejudiced

eader f

his own

works,

is

negative

review f

the

trilogy

its

on

a

very mportant

heme.

Tolstoy's

ero,

Nikolenka,

as

highly

mbivalent emocratic

ympathies,

nd simulta-

neouslydentifiesith nd srepulsed ymembersfthe ower lasses a

tendency

hared

y

Tolstoy

imself.

Despite

he

young olstoy's

ccasionalnfatuationsith he

democratic

tendency,"

is nstincts ere

decidedly

on-democratic,

nd he

generally

disliked is ow-born ellowwriters.n

particular,

olstoy's

ntense

nti-

pathy

o his

radical

ontemporary

ikolai

hernyshevsky

s

wellknown.n

his

unpublished

lay

"The Infected

amily"

Zarazhennoe

emeistvo,

1863-4),

henihilist

enerovsky

s

obviously

ntendeds a

vicious arica-

ture f

Chernyshevsky.

nd n

an 1856 etter o

Nekrasov,

olstoy

alled

Chernyshevsky"gentlemantinkingf bedbugs" klopovoniaiushchii

gospodin]

nd

complained,

I

can

ust

hear

himnow:

hat

hin,

npleasant

little

oice,

aying npleasanthings

nd

flaringp

even

more

becausehe

doesn't

now

ow

o

talk,

nd hisvoice

s

nasty"

PSS

60:

74).2

George

Orwell,

n his

rticle

Tolstoy,

ear,

and The

Fool,"

argues

hat

the

ging olstoy's

hoice f

King

Lear as the

play

on which

o found is

denunciationf

Shakespeare

n

a 1903 rticle

was occasioned

y

Tolstoy's

secret

ecognition

fhimselfn

the itle haracter. nable

o

accept

hake-

speare's

mage

f he

haughty,

elfishld

man,

rought

ow

by

his

ttempt

o

gain venmore ower hrougheemingorenounceower, olstoyttacked

SEEJ,

Vol.

4,

No. 1

2000):

. 64-p.

8

64

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3/16

Loneliness

nd

Social

Class

n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh

65

the

play

with

ll of his considerable

nalytical

orce. t

is

possible

hat

similar

rinciple

as at work

n

Tolstoy'sntipathy

o

Chernyshevsky.

Thesocial neptness olstoyriticizednChernyshevskyas a trait ol-

stoy

etested

n

himself. adicals

f

plebeian

rigin,

ike

Dobroliubov nd

Chernyshevsky,

erefamous or

eing

wkward

n

society,

nd

estranged

fromwomen nd from

amily

ife.The

young

olstoy

lso,

as his diaries

poignantly

how,

eared hat

he

was unlovable

nd unfit or

ristocratic

society.3erhaps

he

recognition

fhisown

vulnerability,agnified

n

the

person

f

Chernyshevsky,

an account

n

part

or

he

trength

f

Tolstoy's

aversion

o him.4

Chernyshevsky

as

a

prominentepresentative

f a class

of men

who

weregainingncreasingultural ower n the 1850s. n Russia,formal

secular

iterature,

rom he ime f ts

nception,

asalmost

xclusively

he

business fthe

nobility;xceptions

ere

uite

rare.5 he

1850s,however,

saw an

increasing

umber f menof ess than ristocratic

rigin

n

promi-

nent

positions

s writers

nd critics. hese

plebeians

who

attempted

o

make career or

hemselves

n

whatwas

perceived

s an

essentially

risto-

cratic

phere

were ometimeseferred

o

disparagingly

s

"raznochintsy"

word

ranslatables

"people

ofvarious anks."

he

termwas first

sed

by

census akers n the

early ighteenthentury

s

a

catch-all erm or

hose

whodid not asily it ntomajor ocial ategoriesuch s nobleman,mer-

chant,

r serf.

At itsmost

ague,

he

erm

imply

meant

non-noble."

y

the 1850s nd

60s,

whenmen of

middle-class

rigin

ecame

ncreasingly

powerful

n

iterary

nd

cultural

ircles,

he

word

raznochinets"

egan

o

take on

a more

specific

meaning.

n

general

sage,

a

raznochinets

as

anyone

f ess han

ristocratic

rigins,

n

particular

he onof

priest,

ho

attempted

o

make

his

career

n

aristocraticircles.6

The

majority

f

these

figures,

aised

n

non-aristocratic

ettings,

ere

lacking

n

ome f he

major

kills onsidered

roper

or

gentleman.

rina

Paperno,in Chernyshevskynd theAge ofRealism,describes feeling f

social

solation ommon o

many

aznochintsy

fthe1850s

nd

1860s.

The

educated

lebeians

elt

lienated rom he

petit ourgeois

ircles f their

origins,

s

well

s

from he

upper-classociety

n which

hey

spired

o a

place.

"Separation

rom

heir

oots nd

hostility

oward

ociety

ontributed

to

a

spirit

f

loneliness nd

reticence

n

approaching

thers,

nd

to an

overwhelming

eeling

f

social

nferiority

nd

embarrassed

imidity"

Pa-

perno 75-6).

The

idea of the

raznochinets

s

isolatedboth from

ociety

nd from

love,

due to his

ack of

ease

in

social

settings,

as

very

ommon n

the

literaturef the1850s. nNekrasov's852

poem "Shyness,"

"Zastenchi-

vost"')

he

describes he

tormentsf a

raznochinets

n

love with

society

beauty.

e

feels

woefullynadequate

n

the

company

f

the

elegant

men

who

urround er:



4/16

66 Slavic and

East

European

Journal

Everythinghey

ay

s clever

Butwhen come

n,

'm all

befuddled,

And

my

eart

inks o

my

eels

It's as if have ron

weights

n

my

eet,

And s

if

my

headweremade

f

ead.

My

hands

ang

trangely

nd

uselessly,

Words ie on

my

ips.

1: 113)

B.

O.

Korman takes

this

poem

as

an

expression

f an

emotionaldilemma

familiar o all

raznochintsy

f the 1840s and

50s

(68-81);

Chernyshevsky

names

"Shyness"

as

one

of

several

poems

that

brought

im to the

point

of

tears.7

In Herzen's 1847 novel Who

Is To

Blame?,

the doctor's son

Krutsiferskys awkward o thepointof theabsurd;whenfirstntroduced o

his

employer's

wife,

he is "close to

fainting,"

nd

unable to look around

himfor

fear hat

here

might

e a

young

woman n the room

4:

13).

Later,

Krutsifersky's

eak

character

will make him unable to

prevent

his

wife,

Liubochka,

from

falling

n

love

with the aristocrat

Bel'tov.

Turgenev's

Bazarov,

though

more

at

ease

in

society,

s

still

essentially stranged

both

from

his

family

nd from he

object

of his

romantic

assion.

Nineteenth-

century

readers were familiar

with the

literary tereotype

of the

raz-

nochinets.

As soon as a doctor's

son or

a

tutorwas introduced

n

a

novel,

readersknew more

or

less what toexpect

fromhim.8

Tolstoy,

ike

Chernyshevsky,ontinually eproached

himself or

his so-

cial

awkwardness,

oting

nd

bemoaning

ach social

faux

pas

in

his

diary.

At one

point,

he writes

despairingly,

I

am

ugly,

wkward,

lovenly,

nd

uneducated

n

the

ways

of

society.

am

petulant,

oring

o

others,

mmod-

est,

ntolerant,

nd

bashful ike a child"

PSS

47:

8).

Tolstoy's

ack of social

skills n his

youth

was also noted

by

his

contempo-

raries.

One observer

emembers

im

dancing

t

balls,

apparently

part

of

the

upper

echelons

of

society,

but

far

from

he

sophisticated

adies' men

that thers fhis

age

were the

tudent-aristocrats.

n him ne

could

alwayssee somekind f

trange

wkwardness,

hyness."9

. D.

Zagoskina,

a Kazan

hostess

f

whom

Tolstoy

wrote hat he

"always

ttracted hemost omme l

faut

people

to her salon"

(PSS

34:

399),

told

Tolstoy,

n

irritation t his

clumsy ancing,

Mon cher

Leon,

vous

n'etes

qu'un

sac de

farine"

words

hardly

alculated to

put

him

more at his

ease

(Khodnev 227).

AnotherSt.

Petersburg

ostess,

rked

by

her

nability

o

charm

him,

told

Turgenev

hat

the

young

ountwas "some sortof wolf ub"

(Shelgunova

56).

Tolstoy's

amily

was

of

established

nobility

n

both

ides,

and

yet,despite

his

rankof

Count,

he

sometimes

xpresseduncertainty

bout the

degree

to

whichhe belongedto the aristocracy.n hisdiary n 1854,he complains,

"The so-called

aristocratsmake me

envious"

(PSS

47:

16).

A

year

later,

Tolstoy

writes

new

rule in his

diary:

"Be what

you

are:

a)

by ability,

literary

man;

b) by

birth,

n

aristocrat"

PSS

47:

53).

This

pronouncement

s



5/16

LonelinessndSocialClass

n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh 67

not as secure as

it

may

sound;

despite

the success of Childhood

n

1854,

Tolstoy's

iterary eputation

was,

at this

ime,

arfrom stablished.

urther-

more, hevery act hatCountTolstoywouldhave to remind imselfo be an

aristocrat

mplies

hat

he

felt

hat

ristocratictatus

was

something

e had

to

achieve,

rather

han

condition

ntowhichhe was born.

This

nsecurity

as

further

omplicatedby

the fact

that

Tolstoy,

n his

twenties,

eems not

to

have been

entirely

ure what

t

meant

o be

a Russian

aristocrat. s

long

as

his

conception

f

"aristocracy"

emained

loudy,

is

conception

f

himself s

aristocratwould of

necessity

e somewhat

haky.

Tolstoy,

hen,

hared with he

raznochintsy

f

the

1850s

a commonfeel-

ing

of

being

out of

place

in

aristocratic

ociety.

He

also sharedwith hem

feeling fgeneralunlovablenesswhich sextremely ell documented.10or

example,

n

1852,

he

writes,

Iapishka

put

t

excellently

when

he said

that

I'm

somehow unloved.

That's

ust

how I

feel,

that can't

please

anybody,

and

everybody's

ifficultor

me

[vse

dlia menia

tiazhely]"

PSS

46:

149).

It

seems

to me

that

he

young

Tolstoy's

eeling

f

being

cut off

rom

umanity

in

general

was

closely

connectedwithhis

feeling

f

being

cut

off

from he

aristocracy

n

particular.

or

Tolstoy

during

his

period,

the

word

"every-

body"

meant,

more often han

not,

"everybody pper-class."

His

awkward-

ness, then,

had vast

social

repercussions;

f

Tolstoy

was

estranged

rom he

aristocratic ocialmilieu,thenhe was estranged romwhathe saw as the

whole

world.

In

Tolstoy

scholarship,

here

has

long

been

a

controversy

ver

what

Tolstoy's

lass

sympathies

were,

and how

they

re reflected n his

works.

As

a

rule,

Soviet scholars

tend to

see

Tolstoy

as the

champion

of the

peasantry,

ho

rejects

the

corrupt

nd

oppressive

ristocracy,

nd

satirizes

its members n

his

novels."

However,

Boris

Eikhenbaum and

Viktor

Shklovsky, long

with

most Western riticswho

have discussed

Tolstoy's

viewsof

the

nobility, eject

this

nterpretation

f

Tolstoy,

nd

emphasize

his

status as a

self-proclaimedpholder

of the

standardof the

aristocracy.12

Andrew

Wachtel,

ndeed,

suggests

hat

Tolstoy's

ulogy

of

aristocratic am-

ily

happiness

n

Childhoodwas

part

of

a

tradition f

establishing

he

superi-

ority

f

the

gentry

ver

the

raznochintsy.

e

writes:

If the

gentry

were to

defend heir

osition

n

Russian

society,

t

became

extremely

mportant

for them

to

discover

virtues hat non-noblesdid

not

possess.

A

gentry

hildhood,

which,

according

to

the

myths

f

Tolstoy

and

Aksakov,

endowed a

person

with

certain

positive

principles

hat were

retained

for a

lifetime,

ecame

just

such

a

possession. Although

mbi-

tious

"upstarts"

rom

mong

the

raznochintsy

ould,

and

did,

make

up

for he

deficienciesn

their

arly

ducation,

they

ould

neverclose the

childhood

gap. (85)

Tales of unhappychildhoodstended,fordecades, to be written

nly

by

raznochintsy

nd their

ympathizers.

ccording

to

Wachtel,

the

nobility

saw

themselves

s

part

of a

tradition f

childhood

bliss,

which

Tolstoy's

trilogy

layed

a

major

role

in

establishing.



6/16


7/16

Lonelinessnd

SocialClass n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh 69

brought

ver

to visit he

rtenev hildren

n

Moscow.

Meek,

badly

dressed,

and

stinking

f

pomade,

Ilinka

s,

at

best,

gnored

y

the other hildren.

At

one point,while theboys are showingoff t gymnastics, hey ry o per-

suade Ilinka

to

stand

on

his

head.

Gymnastics

was

one of the skills

aught

to aristocratic

hildren;

he fact

hat

linka confesses o

ignorance

f

gym-

nastics

urther

arks

him

s the

outsider

mong

the

gentry

hildren.14 s a

joke,

the

boys grab

Ilinka,

and

forcibly

tand him on his

head,

laughing

gleefully

while Ilinka

worriesabout

tearing

his

already shabby

clothing.

When

Ilinka

struggles

nd hits

eriozha

n the

eye,

Seriozha

pushes

him

to

the

ground,

and Ilinka bursts nto

tears.

Though

Nikolenka

feels

some

stirrings

f

pity

or

linka,

he

comes to

agree

with

eriozha that linka

s

to

be despised forcrying ver physicalpain. "I didn't understand hat the

poor boy

was

probably rying

ot

as

much from

hysical ain

as from

he

thought

hat

five

boys,

whom

perhaps

he

liked,

all

agreed

to

hate

and

persecute

him

without

ny

reason"

(Chapter

19).

Ilinka's social

isolation,

his

poverty,

is

cheap,

dirty

lothes,

his

gnorance

f

mportant

ristocratic

skills

ike

gymnastics,

nd his

feeling

of

being

unloved

by everyone,

all

place

him

firmly

ithin

he

iterary tereotype

f

the

raznochinets.

After

the torture f Ilinka

Grap,

the narrator erates himself or

his

childish

ruelty

o

Ilinka,

and

seems unable

to

understandhow

he

could

have been so bereft f "sympathy." ut almost mmediately fterwards,

Nikolenka

goes

to

his

first

all,

where

he

shows a

great

deal of

unspoken

fellow

feeling

with

linka,

committing

imilar aux

pas,

and

feeling qually

despised

and

persecuted.

The

wealthy

ristocratic ikolenka

rtenev

eems

to be haunted

by

the

ghost

of

his earlier

llegitimate

nd

socially

solated

incarnation

n

"The Four

Epochs

of

Development."

Nikolenka's

grand-

mother emarks

hat

he

is

"wild" and "doesn't even

know

how

to

enter

a

room"

(Chapter

18).

He

also has

the

wrong gloves

at

the

dance,

and

humiliates imselfwhile

trying

o dance a

mazurka,

prompting

is father

o

whirl waywithhispartner, issing, I/nefallaitpasdanser i vous nesavez

pas "

(Chapter 22).

In

the context

of the

1850s,

these

apparently

minor

details take on a

great

deal of

significance:

ikolenka's social

ineptitude

connects

him to

raznochintsy

n

general,

nd to Ilinka n

particular.

Tolstoy,

n an

1856

draft f

a

play,

"A

Family

of

Gentlefolk"

Dvorian-

skoe

semeistvo),

makes more

overt

what

he

implies,

ut

never tates

pecifi-

cally

in the

trilogy.

At one

point

in

this

very sketchy ragment,

young

prince

s called

a

raznochinets

ecause of his lack

of ease

in

society.

The

aging

Prince

Zatsepin

says

of

his son:

The fool stwenty earsold, I tookhim o thegovernor,ndhe didn't ven knowhow towalk

into the

room;

he

couldn't

say

two words.

The

governor

s

a

friend

f mine and an

old

pal

[...]

I was

embarrassed,

shamed before

him for

my

son. You

see,

he's

forgotten

ow to

speak

French,

he

can't hold

une

conversationuivie

n French.He's

some sortof

kuteinik,

ot

a

Prince

Zatsepin. (PSS

7:

157)



8/16

70 Slavic nd East

European

ournal

The untranslatableword "kuteinik"was

an

insulting

ermfor a son

of

a

priest.

or Prince

Zatsepin,

his

son's

embarrassing

ack of

aplomb

s almost

markedenoughto cancel out hisnoble birth; lthoughhe is ofcourse not

entirely

erious

n

calling

his

son a

kuteinik,

he connection f

faulty

man-

ners

with

oss of caste is

quite significant.

n this

fragment, olstoy

has a

character

ay outright

what

he had earlier

implied

in

Childhood-that

social

ineptitude

an make even a

blue-blood

nto a

seminarist.

Nikolenka at the ball

sees himself s

placed

in

the same

position

linka

recently ccupied,

when

everyone

agreed

to hate and

persecute

him

with-

out

any

reason." He is humiliated

y

his

father's

dmonition,

nd

avers,

with

pathetic ntensity:

Everyone

despises

me

and

always

will;

the

path

to

everythings blocked forme: tofriendship,o love, to honor everything

is lost." And

yet, despite

his

initial

reaction,

Nikolenka does

not,

as

yet,

entirelydentify

ith

he

despised

and

persecuted

linka

Grap.

When

ook-

ing

for

gloves

to wear for

dancing,

Nikolenka finds ne of

Karl

Ivanych's

old,

large, filthy

loves,

with

he middle

finger

ut out. Nikolenka

absent-

mindedly

wears this

glove

back to

the

ballroom,

where

his

grandmother

and his

new friend

onechka burst

ut

aughing

t him. Rather

than

feeling

humiliated,

Nikolenka

recognizes

his

aughter

s a

sign

of

affection,

nd

afterwards eelsmore at ease in

"the circleof the

salon,

which

was,

for

me,

themostfrightening."ater, afterhis father'sbrutalremark,Nikolenka

takes comfort

n the

thought

hat If

only

Mama

were

here,

she

would

not

blush

for her

Nikolenka "

Thus,

while

Irtenev embodies

paternal

law,

women,

nd

especially

Nikolenka's

mother,

ccept

with ffectionhe

eccen-

tricities orwhich rtenevhas no

tolerance.15

After he

death

of

his

mother,

Nikolenka

s

cut offfrom he

maternal

love that

formerly

omforted

im

during

is moments f

social humiliation.

Most

of

Boyhood

is

spent

in

the shadow

of

paternal rejection,

with

Nikolenka

dentifying

is fate

unequivocally

with

hat

f

the

raznochinets.

6

Boyhood

is rifewith

moments f

separation

nd

exclusion;

the

difference,

now,

s that

Nikolenka,

rather han

being

an observer fthealienated Karl

Ivanych

r Ilinka

Grap,

is himself

he one

left

ut.

At

his

sister's

name-day

party,

he children

lay

a

game

called

"Lange

Nase,"

which onsists f

the

boys

and

girls orming

ines

and

choosing

one

another

by

turns.

Nikolenka

is

bitterly

urt

o be

always

the

last one

chosen:

"I

understood hat

was

superfluous,

eft

ut"

(Chapter

13;

emphasis

n

original).

nstead of

being

rescued nd nurtured

y

female

ove,

Nikolenka s now cut

off rom

t;

this

image

of

Nikolenka

as

eternally

nchosen s the

backbone

of

Boyhood.

Convinced of

his

physicalugliness,

Nikolenka decides thathe

is

meant

to

be alone, and "concentrated ll [his] mind and imagination n finding

delight

n

proud

solation"

Chapter

6).

Here,

again,

as in

Childhood,

Nikolenka's sense

of exclusionhas

class

overtones.While

ocked

n

a

storage

oom,

awaiting unishment

or

having



9/16

Loneliness ndSocial

Class

n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh 71

hit

his

tutor,

Nikolenka

begins

to believe

he has discovered he reason

that

everyone

n the

house

despises

him:

"I

must

not

be the son

of

my

mother

andfather,r thebrother fVolodia,but anunfortunaterphan, cast-off

child

podkidysh]

aken

n

out of

charity"

Chapter 15).

Nikolenkauses

the

isolationof the

charity-child

o

provide

an understandable

xplanation

for

a

state of oneliness

nd

despair

whichhe

perceives

s

unaristocratic.

Nikolenka's solationcontinues

n Youth withone

very

ignificant

if-

ference. t is now

only

Nikolenka

who s

isolated;

the

raznochinets

n

Youth

is not a

symbolic

mbodiment

f

oneliness.17

ather,

here

s

an element

f

intimacy

n the

plebeian

students'

relationships

with each

other,

which

Nikolenka

has

difficultyinding

withhis more aristocratic

ompanions.

n

part,this s because the rules of aristocraticociety n Youth xclude any

genuine

emotion.

Unlike

in

Childhood

and

Boyhood,

where Nikolenka s

comforted

y

the

memory

f his

all-accepting

mother,

n

Youth

here s no

aristocratic lternative o the

harsh,

excluding

aws of Nikolenka's father.

Youth s

centered

n

large part

aroundNikolenka's obsessionwith omme l

faut,

a

set

of

rules

about

proper

aristocratic ehavior.

They

include

ong

and

perfectly

lean

nails,

excellent

French,

the

ability

o

bow, dance,

and

converse,

nd most

mportantly,

ndifference

o

everything,

nd an "air

of

elegant, supercilious

boredom"

(Chapter 31).

The rules of comme l

faut

recall thedescriptionfNikolenka's father rtenev nChildhood,who:

knew ow otake

he

pper

and n

relations

ith

veryone.

ever

aving

een

man

f

very

high

ociety,

e

nonetheless

lways

ssociated ith

eople

of

that

ircle,

nd n

such

way,

that e was

respected.

e knew he

utside imit f

pride

nd

elf-assuredness,

hich

aised

him n

the

opinion

f

society,

ithout

nsulting

thers. e

was

original,

utnot

lways;

e

used

originality

s

something

hat

ould,

n

certain

ituations,

ct

s

a substitute

or

wealth

r

social

osition.

othing

ould

urprise

im.

Chapter 0)

Irtenev's onnection o comme l

faut

s

later

strengthened

n

Nikolenka's

humiliating

cene

at the

ball,

when

rtenev

dmonishes

him,

"I/

ne

fallait

pas danser,

i vous

ne

savez

pas "

In

Youth,

Nikolenka dentifies xcellent

dancing

nd excellentFrench as two ofthemost

mportant

omponents

f

comme

lfaut.

And,

just

as

at the ball in

Childhood,

t

s

a rule

Nikolenka

himself

inds

difficult

o

follow.

Although

he

obsesses about his

nails and

French,

he is

seldom able to

appear

as

effortlessly

lawless s his

brother

Volodia.18

A

ball

scene in

Youth hows

Nikolenka not far

removedfrom

his

earlier

awkwardness.

Only

because his brother

watches

him

dress,

out of "fear

that

I

would

shame

myself,"

s Nikolenka's

clothing

t all

appropriate;

Nikolenka's uede

gloves

alone send

Volodia intofits

f horror.

At the

ball,

Nikolenka is overcomebyhis "usual, invincible, ver-growinghyness,"

and

stands

ilently

n one

spot

the whole

evening,

efusing

o dance

(Chap-

ter

38).

Again,

this

mage

of

being

stranded

t a dance is

one

interlinked

with he

raznochinets

n

the

Russian

nineteenth-century

magination.



10/16

72 Slavic

nd East

European

ournal

Nikolenka's sense of

behaving

ike

a

stereotypical

aznochinets

n

noble

society

s

made

painfully

lear when he

goes visiting

fter

having

entered

theuniversity. s he is getting eadyto leave on his visits,he is himself

visited

by

Ilinka

Grap

and his

father.

Acting

the

supercilious

ristocrat,

Nikolenka

greets

his visitors

oldly,

and

quickly

gets

rid of them. Poor

Ilinka

continually

miles

forcedly

nd

hardly ays

a

word;

as he

leaves,

"it

was clear

that

he would

never et foot

n

my

room

again" (Chapter

17).

But

just

as

in

Childhood,

Nikolenka,

fter

mistreating

linka,

mmediately

oes

into

a social situation imilar o

the

one Ilinka

occupied.

When

Nikolenka

goes

on his

visits,

he is haunted

by

his usual

shyness

nd social

ineptitude.

At the

house of Princess

Valakhina,

for

example, thoughfully

ware

that

he oughtto standup and leave when his visithas come to an end,he feels

"incapable

of

moving single body part naturally" Chapter

18).

Terrified

of

making

scene,

he sits

n

red-faced

ilence,

until

finally

escued

by

the

entranceof

PrincessValakhina's

secretary.

ven more

torturous s Niko-

lenka's

visit

to

the Ivins. The

general's

son,

clearly

not

overjoyed

to see

him,

ooks

him n

the

eyebrows

rather

han

the

eyes

as he

speaks

to

him,

and,

in

general,

treats

him,

"as

unpleasant

as

it

is for me to confess

t,

almost

exactly

the

way

I

treated

linka"

(Chapter

20).

Once

back

in

his

carriage,

Nikolenka

assuages

his

dignity y

assuring

himself

hat

"I

will

never set foot here again" -repeating the same words he had used to

describe linka n

a

similar

ituation.

n

Youth, hen,

nce

again,

Nikolenka

occupies

the

position

of linka and the solated

raznochinets.

The idea

of comme il

faut

is

important

o

Nikolenka

because

it

is so

deeply

concernedwith

xcluding

thers.Those

whose French s

faulty,

or

example,

mark

themselves

s

outsiders;

Nikolenka

mentally

sks

them,

"Why

do

you

want to talk

ike

us,

when

you

don't know

how?"

But,

while

so concerned

with

xcluding

veryone

lse,

Nikolenka does

not find

way

to be included

himself.

Comme il

faut

s

a

metaphor

for

the loss of

love;

Nikolenka's

obsession with t

marks

his

almost

complete

alienation from

any

form faffection. ven

during

imeswhen Nikolenkaknows that

he

ought

to

be

bonding

with

his fellow

aristocrats,

e

always

feels

painfully

alone. At one

point,

Nikolenka s invited

o a

drinking arty long

with ll

the other more

or less comme

lfaut"

students.

Despite

the outward how

of wild

merrimentnd all the

talk

of

"comradeship,"

Nikolenka

s

inwardly

certain

hat

"it

was

unpleasant

for ach

separate person, ust

as

much as

it

was

for

me,

but

each

person,

thinking

hat

only

he

felt

this,

considered

himself

bliged

to

pretend

o be

having

fun"

Chapter

39).

In

the

midst

f

the

festivities,

ach member s

truly

lone,

isolated

from

he others

because

unable toexpresshis emotions.The rule ofcomme lfautexcludesnotonly

outsiders,

ut even the

aristocrats

hemselves.

And

the

implications

re even

more

disturbing.

ikolenka

tells us that

"it even

seems to me

that

f

had

had a

brother,

mother r

a fatherwho



11/16

Loneliness

nd

SocialClass n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh 73

was

not

omme

lfaut,

wouldhave

aid that twasa

great

misfortune,

ut

that

we could have

nothing

n

commonwith ach other"

Chapter

1).

Although ikolenka'satherndbrotherrebothmpeccablyefined,is

mother's tatus

s

moredoubtful.

ertainly,

he

is an

aristocrat,

ut she

does not eem

n

complete

ccordance

ith

he awsofcomme l

faut.

Her

willingness

o tolerate

her

social

inferiors,

espite

heir tink nd

dirt,

makes er

uspect;

nd

certainly,

he

s

ncompatible

ith

he air

of

uper-

cilious boredom"

required

of

the

comme l

faut.

The

acceptance

f

Irtenev's ules f omme

lfaut

eems o entail he

ejection

f

Maman,

nd

the ove he

represents.

Not

coincidentally,

he

comme

l

faut,

which

mplies

he

rejection

f

Maman's ove, s also tiedto a rejectionfChristianrinciplesan idea

made more obvious

n the

writings

f the late

Tolstoy,

ut

still

ubtly

present

n

the

rilogy.

lexander

holkovsky

otes he

imilarity

etween

the mazurka

cenes

n Childhood nd in

the ate short

tory

After he

Ball."

In

both

cenes,

what

Zholkovsky

alls the "laws of the ball" are

stressed,

nd

n

particular

he

mportance

f

gloves

s

emphasized.

hol-

kovsky

races he imilarities

n

"After

he

Ball" between he lawsofthe

ball" that

egulate

he hero's

blissful omance

nd the

military

aw that

orders he

gauntlet-running

fthe

Tartar

60-65).

For

example,

he uede

glove

which he

heroine'soving atherrew ntohis hand

t

thedance,while

aying

Everything

ccording

o therules

vse

o

zakonu],"

ecomes

the

suede

glove

withwhich e

hits soldier

n the

face

when he

oldier

does nothit he

Tartar s hard s the

rules

equire. holkovsky

otes

hat

the

narrative

mplicates

he

heroine

n her

father's

uilt,

lthough

he

seems

utwardly

o

havedone

nothing rong. erhaps art

f

her

ulpabil-

ity

ies in the

fact

hat,

or

Tolstoy,

omplicity

ith

he

aws

of

the

ball

implies omplicity

n

cruelty.

The

connections f the

Tartar

withChrist

re

relatively

lear

(see

Zholkovsky3-4),

but

even

n

Tolstoy's arly

works,

heconnection

e-

tweenChrist nd thevictimxcluded ythecomme lfaut snoticeable.

Ilinka

Grap

s held

upside-down

ndhit n the

head;

his hriek f

Why

re

you

tyrannizing

e

[Za

chto

vy

menia

tiranite?]"

Chapter 18)

recalls the

biblical

"Why

do

you

persecute

me?".19

A

few

chapters

ater,

when

Nikolenka umiliates

imself,

ndhis

father

colds

him

ublicly,

e

thinks,

"Oh, Lord,

why

ost

Thou

punish

me

so

dreadfully?"

Chapter 2)-

thus

echoing

othChrist nd

Ilinka

Grap.

Later,

n

Youth,

when

Nikolenka's

brother,

mbarrassed

y

his lack

of social

skills,

gnores

im at a

ball,

Nikolenka

eflects,

My

God,

even

my

brother

bandons

me "

again

recallinghrist's bandonmentyPeter. ven for hevery arly olstoy,

the aws

of

the

ball

-

or comme l

faut-

implicate

he

participants

n

some-

thing

kin o

crucifixion.

Butat the ame

ime hat e

devotes imself

o thefalse

od

of

omme

l



12/16

74

Slavic

nd East

European

ournal

faut,

Nikolenka cannot

help

but be

attracted

y

the

raznochintsy

e meets

at

the

university. espite

their

filthy lothing

nd

disgusting

manners,

he

middle-class tudents hare a commonsense ofbelonging hatNikolenka

deeply

envies.

They

all

address

each other with the informal

y,

and are

affectionately

nsulting

with ach

other,

while still

being

"careful nd deli-

cate,

as

onlyverypoor

and

young

people

ever are"

(Chapter

43).

He feels

that theirdrunkenbouts

must

be

far removed from he "affectation ith

burntrum

and

champagne"

that

he

participated

n with

his fellow

aristo-

crats. Of

course,

the

dirty

nd

drunken

aznochintsy

re stillfarremoved

fromNikolenka'smaternal deal. And

yet,

hey

ossess

a

connection

o the

pure

affection hatMaman

represents.

Unlike

n

Childhood

and

Boyhood,

whereNikolenka dentified heraznochinetss an expression f hisfeelings

of

isolation,

Youth finds Nikolenka

estranged

from the world

of

the

raznochintsy,

s

well as from hatof the aristocrats.

While

attracted

o the

plebeians,

and

striving esperately

o

be

accepted

by

the

nobility,

Niko-

lenka

in truth its

nto

neither

roup.

Near

the

beginning

f

Youth,

Nikolenka fantasizes bout

the

new,

moral

lifehe

plans

to

lead,

but

apses

into exual

fantasy.

e

imagines

hat

he

will

go

to read

in

Sparrow

Hills,

"and then

he will

also

go

to

walk

in

Sparrow

Hills,

and some

day

will come

up

to

me

and

ask,

who am I? I

will

ook

at

her,

so

sadly,

and

say

that

am a

priest's on,

and that

am

happy only

here,

when

am

alone,

all

alone"

(Chapter

3).

Just

s in

the

earlier

fantasy

in

Boyhood,

Nikolenka

magines

himself s a lower-class

igure,

o

longer

his father's

on,

but the

son

of

a

priest.

But this s

no

longer

a

fantasy

f

perfect

oneliness.There

is

an

obvious

flaw

n

Nikolenka's

magined

tate-

ment hat

he

is

happy only

when he is

completely

lone.

In

fact,

he

whole

point

of his

daydream

s that

he is

not

alone,

but

in

the

presence

of

an

attractive

tranger

who findshim

intriguing,

nd

who,

further

n in

the

fantasy,

llows

him

to

kiss

her. The

image

of the

raznochinets

as

changed

for

Nikolenka;

rather

han

being

associated

with

complete

solation,

the

raznochinetss someone more

closely

connectedwith female love than

Nikolenka

can

hope

to be.

In

fact,

Nikolenka

now fits

he

literary

tereotype

f

the

raznochinets

better han the

raznochintsy

o

themselves.

Like

the

raznochintsy,

iko-

lenka s

clumsy

n

drawing

ooms,

nd

unskilled

n

thefiner

oints

f comme

ilfaut.

But

the

student-raznochintsy

n Youth re

not the

onely

nd forlorn

creatures

hat,

rchetypally,

e have been led to

expect.They

have a

loving,

closely

knit

ommunity,

ithinwhich heir

manners,

ather

ulgar y

aristo-

cratic

tandards,

re correct.

n

fact,Nikolenka,

while

rying

o befriend

he

student-raznochintsy,nce again humiliateshimselfby breakingthe ac-

cepted

social code

-

this

ime

by offering

hem

money

nd

bragging

bout

his

mportant

onnections.

Nikolenka, then,

s

even more

clumsy

han

the

clumsiest

f

raznochintsy,

ince he

is able to

disgrace

himself ot

only

n

a



13/16

Lonelinessnd

Social

Class

n

Tolstoy's

hildhood,

oyhood,

outh 75

ballroom

but also

in

a

group

of

poor

students.

n

the

first wo

parts

of the

trilogy,

he

raznochinets

unctions s

an

image

of absolute

oneliness,

with

whichNikolenkaoccasionallydentifies. utinYouth, heraznochintsyre,

for

he most

part,

uccessful

egotiators

f the conflict

etween

dulthood

and affection.

nstead,

t is

Nikolenka,

the awkward

ristocrat,

who

is ex-

cluded

on

all

sides,

theultimate utsider.

As

Tolstoy mplied

n

the

fragment

"A

Family

f

Gentlefolk,"

escribed

arlier,

whenPrince

Zatsepin

called

his

son a

kuteinik,

ne

does

not need

to

be

a

priest's

on

in

order o

be

despised

for

ne's

seminary

manners.

Clumsy

ristocrats re the truest

aznochintsy

of

all,

since

they

re

accepted

nowhere.

Dostoevsky,

n his

Diary of

a

Writer,

neers

t the

privileged

tmosphere

ofTolstoy'strilogy. e comparesNikolenka's scene in thestoragecloset

with the real-life

tory

of

another

ittle

boy,

who

hanged

himself

fter

having

been

kept

after chool as

punishment

or bad

grade.

Nikolenka,

s

a

young

ristocrat,

ould,

Dostoevsky

laims,

have been

incapable

of such

an

act,

since "the

rigorous

order

of

the

historically

ormednoble

family

would

have had its

effect,

ven

upon

a

twelve-year-old

hild,

and

would

have

prevented

the

dream

from

being

converted nto

reality" 25:

35).

Dostoevsky

laimsthat

he

calm,

upper-class

ecurity

e

sees

in

Childhood

now

belongs

only

to

an

"insignificant

nd

segregated

ittle

orner

of

Rus-

sianlife."He callsfor new kindofhistorian,o chronicle hedisintegrat-

ing

"accidental

families,"

which

he

feltwere

becoming ncreasingly

more

common. The Adolescent s

in

part

a

response

to

Tolstoy's trilogy,

nd

dwells

on

the issues which

Dostoevsky

thought

olstoy

had

ignored:

pov-

erty, llegitimacy,

amilial

ruelty

nd

betrayal.

And

yet,

n

his

rewriting

f

Childhood,

Boyhood,

Youth,

Dostoevsky

hits

on more of the concerns of

Tolstoy's

trilogy

han

he

himself

uspected.

PerhapsDostoevsky ecognized,

f

only

ubliminally,

he

underlying

hemes

of

llegitimacy,nadequacy

and

isolation

n his rival'swork.20

hese

themes

are made muchmore obvious n

The

Adolescent,

while

n

Tolstoy's rilogy

they

emain, or hemost

part,

mplied

butunstated.Butthe

wealthy

Niko-

lai

Irtenev s brother nder he

kin o the

llegitimate

nd

miserable

Arkady.

The differences

that,

n

Tolstoy's

work,

the tribulations f

the

accidental

family

re obscured

beneath

a

veneer of

family appiness.21

NOTES

1

This caricature f

Chernyshevsky

an

also be read

as

a

self-portrait

f

Tolstoy

himself.

Tolstoy'sportrait fVenerovsky,n ugly, wkward, elfish nd sexuallydepravedman

forcing

is

way

nto

family espite

his

essential

unlovableness,

as

particular

oignancy,

given

hat

Tolstoy

himself ad

married ne

year

before,

nd had

lurking

oubts

bout

the

depth

of

Sofia Andreevna's ove

and

his own

suitableness or he

married

tate.

2

Significantly,olstoy

chooses

as the focus

of

his

hostility

ot

Chernyshevsky's

adical



14/16

76 Slavic and East

European

Journal

philosophy,

ut ather ismannersnd

way

f

peaking.

n

the

ame

etter,

olstoy

oes

on to call

Chernyshevsky"repulsive

mitator"

fthe

iterary

ritic issarion

elinsky,

and remarkshat othChernyshevskyndBelinskyamefromhe"ordinaryanks f

people."

Tolstoy

eems

o have

despised

he

gentlemantinking

f

bedbugs"

n

arge

part

ecause f

his ocial lass

nd

his

eminary

anners;

deology

as

econdary.

3 Morozenko as

also

noted

olstoy

nd

Chernyshevky's

hared

eeling

f

solation,

nd

tendency

o

upbraid

hemselvesor

ocial

affes

n their

iaries;

e

argues

hat

his tems

in

part

rom oth

young

men

modeling

hemselvesn Lermontov's

echorin.

4

Another

onnectionetween

olstoy

nd

Chernyshevsky

as heirmutualovefor ous-

seau. Both Scanlan

105-30)

and

Paperno

94)

have

suggested

hat

Chernyshevsky

strongly

dentified

ith

Rousseau,

nd

saw him s a fellow

aznochinets.

rwin,

n

remarks ade t the1998AATSEEL

convention,

as

suggested

hat

olstoy

lso read

Rousseau s

a

raznochinets.

ousseau erved or

olstoy,

s

well

s

for

hernyshevsky,

s

a model orways f xpressingocial ndemotionalnsecurities.

5 William

ills

odd

rgues

hat

n

the

eginning

f he ineteenth

entury

ussian

iterary

salons

were

powerful

nstitutions,

hich,

n

imitation

f their rench

models,

alued

talent nd

elegant

mannersver

high

irth. ecause

f

his,

few alentedndfortunate

menwere ble

to

become uccessful

n

iterary

nd

political

ircles

n

the

arly art

f

he

century.

y

the

830s,

owever,

alons

were

oth ess nfluential

nd ess

open

o

outsid-

ers

55-72).

6 Wirtschafter

rgues

hat

n

thenineteenth

entury

heterm

raznochinets"

as

always

pejorative;

nly

ormodern ommentators

as

t

become neutral erm

98-101).

For

more n the

history

f he erm

raznochinets,"

eeBecker swell sWirtschafter.

7

Chernyshevsky

4:

322,

uoted

n Korman 2.

8 IrinaPaperno rgues hatn Whats To Be Done? (1862)Chernyshevskyonsciously

subvertshe tandard

mage

f the

raznochinets,

urning

eaders'

xpectations

ntheir

heads.The novel s

particularly

evolutionary

n that t

providesmages

f

raznochintsy

who,

atherhan

eing

wkward

nd

unloved,

reat ease

n

ociety,

now ow

o

dance,

and end

by winning

he heroines'

ove

(Paperno

83-4).

In

writing

ucha

story,

Chernyshevsky

as

ontradicting

he

cceptediterary

ythos

f

he

aznochinets

efore

the

1860s;

n the

arly

850s,

when

olstoy

as

writing

hildhood,

he onelinessfthe

raznochinets

as

ccepted

s

a

truism.

9

Zagoskin

: 107.

Quoted

n

Ostrovskii

02-3.

10 See

Gustafson

or

particularlynsightful

iscussion

f

Tolstoy

s

"Stranger."

11

See,

for

xample,

aburov ndErmilov.

12 NotablemongtudiesyWesterncholarsoncerninglass nTolstoy's orks reKath-

ryn

euer's

Tolstoy

ndtheGenesis

f

War

nd

Peace" ndAndrew

Wachtel's

heBattle

for

Childhood.ee Christian8-102for

summary

ndrefutationfthe oviet lass-

conscious

eading

f War nd

Peace.

13 In War nd

Peace,

Tolstoy

esolveshis

iscrepancyy

mplying

hat hosewho xclude

are

not rue

ristocrats,

ut onnectedo

Napoleon

nd

Speransky,

ho,

s

Shklovsky

(57-8)

andFeuer

163)

have

rgued,

remeant o be read

s

raznochintsy.

14

Dobroliubov,

omplaining

fhis

ack f ocial

kills,

ites is

gnorance

f

gymnastics,

s

well

s of

dancing, rawing,

rench,

ndGerman

Dobroliubov

:

307-8).

15 In

his

notes or iriukov's

iography

f

him,

olstoy

ecallsn ncidenthat ccurredn

1851,

while e waswith is

brother

ikolai

n

Kazan.

The

brothers

assed

manwithout

gloves, ausingev to neer,Howcleart s thathat entlemanssome ort f ubbish "

When isbrother

nquired

he eason

or his

udgment,

ev

returned,

Why,

edoesn't

have

nygloves "

Nikolai's ather

easonable

esponse-"So,

whatmakes im

ubbish,

just

becausehe

doesn'thave

gloves?"

was,

for

Lev,

a

strikingxample

fNikolai's

wisdom nd

goodness,

hich e remembered

any

ecades ater

PSS

34:

399).

One



15/16

Loneliness and

Social Class

in

Tolstoy's

Childhood,

Boyhood,

Youth 77

wonders

f

he was

perhaps

recalling

this moment n

writing

f how

Nikolenka,

even

without he

gloves

required

o

make

him

fit

n,

s not considered rubbish"

by

the

oving

figuresround him.

16

Gustafsonwrites hat

Boyhood

"represents

he

experience

of life

as

rejection

and be-

trayal

y

others"

32).

He

goes

on to

describeKarl

Ivanych

s the "eternal

tranger,"

ith

whom,

n

Boyhood,

Nikolenka

deeply

dentifies.

17 This is the

first

major

shift n

Tolstoy's

always

relatively

luid

thinking

n the

razno-

chintsy.

aznochintsy lay

major

roles

n

severalof

his

worksbesides the

trilogy, otably

"The Infected

Family,"

War and

Peace,

and Resurrection.

olstoy's shifting

iews on

raznochintsy

re

connected o the evolution n his

thinking

n the

aristocracy,

he

family,

emotional

closeness,

and isolation. For a more

detailed

exploration

f

raznochintsy

n

Tolstoy's

works,

ee

my

forthcoming

issertation.

18

Tolstoy

eturns o the dea of comme

lfaut

n aterworks

s

well;

significantly,

uring

he

1860s theconceptof comme lfautbecomesforhimconnectedwith uccessful arvenus

more than

with

ristocrats.n "The

Infected

amily"

the rude and low-born

Venerovsky

is

called "comme

lfaut,"

and in War nd Peace

the

most

legant

manners re those

of

the

raznochintsy

peransky

nd

Napoleon.

Aristocrats

who

are

overly

comme il

faut

are

linked to these

parvenu figures;

olkonsky,

who

manages

to

overcome

his

infatuations

with

both

Napoleon

and

Speransky,

never

overcomes

his

need for external

poise

and

polished

manners,which,

n

conflictwithhis

longing

or

motional

truth,

auses him so

much

suffering.

n Anna

Karenina,

the awkward Levin claims

that

only

he is

a

true

aristocrat,

while the

suave

Vronsky

s the descendant

of

a

man who "crawled

up

from

nowhere."

19 It

also,

of

course,

connects o the down-trodden

kaky

Akakievich's

ry

f

"Zachem

vy

meniaobizhaete?"

20

Elements of the Radcliffean

Gothic

novel

are also

present

both

n

The Adolescent

nd,

less

overtly

ut

very ignificantly,

n the

trilogy

Hruska,

"Ghosts").

21 I am

grateful

o Liza

Knapp, Hugh

McLean,

Stephen

Baehr,

and two

anonymous

eview-

ers for

heir omments.

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